AFRICAN WORDVIEW ON THE PLACE OF WOMEN IN THE SOCIETY BY OKOJIE EHINOMHEN PETER epo4escriva@yahoo.

com DECEMBER 2012 PREAMBLE There has been a concerted effort by contemporary scholars to beam the searchlight on the place of women globally with special emphasis on Africa where many are championing the course for women emancipation in religious, political and economic spheres. This is predicated on the existential realities of what modern day scholars hold of African culture with regards to women as always being on the receiving end. It is said of Africa that: from Egypt in the North of Africa to South Africa in the South; from Kenyan in the East to Nigeria in the West, calls for the recognition of the rights of women in each of the countries in Africa are urgent and insistent. Figures abound of cases where African women are denied the basic socio-cultural rights enjoyed by men; infertile or childless mothers are branded; women are constricted into polygamy and other forms of marriages against their will; the female child is often treated with contempt in their families; women are sometimes victims of imposed traditional mourning rites and rituals; many go through genital mutilation; some are made to cultivate lands, nurture babies as well as do domestic jobs while the men folk loaf; many are forced to observe various forms of confinement for religious reasons like the Moslem purdah, a good number of them are regular victims of domestic violence like rape and battering without proper compensation.1 Some are given a writ of dismissal simply because their husbands have found better women. In politics not much attention is given to women participation in leadership positions, all these are evident in the African society.2 Yet, it would not serve as holistic truth to articulate that what is is as good as the very standards of the traditional view of African women. African women like other women, enjoy undisputable privileges that their roles provide them. It is noted that the misdemeanors that today account for women in the society only came at some point in time as a result of alien influences. Thus, do not represent the worldview of women in African society. So, if this is a point, what then can the worldview of the place of women be in the African society? Or How can it be described of a woman as her place is unequivocally secondary without apologies no matter how endowed she may be? It is in attempting to x-ray these questions that this work sets in to critically examine the African worldview of place of women in the society. It would not be doing justice to this discourse to start evoking the ought to while discounting the what is. It is sufficient to acknowledge the what is but more appropriately to expose the ought so as to disconnect from subjective thoughts and always do philosophy (employing the tools of criticalness, coherence, and objectivity). It is the aim that this work wishes to achieve. Thus, while trying to account for the African worldview on the place of women in the African society, I shall attempt to highlight the traditional understanding of the place of women and label it the ideal/ought/worldview while accommodating the dominant what is to be labeled factor-dependent view. The sources I consulted do not all see the subject matter the same way; they can be conveniently classified in two: the what ought and the what is accounts. Some have argued extensively that alien culture, namely colonization can be accosted for the factor-dependent views of the place of women in the African society. Therefore, I shall locate the ought in the purview of pre-colonial era and the what is in the colonial and post-colonial eras. Also, within this work, I shall raise certain cultures in Africa as paradigms for the African society. Specifically, I shall adopt this course:
1 2

Ehusani, G. O (2003) A Prophet Church, Ibadan: Kraft Books Limited, p.33 See Oluwole Sophie on Anti-Women Laws must go on http://www.the nigerianvoice.com/nvnews/39989/1/anti-womenlaws-must-go-says-sophie-oluwole.html (accessed on Dec. 2, 2012)

