Comparative Study of Performance and Emission Characteristics of a Compression Ignition Engine Using Blends of Corn Oil (RCO), Corn

Oil Methyl Ester (COME) and Corn Oil Ethyl Ester (COEE) With Diesel Fuel A Dissertation Submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of the Degree of Master of Technology in Department of Mechanical Engineering (with specialization in Thermal Engineering)

Supervisor Shri Ram Kumar Agrawal Associate Professor

Submitted By: Dinesh Kumar Sharma 11E2KTTEM3XP600 Department of Mechanical Engineering

KAUTILYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING Rajasthan Technical University August 2013

Candidates Declaration
I hereby declare that the work, which is being presented in the Dissertation, entitled Comparative Study of Performance and Emission Characteristics of a Compression Ignition Engine Using Blends of Corn Oil (RCO), Corn Oil Methyl Ester (COME) And Corn Oil Ethyl Ester (COEE) with Diesel Fuel in partial fulfilment for the award of Degree of Master of Technology in Department of Mechanical Engineering with Specialization in Thermal Engineering, and submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kautilya Institute of Technology & Engineering, Rajasthan Technical University is a record of my own investigations carried under the Guidance of Shri Ram Kumar Agrawal, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kautilya Institute of Technology & Engineering. I have not submitted the matter presented in this Dissertation anywhere for the award of any other Degree.

(Name and Signature of Candidate)

Dinesh Kumar Sharma Thermal Engineering,

11E2KTTEM3XP600
Kautilya Institute of Technology & Engineering,

Counter Signed by Name of Supervisor Shri Ram Kumar Agrawal Associate Professor
ii

Acknowledgements
I would like to express my sincere thanks to Shri Ram Kumar Agrawal, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kautilya Institute of Technology & Engineering, Jaipur for his kind guidance during the course of dissertation. I consider myself extremely fortunate to have had the opportunity of associating myself with him. This thesis was made possible by his patience and persistence. I am also thankful to Shri Omkar Mal Bunkar, Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Shri B. K. Garg, Dean, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kautilya Institute of Technology & Engineering, Jaipur for their valuable cooperation. I also extend my deep thanks to Dr. S. Durgaprasad, Professor and Principal, Kautilya Institute of Technology & Engineering, Jaipur for his kind support and guidance. Finally, I would like to dedicate this work to my parents, brother, sister, wife and my lovely daughter. I am grateful to all people who were the part of the project in various ways, people who gave unending support right from the beginning.

(Dinesh Kumar Sharma)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Candidates Declaration Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations used List of Figures List of Tables Chapter No. 1 Contents Abstract Introduction 1.1 Compression Ignition engine 1.2 Corn oil as alternative fuel 1.3 Use of vegetable oils as alternative fuels 1.3.1 Pyrolysis 1.3.2 Micro-emulsification 1.3.3 Blending 1.3.4 Preheating 1.3.5 Transesterification 1.4 Objectives of the present work 1.5 Scope of the work Literature Surveys Corn oil and its alkyl esters 3.1 Corn oil 3.1.1 The wet milling process for the manufacturing of corn oil 3.1.2 The properties and fatty acid composition of corn oil 3.1.3 Corn production in India 3.1.4 Effect of temperature on the dynamic viscosity of corn oil 3.2 Production of methyl ester of corn oil through transesterification a. Preheating b. Transesterification process c. Washing and drying
iv

ii iii viii ix xi Page No. 1 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 7 8 9 18 19 20 21 22 23

2 3

3.3

Production of ethyl ester of corn oil through a. Preheating b. Transesterification process c. Washing and drying 3.4 Fuel preparations for testing of engine 3.5 Physical and chemical properties of corn oil and its alkyl esters Experimental setup and procedure 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Experimental Setup 4.2.1 Engine 4.2.2 Dynamometer 4.2.3 Exhaust gas analyzer 4.2.4 Biodiesel reactor 4.3 Evaluations and measurements 4.3.1 Measurement of brake power (BP) 4.3.2 Measurement of speed 4.2.3 Measurement of fuel consumption 4.2.4 Measurement of exhaust gas temperature 4.2.5 Measurement of emission characteristics 4.2.6 Measurement of viscosity 4.2.7 Measurement of calorific values 4.4 Experimental Procedure 4.4.1 Starting and running engine 4.4.2 Engine loading 4.4.3 Method of changing from diesel to other fuel tank 4.4.4 Preheating of refined corn oil and its blends with diesel fuels Results and Discussion 5.1 Performance characteristics 5.1.1 Brake specific fuel consumption 5.1.2 Brake Thermal Efficiency 5.1.3 Exhaust Gas Temperature 5.2 Emission characteristics 5.2.1 Carbon monoxide (CO)
v

24

25 25

27 27 29 31 32 35 36 36 37 37 37 38 38 39 40 41 42 42 42

44 44 47 50 54 54

5.2.2 Carbon dioxide (CO2) 5.2.3 Hydrocarbon (HC) 5.2.4 Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) Conclusions and Future Scope 6.1 Conclusions 6.2 Scope of the future work

