Electromagnetic Waves, Circuits and Applications

2
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES,
CIRCUITS AND APPLICATIONS
2.1 Electromagnetism Introduction
Electromagnetism is a branch of Physics that describes the interactions involving electric
charge. Classical electromagnetism, summarized by Maxwells equations, includes the phenomena
of electricity, magnetism, electromagnetic induction (electric generators) and electromagnetic
radiation (including all of classical optics). In this chapter, we shall discuss the fundamentals of
electromagnetism along with Maxwells equation and propagation of electromagnetic waves in
free space.
2.1.1 Electrostatics
If a stick of sealing wax is rubbed with cats fur, both bodies are put into a peculiar
condition in which light bodies in their neighbourhood are set in motion. We say that by rubbing,
bodies become electrified and that they carry an electric charge. In the light of modern views,
charge is a fundamental property of elementary particles, which make up matter. It is evident from
these definitions of charge that it is always associated with mass. It is also found experimentally
that charge can be transferred from one body to the other by contact. The unit of charge in SI
system is coulomb.
Two charged bodies exert a force upon one another. This force can be used to measure the
charge as for example by means of an electrometer. From results, which have been obtained in
such measurements, existence of charges in two different kinds called positive and negative has
been concluded. These charges when in combination add algebraically i.e. the charge is a scalar
quantity.
Faradays laws of electrolysis and Millikans oil drop experiment have shown that the
smallest charge that exists in nature is the charge of an electron and that charge of any other
electrified body is an integral multiple of this electronic charge. This all in turn means that charge
is quantised i.e. it appears in discrete units.
Further, since charge is a fundamental property of the ultimate particles making up matter,
the total charge of a closed system cannot change i.e. net charge is conserved in an isolated
system. The law of conservation of charge itself beautifully illustrated by nature in pair production
or annihilation in which equal quantities of charges of each sign (positive and negative) appear or
disappear.
Physics for Technologists
Electrostatics is the branch of Physics, which deals with the behaviours of stationary
electric charges. Now, we shall discuss the fundamental definitions in electrostatics.
Coulombs Inverse Square Law
Coulombs inverse square law gives the force between the two charges. According to this
law, the force (F) between two electrostatic point charges (q
1
and q
2
) is proportional to the product
of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r) separating the charges.
i.e. F q
1
q
2
F
2
1
r
(or)
2
2 1
r
q q
K F
where K is proportionality constant which depends on the nature of the medium. This force acts
along the line joining the charges. For a dielectric medium of relative permittivity
r,
the value of K
is given by,
4
1
4
1
0

r
K
where = permittivity of the medium.
0
= permittivity of free space = 8.854 10
12
F m
1

Fig. 2.1 Coulomb Inverse Square Law
For air medium,
r
= 1
In the scalar form, the force between the electric charges is given by,
2
2 1
0
4
1
r
q q
F
where
2 2 9
0
10 9
4
1

C Nm
Electric field
Electric charges affect the space around them. The space around the charge within which
its effect is felt or experienced is called electric field.
Electric field Intensity (or) Strength of the electric field (
E
)
The electrostatic field intensity
E
due to a point charge q
a
at a given point is defined as
the force per unit charge exerted on a test charge q
b
placed at that point in the field.
1 - 1 -
2
0
C N (or) m volt
4
r
r q
q
F
E
a a
b
ba
a

Electrostatic Potential (V)
2.2
q
1
q
2
m e d i u m
r
Electromagnetism and Microwaves
As in the study of mechanics, it is useful to think in terms of the work done by electrical
forces and the potential energy in electric charges to understand the behaviour of electric charges.
Just as the heat flows from a higher temperature to lower temperature, water flows from higher
level to lower level and airflows from higher pressure to lower pressure, electric charge flows from
a body where electrical level is more to a body where it is less. This electrical level is called
electric potential.
The electric potential is defined as the amount of work done in moving unit positive
charge from infinity to the given point of the field of the given charge against the electrical force.
Unit: volt (or) joule / coulomb
The electric potential at any point is equal to the work done in moving the unit positive
charge from infinity to that point.
Potential
dx E V
r
.
dx
x
q
r
2
0
4
r
q
r
q
V
0 0
4
1 1
4

1
]
1

The electric field intensity (E) and the potential (V) are related in differential form as,

dr
dV
E

In vector notation,
E
= V = negative gradient of the potential
where
z
k
y
j
x
i
= Gradient operator
Electric lines of force
An electric field may be described in terms of lines of force in much the same way as a
magnetic field. The electric field around a charged body is represented by imaginary lines called
electric lines of force.
The direction of lines of force at any point is the direction along which a unit positive
charge (+1C) placed at that point would move or tend to move.
Properties of electric lines of force
1. Every line originates from a positive charge and terminates on a negative charge.
2. Lines of force never intersect.
3. The tangent to line of force at any point gives the direction of the electric field E at
that point.
2.3
Fig. 2.2 Electric lines of force
4. The number of lines of force per unit area at right angles to the lines is proportional to
the magnitude of E.
5. Each unit positive charge gives rise to
0
1
lines of force in free space.

Electric flux
The electric flux is defined as the number of lines of force that pass through a surface
placed in the electric field.
The electric flux (d) through an elementary area ds is
defined as the product of the area and the component of
electric field strength normal to the area.
The electric flux normal to the area ds = d =
E
.
ds
Fig.2.3 Flux of the electric field
d =E ds cos = (E cos ) . ds
= (Component of E along the direction of the normal area)
The flux over the entire surface = =
S
d ds . cos E
S

Unit: Nm
2
C
1
Gauss theorem (or) Gauss law
This law relates the flux through any closed surface and the net charge enclosed within the
surface. The electric flux () through a closed surface is equal to the
,
_
0
1
times the net charge q

enclosed by the surface.
,
_
0
1
(or)

,
_
cos
0
ds E
q
Dielectric materials
Dielectric materials are also called as insulators. In dielectric materials, all the electrons
are tightly bound to their parent molecules and there are no free charges. In addition, the
forbidden energy band gap for dielectric materials is more than 3eV. Therefore, it is not possible
for the electrons in the valence band to excite to the conduction band, by crossing the energy gap,
even with normal voltage or thermal energy. Because of this, no electrical conduction takes place.
Generally, dielectrics are non-metallic materials of high specific resistance and negative
temperature coefficient of resistance.
Electric flux density or Electric displacement vector (D)
2.4
E
ds

It is defined as the number of electric lines of force passing normally through an unit area
of cross section in the field. It is given by,
A
D

Unit : coulomb / m
2
where, = total electric flux (coulomb) and
A = Area of cross section (m
2
).
Permittivity ()
Permittivity is defined as the ratio of electric displacement vector (D) in a dielectric
medium to the applied electric field strength (E). Mathematically it is given by,
E
D
Unit : farad /metre
The permittivity indicates the degree to which the medium can resist the flow of electric
charge and is always greater than unity. The permittivity () can also be given as,
=
o
.
r

where
o
= permittivity of free space or vacuum and
r
= permittivity or dielectric constant of the
medium.
Dielectric constant (
r
)
The dielectric constant or relative permittivity (
r
) of a material determines its dielectric
characteristics. It is the ratio of the permittivity of the medium () and the permittivity of free
space (
0
) and is given by,
0

r
Since it is a ratio of same quantity,
r
has no unit. It is a measure of polarization in the
dielectric material.
2.1.2 Magnetostatics
A stationary electric charge always produces a static electric field. The behaviour of the
stationary charges has been discussed in the previous section. The electric current in a circuit is
due to the movement of electric charges i.e. electrons. Oersterd and Ampere proved experimentally
that the current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it. Hence, the origin of
magnetism is linked with current and magnetic quantities are measured in terms of current.
The Coulombs inverse square law of magnetism gives the force of attraction between two
individual magnetic poles. The interaction between the magnets can be explained on the basis of
inverse square law similar to that in electricity. But this does not imply that there are magnetic free
charges as there are in electricity. The magnetic poles are analogous to the polarization charges in
insulators, the smallest entity being a dipole and a simple pole i.e. no isolated monopole exists.
The magnetostatics deals with the behaviour of stationary magnetic fields. We shall discuss the
fundamentals of magnetism.
Magnetic dipole
Any two opposite magnetic poles separated by a distance d constitute a magnetic dipole.
Magnetic dipole moment (
m
)
If m is the magnetic pole strength and l is the length of the magnet, then its dipole moment is
given by,
2.5
m
= m l
It can also be defined as follows:
When an electric current of i amperes flows through a circular wire of 1 turn having an area
of cross section a m
2
, then it is said to have a magnetic moment of,
m
= i a Unit: ampere (metre)
2
Fig.2.4 Magnetic moment
Dipole moment is a vector quantity. Its direction is normal to the plane of the loop to the
right, if the current is clockwise.
Magnetic flux ( )
It is defined as the total number of magnetic lines of force passing perpendicular through a
given area.
Unit: weber.
It can also be defined as the total number of lines of force emanated from North Pole.
Magnetic flux density (or) Magnetic induction (B)
It is defined as the number of magnetic lines of force passing through an unit area of cross
section. It is given by,
2
Magnetic Flux
weber/m (o )
Unit Area
B r tesla
A

It is also defined as the magnetic force (F) experienced by an unit north pole placed at the
given point in a magnetic field.