1. Conceptual Clarifications 2. Women in Africa A Historical Perspective Pre-Colonial Africa Colonial Africa Post-Colonial 3. Women in Africa Typical Conceptions Across Selected African Cultures 4. Evaluation 5. Conclusion CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATIONS Within this work, certain terms are recurrent and can be ambiguous. In order to ensure clarity and still achieve the aim of this work, it is apt to draw up a brief conceptual clarification at this point. The terms to be clarified are namely: Africa and culture, worldview, woman, and gender. Africans and Culture A person whose origin is Africa (second largest continent of the world) or by any other legitimate means claims citizenship of Africa is an African. The word African can also be used in the possessive sense or as an adjective to entities linked with Africa. In his work, African Culture and Civilization, S. A. Ajayi (2005) presents culture as the established pattern of behaviour among a people that embraces every aspect of a mans life and experiences. He refers to culture as a perceived way of life or the totality of all human efforts and achievements in bid to struggle to survive the prevalent opposing forces of nature.3 It finds expression in a peoples language, philosophies, institutions, arts, architecture amongst others. In fact, while everything created by God is nature, everything made by man is culture. Africans view it as the preserved traditions or ways of life of the forebears and ancestors.4 Culture vary from one people to another, as such it is relative across peoples and places. For that reason, it would be inappropriate to use the culture of one people as a standard to judging another. Worldview: A worldview can be defined as a broad representation of the world and the place of humankind in it. Its essential purpose is to account for a basis for perceiving, feeling and transforming reality. It may either be communal or individualistic, inherent or overt.5 A worldview is not borne out of makebelieve. It is usually a product of enduring reflection and assumption on the human condition6. Communal worldview is largely unconsciously held by many individuals and validated by a heavy reliance on tradition and authority of the elders. Within this work, I shall see worldview a communal. Woman: A woman is one who is female by sex. The womans status largely depends on the biological fact that she is potentially, if not in actual fact at any given time the bearer of children, whose care, at least in infancy, is usually her responsibility.7 A woman in Africa is one as such if she is a potential child bearer before she enters into a conjugal relationship and an actual child bearer in marriage. There is the distinction here; between potential woman and actual woman. The potential woman is amateur and this is because marriage is the canon for determining actuality. Thus, only the actual woman in the strict sense can account for womanhood in African traditional setting. Another factor to be considered is that, for a woman to be an actual woman she is never isolated from her husband and her children. Thus, the actual woman is referred to as a real woman if she bears children and sometimes
3

S. A. Ajayi (2005). The Concept of Culture in S. AdemolaAjayi ed. African Culture and Civilization, Ibadan: Atlantis Books, p.1 4 Ibid p.2 5 Alexander, Spirkin. (1989) DialecticalMaterialism, Moscow: Progress Publishers, p.23 6 OlusegunOladipo ed. (2002) The Third Way in African Philosophy, Ibadan: Hope Publications Ltd., p.155 7 The Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol. 19, Chicago: p.908

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referred to as a man if she is not able to conceive and bear her own biological children whether the fault is from her or from the husband. It is this understanding of woman that would navigate through this work. Gender: Gender is a social construct which stresses that the opportunities, abilities and responsibilities of men and women are not always naturally determined. The gender roles apportioned to men and women are significantly defined structurally and culturally in ways which create, buttress, and perpetuate relationships of male dominance and female subordination. Through the process of socialization within the family, in educational institutions and other social spheres, boys and girls are conditioned to behave in certain ways and to play different roles in society. They are encouraged to conform to established cultural norms by being rewarded or punished for their behavior.8 WOMEN IN AFRICA: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Pre-Colonial Africa The idea woman in African traditional society is viewed with keen attention and responsibility. From the moment a female child attains age of puberty she is seen as a potential woman, and she immediately starts receiving lessons on social manners; duties of a wife to a husband and children: it is entrenched in her, the consciousness of resilience and hard work. These instructions she received are not meant to discount her obligation to the society. She immediately begins to recognize and be conscious of her gender and the role she is to play in the society. The girl of yesterday fully becomes the woman of today upon marriage, and thereby assuming the responsibility of a wife, and mother, most especially her independent role as a contributor to the socio economic wellbeing of her family and society. The African traditional society is mainly patriarchal. Theoretically, scholars have defined patriarchy in a number of ways. It has been defined as a social system wherein the family headship and along with its power and possession is passed from the man on to his sons. It also referred to a social system in which men wielded all the powers and used it only to their own advantage.9 There may be some level of sentiments in the latter definition though, but the point is that the society is structured in such a way that, there are gender specific roles for the man and the woman. These roles are complementary in a way that there is balance. They work according to the roles assigned to each gender which at the end is for mutual interest of the entire family; this was practically common to every African community. To the Africa traditional society, children are regarded as utter wealth because of the perpetuity of the clan. This puts the woman in a special position of respect. In fact the Ghanaian proverb: A woman is a flower in a garden; her husband is the fence around it10 beautifully paints the picture of women in African society. For instance, the Nigerian society and indeed most of Africa rely heavily on agricultural and the more children a man has the better and more produce to be realized. This is a factual reason why men marry many wives. Thus, the African society respects the roles of the women and there was no infringement. During cultural festivals the women played their roles even if they were restricted in some areas of the festival. The men equally respected the womens exclusive right to some traditional festivals or rites. Traditionally, there were gender specific roles that made the African society organized in such a way that everybody played active roles just like they have economically. By this, there was a kind of balance and harmony in the undertakings of the society.