57 59 64 68 70 71-73 I III III IV IV IV IV V V V V VI VI VI VI VII VII VII

References APPENDIX A Formulae Used APPENDIX B.1.5 Production of corn since year 2000 in India APPENDIX B.1.6 Change in dynamics viscosity of corn oil with temperature APPENDIX B.5.1 Comparison of BSFC (kg/kW-hr) for corn oil and its blends APPENDIX B.5.2 Comparison of BSFC (kg/kW-hr) for corn oil methyl ester and its blends APPENDIX B.5.3 Comparison of BSFC (kg/kW-hr) for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends APPENDIX B.5.4 Comparison of BSFC (kg/kW-hr) for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel APPENDIX B.5.5 Comparison of BTE (%) for corn oil and its blends APPENDIX B.5.6 Comparison of BTE (%) for corn oil methyl ester and its blends APPENDIX B.5.7 Comparison of BTE (%) for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends APPENDIX B.5.8 Comparison of BTE (%) for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel APPENDIX B.5.9 Comparison of EGT (C) for corn oil and its blends APPENDIX B.5.10 Comparison of EGT (C) for corn oil methyl ester and its blends APPENDIX B.511 Comparison of EGT (C) for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends APPENDIX B.5.12 Comparison of EGT (C) for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel APPENDIX B.5.13 Comparison of CO (%) emissions for corn oil and its blends APPENDIX B.5.14 Comparison of CO (%) emissions for corn oil methyl ester and its blends APPENDIX B.515 Comparison of CO (%) emissions for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends
vi

APPENDIX B.5.16 Comparison of CO (%) emissions for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel APPENDIX B.5.17 Comparison of CO2 (%) emissions for corn oil and its blends APPENDIX B.5.18 Comparison of CO2 (%) emissions for corn oil methyl ester and its blends APPENDIX B.519 Comparison of CO2 (%) emissions for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends APPENDIX B.5.20 Comparison of CO2 (%) emissions for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel APPENDIX B.5.21 Comparison of HC (ppm) emissions for corn oil and its blends APPENDIX B.5.22 Comparison of HC (ppm) emissions for corn oil methyl ester and its blends APPENDIX B.5.23 Comparison of HC (ppm) emissions for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends APPENDIX B.5.24 Comparison of HC (ppm) emissions for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel APPENDIX B.5.25 Comparison of NOx (ppm) emissions for corn oil and its blends APPENDIX B.5.26 Comparison of NOx (ppm) emissions for corn oil methyl ester and its blends APPENDIX B.5.27 Comparison of NOx (ppm) emissions for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends APPENDIX B.5.28 Comparison of NOx (ppm) emissions for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel

VII VIII VIII VIII VIII IX IX IX IX X X X X

vii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CI IC RCO COME COEE BP BSFC BTE EGT HC CO2 CO NOx kW Compression ignition Internal combustion Refined corn oil Corn oil methyl ester Corn oil ethyl ester Brake power Brake specific fuel consumption Brake thermal efficiency Exhaust gas temperature Hydrocarbon Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Oxides of nitrogen Kilo watt

viii

LIST OF FIGURES Figure Fig.1.1 Fig.1.2 Fig.2.1 Fig.3.1 Fig.3.2 Fig.3.3 Fig.3.4 Fig.4.1 Fig.4.2 Fig.4.3 Fig.4.4 Fig.4.5 Fig.4.6 Fig.4.7 Fig.4.8 Fig.4.9 Title of Figure
Transesterification process of triglycerides Flow chart of transesterification for biodiesel production A schematic diagram of the processes involved in biodiesel production Kernel of corn Processing of corn oil from corn kernels Production of corn since year 2000 in India Change in dynamics viscosity of corn oil with temperature The design of the engine test rig The realized engine test rig The Single cylinder, 4-stroke diesel engine (Kirloskar Make,Model AV1) Schematic diagram of hydraulic dynamometer The hydraulic dynamometer Exhaust gas analyzer (5 gas, INDUS make) The design of Biodiesel rector Biodiesel reactor (capacity 5000 ml) Arrangement of fuel flow measurement (Burette method)

Page no. 6 7 12 18 19 22 23 28 28 29 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 45 46 46 47

Fig.4.10 Redwood viscosity meter (No.1) Fig.4.11 Bomb calorimeter (Aditya Make) Fig.5.1 Fig.5.2 Fig.5.3 Fig.5.4
Comparison of BSFC for corn oil and its blends Comparison of BSFC for corn oil methyl ester and its blends Comparison of BSFC for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends Comparison of BSFC for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel

ix

Fig.5.5 Fig.5.6 Fig.5.7 Fig.5.8 Fig.5.9

Comparison of BTE for corn oil and its blends Comparison of BTE for corn oil methyl ester and its blends Comparison of BTE for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends Comparison of BTE for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel Comparison of EGT for corn oil and its blends

48 49 50 51 52 52 53 54 55 56 56 57 58 59 60 60 61 62 63 63 64 65 66 67

Fig.5.10 Comparison of EGT for corn oil methyl ester and its blends Fig.5.11 Comparison of EGT for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends Fig.5.12 Comparison of EGT for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel Fig.5.13 Comparison of CO for corn oil and its blends Fig.5.14 Comparison of CO for corn oil methyl ester and its blends Fig.5.15 Comparison of CO for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends Fig.5.16 Comparison of CO for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel Fig.5.17 Comparison of CO2 for corn oil and its blends Fig.5.18 Comparison of CO2 for corn oil methyl ester and its blends Fig.5.19 Comparison of CO2 for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends Fig.5.20 Comparison of CO2 for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel Fig.5.21 Comparison of HC for corn oil and its blends Fig.5.22 Comparison of HC for corn oil methyl ester and its blends Fig.5.23 Comparison of HC for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends Fig.5.24 Comparison of HC for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel Fig.5.25 Comparison of NOx for corn oil and its blends Fig.5.26 Comparison of NOx for corn oil methyl ester and its blends Fig.5.27 Comparison of NOx for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends Fig.5.28 Comparison of NOx for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel

LIST OF TABLES

Table Table 1.1 Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 3.4 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3

Title of table
Percent Petroleum Consumption in India in Various Sectors The fatty acid composition of Corn oil esters The properties of corn oil The % content of corn Properties of refined corn oil and its esters in comparison with diesel Technical specifications of the engine Technical specifications of the dynamometer The uncertainties of instrumentation

Page no. 03 20 21 21 26 29 34 40

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ABSTRACT
The scarce and rapidly depleting conventional petroleum reserves have promoted the research for alternative fuels for internal combustion engine. Among various possible options, fuels derived from vegetable oils/animal fats (triglycerides) found suitable option as vegetable oils are renewable, environment friendly and easily available almost everywhere in the world. Due to agriculture origin, vegetable oils are able to reduce net CO2 emissions to the atmosphere. However, use of vegetable oil is not recommended as it is having problem of nozzle choking and pumping of fuel, due to its higher viscosity. Long term operation with vegetable oil may cause serious problems such as ring sticking, gumming and injector deposits. Transesterification, blending and thermal cracking are the options to reduce the viscosity of vegetable oils. Biodiesel derived with the transesterification of vegetable oils are very promising as physical and chemical properties are comparable with diesel fuel. In the present investigation, corn oil (RCO) and its derived fuels (methyl ester and ethyl ester of corn oil) are chosen to evaluate and compare the performance and emission characteristics of compression ignition engine with that of diesel fuel. Corn oil is derived from the corn germ, which is the only living part of the corn. Corn germs contain 80-85% oil content by weight. Higher viscosity of corn oil is reduced by blending with diesel and preheating. Methyl ester and ethyl ester of corn oil is prepared using transesterification process. Transesterification process has been carried out in a biodiesel reactor (capacity 5000 ml) equipped with stirrer and heater with temperature and speed controllers. Methanol and ethanol are used for the process with base catalysts KOH (1% by weight). Yield of biodiesels are obtained 92% and 76% for corn oil methyl ester (COME) and corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) respectively. Blends have been prepared as RCO100 (100% RCO), RCO25 (25% RCO+75%D), RCO50 (50% RCO+ 50% D), RCO75 (75% RCO +25% D) for corn oil. Similarly, blends of methyl ester and ethyl ester of corn oil have been prepared as COME100 (100% COME), COME25 (25% COME+75%D), COME50 (50% COME+ 50% D), COME75 (75% COME +25% D), COEE100 (100% COEE), COEE25 (25% COEE+75%D), COEE50 (50% COEE+ 50% D), COEE75 (75% COEE+25%D) and D100 (100% Diesel). All performance and
1

emissions parameters have been studied at different loads from 0-100% at approximate steps of 25% as 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of the rated engine load. Performance characteristics of a single cylinder-four stroke-water cooled compression ignition such as brake specific fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency and exhaust gas temperature have been evaluated for corn oil, corn oil methyl ester, corn oil ethyl ester and their blends with diesel and compared those of with the diesel fuel. Similarly, emission characteristics such as CO, HC, CO2 and NOx emissions have been compared for different test fuels as mentioned above. Finally a comparison is made for performance and emission characteristics of diesel engine for RCO100, COME100, COEE100 and D100 test fuels. Experimental investigation states that corn oil and its derived fuels are having comparable performance characteristics and emission characteristics such as CO and HC found lower than the diesel fuel. NOx emission observed lower in case of RCO100 than the D100 and biodiesel COME100 and COEE exhaust more NOx than the diesel fuel. Corn oil alkyl esters are having better performance characteristics of engine than those of with blends of corn oil (RCO). Corn oil alkyl esters have shown improved emission characteristics. Although, corn oil methyl ester declares better potential as alternative fuel for compression ignition engine in the aspect of engine characteristics but use of corn oil ethyl ester is advantageous as it is totally renewable fuel. Keywords: corn oil; compression ignition engine; performance; exhaust emission; corn oil alkyl ester.

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
The rapidly increasing cost, depletion of conventional fuels and rapidly increasing pollution in environment have stimulated research interest in renewable and non polluting fuels. Most of demand of worlds energy is fulfilled by fossil fuels. It is well known that combustion of fossil fuels leads to air pollution in cities and acid rains. Many attempts have been made to replace the fossil fuels with renewable energy sources. India holds sixth rank in the world in terms of energy consumption and projected to improve ranking to third position after USA and China by 2020, with annual consumption increasing at the rate of 6.8% from 1999 to 2020. 72% of the total petroleum requirement is fulfilled by oil imports. Attempts have to be made to increase self reliance in this context and achieve better alternative sources of energy. Percent petroleum consumption in various sectors of India is shown in Table 1.1. Table 1.1 Percent Petroleum Consumption in India in Various Sectors Sector Transport (Petrol, Diesel, CNG, Aviation fuel) Industry (Petrol, Diesel fuel oil, Naphtha, Natural Gas ) Commercial & others Domestic ( LPG & kerosene) Agriculture ( Diesel) (*source: Punia M.P. et. al., 2012) 1.1 Compression Ignition engine Approximate consumption 51% 14% 13% 18% 04%