Force experienced
Polestrength
F
B
m

Magnetic field strength (or) Magnetic field intensity (H)
Magnetic field intensity or magnetic field strength at any point in a magnetic field is equal
to
,
_
1
times the force acting on a unit north pole placed at the point.

metre / turns . ampere
B
m
F
H . e . i

,
_

1
where = permeability of the medium in which the magnetic field is situated.
Magnetization (or) Intensity of Magnetization (M)
2.6
A
m
i
The term magnetization is the process of converting a non-magnetic material into a
magnetic material. It measures the magnetization of the magnetized specimen. Intensity of
magnetization (M) is defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume.
It is expressed in ampere/metre.
2.7
Magnetic susceptibility ()
It is the measure of the ease with which the specimen can be magnetized by the magnetizing
force. It is defined as the ratio of magnetization produced in a sample to the magnetic field
intensity. i.e. magnetization per unit field intensity.
unit) (no
H
M

Magnetic permeability ()
It is the measure of degree at which the lines of force can penetrate through the material. It
is defined as the ratio of magnetic flux density in the sample to the applied magnetic field
intensity.
H
B
. e . i
r

0
where
0
= permeability of free space = 4 10
7
H m
1

r
= relative permeability of the medium
Relative permeability (
r
)
It is the ratio of permeability of the medium to the permeability of free space.
i.e.
r
=
0
(No unit)
Relation between
r
and
When a magnetic material is kept in a magnetic field (H), then two types of lines of
induction passes through the material.. One is due to the magnetic field (H) and the other one is
due to self-magnetization of the material itself. Therefore, total flux density (B) in a solid can be
given as,
B =
0
(H+M) (1)
We know that
H B ) or (
H
B
(2)
Equating (1) and (2), we get,
H =
0
(H+M)
H =
0
H+
0
M

0
r
H =
0
H +
0
M
] [
0 r

0 0
0 0
r
H M
H H

+
1
r
M
H
+
+ 1
r
. e . i
2.8
Bohr Magneton (B)
Bohr magneton is the magnetic moment produced by one unpaired electron in an atom.
It is the fundamental quantum of magnetic moment.
1 Bohr magneton
m
eh h
m
e
4 2
.
2

1B = 9.27 10
24
ampere metre
2
Current density (J)
Current density is defined as the ratio of the current to the surface area whose plane is
normal to the direction of charge motion. It is denoted by J and is a vector having direction of
charge motion.
Consider a surface ds whose normal is parallel to the motion of electrons. The current
density is given by,
ds
dI
J (or) dI = J . ds
Therefore the net current flowing through the conductor =
S
J.ds I
Conduction Current Density ( J
1
)
The current density due to the conduction electrons in a conductor is known as the
conduction current density.
By ohms law, the potential difference across a conductor having resistance R and current I
is,
V = IR (1)
For a length l and potential difference V,
V=El (2)
where E = electric field intensity.
From equations (1) and (2),
IR = El (3)
But R =
,
_
,
_
A
l
A
l
1
(4)
where and are the electrical resistivity and conductivity respectively.
Using equation (4) in (3),
l E
A
l
I .
,
_
(or)
E
A
I
E
A
I

,
_
(or)
(or) E J
1
(5)
J 1
may be referred to as conduction current density, which is directly proportional to the
electric field intensity.
Displacement Current Density ) J (
2
2.9
There is no direct current in a circuit containing capacitor while an alternating current can
flow in it. The conduction current due to the motion of electrons cannot pass through a capacitor as
its plates are separated by a dielectric. As the current does not pass through the capacitor so we
have to conclude that in a capacitor a certain process closes the conduction current, i.e. it enables
in someway the charge exchange between the capacitor plates without actually transporting a
charge between the plates. The current associated with this process is called as displacement
current. The displacement current per unit area is known as displacement current density.
In a capacitor, the current is given by,
dt
dV
. C
dt
) CV ( d
dt
dQ
I
c

(1)
where Q, C and V represents charge across the plates, capacity and potential difference across the
plates of the capacitor respectively.
In a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is given by,
C =
d
A
(2)
where , A and d represents electric permittivity, area of the plates of the dielectric filled capacitor
and distance between the plates of the capacitor respectively.
Using equation (2) in (1)
C
I
dt
dV
d A
I
or
dt
dV
d
A
C
. ) ( .

,
_
J
2
= Displacement current density =
dt
E d
dt
dE
d
V
dt
d ) (

1
]
1
,
_
dt
D d
J
2
[since E D = electric displacement vector]
This is not a current, which directly passes through a capacitor, and is only an apparent
current representing the rate at which the flow of charge takes place from electrode to electrode in
the external circuit. Hence the displacement is justified.
In the presence of magnetic fields in free space due to time varying electric fields, the net
current density = J = J
1
+ J
2
dt
D d
E J +
Biot Savart Law
Biot Savart law is used to calculate the magnetic field due
to a current carrying conductor. According to this law, the
magnitude of the magnetic field at any point P due to a small current
element I.dl ( I = current through the element, dl = length of the
element) is
1. directly proportional to the current (I)
directly proportional to the length of the current element (dl)
Fig. 2.5 Biot Savart law
2. directly proportional to the sine of the angle () between the direction of the current and
the line joining the current element to the point P and
2.10
P
dB
X
r
Y
I
A
B
I.dl
C
3. inversely proportional to the square of the distance between (r) of the point P from the
current element
i.e.
2
sin
r
Idl
dB

(or)
2
0
sin
.
4 r
Idl
dB

In vector notation,
3
0
.
4 r
r idl
dB

The direction of vector dB is the direction of the vector

r idl
(i.e.) perpendicular to the
plane of the paper and inwards.
Amperes circuital law
It states that the line integral of the magnetic field (vector B) around any closed path or
circuit is equal to
0
(permeability of free
space) times the total current (I) threading
through the closed circuit. Mathematically,
I dl B
0
.

It may be noted that the magnitude

of the magnetic field at a point on the
circular path changes with the change in
radius of the circular path but the line
integral of vector B over any closed path
will be independent of its radius i.e. equal
to
0
times the current threading the circle.
Fig. 2.6 Amperes circuital law
Faradays Law of electromagnetic induction
Michael Faraday found that whenever there is a change in magnetic flux linked with a
circuit, an emf is induced resulting a flow of current in the circuit. The magnitude of the induced
emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux. Lenzs rule gives the direction
of the induced emf which states that the induced current produced in a circuit always in such a
direction that it opposes the change or the cause that produces it. By combining Lenzs rule with
Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, the induced emf can be written as,
dt
d
e

) ( emf induced
where d is the change magnetic flux linked with a circuit in a time dt second.
2.1.3 Electromagnetic waves
According to Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction, a time varying magnetic field
behaves as a source of electric field. The principle of generating electric field by changing
magnetic fields is employed in transformers, inductances etc. According to Maxwells
modification of Amperes law, a changing electric field gives rise to a magnetic field. It means that
when either of the field (magnetic or electric) changes with time, the other field is induced in the
space. This leads to the generation of electromagnetic disturbance comprising of time varying
2.11
X
Y
I
O
a
P
B
Q
dl PQ=
Y
X
Z
E
E
H
H
H
E
electric and magnetic fields. Such a disturbance can be propagated through space even in the
absence of any material medium. These disturbances have the properties of a wave and are called
electromagnetic waves.

Fig. 2.7 Electromagnetic waves
The variations of electric intensity and magnetic intensity are transverse in nature. The
variations of E and H are perpendicular to each other and also to the directions of wave
propagation. The wave patterns of E and H for a travelling electromagnetic wave obey the
fundamental equations, called Maxwells equations. These equations are mathematical abstractions
of experimental results.
Electromagnetic waves cover a wide range of frequencies and they travel with the same
velocity as that of light i.e. 3 10
8
m s
1
. The electromagnetic waves include radio frequency
waves, microwaves, infrared waves, visible light, ultraviolet rays, X-rays and gamma rays. The
classification electromagnetic wave is done according to their main source. However, different
sources may used to produce waves in overlapping range of frequencies.
The history of evolution of electromagnetic waves is summarized as:
1. James Clerk Maxwell (1831 1879) unified all previous known results, experimental and
theoretical on electromagnetic waves in four equations and predicted the existence of
electromagnetic waves.
2. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857 1937) experimentally confirmed Maxwells prediction.
3. Guglielmo Marconi (1854 1937) transmitted information on an experimental basis at
microwave frequencies.
4. George C. Southworth (1930) really carried out Marconis experiments on a commercial
basis.
5. During World War - II (1945) based on the previous developments; radar was invented
and was exploited for military applications.
2.1.4 Del, Divergence, Curl and Gradient Operations in Vector calculus
(i) Del (nabla) Operator ():
The del operator is defined through the partial derivatives of the with respect to space
variables. In Cartesian coordinates, the del operator is written as,
z
k
y
j
x
i

2.12
-
P
P
P
(a) positive
divergence
(b) negative
divergence
(c) zero divergence
It is a vector operator and it may be applied on scalars, vectors or tensors. The del operator
is important since it provides a number of indications as to how a vector or scalar functions vary
with position. It shows up in the gradient, curl, divergence and Laplacian.
(ii) Divergence
The divergence of a vector V written as div V represents the scalar quantity.
div V = V =
z
V
y
V
x
V
z
y
x
Fig. 2.8 Divergence