Njogu Kimani & Orchardson-Mazrui Elizabeth, Gender Inequality And Women's Rights In The Great Lakes: Can Culture Contribute To Women's Empowerment? p.2 9 Nwoko, K. C. (2012) Female Husbands in Igbo Land: Southeast Nigeria The Journal of Pan African Studies, Vol.5, No.1, March 2012, p.70 10 Bannerman, J.Y., Mantse-Akan Mbebusen (Ghanaian Proverbs) , Accra, 1974, p.19

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It is worthy of note that despite the roles women play, the men were not idle and did not depend on their women for survival. Rather the society was structured in such a way that the man and his wife teamed together to build their home. The women did not lose sense of value because of their role in the society. Sounding it otherwise, would only mean that what the women did was belittling, blackmailed by their husbands and in a form of slavery. That the women cultivated farms, traded and engaged in activities that gave the family income did not mean that the man did not care for her as a person. He did clothe her; give her some food items and money on market days to buy condiments. The traditional African society is one that enthrones the woman to a level of reverence. When important decisions were to be taken in society, the opinion of the women must be obtained. In specific cases the women were sent as emissaries to sue for peace. Women were indispensable not only because of their child-bearing ability or extra income that came through them but because the society recognizes them as valuable and the women themselves know their worth. Colonial Africa The identity of the African women during the colonial era seems to be more likely represented by many contemporary writers/feminists. They assess women as being so marginalized and that the imperative is emancipation. From the foregoing, it is established that African culture made room for the woman to participate in the social, economic and religious system of the society. However, there are some cultural practices in the traditional African society that are now termed to be against women, namely: circumcision otherwise called female genital mutilation; widow inheritance; and female disinheritance amongst others. These practices worked in years past because they are norms and codes that guided the running of the society. Their practices in no way brought friction and disorder in the society until colonization. With colonialism, the understanding of woman and womanhood became somewhat different. African society that had been structured and organized with each gender having its specific set of roles, provided the Europeans cultural shock upon their arrival. They were shocked to have met African women in their various trades and were very enterprising: a sharp contrast to what was obtainable in their societies where women totally depended on the men. Their women offered no financial contribution to the familys treasury except in cases where heavy dowry was involved. Therefore, meeting a setting that presented African women as up and doing, contributing to the economy threw the colonialists off balance. They used religion to trap the African woman but where they embraced the religion and rejected staying at home like their white-skinned counterpart, the colonial masters brought rigid actions like taxation. The way of life that the Europeans brought altered the organized structure that had existed long before they came: the traditional power of the African woman was destroyed; brought with them a shift in power sharing and the general relationship between men and women. By this, the women were placed at a disadvantaged position and because the women had been used to a society where equal distinct opportunities were given to both men and women to function, they found the new system oppressive. Therefore, it became very demanding for the women as the colonial dominance became doubled. They were confronted with the different structure: a general dominance suffered by all and the dominance directed towards the women. Carolyn Kumah in African Women and Literature, argues that the forced implementation of European government, Western Schools of thought and religion were introducing these gender distinctions11 which conveniently found expression through the colonial governments educational systems. She further raised the Ghanaian experience of the colonial era as a paradigm of woman domination in Africa as she found out that in the student enrollment into schools in some African countries, girls were at a disadvantaged position compared to the boys. One of the constraints according to her was the type of employment available which were not suitable to girls and that discouraged parents from sending their daughters to school.
11