The diesel engine or compression ignition engine is widely used as for transportation, electricity generation, agriculture and as marine engines. These increase the diesel fuel consumption. Engine used in this study is mostly used for electric generators, for irrigation purpose and for
3

transportation. So, alternative resources are about to find to replace the diesel fully or partially. In this context, research has been directed to explore plant based fuels, animal fats and derived fuels. Vegetable oils (plant based fuels) are greener options affirmed, as these are renewable, less polluting and available worldwide. 1.2 Corn oil as alternative fuel Corn oil is extracted from the corn kernels by wet milling process. Details have been given in the chapter 3. As corn oil is extracted from corn germs which is not a part of corn starch, so corn oil is not affecting availability of corn starch used for food purpose. Corn oil alkyl esters are the biodiesel form of corn oil by transesterification process in the presence of base catalyzed. Corn oil methyl ester and corn oil ethyl ester are the two forms of biodiesel of corn oil. 1.3 Use of vegetable oils as alternative fuels Vegetable oils are being considered world over as one of the most promising option for alternative fuel for compression ignition engine. All type of oil derived from plants are said to be vegetable oils. Vegetable oils are of two categories; one is edible such as Soyabean oil, Peanut oil, Coconut oil, Mustard oil etc.; second one is non-edible oils such as Jatropha, Castor, Mahua, Neem, Cotton seed, Rape seed, Linseed oil etc. Use of non-edible oils is preferred over edible oils as alternative fuels for diesel engine. This is because, non-edible oils do not contribute in the food supply. Many research expressed that vegetable oils are good substitute of diesel fully or partially. The alternative fuels must be technically and environmentally acceptable. Vegetable oils (triglycerides) and their derivatives are considered as viable alternatives of diesel fuel. Being the triglycerides, vegetable oils are having long carbon chain than the diesel fuels. These oils contain a substantial amount of oxygen in their structure. These long carbon chains are responsible for higher molecular mass and viscosity. This high viscosity leads to many problems such as poor atomization, ring sticking, poor pumping and gumming. To sort out these problems, processing of vegetable is required to reduce the viscosity of these fuels. Viscosity of vegetable oils is reduced by following techniques: Pyrolysis
4

Micro-emulsification Blending Preheating Transesterification 1.3.1 Pyrolysis Pyrolysis is the conversion of one substance to another with high temperature ranging from 450C to 850C in the absence of air. Catalysts are sometime used to speed up the process. Fats can also be pyrolyzed to produce many smaller chain compounds which are likely to be similar to diesel fuels. The pyrolyzate is having lower viscosity, lower cetane number, flash point and pour point than the diesel fuel. 1.3.2 Micro-emulsification Micro-emulsions are defined as colloidal equilibrium dispersions of optically isotropic microstructure in the range of 1-150 nm. A micro-emulsion is solution of high viscosity of vegetable oils with solvents such as alcohols. Water may also be present in order to lower proof ethanol, thus increasing water tolerance of the micro-emulsions. 1.3.3 Blending Straight vegetable oils (SVO) can be mixed with diesel fuel in various ratios.This helps to lower the viscosity of the SVO. This can eradicate the problem arising due to the use of only SVO in engine. It may be accomplished by: Splash mixing in the tanker truck (adding specific percentages of biodiesel and Petrodiesel),
In-line mixing, two components arrive at tanker truck simultaneously.

1.3.4 Preheating Viscosity of vegetable oils or triglycerides is a function of temperature; it is the reciprocal of the temperature. It is reported from many research works that viscosity of vegetable oils at near 90C

is similar to diesel fuel at room temperature. The SVO is required to be heated with the help of preheating setup before admitting into the injector of the diesel engine to lower the viscosity. 1.3.5 Transesterification Transesterification is the process to produce esters of triglycerides in the presence of alcohols and base catalysts. Transesterification was described by Rochleder as a process of preparation of glycerol through ethanolysis of vegetable oils in 1864. Transesterification is a chemical reaction to substitute the glycerol of triglycerides with three molecules of monoalcohol (such as methanol) thus leading to the three molecules of methyl ester of vegetable oil. Transesterification process is shown in figure 1.1.

Fig.1.1 Transesterification process of triglycerides The idea of chemical processing of vegetable oil was noted ever before Second World War. Transesterification process of vegetable oils may produce ester in two forms; one is the methyl esters of vegetable oils with methanolysis; another is the ethyl esters of vegetable oils with ethanolysis. These alcohols (methanol and ethanol) are used according to molar ratio; generally 20% methanol/ethanol is preferable with 1% base catalysts (such as NaOH, KOH etc.) to speed up the reaction. The yield of biodiesel is known as the biodiesel produced after transesterification to the vegetable oil used in the process. Yield of biodiesel is having variables such as quantity of alcohols, quantity of catalysts, reaction temperature, reaction time and speed of stirrer. The process of utilization of biodiesel in the compression ignition (CI) engines for transport as well as other important applications as physical and chemical properties are comparable with diesel fuel. Flow chart of transesterification is shown in fig.1.2.
6

Vegetable oil

Heating on magnetic stirrer (65-75C) for 30 minutes

Alcohol (20%)

+
Catalyst (1%)

Transesterification

Glycerol

Settling Down

Purification

Biodiesel washing

Soap/Candle

Drying (110C)