Physically the divergence of a vector quantity represents the rate of change of the field
strength in the direction of the field.
Fig. 2.9 Example for divergence
If the divergence of the vector field is positive at a point then something is diverging from
a small volume surrounding that point and that point is acting as a source. If it negative, then
something is converging into the small volume surrounding that point is acting as sink. However,
if the divergence at a point is zero then the rate at which something entering a small volume
surrounding that point is equal to the rate at which it is leaving that volume. The vector field
whose divergence is zero is called solenoidal.
(iii) Curl
The curl of V is written as curl V represents a vector quantity.
2.13
Div is positive
Div = 0
Div is negative
Curl
curl V =
z y x
V V V
z y x
k j i
V
Physically, the curl of a vector field represents the rate of change of the field strength in a
direction at right angles to the field and is a measure of rotation of something in a small volume
surrounding a particular point. For streamline motions and conservative fields, the curl is zero
while it is maximum near the whirlpools.
(i) No rotation of the (ii) Rotation of the (iii) direction of curl
paddle wheel means paddle wheel means
the curl of the field is where the curl of the
zero field exists.
Fig.2.10 Example for curl
For vector fields whose curl is zero there is no rotation of the paddle wheel when it is
placed in the field. Such fields are called irrotational.
(iv) The Gradient
The gradient of a scalar function is a vector whose cartesian components are
z y
,
x

and
(i.e.)
z
k
y
j
x

i grad
The magnitude of this vector gives the maximum rate of change of the scalar field and its
direction is the direction in which this maximum change occurs.
For example, the electric field intensity at any point is given by,
E = grad V = negative gradient of potential
The negative sign implies that the direction of E opposite to the direction in which V
increases.
Some Important Vector Results and Theorems
In electromagnetism, we shall use the following vector results:
1. E ) E ( ) E (
2

curl curl E = grad div E E
2

2. div grad S = S
2
2.14
S ) S (
2

3. div (SV) = S div V + V grad S
) S ( V ) V ( S ) V S (

+
4. curl grad = 0
0 ) (
5. Gauss Divergence Theorem
It relates the volume integral of the divergence of a vector V to the surface integral of the
vector itself. According to this theorem, if a closed S bounds a volume , then
(div V) d =
s
V ds (or)

S
d ds V V
) (
6. Stokes Theorem
It relates the surface integral of the curl of a vector to the line integral of the vector itself.
According to this theorem, if a closed path C bounds a surface S,
s
(curl V) ds =
C
V dl
s
( V) ds =
C
V dl
2.1.5 Maxwell Equations
Maxwells equations combine the fundamental laws of electricity and magnetism and are
of profound importance in the analysis of most electromagnetic wave problems. The behaviour of
electromagnetic fields is studied with the help of a set of equations given by Maxwell and hence
called Maxwells equations. These equations are the mathematical abstractions of certain
experimentally observed facts and find their application to all sorts of problem in
electromagnetism. Maxwells equations are derived from Amperes law, Faradays law and Gauss
law. They are listed in the Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Maxwells Equations
Maxwells Law Differential form Integral form
First law:
(Based on Gauss law of electrostatics)
D .

v s
dv ds . D
Second Law:
(Based on Gauss law of magnetostatics)
0 B .
0
s
ds . B
Third law:
(Based on the Faradays law of
electromagnetism)
t
B
E

s
ds .
t
B
dl . E
Fourth Law:
(Based on the Amperes circuital law or Biot
Savart law)
t
D
E H
+
s l
ds ).
t
D
E ( dl . H
where
D
= electric displacement vector (C m
2
)
2.15
= volume charge density (C m
3
)
B
= magnetic induction (Wb m
2
)
E
= electric field intensity (V m
1
)
H
= magnetic field intensity (A m
1
)
Maxwells equations: Derivation
Maxwells First Law
Suppose the charge is distributed over a volume V. Let be the volume density of the
charge, then the charge q is given by,
q =
v
dv
The integral form of Gauss law is,

v
s
dv
ds E
0
1
(1)
According to Gauss divergence theorem,

v s
dv ) E ( ds E
(2)

v v
dv
)dv E (
0
1
(3)
Since, this is true for any volume V, integral must be equal.
(4)
div
0
E
(5)
But electric displacement vector, E D
0
(6)
(5)
0
0
0
0
div
E
(or) div ( ) E
0
(or) div ) D (
2.16
) D ( (7)
This is the differential form of Maxwells I law.
From (1),

v
s
dv ds E
0

v
s
dv ds D
(8)
This is the integral form of Maxwells I law.
Maxwells Second Law
From Biot - Savart law of electromagnetism, the magnetic induction at any point due to a
current element,
dB =
2
4
r
sin idl
o

In vector notation,
) r idl (
r
dB

3
0
4
= ) r idl (
r
^
2
0
4
Therefore, the total induction

B
=
) r dl .
r
(
i
^
2
0
1
4
This is Biot - Savart law.

If we replace the current i by the current density J the current per unit area,
A
i
J then,
dv r J
r
B ). .(
1
4
^
2
0

[ i =J . A and I . dl = J(A . dl) =

J . dv]
Taking divergence on both sides,
dv r J
r
B
v
) .
1
(
4
^
2
0

If the current density is assumed to be constant, then 0 J

0

B
This is the differential form of Maxwells second equation.
Experiments to date have shown that magnetic monopoles do not exist. Hence, the
number of magnetic lines of force entering any arbitrary closed surface is exactly the same leaving
it. Therefore the flux of magnetic induction B across a closed surface is zero.
2.17
By Gauss divergence theorem,
v
0

s
B.ds dv ) B (

This is the integral form of Maxwells second law.
Maxwells Third Law
By Faradays law of electromagnetic induction,
dt
d
e

Now, let us consider work done on a charge, moving it through a distance dl.
W = dl . E
which is a line integral

If the work is done along a closed path, emf = dl . E

The magnetic flux linked with closed area S due to the induction B =
s
ds . B
[ ]

s
ds B
dt
d
dt
d
e . emf

=
s
ds
dt
B d
Hence, ds .
dt
B d
dl . E
s

This is the Maxwells third equation in integral form.
Using Stokes theorem, the line integral of a vector function along a closed path
dl . E
can be converted to the surface integral of the normal component, the vector E
of the enclosed surface.
(i.e)
dl . E
=

s
ds ). E (

s s
ds .
dt
B d
ds ). E (
Hence,
t
B
) E (

This is the Maxwells third equation in differential form.
Maxwells Fourth Law
By Amperes circuital law,
i dl . B
0
But,
H
B
0
(or) B =
0
H
2.18
Therefore,

i
i dl . H
But i =

s
ds . J
Hence,

ds . J dl . H
s
But
t
D
E J
+
s s
ds .
t
D
ds . E dl . H
This is Maxwells fourth equation in integral form.
Using Stokes theorem,
ds ). H ( dl . H
s

Hence,

+
s s s
ds .
t
D
ds . E ds ). H (
ds .
t
D
E ds ). H (
s
,
_
+
(or)
t
D
E H H
+

curl
This is Maxwells fourth equation in integral form.
2.1.6 Maxwells equations in free space
In free space, the volume charge density () = 0 and conduction current density (J
1
) = 0
(since = 0 ) and therefore, the Maxwells Equations becomes,

D
= 0 (1)

B
= 0 (2)

E
=
t
B
=
t
(
0
H) =
H
0

(3)

H
=
t
D
=
t
E
0

(4)
Differentiating (4) with respect to time,
t
2 2
2
0
2
t
E
t
D
) H (
[Since D =
0
E]
2.19
2
2
0
t
E
t
H
) H (
(5)
Taking curl on both sides of (3),
) H ( ) E (

0
(6)
But,
E ) E ( ) E (
2
=
2
E [since E= 0]
(7)
Using equation (7) in (6),

2
E =
) H (

0
2
2
0 0 0
2
t
E
) H ( E

(8)
This is called free space electromagnetic equation.
In one dimension,
2
2
0 0
2
2
2
2
0 0
2
2
.
1
) (
x
E
t
E
or
t
E
x
E

(9)
Comparing this with standard mechanical wave equation,
2 2
2
2
2
x
y
C
t
y

(10)
We get,
8
0 0
0 0
2
10 3
1 1

C ) or ( C
m/s.
The velocity of electromagnetic wave in free space
C =
0 0
1

(11)
Similarly, the wave equation in terms of H can be written as,

2
H =
2
2
0 0
t
H
(12)
In a medium of magnetic permeability and electric permittivity , the wave equation becomes,

2
H =
2
2
t
H
(13)

2
E =
2
2
t
E
(14)
The above equations (13) and (14) are known as Helmholtzs wave equations.
2.20
The velocity of electromagnetic wave in any medium is,
C =

1
(15)
Worked Example 2.1: An electromagnetic wave of frequency f = 3.0 MHz passes from vacuum
into a non magnetic medium with relative permittivity 4. Calculate the
increment in its wavelength. Assume that for a non-magnetic medium
r
=1.
Frequency of the electromagnetic wave = f = 3.0 MHz = 3 10
6
Hz
Relative permittivity of the non-magnetic medium =
r
= 4
Relative permeability of the non-magnetic medium =
r
= 1
Velocity of em wave in vacuum = C =
0 0
1

Wavelength of the em wave in vacuum = =
0 0
1
.
1

f f
C
Velocity of em wave in non-magnetic medium =

r r
C

0 0
1 1

Wavelength of the em wave in non-magnetic medium =
r r
f f
C

0 0
1
.
1

Therefore the change in wavelength =
,
_
1
1 1
.
1
0 0 r r
f

=
m 50 1
4
1
10 3
10 3
6
8

1
]
1
i.e. the wavelength decreased by 50 m.