Kumah, Carolyn (2000) African Women and Literature West Africa Review 2.1

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History cannot be too quick to forget the Aba Women Riot in 1929, which was predicated on the need to express displeasure on the colonialist measures meted out against them. The insurgency was in objection to the colonial taxation policy. And as typical of African culture, these women were able to create an impression due to commitment and unity of purpose. Colonialism apart from the taxation it imposed on the women, through other policies marginalized African women far from their experience in their traditional setting. This point is corroborated by Ify Amadiume (1987) as the author states: whereas indigenous concept linked to flexible gender construction in terms of access to power and authority mediated dual sex divisions, new western concepts carried strong sex and class inequalities supported by rigid gender ideology and constructions.12 The account of South African women during the Apartheid cannot be termed anything less than distressing and demeaning. Their experience cannot succinctly be described as how Effects of Apartheid on the Status of Women in South Africa (1980), puts it: African woman in South Africa, being both black and female suffer a triple oppression. As Africans which for the most part define their class position they have to contend with the restrictive and repressive apartheid legislation, which ensures alien control over all facets of their lives. In addition, as women, they have to contend with the fact that they are regarded as dependents and as inferior to men; as such, they are ever further discriminated against within the frame work of apartheid.13 The report also says that, in the urban areas of South Africa, the women passed an enormous task to be a city resident. She must be a Section Tenner meaning that she must qualify under section 10 of the Bantu (Urban Areas) Constitution Act of 1925. Her situation was precarious and insecure, even when she qualified she could lose her legality at any time. The death or divorce of a husband could send her back to the rural settlement. It can be said that the major social changes instituted during colonial rule created some of the maleprivileging traditions which today are being represented as customary or indigenous. Yet we are led to believe that these male privileging traditions have historically been part of a culture that is supposed to be fundamentally patriarchal, even though daughters were classified as male in relation to wives and had authority just like their brothers.14 Post-Colonial Africa In bid to reposition the African woman in her place of importance in the society, the post-colonial concept of woman and womanhood developed. Some proponents of African feminism have based their manifesto on what may seem to be the injustice in the structure of an African society that has always been. The experience of the African woman during the colonial period had made the African woman to be more alive to situations around her. As stated earlier, colonialism and religion were used to subject the woman to a subjugation that was total. The resultant effects are rattles in the society today as evident in neo-colonialism as overseen by our African men. However, African women can be said to have making advancement in defining their essence. The cases of a woman president of Liberia, Nigerian female technocrats are possible attempts. Patricia Mcfadden in Becoming Post-Colonial: African Women Changing the Meaning of Citizenship, notes that the many denials suffered by Zimbabwean and indeed African women results
12 13

Amadiume, Ify (1987) Male Daughters, Female Husband: Gender and Sex in an African Society. London: Zeb Books. http://www.anc.org-za/ancdocs/history/women/effects.html (accessed on 20/11/2012) 14 Amadiume, Ify (1997) Reinventing Africa: Matriarchy, Religion, and Culture London: Zed Books Ltd., p.148

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in a struggle for more justice and a more equitable distribution of the social and material resources of our societies. This struggle, she says has become an unavoidable imperative for the people of the African continent.15 WOMEN IN AFRICA TYPICAL CONCEPTIONS ACROSS SELECTED AFRICAN CULTURES The Yoruba Paradigm (Child-bearing) In his work African Culture and the Status of Women: The Yoruba Example Familusi (2012) states that the Yoruba nation like many other African societies is essentially patriarchal; hence men are understood to be more privileged than women: a society that is characterized by male super ordination and female subordination.16 Men show superiority over their women counterparts, who are usually relegated to the background. Therefore, socially, politically, economically and religiously women are to a very large extent, disadvantaged since decision were taken mostly by the men. According to Adetunji, (2001) the cultural and gender problem, which African women have been facing dates back to their birth as in many homes the birth of a baby girl does not receive the kind of excitement that is usually given to that of a baby boy.17 The Igbo Instance (Inheritance) Like in many other ethnic sets in Africa, inheritance is a cultural practice among the Igbo people of South East, Nigeria. This idea is not in favour of the womenfolk. Traditionally, consequent upon the death of a husband, the elders meet to share the property of the deceased. In this sharing, the woman is seen as a property to be inherited, especially if she has no male child. She and other material property of her late husband are inherited by the late husbands brother or uncle even if the case is that she is much older or much younger than her new husband. But in the case where she has a son no matter how young, the son inherits the property of her late husband; overseeing the goods. Female children are inconsequential at this point.18 The Burundian Experience (Moral Tutelage and living bonds of Unity) The traditional Burundian cultural setting supports child upbringing as it is in other Africa traditional cultures. This venture is the responsibility of the family in particular and the community in general. Both family and society were there to help children internalize the values of humanism (ubuntu), goodwill (umutimamwiza) and social responsibility, based on such virtues as justice, truth, honesty and fairness (Ubushingantahe).19 Within this system of education, women, as wives and mothers, were among those essentially responsible for the preservation and transmission of positive values contributing to the excellence persistently sought, first and foremost, in the home, and then in the local community. Childrens were educated within the family through what is referred to as evening school. Here, through the medium of stories and proverbs, and as the occasion presented, children were taught the virtues, such as self-control, harmony, respect for the truth, diligence, respect and a sense of honesty, decency and modesty, tolerance, kindliness, love of ones neighbour, respect for life, among others necessary for living together amiably. The tutoring of children was the sanctuary of