Pure Biodiesel

Fig.1.2 Flow chart of transesterification for biodiesel production 1.4 Objectives of the present work The work presented in this report deals with the compatibility of corn oil and its biodiesels as alternative fuels for compression ignition engine. In this corn oil and its blends are investigated performance and emission characteristics of compression ignition engine and compared those with diesel fuel. Alkyl esters (methyl ester and ethyl ester) are prepared of corn oil using transesterification process in the presence on alcohols (methanol and ethanol) and base catalyst (KOH) in a batch biodiesel reactor of 5000 ml capacity. These alkyl esters are separately blended and tested for performance and emission characteristics of diesel engine. Finally, performance and emission characteristics of compression ignition engine are compared for corn oil, corn oil methyl ester and corn oil ethyl ester with diesel fuel.
7

The objectives of this study are managed as follows To compare engine characteristics using corn oil and its blends. To prepare the alkyl esters of corn oil through transesterification process. To compare the physical and chemical properties of corn oil, corn oil methyl ester, corn oil ethyl ester and their blends with diesel fuel. To evaluate performance and emission characteristics of diesel engine using corn oil methyl ester and its blends with diesel fuel. To evaluate performance and emission characteristics of diesel engine using corn oil ethyl ester and its blends with diesel fuel. To compare the engine characteristics for corn oil, corn oil methyl ester and corn oil ethyl ester with diesel fuel. To identify the problems in compression ignition engine with test fuels. 1.5 Scope of the work The present work deals with the compatibility of corn oil and its alkyl esters as alternative fuels for compression ignition engine. This work clearly establishes comparison of performance and emission characteristics of compression ignition engine for corn oil and its alkyl esters with diesel fuels. Corn oil ethyl ester has been recognized as better fuel than the corn oil and corn oil methyl ester as its performance is comparable in engine with diesel and emissions are better than those of diesel fuel. Corn oil ethyl ester is totally renewable as ethanol and corn oil used in its production are renewable. Being corn oil ethyl ester a biodiesel, it is not associated with the problems such as higher viscosity, lower calorific value and higher density. Corn oil ethyl ester does not contribute in nozzle coking, ring sticking and gumming in engine. Its physical properties are comparable with diesel which makes it suitable for all weather conditions and storage.

Chapter 2

LITERATURE SURVEYS
This chapter deals with the work presented and published in past matching with the present work. It involves engine characteristics evaluated with vegetable oils. Biodiesel production from vegetable oils is also discussed along with its characterization. Comparison has been shown of performance and emission characteristics of compression ignition engine for various biodiesels and diesel. The previous works using corn oil and its methyl ester have been shown to prepare a better background. Finally, problem formulation is shown in the latter part of this chapter. A. Ramadhas et. al. [1] reviewed use of vegetable oils as alternative fuels for compression ignition engine. It was reported that performance characteristics of diesel engine using vegetable oils were comparable with diesel fuel. Emission characteristics were better using vegetable oils than the diesel fuel. But, vegetable oils were not recommended as alternative fuels due to their higher viscosity and lower calorific value. Long term use of vegetable oils caused problems such as ring sticking, nozzle coking and gumming. The solution of all these problems was suggested biodiesel. Biodiesel, which could be used as an alternative diesel fuel, was produced by the transesterification processing of vegetable oils in presence of alcohol and base catalysts. Biodiesel is renewable as it was derived from vegetable oils. It was non toxic, biodegradable and possessed low emission profile. The name bio-diesel was introduced in the United States during 1992 by the National Soy Diesel Development Board (presently National Bio-diesel Board). Chemically, bio-diesel was referred to as the mono-alkyl-esters of long-chain-fatty-acids derived from renewable lipid sources. The experimental investigation showed better results in favor of biodiesel and biodiesel was recommended as alternative fuel for compression ignition engine without any engine modification. D. Agarwal et. al. [2] investigated performance characteristics of linseed oil, mahua oil and rice bran oil fuelled diesel engine. Brake thermal efficiency was observed maximum in case of 50% linseed oil blend with diesel fuel. BSEC (Brake specific energy consumption) was also found lowest for 50%linseed oil blend. When compared to all blends of mahua oil with diesel, 30%
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mahua oil blend is found to be most thermally efficient and BSEC nearer to diesel fuel. Rice bran oil showed maximum brake thermal efficiency for 20% blend of rice bran oil with diesel. Similarly, minimum BSEC reported for 20% rice bran oil with diesel. Y. D. Wang et. al.[3] reported the performance and emission characteristics of diesel engine using blends of vegetable oil with diesel fuel. Test had been performed using blends of vegetable oil from 0% to 100% with diesel in steps of 25% each, i.e., 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% vegetable oil with diesel. The relative differences of engine power output between the diesel fuel and the blends of vegetable oil found between 0% to 4.2% in absolute values. The differences of BSFC observed very small at different engine load, when using different fuels, and between 0.0% and 4.5% in absolute values. Exhaust gas temperature found lower in cases of blends of vegetable oil than the diesel except 75% vegetable oil with 25% diesel oil. The differences for CO emissions reported were between 1.6% and 5.9% in absolute values. In the range of whole engine load, the CO2 emissions of diesel fuel were all higher than that of the other fuels. The HC emissions of vegetable oil and vegetable/diesel fuel blends were lower than that of diesel fuel, except that 50% of the vegetable oil with 50% diesel fuel. The reductions of the NOx emissions were observed from 1.4% to 44.2%. K. Pramanik [4] tested non-edible oil (Jatropha oil) as fuel for compression ignition engine. Jatropha oil had been suggested as better alternative considering Indian economic and environmental conditions. Being a non-edible oil, it was not going to affect the demand of food oil as it grows on the non productive lands. Results were reported as viscosity found pretty much high for blends containing more than 30% of jatropha oil. Preheating of blends was adopted to reduce the viscosity. The BSFC values were found to be more than diesel for all blends of jatropha at all test load conditions. The brake thermal efficiency was found lower for blends of jatropha than that of diesel fuel. A reasonably good thermal efficiency of 22.44% was observed with the 50:50 J/D blend. The exhaust gas temperature for 20:80 J/D was observed to be very close to diesel oil and the temperatures were comparable to those with diesel oil blends with 30:70 and 40:60 J/D for all test load conditions. S. Bari et. al.[5] presented their research about effect of preheating of vegetable oil on
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compression engine. Crude palm oil (CPO) was chosen for the study. The viscosity of crude palm oil (CPO) at room temperature was observed too high to allow smooth flow in fuel lines. To lower its viscosity, CPO was heated. The modified friction test was performed to investigate the influence of heating; results showed that heating of fuel up to 100 C had no adverse effects on the fuel injection system. However, performance characteristics of diesel engine have no advantages with preheating of CPO. Peak pressure had been reported as 6% greater than the diesel with CPO. A lower maximum heat release rate and a longer combustion period were noticed. The CO emission for preheated CPO was higher than the diesel by an average value of 9.2%. The NO emission was 29.3% higher for preheated CPO than the diesel fuel. A. K. Agarwal et. al. [6] investigated a direct-injection stationary diesel engine under steady state at different engine loads at constant engine speed of 1500 rpm to evaluate the performance, emissions and combustion characteristics of Karanja oil blends with diesel. The BSFC and BTE were relatively inferior for blends of Karanja oil. HC emissions were lower for Karanja oil blends than diesel for the whole engine test load conditions. Whereas, CO and NO emissions were slightly higher for Karanja oil blends. Smoke opacity observed to be lower for Karanja oil blends compared with diesel. Karanja oils higher concentration blends were not recommended suitable as alternate fuels in unmodified diesel engines. S. P. Singh et. al. [7] identified that researchers focused mainly the edible oils to produce the biodiesel because of easily availability and familiarity. Non edible oils were focused by very few researchers for the same purpose. This work focused on the production of biodiesel from vegetable oils by transesterification process. For the production of Biodiesel fuel, an alkali catalysis process had been established that provided high conversion levels of oils to methyl esters. In terms of production cost, there also were two aspects, the transesterification process and by- product (glycerol) recovery. A continuous transesterification process was identified as one choice to lower the production cost. The foundations of continuous transesterification process were a shorter reaction time and greater production capacity. The land also identified as cost increasing factor that could be sorted out with the use of waste lands. J. Van Gerpen [8] reviewed many works regarding transesterification process for the production
11