2.1.7 Characteristic Impedance
The solution of the equation for the electric component in the electromagnetic wave is,
E
y
= E
o
sin
2
(ct x) (1)
For magnetic component,
H
z
= H
O
sin
2
(ct x) (2)
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to time,
) x Ct (
C
E
t
E
y

,
_
2
cos
2
0
(3)
2.21
But,
z y x
H H H
z y x
k j i
H

H =
x
H
y
H
x
H
k
z
H
x
H
j
z
H
y
H
i
z x
y
x z
y
z

1
]
1
+
1
]
1
1
]
1

(4)
Since H varies only in the Z direction and wave travelling along X-axis, the component
of H other than
x
H
z
becomes zero.
But from the fourth law of free space Maxwells equation,
t
E
H
y

0
(5)
t
Ey
x
Hz
0
(6)
Substituting equation (3) in (6),
) x Ct (
C
E
x
Hz

,
_
2
cos
2
0 0
(7)
Integrating with respect to x,
H
z
=
,
_

1
]
1

,
_
2
2
sin
2
0 0
) x Ct (
C
E
(8)
H
z
= C
0
E
0
sin
2
(Ct x)
H
z
=
0 0
1

0
E
0
sin
2
(Ct x)
H
z
=
0
0
E
0
sin
2
(Ct x)
H
z
=
0
0
.E
y
(9)
(or) Z
H
E
z
y

0
0
= Characteristic Impedance of the medium (10)

2.22
Y
X
Z
E
y
H
z
P
For free space, Z =
0
0
= 376.8
For any medium, Z =
ohm
Worked Example 2.3: Electromagnetic radiation propagating in free space has the values of
electric and magnetic fields 86.6 V m
1
and 0.23 A m
1
respectively.
Calculate the characteristic impedance.
Electric field intensity = E =86.6 V m
1
Magnetic field intensity = H = 0.23 A m
1
Characteristic impedance = Z =
23 . 0
6 . 86
H
E
376.52 ohm
Z = 376. 52 ohm
2.1.8 Poynting vector
uuur
(P)
The rate of energy flow per unit area in a plane electromagnetic wave is defined by a
vector ) (P called the poynting vector.
H E B E P
0
1

The direction of ) (P gives the direction in which the energy is transferred. Unit: W/m
2
Taking the divergence of poynting vector in free space,
H) E.( E) H.( H) .(E
=
t
D
E
t
B
H
. . =
,
_
t
D
E
t
B
H . .
=
,
_
t
H
H
t
E
E . .
0 0

=
,
_
t
H
H
t
E
E ). 2 (
2
1
). 2 (
2
1
0 0

=
,
_
t
H
t
E
2
0
2
0
) (
.
2
1 ) (
.
2
1

=
,
_
2
0
2
0
2
1
2
1
H E
t

2.23
Fig.2.11 Poynting vector
Considering the surface S bounds a volume V and integrating the above equation over the
volume V, we get

,
_

V V
dV H E
t
H E
2
0
2
0
2
1
2
1
) .(

On applying divergence theorem to the LHS term of the above relation, we get

,
_

V S
dV H E
t
dS H E
2
0
2
0
2
1
2
1
). (
The term on the RHS within the integral of the above equation represents the sum of
energies of electric and magnetic fields. Hence the RHS of the above equation represents the
amount of energy transferred over the volume V in one second i.e. it represents the rate of flow of
energy over the volume V.
Energy associated with the electric field
2
2
0
E
U
E

and that with the magnetic field
0
2 2
0
2 2
B H
U
m
. As
( )
E m
U E
C
B
H
U
2
0
0
2
2
0
2
1
2 2

[as C
B
E
and
0 0
1

C
], which shows that instantaneous energy density associated with electric field i.e.
energy is equally shared by the two fields.
The vector H E P is interpreted as representing the amount of field energy
passing through the unit area of surface in unit time normally to the direction of flow of energy.
This statement is termed as Poyntings theorem and the vector P is called Poynting Vector. The
direction of flow of energy is perpendicular to vectors E and H i.e. in the direction of the vector
H E .
2.1.9 Skin Depth or Penetration Depth:
It can be proved that the amplitude of the electromagnetic wave propagating through a
conducting medium is damped, i.e. in a good conductor, the wave is attenuated as it progresses.
At higher frequencies, the rate of attenuation is very large, and the wave may penetrate only a very
short distance before being reduced to a small value. This effect is called skin effect. The reason
for the rapid attenuation of electromagnetic waves in a conducting medium is the conversion of
electromagnetic energy into joules heat energy.
The skin depth or penetration depth () is defined as that depth in which the amplitude of the
electric field of the wave has been attenuated to
,
_
e
1
or approximately 37% of its original value.
The penetration depth is given by,
where is the attenuation constant.

From the Maxwells Equations, the attenuation constant can be derived as,
2.24
,
_
1
]
1
+ 1 1
2
2 2
2

where = angular frequency of the wave, = permeability of the medium, = permittivity of
the medium, = electrical conductivity of the medium.
For good conductors,
1
]
1
>>1
Hence,
2

The penetration depth is given by,

2 1

The above equation shows that at high frequencies, the current will flow only on the
surface of the conductor.
2.2 Waveguides
For transmitting electromagnetic energy from one place to another, transmission lines can
be used. At frequencies below microwaves, coaxial cable is the primary means of carrying radio
signals. But at microwave frequencies, this kind of transmission line is less effective. At
frequencies higher than 3 GHz, transmission of electromagnetic energy along the transmission
lines and cables becomes difficult mainly due to the losses that occur both in the solid dielectric
needed to support the conductor and in the conductors themselves. A metallic tube can be used to
transmit electromagnetic wave at these frequencies.
A hollow metallic tube of uniform cross section for transmitting electromagnetic waves by
successive reflections from the inner walls of the tube is called waveguide.
Waveguides may be used to carry energy between pieces of equipment or over longer
distances to carry transmitter power to an antenna or microwave signals from an antenna to a
receiver. Waveguides are made from copper, aluminium or brass. These metals are extruded into
long rectangular or circular pipes. Often the insides of these waveguides are plated with silver to
reduce their resistance to a very low level.
An electromagnetic energy to be carried by a waveguide is
injected into one end of the waveguide. Thus is done with antenna like
device which creates an electromagnetic wave that propagates through
the waveguide. The electric and magnetic fields associated with the
signal bounce off the inside walls back and forth as it progresses down
the waveguide. The waveguide completely contains the signal so that
none escapes by radiation.
In order to determine the EM field configuration within the
waveguide and to know how these waves are transmitted along the tube,
Maxwells equations should be solved subject to appropriate boundary
conditions at the walls of the guide. Such solutions give rise to a
2.25
O
X
Y
Z
E
x

,
H
x
E
z ,
H
z
E
y
,
H
y
Fig.2.12 Components of
electric and magnetic
field intensities in an EM
wave
number of field configurations. Each configuration is known as a mode. The following are the
different modes possible in a waveguide system:
Transverse Electro Magnetic (TEM) wave: Here both electric and magnetic fields are Z directed
components. (i.e.) E
z
= 0 and H
z
= 0.
1. Transverse Electric (TE) wave: Here only the electric field is purely transverse to the
direction of propagation and the magnetic field is not purely transverse. (i.e.) E
z
= 0, H
z

0.
2. Transverse Magnetic (TM) wave: Here only magnetic field is transverse to the direction of
propagation and the electric field is not purely transverse. (i.e.) E
z
0, H
z
= 0.
3. Hybrid (HE) wave: Here neither electric nor magnetic fields are purely transverse to the
direction of propagation. (i.e.) E
z
0, H
z
0.
2.2.1 Rectangular and Circular waveguides
Any shape of cross section of a waveguide can support electromagnetic waves. But since
irregular shapes are difficult to fabricate, analyze and are rarely used, rectangular and circular
waveguides have become more common. A waveguide having rectangular cross section is known
as rectangular waveguide and that having circular cross section is known as circular waveguide
Most waveguides are of the rectangular variety.
It is the size of the waveguide that determines its
operating frequency range. Consider a rectangular pipe
with width a and height b as shown in Fig.2.13. The
frequency of operation is determined by the a
dimension. This dimension is usually made equal to one
half the wavelength at the lowest frequency of
operation. This frequency is known as the waveguide
cutoff frequency. At the cutoff frequency and below, the
waveguide will not transmit energy. At frequencies
above the cutoff frequency, the waveguide will
propagate energy. Normally, the height of the
waveguide is made equal to approximately one half
the a dimensions.

When a probe launches energy into the waveguide, the electromagnetic fields bounce off
the side walls of the waveguide as shown in Fig.2.14. The angles of incidence and reflection
depend upon the operating frequency. At high frequencies, the angles are large and therefore, the
path between the opposite walls is relatively long as shown in Fig.2.14 (a). As the operating
frequency gets lower, the angles decrease and the path between the sides shortens. When the
operating frequency is reaches the cutoff frequency of the waveguide, the signal simply bounces
back and forth directly between the side walls of the waveguide and has no forward motion. At the
cut off frequency and below, no energy is propagated.
Rectangular waveguides usually come in a variety of standard sizes. The exact size is
selected based on the desired operating frequency. The size of the waveguide is chosen so that its
rectangular width is greater than one half the wavelength but less than the one wavelength at the
operating frequency. This gives a cutoff frequency that is below the operating frequency, thereby
ensuring that the signal will be propagated down the line.
2.26
a
b
Fig. 2.13 Dimensions of the waveguide
determining the operating frequency
range
Angl e of incidence(A) Angle of reflecti on (B)
(A = B)
By solving Maxwells equations for a rectangular waveguides, it can be proved the TEM
waves cannot exists inside a waveguide. The electric and magnetic field configurations in
waveguides are represented by subscripts. The general symbol will be TE
m, n
or TM
m, n
where the
subscript m indicates the number of half wave variations of the electric field intensity along the
b( wide) dimension of the waveguide. The second subscript n indicates the number of half wave
variations of the electric field in the a (narrow) dimension of the guide. The TE
1, 0
mode has the
longest operating wavelength and is designated as the dominant mode. It is the mode for the lowest
frequency that can be propagated in a waveguide.
(a) at high frequency
(b) at medium frequency
(c) at low frequency
(d) at cutoff frequency
Fig. 2.14 Wave paths in a waveguide at various frequencies
For a standard rectangular waveguide, the cutoff wavelength are given by,
2 2
2
,
_
+
,
_
b
n
a
m
c
where a and b are measured in centimetres.