15

McFadden, Patricia. Becoming Post-Colonial: African Women Changing the Meaning of Citizenship Presented at Queens University, Canada, Oct. 2002. 16 Familusi, O. O. (2012) African Culture and the Status of Women: The Yoruba Example The Journal of Pan African Studies, Vol.5, No.1, March 2012 pp.299-313 17 Adetunji, H.A. (2001). Re-Orientating the African Woman Today in Akintude, D.O. (Ed) African Culture and the Quest for Womens Right, Ibadan: Sefer. p.106 18 Oke, R.O. (2001). Inheritance in Africa and the Rights of the Female-Child in Akintunde, D.O. (Ed) African Culture and the Quest for Womens Rights, Ibadan: Sefers, p.52 19 J Barbara Ndimurukundo and MarcienneMujawaha,(1994) Le rle da la familledans la promotion et la consolidation de la paix au Burundi in Actes du Colloque national pour une culture de paix au Burundi, 1994, p.114 cited in Ntahobari Josephine and NdayizigaBasilissa (2003) The Role of Burundian Women in the Peaceful Settlement of Conflicts in Women and Peace in Africa France: UNESCO

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women and consequently it was they who played the greater part in transmitting such values to future generations. 20 Although traditional society was organized and structured in ways that encouraged interdependence and peaceful coexistence, like any other human society, it experienced conflicts. Conflicts arose between individuals, within a family, between different families or between the inhabitants of different territories. To manage such conflicts, the traditional society here had well-organized guiding machinery in which women largely played a major part. Under this system, a woman was acknowledged as having an advisory role, behind the scenes, mainly where her husband was concerned, and as playing an active part in strengthening solidarity and social harmony generally.21 Though the Burundian women customarily did not hold public office of any kind, they took part indirectly, and very much behind the scenes, in the smooth administration of communal businesses. Another point to be made here is that a girl (potential woman) or a woman was held to have no family, since she was destined to live and fulfill herself within someone elses, which she would regard as her own. As such, in the traditional society, women were considered not to belong, strictly speaking, to an ethnic group. They married men, and gave birth to children, of other ethnic groups. Consequently a girl, by her marriage, becomes a living symbol of unity between two families.

Cameroonians Paradigms (Conflict Arbitrating) Among the Bakossi group of Cameroon, it was paternal aunts who were responsible for reconciling the individuals involved in a conflict.22 Other classes of women played the same role in other societies. In the past, in the Lus-Mfumte society in the North-West Province (Nwa Subdivision), the Nkwuyi were women who took part in the discussions aimed at resolving conflicts. They played the role of mediators. It was also in this community that one found the prominent and dreaded secret society called the Djudju whose members initially were exclusively women. The role of the Djudju women was simply to maintain peace in the community. The expectant mother embodied peace among the Tikar (Kom, Menda,Bali, etc.) and Tchamba communities of the North-West Province. She was, therefore, a natural mediator. Even a criminal who found refuge in the house of a pregnant woman was not to be chased, but left in peace as long as he or she remained in such a sacred place of refuge.23 Not only did women mediate conflicts between human beings, they could also serve as intermediaries in conflicts between human beings and nature. Some women in Cameroonian society, who competently played the role of mediators, did this mainly on account of their social position or their strong personality and personal charisma. These women drew their motivation, from the customary courts, which were organs of reconciliation, not punishing. For the Cameroonian women of the past and those of the present, peace is not an abstraction. It is a truth that is very rich, but also very delicate, which has to be constructed and consolidated on a daily basis. It is however, distressing to note that this conception of peace is now being lost. Women Warriors A major recurrent fact in African history is the existence of women rulers and warriors throughout various regions of the African continent. From the ancient dynastic era of Egypt, there have been notable women who led monarchical societies and exercised military, economic as well as politic powers. There also were fearless women who led anti-slavery and anti-colonial resistance to the round of European imperialism. Nana YaaAsantewa is a model of such bravery: she led a rebellion against