of biodiesel from vegetable oils. It had been reviewed that conventional processing involving an alkali catalyzed process was no longer satisfactory for lower cost. Pretreatment processes using strong acid catalysts had been discussed to provide good conversion yields and high-quality final products. If the oils contain significant amount of free fatty acids (FFAs), special processes were required. Used cooking oils and animal fats contain 2% to 30% FFAs. When an alkali catalyst was added to these feedstocks, the free fatty acids reacted with the catalyst to form soap and water. Up to about 5% FFAs, the reaction was recommended still be catalyzed with an alkali catalyst. Above 5% FFAs, the soap formation inhibited separation of methyl esters and glycerol and contributed to emulsification formation. Fig. 2.1 shows a schematic diagram of the processes involved in biodiesel production.

Fig. 2.1. A schematic diagram of the processes involved in biodiesel production [8] Batch reactor found suitable for smaller plants, whereas continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTR) or plug flow reactors were suggested for biodiesel production. Vegetable oil was preheated to 65-70 C for 30 minutes to remove moisture contents. 20% alcohol (methanol/ethanol) by volume of vegetable oil and 1% alkali catalyzed was used for production of biodiesel from
12

vegetable oil. Reaction time was identified 120 minutes for this process. Settling and washing were processes after transesterification process to get purified product. M. S. Kumar et. al. [9] investigated compatibility of animal fat as alternative fuel for diesel engine. Performance and emission characteristics had been evaluated for a single cylinder compression ignition engine operated on animal fat as the only fuel at different fuel inlet temperatures. Peak pressure and rate of pressure rise were lower with animal fat at low temperature as compared to diesel. Ignition delay was reported higher with animal fat as compared to diesel at all test load conditions. Heat release rate were observed lower with animal fat. Fuel preheating increased this. The BSFC evaluated as higher for animal fat compared to diesel fuel. Neat animal fat contributed to increase in EGT. Smoke density was found lower for animal fat than the diesel and further preheating lowered this. HC and CO emission were higher with animal fat. NOx emission was reported low for animal fat. While preheating of animal fat increased NOx emission from engine compared to diesel. M. P. Punia et. al. [10] presented current status of biodiesel production of Rajasthan. Bilwara, Banswara, Udaipur, Pali, Rajsamand, Pratapgarh and Sirohi are growing jatropha as feedstock for biodiesel in the state. The total production of jatropha oil from 0.66 Mha waste land was reported as 0.2 MMT, that could fulfill only 8% requirement of country. Jatropha plantation were expected to produce 0.2 MMT on 0.66 Mha wasteland of costing 750 crores/year (@ Rs. 30/litre and 100 crores of fertilizers), whereas investments were nearly about 396 crore. This program was also to provide 100 days job guarantee per year to 20.53 lac labors. H. Mulimani et. al. [11] compared the transesterification process for different vegetable oils such as cotten seed oil, mahua oil and neem oil. Total yields of biodiesels cotten seed oil, mahua oil and neem oil were reported as 70%, 70% and 80% respectively with base catalyzed method. The main factors affecting the transesterification were identified as FFAs, reaction time, temperature, amount of alcohol and catalyst, catalyst concentration, and rate of mixing. FFA found to be increased if precaution was not taken to store the vegetable oil. FFA ranges of 3 to 4.6 for cotton, 1.5 to 3 for mahua and 2 to 3.5 for neem seeds were identified for the experiment. Biodiesel characterization had been considered as kinematic viscosity, calorific value, density, flash and
13