The circular waveguide is used in many special applications in microwave techniques. The
circular guide has the advantage of greater power handling capacity and lower attenuation for a
given cutoff wavelength, but it has the disadvantage of somewhat greater size and weight. Also,
the polarization of the transmitted wave can be altered due to the minor irregularities of the wall
surface of the circular guide, whereas the rectangular cross section definitely fixes the polarization.
The wave of lowest frequency or the dominant mode in the circular waveguide is the
TE
11
mode. The subscripts which describe the modes in the circular waveguide are different than
for the rectangular waveguide. For the circular waveguide, the first subscript m indicates the
number of full wave variations of the radial component of the electric field around the
circumference of the waveguide. The second subscript n indicates the number of half wave
variations across a diameter. Also, the second subscript indicates the number of diameters that can
be drawn perpendicular to all electric field lines and in the case of TE
0 n
waves, it indicates the half
wave variations of the electric field across a radius of the guide.
2.27
The cutoff wavelength for dominant mode of propagation TE
11
in circular waveguide of
radius a is given by
1.814
2 a
c

The cutoff wavelength for dominant mode of propagation TM
01
in circular waveguide of
radius a is given by
2.405
2 a
c

where a is measured in centimetres.
The applications of circular waveguides include
1. Rotating joints in radars to connect the horn antenna feeding a paraboloid reflector
(which must rotate for tracking)
2. TE
01
mode suitable for long distance waveguide transmission above 10 GHz.
3. Short and medium distance broad band communication (could replace / share coaxial and
microwave links)
Worked Example 2.4: The dimensions of the waveguide are 2.5 cm 1 cm. The frequency is
8.6 GHz. Find (i) possible modes and (ii) cut off frequency for TE
waves.
Given a = 2.5 cm , b = 1 cm and f = 8.6 GHz
Free space wavelength =
cm 488 . 3
10 8
10 3
9
10
0

f
C
The condition for the wave to propagate is that

C
>
0
For TE
01
mode,
cm 2 1 2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2

+
b
a
ab
a n b m
ab
C
Since
C
<
0
, TE
01
does not propagate.
For TE
10
mode,
C
= 2a = 2 2.5 = 5 cm
Since
C
>
0
, TE
10
mode is a possible mode.
Cut off frequency =
GHz 6
5
10 3
10

C
C
C
f
Cut-off wavelength for TE

11
mode =
cm 856 . 1
) 1 ( ) 5 . 2 (
1 5 . 2 2 2
2 2 2 2

+

+b a
ab
As
C
for TE
11
<
0 ,
TE
11
is not possible.
From the above analysis, it is concluded that only the possible mode
is TE
10
mode.
The cut off frequency = 6 GHz

2.28
2.3 Microwaves
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves whose frequencies range from about 300 MHz
300 GHz (1 MHz = 10
6
Hz and 1 GHz = 10
9
Hz) or wavelengths in air ranging from 100 cm 1
mm. The word microwave means very short wave. Microwave region is the shortest wavelength
region of the radio spectrum, which is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Its lower edge
actually overlaps with the infra red region. Microwaves are becoming more and more important
due to the rapid development of various branches of science and engineering such as radar,
telecontrol and telemetry, telecommunications, television, industrial electronics, basic research and
medicine etc.
2.3.1 Properties of Microwaves
1. Microwave is an electromagnetic radiation of short wavelength.
2. They can be reflected by conducting surfaces just like optical waves since they travel
in straight line.
3. Microwave currents flow through a thin outer layer of an ordinary cable.
4. Microwaves are easily attenuated within short distances.
5. They are not reflected by ionosphere but penetrate it and pass into outer space.
2.3.2 Advantages and Limitations
In communications, there are some unique advantages of microwaves over the low
frequency signals:
1. Increased bandwidth availability:
Microwaves have large bandwidths compared to the common bands like short waves
(SW), ultrahigh frequency (UHF) waves, etc. To explain this more clearly, let us consider the
microwaves extending from = 1 cm - = 10 cm (i.e) from 30,000 MHz 3000 MHz. This
region has a bandwidth of 27,000 MHz. If this region is used for communication and if 6 MHz is
allotted for each station ( as in TV), 13,500 different microwave broadcasting stations can be
accommodated in this range of bandwidth. Since sound transmission requires a bandwidth of only
4 Hz, each station can use a large number of channels for sound transmission.
It is the current trend to use microwaves more and more in various long distance
communication applications such as telephone networks, TV networks, space communication,
telemetry, defence, railways etc. Frequency modulation and present day digital modulation
schemes also require higher bandwidth.
2. Improved directive properties:
The second advantage of microwaves is their ability to use high gain directive antennas.
Any EM wave can be focused in a specified direction (Just as the focusing of light rays with lenses
or reflectors) by making the radiating antennas several wavelengths wide. Since the wavelength of
microwaves is in the order of centimeter, it is possible to make high gain directive antennas. The
wider the aperture of the antenna in terms of wavelength, the narrower the beam and higher the
gain of the antenna.
3. Fading effect and reliability:
Fading effect due to the variation in the transmission medium is more effective at low
frequency. Due to the Line Of Sight (LOS) propagation and high frequencies, there is less fading
effect and hence microwave communication is more reliable.
2.29
4. Power requirements:
Transmitter / receiver power requirements are pretty low at microwave frequencies
compared to that at short wave band.
5. Transparency property of microwaves:
Microwave frequency band ranging from 300 MHz 10 GHz are capable of freely
propagating through the atmosphere. The presence of such a transparent window in a microwave
band facilitates the study of microwave radiation from the sun and stars in radio astronomical
research of space. It also makes it possible for duplex communication and exchange of
information between ground stations and space vehicles.
In spite of these advantages, microwaves cannot replace radio frequency waves for
round - the - world communication because these high frequency waves penetrate through the
ionosphere and are lost into the outer space. It must be mentioned here that round - the - world
communication using radio frequency waves is made possible by the reflections of these waves
from the ionosphere surrounding the earth.
2.3.3 Generation of microwaves
The microwaves can be generated by using vacuum tubes and semiconductor diodes. High
power microwaves can be generated using tubes and solid state devices are used to produce low
power microwaves. The following are the some of the examples for devices which are used to
produce the microwaves:
1. Magnetron oscillator
2. Klystron oscillator
3. Travelling wave tube
4. Gunn diode
5. IMPATT diode etc.
Basically, a diode can be used to generate electromagnetic waves at microwave
frequencies. But the conventional triode valve can not be used to generate microwaves even
though they can be used to generate RF waves. The various problems involved in the construction
of a microwave oscillator using triode valve are listed below:
(i) Any pair of electrode in a triode acts as a capacitor and this inter electrode capacitance
becomes important at microwave frequencies.
(ii) The distributed circuit elements [(i.e) the circuit elements whose dimensions
become comparable to the wavelength], begin to radiate and so there is large power
loss at microwave frequencies, where it is not so at radio frequencies.
(iii) The transit time (i.e) the time taken by an electron to travel from cathode to anode
becomes more important at microwave frequencies. In the conventional triode valve
oscillators, the feedback circuits are designed on the assumption that the transition
time is negligible compared to the period of oscillations of the waves generated by the
oscillator. But, the period of oscillation of the microwave is in the order of transit time
and hence the usual type of feedback circuits does not work at microwave frequencies.
2.30
In order to overcome the problem of transit time, inter electrode capacitance, distributed
reactances etc., various structures and ingenious circuits have been invented. In this section, we
shall discuss the production of microwaves using vacuum tubes.
2.31
Copper Anode Block
Cathode
RF out
Cavity
Slot
Interaction
Space
Coaxial line
output
Resonant (or)
anode cavity
2.3.4 Magnetron oscillator
The magnetron was first invented by Hull in 1921 and an improved high power magnetron
was developed by Randall and Boot around 1939. Magnetrons provide microwave oscillations of
very high peak power.
There are three types of magnetrons.
1. Negative resistance type
2. Cyclotron frequency type
3. Cavity type
Negative resistance Magnetrons make use of negative resistance between two anode
segments but have low efficiency and are useful only at low frequencies (< 500 MHz).
Cyclotron frequency Magnetrons depend upon synchronization between an alternating
component of electric and periodic oscillation of electrons in a direction parallel to this field. They
are useful only for frequencies greater than 100 MHz.
Cavity Magnetrons depend upon the interaction of electrons with a rotating
electromagnetic field of constant angular velocity. These provide oscillations of very high peak
power and hence are useful in radar applications. This being the most useful one, we shall study
this in detail.
Cavity Magnetrons
Cavity magnetron is simply a vacuum tube with two elements, a cathode and an anode.
The anode is a hollow cylindrical block made of copper. The cathode is a rod heated along the axis
of the anode. The space between the anode and cathode is called the interaction space. The
anode has several cavities that open into the interaction space. One of the cavities in the anode is
connected to a co axial line or waveguide for extracting the output. The major elements in the
magnetron oscillator are shown in Fig.2.15 (i) and its cross sectional view of the anode assembly is
shown in Fig.2.15 (ii).