20

Ntahobari Josephine and NdayizigaBasilissa (2003) The Role of Burundian Women in the Peaceful Settlement of Conflicts in Women and Peace in Africa France: UNESCO, p.15 21 ibid, p.16 22 Ngongo-Mbede Valerie (2003) The Traditional Mediation of Conflicts by Women in Cameroon in Women and Peace in Africa France: UNESCO, p.29 23 Ibid, p.34

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British imperialism in Ghana during 1900.24 Another great African warrior Queen was Majaji, who led the Lovedu tribe which was part of the Kushite Empire during the Kushites many years of war with Rome. The Kushite Empire ended in 350AD when the Kushite stronghold of Meroe fell to repeated Roman assaults. Majaji led her warriors in battle armed with a shield and spear, and she is believed to have died on the walls of walls of Meroe. 25 EVALUATION African women are undeniably mothers; they are the first teachers of the male and female children. It is in their power to determine will be warriors or slaves. They can teach the first powerful lessons in pride and respect for culture, history and genetics of their race. In the women, is the competence to teach daughters that respect is not given to women by men, but that they carry in themselves the highest possible level of self-respect that commands respect from the men. It is also the women who can remind their daughters how they possibly assist in the destruction of men by allowing them to hide out in the vagina. To allow this hiding out (efforts to climb in the womb to be babies or fetuses again) when they know the men should turn and face their oppressors is an extreme level of selfdestruction26. It will defy academic enterprise to discount of the fact that Africa cannot be said to have a particular worldview on the place of women in the African milieu; owing to the variations and the intricacies of what various cultures hold of their women. But it would also not be sound judgment to posit that the worldview of the place of women in Africa is plural. To say it is plural would mean admitting several views that rather could be either in favour of women or against them. Hence, I would like to say here that the African worldview of the place of women in African society is dualistic in nature. In other words, a duo position: one that elevates women and the other that discriminates. It is worthy of note, that the traditional African society operated in a role-structured environment which can be implicated either positively or negatively. The attempt to canonize the structure may be going the path of gender analysis. On the other hand, disregarding it totally would mean advocating for a society where chaos is a welcome guest.

CONCLUSION Does it not appear as if everyone concurs with the Roman senator, Cato? When he said: Our ancestors did not allow women to handle any business even domestic, without special authorization. They never failed to keep women dependent on their fathers, brothers or husbands.27 Relying the words of Socrates man know thyself. It is very apt to examine the African worldview on the place of women in the society especially at this time when Africans themselves have been more a problem to themselves. It is evident that the story of the African woman has been told from different perspectives: an account of what the place of women was before the coming of the Europeans and the other, during the colonial period and beyond. Many writers have been too quick to state that women have always been at a disadvantage from time immemorial. Perhaps the feministic agenda is responsible for their assertion. True, the African feminist manifesto is laudable as it seeks for equity and justice, regardless of gender. But the idea would rather be relocating women to their dignified place before colonialist incursions not the struggle for equal rights and opportunities that may not
24

http://www.nondomesticatedthinker.com/2012/03/africas-warrior-queens-gender-roles-political-leadership-and-societaldevelopment/ accessed on December 3, 2012 25 http://www.geocities.com/jywanza1/AfrikanWarriors.html 26 Cross, Walter, A Blacological Perspective on Contemporary Thought and Traditional views of Women in African Development, Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 2001, p 14. 27 Chinweizu, Gender and Monotheism: The Assault by Monotheism on Africa gender Diarchy in Sophie Oluwole (ed.) The Essentials of African Studies General African Studies, University of Lagos, 1997, p 21.