fire points were improved. A.L. Haiter et. al. [12] evaluated performance and emission characteristics of mahua oil methyl ester as alternative fuel for compression ignition engine. Results showed that fuel consumption using mahua biodiesel was less at low and medium loads. Brake thermal efficiency was high at low and medium loads and 5.1% increase was reported for25% blend of mahua oil methyl ester with diesel. HC emission was 11% lower whereas CO and smoke increased 19% and 33.7% respectively for mahua oil methyl ester compared to diesel. Nox reduction was observed by 1% compared to diesel. I. elikten et. al. [14] investigated about performance and emission characteristics of compression ignition engine using hazelnut oil methyl ester and rapeseed oil methyl ester and compared for standard diesel. Brake specific consumption found higher compared to standard diesel for hazelnut oil methyl ester and rapeseed oil methyl ester. CO emission and smoke were reported lower in case of methyl esters of hazelnut oil and rapeseed oil. NOx and CO2 emissions were observed higher than the standard diesel. D. J. P. Selvam et. al. [15] carried out experiment to compare the performance and emission characteristics of diesel engine for blends of beef tallow methyl ester with diesel fuel. Results reported higher BSFC and lower BTE for all blends of beef tallow methyl ester compared to diesel. The exhaust emission were reported higher NOx and lower CO and HC emissions compared to diesel for beef tallow methyl esters. M. Karabektas et. al. [13] investigated the effect of preheating of Cottenseed oil methyl ester (COME) on the performance and emission characteristics of diesel engine. Preheating of the COME caused lower the brake specific fuel consumption and higher brake thermal efficiency than the COME. The use of preheated COME yielded a significant decrease in CO emissions, while NOx emissions were increased.COME90 was referred to be the moderate fuel among other preheated COMEs with reference to diesel fuel. A. E. Pillay et. al. [16] prepared review of biodiesels of different origins on engine performances and emissions. Report showed that this form of alternative fuel could be an attractive renewable
14

alternative energy source for diesel engines. Physical and chemical properties of biodiesels could be comparable with diesel for better combustion process. The need of search for cost effective feedstock for the preparation of biodiesel was identified. Development of optimal conversion process, improvement in engine designs and the future of biodiesel developments were reported as the solution of some major problems associated with the production of biodiesel from vegetable oils. Earlier research work reported production of methyl ester of vegetable oils as biodiesel, M. I. AlWidyan et. al. [17] reported the utilization of ethyl esters of vegetable oils as fuel for compression ignition engine. The use of ethanol for the production of biodiesel from vegetable oils leads to a completely renewable process as ethanol and vegetable oils both are renewable. Further blends of vegetable oil ethyl ester were prepared and tested. Results showed that blends burned efficiently with better fuel economy. Exhaust emissions also improved as CO and HC emissions were observed lower than that of diesel fuel. It is concluded that the ethyl ester of vegetable oil possessed a high potential as fuel for compression ignition engine. S. Puhan et. al. [18] prepared ethyl esters of mahua oil. The mixture of Mahua oil (100 g), ethanol (20:1 molar ratio with Mahua oil) and sulfuric acid (5% w/w) was boiled in a reaction chamber fitted with condenser at a temperature range of 7275C for 5 h. After this, the top layer was separated and washed with alkali solution (saturated calcium carbonate solution) to reduce the pH to neutral. The ethyl ester of mahua oil was washed with salt water (5% NaCl solution). The product was dried at 110C in an oven for an hour to remove the traces of moisture. The mahua oil ethyl ester (MOEE) was burned more efficiently than the diesel fuel. Whereas, emissions of CO, HC, NOx and smoke were reported lower by 58, 63, 12 and 70%, respectively compared to diesel fuel. The literature [19] focused on the production of ethyl ester of Jatopha oil by transesterification process. Based on the study, conclusion was made that the optimum reaction condition for alkali catalyzed transesterification were 30% (v/v) ethanol to oil ratio, 3% KOH (w/v) of oil, reaction temperature 65C, reaction time 2hr and settling time 72 hr. The maximum 60.33% recovery of ethyl esters were reported in this study. The fuel properties of jatropha ethyl ester were
15