Fig.2.15 (i) Major elements in the Magnetron oscillator Fig. 2.15 (ii) Cross sectional view of the
Anode assembly
Each cavity in the anode acts as an inductor having only one turn. The slot connecting the
cavity and the interaction space acts as a capacitor. These two elements together form a parallel
resonant circuit, and its resonant frequency depend on the value of L of the cavity and the C of the
slot, (i.e) on the dimensions of the slot and the cavity. The frequency of the microwaves generated
2.32
Magnet pole
piece
Magnet pole
piece
Anode
assembly
Cathode
Waveguide
Co-axial
output system
a
b
c
d
Cathode
Anode
Interaction
Space
by the magnetron oscillator depends on the frequency of the RF oscillations existing in the
resonant cavities.
Magnetron is a cross field device as the electric field between the anode and the cathode is
radial whereas the magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet is axial. A high DC potential
can be applied between the cathode and anode which produces the radial electric field. The
permanent magnet is placed such that the magnetic lines pass parallel to the axis of the cylindrical
anode. Depending on the relative strengths of the electric and magnetic fields, the electrons
emitted from the cathode and moving towards the anode will traverse through the interaction space
as shown in Fig.2.15 (iii).
In the absence of magnetic field (B = 0), the electron travel straight from the cathode to the
anode due to the radial electric field force acting on it [indicated by the trajectory a in Fig. (iii)].
If the magnetic field strength is increased slightly (i.e) for moderate value of B, it will exert a
lateral force bending the path of the electron as shown by the path b in Fig. (iii). The radius of
the path is given by,
eB
mv
R , that varies directly with electron velocity and inversely as the
magnetic field strength. If the strength of the magnetic field is made sufficiently high so as to
prevent the electrons from reaching the anode (as shown by the path c and those inside in
Fig. 2.15(iii)), the anode current becomes zero.
Fig. 2.15 (iii) Electron trajectories in the presence of crossed electric and magnetic fields (a) no
magnetic field (b) small magnetic field (c) Magnetic field = Bc (d) Excessive magnetic field
The magnetic field required to return electrons back to the cathode just grazing the surface
of the anode is called the critical magnetic field (B
c
), the cut off magnetic field. If the magnetic
field is larger than the critical field (B > B
c
), the electron experiences a greater rotational force and
may return back to the cathode quite faster. All such electrons may cause back heating of the
cathode. This can be avoided by switching off the heater supply after commencement of
oscillation. This is done to avoid fall in the emitting efficiency of the cathode.
All the above explanation is for a static case in the absence of the RF field in the cavity of
magnetron. In order to understand the working of magnetron oscillator, it must be assumed that RF
oscillations are induced in the cavities. Oscillations of transient nature produced when the HT is
switched on, are sufficient to produce the oscillations in the cavities. Now, it has to be shown that
these oscillations are maintained in the cavities reentrant feedback which results in the production
of microwaves. Reentrant feedback takes place as a result of interaction of the electrons
(circulating through the interaction space) with the electric field of the RF oscillations existing in
2.33
Electric
field
a
b
Magnetic field
(perpendicular to paper)
the cavities. The cavity oscillations produce electric fields which fringe out into the interaction
space from the slots in the anode structure, as shown in Fig.2.15 (iv). Energy is transferred from
the radial dc field to the RF field by the interaction of the electrons with the fringing RF field.
Due to the oscillations in the cavities, the either sides of the slots (which acts as a
capacitor) becomes alternatively positive and negative. Hence the directions of the electric field
across the slot also reverse its sign alternatively. Also adjacent sides of the slot are always at
opposite polarity. At any instant, if that part of the anode close to the spiralling electron goes
positive (due to the RF oscillations in the cavity), the electrons gets retarded. This is because; the
electron has to move in the RF field, existing close to the slot, from positive side to the negative
side of the slot. In this process, the electron loses energy and transfer an equal amount of energy to
the RF field which retard the spiralling electron. Now, the electron moves to a smaller orbit
momentarily but the anode pulls it back to the previous orbit. On its return to the previous orbit the
electron may reach the adjacent section or a section farther away and transfer energy to the RF
field if that part of the anode goes positive at that instant. This electron travels in a longest path
from cathode to the anode as indicated by a in Fig. 2.15 (iv). Such electrons which participate in
transferring the energy to the RF field are called as favoured electrons and are responsible for
bunching effect. These electrons give up most of its energy before it finally terminates on the
anode surface. An electron b is accelerated by the RF field and instead of imparting energy to the
oscillations, takes energy from oscillations resulting in increased velocity. Hence bends more
sharply, spends a very little time in the interaction space and is returned back to the cathode. Such
electrons are called unfavoured electrons which do not participate in the bunching process rather
they are harmful in the sense they cause back heating.
Fig.2.15 (iv) Possible trajectory of electrons from cathode to anode in an eight cavity magnetron
operating in mode
Every time an electron approaches the anode in phase with the RF signal, it completes a
cycle. This corresponds to a phase shift 2. For a dominant mode, the adjacent poles have a phase
difference of radians. This called the - mode.
The anode must have any convenient even number of cavities. At any particular instant,
one set of alternate poles goes positive and the remaining set of alternate poles goes negative due
to the RF oscillations in the cavities. As the electron approaches the anode, one set of alternate
2.34
poles accelerates the electrons and turns back the electrons quickly to the cathode. The other set
alternate poles retard the electrons, thereby transferring the energy from electrons to the RF signal.
This process results in the bunching of electrons in certain regions. The mechanism by which
electron bunches are formed and by which electrons are kept in synchronism with the RF field is
called phase focusing effect. The number of bunches depends on the number of cavities in the
magnetron and the mode of oscillations. In an eight cavity magnetron oscillating with
- mode, the electrons are bunched in four groups as shown in Fig. 2.15 (v).
Two identical resonant cavities will resonate at two frequencies when they are coupled
together. The two resonant frequencies lie above and below the resonant frequency of the
individual resonators. This is due to the effect of mutual coupling. A common means of separating
the pi mode from adjacent modes is by a method called strapping. The straps consists of either
circular or rectangular cross section connected to alternate segments of the anode block.
Fig.2.15. (v) Bunching of electrons in multicavity magnetron
Performance Characteristics
1. Power output: In excess of 250 kW ( Pulsed Mode), 10 mW (UHF band), 2 mW
(X band), 8 kW (at 95 GHz)
2. Frequency: 500 MHz 12 GHz
3. Duty cycle: 0.1 %
4. Efficiency: 40 % - 70 %
Applications of Magnetron
1. Pulsed radar is the single most important application with large pulse powers.
2. Voltage tunable magnetrons are used in sweep oscillators in telemetry and in missile
applications.
3. Fixed frequency, CW magnetrons are used for industrial heating and microwave ovens.
2.3.5 Klystron Oscillator
A klystron is a vacuum tube that can be used either as a generator or as an amplifier of
power at microwave frequencies. This was invented by Russel H. Varian at Stanford University in
1939 in association with his brother S.P. Varian.
2.35
Reflex Klystrons
The reflex klystron has been the most used source of microwave power in laboratory
applications. A reflex klystron consists of an electron gun, a cavity with a pair of grids and repeller
plate as shown in Fig.2.16. In this klystron, a single pair of grids does the functions of both the
buncher and the catcher grids. The cathode emits electrons which are accelerated forward by an
accelerating grid with a positive voltage on it and focused into a narrow beam. The electrons pass
through the cavity and undergo velocity modulation, which produces electron bunching. Then this
beam is repelled back by a repeller plate kept at a negative potential with respect to the cathode.
On its return, the electron beam once again enters the same grids which act as a buncher. Thus the
same pair of grids acts simultaneously as a buncher for the forward moving electron and as a
catcher for the returning beam.
The feedback necessary for electrical oscillations is developed by reflecting the electron
beam so that it passes through the resonator a second time. The velocity modulated electron beam
does not actually reach the repeller plate, but is repelled back by the negative voltage. The point at
which the electron beam is turned back can be varied by adjusting the repeller voltage. Thus the
repeller voltage is so adjusted that complete bunching of the electrons takes place at the catcher
grids. The distance between the repeller and the cavity is chosen such that the repeller electron
bunches will reach the cavity at proper time to be in synchronization. Because of this, they deliver
energy to the cavity. The result is the oscillation at the cavity frequency. The cavity itself is made
positive so that the electrons are ultimately attracted by the cavity and cause direct current flow in
the external circuit. A coupling loop in the cavity removes the RF energy.
Performance Characteristics
1. Frequency: 4 200 GHz
2. Power: 1 mW 2.5 W
3. Theoretical efficiency : 22.78 %
4. Practical efficiency : 10 % - 20 %
5. Tuning range : 5 GHz at 2 W 30 GHz at 10 Mw
Applications
The reflex klystrons are used in
1. radar receivers
2. local oscillator in microwave receivers
3. signal source in microwave generator of variable frequency
4. portable microwave links
5. pump oscillator in parametric amplifier
2.36
Filament
Coax
input
Coax
output
HT
DC
+
-
Collector
plate
Helix
Glass tube Accelerating
anode
Cathode
Output
Cavity
Loop
Repeller plate
Focussing
elements
Cathode emits
electrons
Filament
heats cathode
+
-
+
-
+DC
+
-
Direction of
electron beam
Decelerating
grid
Fig. 2.16. Reflex Klystrons used as an oscillator
2.3.6 Travelling Wave Tube
One of the most versatile microwave RF power amplifiers is the Travelling Wave Tube
(TWT). The main virtue of the TWT is its extremely wide band width of operation. TWT was
designed by Pierce and others in 1946.
Fig.2.17 shows the basic structure of a TWT. It consists of a cathode and filament heater
plus an anode that is biased positively to accelerate the electron beam forward and to focus it into a
narrow beam. The electrons are attracted by a positive plate called the collector to which is applied
a high dc voltage. The length of the tube can be anywhere from approximately one ft. to several
feet. In any case, the length of the tube is usually many wavelengths at the operating frequency.
Surrounding the tube are either permanent magnets or electromagnets that keep the electrons
tightly focused into a narrow beam.
Fig.2.17. Basic structure of a travelling wave tube (TWT)
2.37
The unique feature of the TWT is a helix or coil that surrounds the length of the tube. The
electron beam passes through the centre or axis of the helix. The microwave signal to be amplified
is applied to the end of the helix near the cathode and the output is taken from the end of the helix
near the collector. The purpose of the helix is to provide a path for RF signal that will slow down
its propagation. The propagation of the RF signal along the helix is made approximately equal to
the velocity of the electron beam from the cathode to the collector. The structure of the helix is
such that the wave travelling along it is slightly slower than that of the electron beam.
The passage of the microwave signal down the helix produces electric and magnetic fields
that will interact with the electron beam. The effect on the electron beam is similar to that in a
klystron. The electromagnetic field produced by the helix causes the electrons to be speeded up
and slowed down. This produces velocity modulation of the beam which produces density
modulation. Density modulation causes bunches of electrons to group together one wavelength
apart. These bunch of electrons travel down the length of the tube toward the collector. Since the
density modulated electron beam is essentially in step with the electromagnetic wave travelling
down the helix, the electron bunches induce voltages into the helix which reinforce the voltage
already present there. The result is that the strength of the electromagnetic field on the helix
increases as the wave travels down the tube towards the collector. At the end of the helix, the
signal is considerably amplifier. Coaxial cable or waveguide structures are used to extract the
energy from the helix.
The primary benefit of the TWT is its extremely wide bandwidth. Tubes can be made to
amplify signals from UHF to hundreds of gigahertz. Most TWTs have a frequency range of
approximately 2:1 in the desired segment of the microwave region to be amplified. The TWTs can
be used in both continuous and pulsed modes of operation with power levels up to several
thousands watts.
Performance characteristics
1. Frequency of operation : 0.5 GHz 95 GHz
2. Power outputs: 5 mW (10 40 GHz low power TWT)
250 kW (CW) at 3 GHz (high power TWT)
10 MW (pulsed) at 3 GHz
3. Efficiency : 5 20 % ( 30 % with depressed collector)
(A depressed collector is set of collector rings maintained at successively at higher