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necessary restate a balanced and harmonious society as was before. It is reasonable to point out that tyranny and violence is not peculiar to African societies but a human phenomenon that is found everywhere; colonialism being a form of tyranny and violence against humanity. It is worthy of note that what comes to mind, once asked the African worldview on the place of women in the society will be nothing less the marginalization and the gender that suffers more. In spite the popular opinion, it can be said that half a millennium (from 1500AD) is a time too short to erase the African worldview of women in the society which places great importance on their sex. If this position of mine seem absurd, perhaps these questions may be relevant: Have children in the African society ceased being of great value? Can a man bear children without becoming a woman? Have the nakedness of a woman in public ceased to be a shame to both gender? Have women ceased being relevant in trade and traditional medicine? These are some amongst a whole lot. Therefore, worldview being a concept as was described under conceptual clarification, and woman as understood, can always be interpreted within context. And if contextual interpretation is allowed, then the point cannot be that the African worldview of the place of women is one and the same across African cultures. Yet, it cannot be more than a dual view; one that reveres and the other than discriminates.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Adetunji, H.A. (2001). Re-Orientating the African Woman Today in Akintude, D.O. (Ed) African Culture and the Quest for Womens Right, Ibadan: Sefer. Ajayi, S. A. (2005) The Concept of Culture in S. Ademola Ajayi ed. African Culture and Civilization, Ibadan: Atlantis Books. Alexander, Spirkin. (1989) Dialectical Materialism, Moscow: Progress Publishers. Amadiume, Ify (1987) Male Daughters, Female Husband: Gender and Sex in an African Society. London: Zeb Books. Amadiume, Ify (1997) Reinventing Africa: Matriarchy, Religion, and Culture London: Zed Books Ltd. Bannerman, J.Y. (1974) Mantse-Akan Mbebusen (Ghanaian Proverbs), Accra. Chinweizu (1997) Gender and Monotheism: The Assault by Monotheism on Africa gender Diarchy in Sophie Oluwole (ed.) The Essentials of African Studies General African Studies, University of Lagos. Cross, Walter (2001) A Blacological Perspective on Contemporary Thought and Traditional views of Women in African Development, Washington, DC: Library of Congress. Ehusani, G. O (2003) A Prophetic Church, Ibadan: Kraft Books Limited. Familusi, O. O. (2012) African Culture and the Status of Women: The Yoruba Example The Journal of Pan African Studies, Vol.5, No.1, March 2012 pp.299-313 Kumah, Carolyn (2000) African Women and Literature West Africa Review 2.1 McFadden, Patricia (2002) Becoming Post-Colonial: African Women Changing the Meaning of Citizenship Presented at Queens University, Canada, Oct. 2002. Ngongo-Mbede Valerie (2003) The Traditional Mediation of Conflicts by Women in Cameroon in Women and Peace in Africa France: UNESCO. Njogu, K. and Orchardson-Mazrui, E., Gender Inequality And Women's Rights In The Great Lakes: Can Culture Contribute To Women's Empowerment? Ntahobari, J. and Ndayiziga, B. (2003) The Role of Burundian Women in the Peaceful Settlement of Conflicts in Women and Peace in Africa France: UNESCO Nwoko, K. C. (2012) Female Husbands in Igbo Land: Southeast Nigeria The Journal of Pan African Studies, Vol.5, No.1, March 2012, pp.70-82 Oke, R.O. (2001). Inheritance in Africa and the Rights of the Female-Child in Akintunde, D.O. (Ed) African Culture and the Quest for Womens Rights, Ibadan: Sefers, Olusegun Oladipo ed. (2002) The Third Way in African Philosophy, Ibadan: Hope Publications Ltd. See Oluwole Sophie on Anti-Women Laws must go on http://www.the nigerianvoice.com/nvnews/39989/1/anti-women-laws-must-go-says-sophie-oluwole.html (accessed on Dec. 2, 2012) The Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol. 19, Chicago:

INTERNET SOURCES http://www.anc.org-za/ancdocs/history/women/effects.html (accessed on 20/11/2012) http://www.geocities.com/jywanza1/AfrikanWarriors.html http://www.nondomesticatedthinker.com/2012/03/africas-warrior-queens-gender-rolespolitical-leadership-and-societal-development/ accessed on December 3, 2012

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