potentials to effectively slow down the electron beam that still possesses a considerable
kinetic energy)
Applications of TWT
1. Low noise RF amplifier in broad band microwave receivers.
2. Repeater amplifier in wide band communication links and long distance telephony.
3. Due to long tube life (50,000 hours against
th
for other types), TWT is power output
tube in communication satellite.
4. Continuous wave high power TWTs are used in troposcatter links (due to larger power
and larger bandwidths).
5. Used in Air borne and ship borne pulsed high power radars.
2.38
2.3.7 Biological effects of microwaves
As a result of technical and industrial development, an increasing number of man made
electromagnetic fields have appeared in the human environment. Electromagnetic radiation in the
1 mm to 1 m wavelength range (300 MHz to 300 GHz) is referred to as microwave radiation, and
is part of what is known as radiofrequency (RF) radiation. The latter covers the 0.5 MHz to 300
GHz range and is considered in the context of adverse biological effects.
Fig.2.18 Ionizing and non ionizing radiations electromagnetic energy
The electromagnetic radiations can be classified as ionizing and non ionizing
radiation. The ionizing and non-ionizing electromagnetic radiations are presented in Fig.2.18.
Ionization is a process by which electrons are stripped from atoms and molecules. This process can
produce molecular changes that can lead to damage in biological tissue, including effects on DNA,
the genetic material. This process requires interaction with high levels of electromagnetic energy.
Those types of electromagnetic radiation with enough energy to ionize biological material include
X-radiation and gamma radiation. Therefore, X-rays and gamma rays are examples of ionizing
radiation.
The energy levels associated with RF and microwave radiation, on the other hand, are not
great enough to cause the ionization of atoms and molecules and RF energy is, therefore, is a type
of non-ionizing radiation. Other types of non-ionizing radiation include visible light, infrared
radiation and other forms of electromagnetic radiation with relatively low frequencies. Often the
term "radiation" is used to apply to ionizing radiation such as that associated with nuclear power
plants. Ionizing radiation should not be confused with the lower-energy, non-ionizing, radiation
with respect to possible biological effects, since the mechanisms of action are quite different.
Microwave energy is non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation. Ionizing radiation messes up
molecules, non-ionizing radiation merely heats them. This means that, in general, it does not have
sufficient energy to kick an electron off an atom thus producing charged particle in a body and
cause biological damage. The only proven harmful effect from exposure to microwave (or RF)
radiation is thermal. RF radiation can enter deep into the body and heat human organs. Thus, the
depth of penetration and the level absorption of radiation in the body are relevant. The blood
vessels are dilating and the blood flow increases substantially as the thermoregulatory mechanism
is activated in order to keep the body temperature constant. With rising body temperature the
metabolic rate rises also, what may lead to Stress-Adaptation-Fatigue Syndrome. The following
are the effects produced by the electromagnetic waves at the different frequency level:
2.39
Above 10 GHz (3 cm wavelength or less) heating occurs mainly in the outer skin surface.
From 3 GHz to 10 GHz (10 cm to 3 cm) the penetration is deeper and heating higher.
From 150 MHz to about 1 GHz (200 cm to 25 cm wavelength), penetration is even deeper
and because of high absorption, deep body heating can occur.
Any part of the body that cannot dissipate heat efficiently or is heat sensitive may be
damaged by microwave radiation of sufficient power. The lens of the eye and testes are respective
examples.
The microwave energy exposure is measured in terms of SAR (Specific Absorption Rate)
or PD (Power Density). SAR is the energy which is absorbed in a unit of mass or volume of the
body per unit time. The standards that limit microwave exposure were set at 0.4 W/kg SAR for
occupational and 0.08W/Kg for public exposure. The averaging time for determination of SAR
was 6 minutes. Power density is the energy absorbed per unit area in unit time. A safety factor of
10 applied to the solar radiation level has been widely adopted for RF radiation, the standard is 10
mW/cm
2
maximum. The high power microwaves definitely cause some adverse effects in the
human system. The Table 2.2 shows the effects of exposure to certain power levels, without time
limit.
Table 2. 2 Effects of exposure of microwave energy
Power level
(mW / cm
2
)
Long-term effect on
human body
Remarks
0.01 Nothing -
0.1 Nothing -
1 Nothing -
5 Nothing Accepted standard for microwave oven leakage
10 Nothing Accepted standard for maximum continuous
exposure to radiated emissions (cell phones, etc.)
30 You can feel heat -
100 Cataracts can be
produced
Summer sunlight is at this level.
1000 Pain is induced -
5000 Cooking commences -
2.3.8 Applications of Microwaves
Microwaves have a wide range of applications in modern technology. Broadly the
applications can be in the areas listed below:
1. Telecommunication: Intercontinental Telephone and TV, space communication (Earth - to
- space and space - to - Earth), telemetry communication link for railways etc.
2. Radars: Radar is an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging. It can be used to detect
and locate a target. It is also used to determine the velocity of moving objects and find
many characteristics of the targets such as size, shape etc.
Radar works on the principle of radio echoes. It has a transmitter which radiates high power
radio pulses into space. When these electrical pulses are incident on any distant moving or
stationary target, they get scattered in all directions. A part of the scattered energy travels back to
2.40
the receiver (for transmission as well as reception of waves, a single device called duplexer is
used). By measuring the time taken by the pulse to reach the target and back to the receiver, the
range or the distance of the target can be determined. In order to find the direction of the target,
directional antennas are used.
The essential components of a simple radar system are shown in Fig. 2.19.
R e c e i v e r
( s u p e r h e t )
T r a n s m i t t e r
( R F o s c i l l a t o r )
S i g n a l
p r o c e s s o r
W a v e f o r m
g e n e r a t o r
T o
d i s p l a y
D a t a
p r o c e s s o r
T r a n s m i t t e d p u l s e
R a d i a t i n g
a n t e n n a
R e f l e c t e d o r
e c h o p u l s e
T R s w i t c h
o r
D u p l e x e r
R
T
Fig. 2.19. Functional Block diagram of a RADAR
The radar signal waveform as generated by the waveform generator modulates a high
frequency carrier and the modulated signal is raised by to the desired power level in the transmitter
portion. The transmitter could be a power amplifier which employs microwave tube amplifiers
such as Klystron, Travelling Wave Tube etc. The transmitter is turned on and off with a periodic
high power pulse i.e. the transmitter is turned on whenever a pulse arrives and turned off whenever
the pulse is absent. Thus the transmitter generates periodic pulses of very short duration. These
pulses are fed to the antenna which radiates them into the space. The antenna is highly directional.
In most of the cases, a single antenna is used for both transmission and reception. This is
achieved with the use of a TR (Transmitter Receiver) switch. This is also called as duplexer.
This connects the antenna to the transmitter during transmission and to the receiver during
reception. This also isolates the sensitive receiver from the damaging effects of high power
transmitter.
The echo signal received by the antenna is directed to the receiver input. The receiver is
usually of the superheterodyne type. The purpose of signal processing is to reject the undesired
signal such clutter and enhance the desired signals due to the targets. Data Processing refers to the
processing done after the detection decision has been made. Functions like automatic tracking,
target recognition are examples of data processing in a radar system. The displays put the
processing information in a form usable by radar operators and others wanting to use the
information such as Air Traffic Controllers, Weapon System Operators etc.
The distance of a target (target range) can be calculated using the following relation:
2.41
2
Ct
R
where R = Target range, t = round trip propagation time and C = velocity of propagation.
Radar Range Equation:
The radar range equation relates the various parameters of a radar such as transmitted
power, transmit antenna gain, radar cross section of the target, receiver antenna aperture, minimum
detectable power at the receiver input and various loss factors.
The maximum range of radar may be defined as the distance of the target which can be
just detected by the radar.
The radar range equation is given by,
( ) ( )
4
1
min
3
2 2
max
4
1
1
]
1
r
r t
P
SG P
R
where R
max
= maximum range, P
t
= peak power output of the transmitter, S = equivalent cross
sectional area of the object, G
r
= power gain of the receiving antenna, = wavelength of the pulse,
(P
r
)
min
= minimum power for the target at the maximum range.
Any target situated beyond this distance cannot be detected by a radar. Radars are used to detect
aircraft, track / guide supersonic missiles, observe and track weather patterns, air traffic control
(ATC), burglar alarms, garage door openers, police speed detectors etc.
3. Commercial and industrial applications use heat property of microwaves :
(i) Microwave oven: The idea of microwave oven was first conceived by Percy L. Spencer in
1946 and finally patented in 1950. The mechanism is based on the principle of frictional
heat production using microwaves. The core part of a microwave oven is the microwave
generator. In the early designs, the generator is a magnetron, which is a vacuum tube that
converts electrical energy into microwave energy. The microwaves are transported to the
cooking chamber by a wave-guide, analogous to electrical wires transporting electricity.
The cooking chamber is designed to keep the microwaves, so that microwaves bounce off
the walls like beams of light in a mirrored room around and absorbed by food. Metal
wiring on the glass window of the door keeps the microwaves from leaving the cooking
chamber.
Microwave cooking is a process of exciting the water molecules in food. Food substance
that does not contain water, such as oil, usually does not get cooked by microwaves. Water
molecules are polar molecules with one end dominated by a negative charge and the other
by a positive charge. The typical frequency of the microwave produced by a microwave
oven is of the order of 2.5 GHz (1 GHz = 1,000,000,000 Hz). That is to say, the electric
fields produced by the magnetron oscillate back and forth at the rate of 2.5 billion times
per second Since the water molecules are polarized, the water molecules in the food will
also get pulled back and forth at the rate of about 2.5 billion times per second. This rapid
back-and-forth motion between water molecules creates friction, and hence heat.
Typically, microwave can only penetrate about 3.5 to 5 cm into the food. The centre of the
food is cooked mainly by heat conduction. The hot and cold spots on the food are caused
by the interference effect of microwaves, similar to bright and dark spots on a screen
2.42
caused by interference of light after passing through a grating. In order for microwaves to
distribute evenly around the food, a turntable or a rotating source is often used.
(ii) Lighting Systems: The next generation of light sources has started to take form in the
lighting world. This generation promises better light and long life with less energy. The
unique feature of these systems lies in how light is produced. The lamps that we are all
familiar with, primarily incandescent, heat the electrode, usually a piece of metal until it
incandesces, or "glows", producing light. Lamp burn-out is usually associated with the
electrode failing, or breaking. The new generation replaces the weakest link in the chain--
the electrode--and produces visible light with some innovative techniques. Some use radio
frequencies to excite a coil while others use microwave energy directed at the element
sulfur to produce the visible light. The new sources, spurred by demands for better quality
electric lights using less energy, will slowly but surely penetrate our daily and professional
lives. The electrode - less sulfur lamp produces 455,000 lumen and replaces nearly 100
conventional, high intensity lamps like the one on the right.
(iii) Drying machines textile, food and paper industry for drying clothes, potato chips, printed
matters etc.
(iv) Food process industry Precooling / cooking, pasteurization / sterility, hat frozen /
refrigerated precooled meats, roasting of food grains / beans.
(v) Rubber industry / plastics / chemical / forest product industries
(vi) Mining / public works, breaking rocks, tunnel boring, drying / breaking up concrete,
breaking up coal seams, curing of cement.
(vii) Drying inks / drying textiles, drying / sterilizing grains, drying / sterilizing
pharmaceuticals, leather, tobacco, power transmission.
(viii) Biomedical Applications (diagnostic / therapeutic) diathermy for localized superficial
heating, deep electromagnetic heating for treatment of cancer, hyperthermia (local,
regional or whole body for cancer therapy), electromagnetic transmission through human
body has been used for monitoring of heartbeat, lung water detection etc.
4. Identifying objects or personnel by non contact method.
5. Light generated charge carriers in a microwave semiconductor make it possible to create a
whole new world of microwave devices, fast jitter free switches, phase shifters, HF
generators, etc.
2.43
Problem Sheet
1. In a plane electromagnetic wave, the electric field oscillates sinusoidally at a frequency of
2 10
10
Hz and amplitude of 48 V m
1
. What is the wavelength of the wave? What is the
amplitude of the oscillation of the magnetic field? [Hint:
f
C

and
C
E
B
0
0
]
2. A rectangular waveguide has a = 4 cm and b = 3 cm as its sectional dimensions. Find all
the modes which will propagate at 5000 MHz. [Hint: The condition for the wave to
propagate is that
C
>
0
].

3. For the dominant mode of operation is an air filled circular waveguide of inner diameter 4
cm. Find (i) cut off wavelength and (ii) cut off frequency. [Hint:
C
= 6.8148 cm and f
c
= 4.395 GHz]
4. Prove that the current density is irrotational. [Hint: J = E, curl ( grad V) = 0].
5. For the dominant mode propagated in an air filled circular waveguide, the cut off
wavelength is 10 cm. Find (i) the required size or cross sectional area of the guide and (ii)
the frequencies that can be used for this mode of propagation. [Hint:
10
10 3
10

c
c
C
f
]

2.44
Review Questions
1. Define: Current density (J)
2. Define: Conduction Current Density ( J
1
)
3. Explain: Displacement Current Density ) J (
2
4. State: Biot Savart Law
5. State: Amperes circuital law
6. Explain: Faradays Law of electromagnetic induction and Lenz law
7. What are Electromagnetic Waves?
8. Explain; Divergence of a vector.
9. Define: Solenoidal field.
10. Define: Curl
11. What is meant by irrotational fields?
12. What is meant by gradient of a scalar function?
13. State: Gauss Divergence Theorem
14. State: Stokes Theorem
15. Write Maxwells Equations.
16. Write the Maxwells equations in free space.
17. Write the Helmholtzs wave equations.
18. Write the equation for velocity of electromagnetic wave
19. Define: Characteristic Impedance
20. Define: Poynting vector ) (P
21. What are waveguides?
22. What is meant by mode in the propagation of electromagnetic waves?
23. What are the different possible modes of propagation in waveguides?
24. What are Rectangular and Circular waveguides?
25. What is meant by cutoff frequency?
26. Write the formula for the cutoff wavelength for a rectangular waveguide.
27. Write the cutoff wavelength for dominant mode of propagation in circular waveguide.
28. Write the applications of circular waveguides.
29. What are Microwaves?
30. Write the properties of Microwaves.
31. What are the advantages of usage of microwaves in communication?
32. What are the limitations of usage of microwaves in communication?
33. Write the commercial and industrial applications of microwaves
34. Name the devices which are used to produce the microwaves.
35. What is meant by transit time?
36. Why triode valves cannot be used for generating microwaves?
37. Write the different types of Magnetron.
38. Sketch the Magnetron oscillator and indicate the major elements in it.
39. Discuss the behaviour of electron in interaction space of Magnetron oscillator.
40. What is meant by - mode in magnetrons?
2.45
41. What is meant by phase focusing effect in cavity magnetrons?
42. What is meant by strapping?
43. Write the performance characteristics of cavity magnetron.
44. Write the various applications of magnetrons?
45. What is meant by velocity modulation?
46. What is meant by density modulation?
47. What are Performance Characteristics of the klystron amplifier?
48. What are the applications of klystron amplifier?
49. Sketch the Reflex Klystrons and indicate the various parts.
50. Write the Performance Characteristics of klystron oscillator.
51. What are the applications of klystron oscillator?
52. Draw the basic structure of a Travelling Wave Tube and indicate the parts.
53. Write the Performance characteristics of Travelling Wave Tube.
54. What are the applications of TWT?
55. What are the ionizing and non ionizing radiations?
56. What are the effects produced by the electromagnetic waves at the microwave frequency
level?
57. What are units of microwave exposure?
58. Define : SAR.
59. Define Power Density.
60. Obtain the Maxwells equations of electromagnetism from fundamental laws of electricity
and magnetism?
61. Modify the Maxwells equations to suit free space and solve the wave equation for
magnetic and electric intensities and deduce the expression for the velocity of
electromagnetic wave?
62. From the wave equation for an electromagnetic wave, deduce the expression for the
characteristic impedance of a medium.
63. Explain Poynting Vector.
64. Prove that the energy of an electromagnetic wave is shared equally by electric an magnetic
fields.
65. Explain the propagation of electromagnetic waves in waveguides.
66. Draw the field patterns for the dominant mode in the propagation of electromagnetic
waves in a rectangular waveguide and explain.
67. Draw the field patterns for the dominant mode in the propagation of electromagnetic
waves in a circular waveguide and explain.
68. Explain the advantages of usage of microwaves in communication.
69. What are the applications of microwaves?
70. Explain the principle, construction and working of Cavity Magnetrons.
71. Explain with neat sketch, how reflex klystron is used to generate microwaves.
72. Explain the working of a Travelling Wave Tube with neat sketch.
73. Write an essay on biological effects of microwaves.
2.46

Electromagnetic Waves, Circuits and Applications

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Electromagnetic Waves, Circuits and Applications

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2

lines of force in free space.

times the net charge q

Electromagnetism and Microwaves

The direction of vector dB is the direction of the vector

It may be noted that the magnitude

Fig. 2.8 Divergence

Therefore, the total induction

This is Biot - Savart law.

[ i =J . A and I . dl = J(A . dl) =

If the current density is assumed to be constant, then 0 J

which is a line integral

Velocity of em wave in non-magnetic medium =

i.e. the wavelength decreased by 50 m.

= Characteristic Impedance of the medium (10)

where is the attenuation constant.

where a and b are measured in centimetres.

The condition for the wave to propagate is that

Cut-off wavelength for TE

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