comparable with diesel fuel. The experiments were performed to test the engine characteristics, which showed 40% blending of jatropha ethyl ester was suitable with comparable performance characteristics. A. M. Syam et. al. [20] prepared a synthesis of the Jatropha Curcas based methyl esters and ethyl esters as biodiesel. The methanolysis and ethanolysis of Jatropha curcas in the presence of NaOH were studied. The results had shown that the rate of reaction and product yield were affected by the molar ratio of alcohol to JCO, reaction time and reaction temperature. The optimum operating conditions were molar ratio of alcohol to JCO at 6:1 and the optimum reaction time at 50 min. The highest percentage yield of product for methanol was achieved at 96%, whereas the highest product yield was 90% with ethanol. The properties of jatropha ethyl ester and methyl ester were compared with diesel and found comparable. B. Baiju et. al. [21] investigated the characteristics of compression ignition engine using methyl ester and ethyl ester of Karanja oil. The methyl esters and ethyl ester were developed of Karanja oil and properties were compared with diesel fuel. The investigation revealed that performance characteristics were better of methyl ester of Karanja oil than the ethyl ester of Karanja oil. NOx emission was 1025% higher for methyl ester than the ethyl esters of Karanja oil. CO, HC and smoke were observed lower for methyl ester than the ethyl ester of Karanja oil. S. Puhan et. al. [22] evaluated performance and emission characteristics of diesel engine using mahua oil methyl ester, mahua oil ethyl ester and butanol ester. The properties of prepared methyl ester and ethyl ester of mahua oil were found comparable with diesel fuel. CO and NOx emissions from MOME, MOEE and MOBE were lower than those of diesel fuel. CO2 emission was slightly higher than that of the diesel fuel. It is concluded that out of these three esters MOME was found better in terms of performance and emission characteristics. MOEE was also recommended as it was renewable and having comparable characteristics. B. U. Rashid et. al. [23] presented comparative study of the methanolysis and ethanolysis of maize (corn) oils using alkaline catalysts. The most favorable conditions elucidated for the methanolysis of maize oil were established as 6:1 molar ratio of maize oil to methanol, 0.75%

16

sodium methoxide catalyst (wt%), and 90 min reaction time. Alternatively, 9:1 ethanol to oil molar ratio (mol/ mol), 1.00% sodium ethoxide concentration (wt%) and 120 min reaction time for the ethanolysis of maize oil were determined. The results of this study showed that using alkaline catalysts for biodiesel production with maize oil could be a potential way. The fuel properties of the produced esters (MOMEs and MOEEs) were determined to be within the prescribed specifications (ASTM D6751 and EN14214). Lin et. al. [24] investigated the corn oil methyl ester as alternative fuel for compression ignition engine. Results showed that corn oil methyl ester reduced brake power by a small amount. It was also reported that brake specific fuel consumption increased by 10% than that of diesel fuel. Corn oil methyl ester increased the emission of NOx by 20%. Study favored the use of corn oil methyl ester as alternative fuel for compression ignition engine. It is clear observation from the literatures reviewed that biodiesels are better substitute than the vegetable oils as alternative fuels for compression ignition engine. Comparisons made on methyl ester and ethyl ester of vegetable oils clears that methyl ester of vegetable oils are better performer than the ethyl ester of vegetable oils. But ethyl esters of vegetable oils are recommended as better substitute because these are biodegradable and renewable. Problems of increasing price of conventional fuels, depletion of conventional fuel resources and increased pollution in environment are identified by most of the literatures reviewed in this section. India being seventh largest producer of corn may contribute by small amount to overcome this major problem. Compatibility of corn oil and its alkyl esters are required to investigate for compression ignition engine to propose the corn oil as substitute of diesel fuel. A comparison is found missing declaring comparison of performance and emission characteristics of compression ignition engine using vegetable oil, methyl ester of vegetable oil and ethyl ester of vegetable oil with diesel fuel. It is also observed that performance and emission characteristics of diesel engine using corn oil ethyl ester are required to present to propose the ethyl ester of corn oil as alternative and renewable fuel. In this study, gaps have been tried to fulfill of clear comparison of corn oil and its alkyl esters with diesel for engine characteristics.

17

Chapter 3

CORN OIL AND ITS ALKYL ESTERS

This chapter deals with the corn oil and production of its alkyl esters (methyl ester and ethyl ester). Processing of corn oil from corn is also discussed. Various physical and chemical properties of corn oil and its alkyl esters are shown and compared with diesel fuel. Fuel preparation for study such as preparation of blends has been explained with their properties. 3.1 Corn oil Corn oil is extracted from the corn germ (living part of the corn). Harvested kernels of corn are cleaned and then steeped in water at a temperature of 50 C for 30 to 40 hours. In this process, moisture content of corn rises from 15% to 45% and their volume more than doubles. The gluten bonds in the corn are weakened and starch is released by this process. The corn is then ground to break free the germ and other components. The water used (steep water), which has absorbed various nutrients, is fed to the animals. These corn germ constitutes 8-14% of the total weight of the corn grain, includes 84-86% of the total oil content of the corn. The various parts of kernel of corn are shown in fig.3.1.

Fig.3.1. Kernel of corn [25] As shown in fig.3.1, corn germ is the small inner part covered with starch and gluten. The outer layers hull and tip-cap account for 6% of the kernels weight. The germ (embryo), contains the
18

85% oil by weight, is about 8-11% of the kernels weight. Flory endosperm is mostly soft starch, easy recovered. Fig.1.4 shows the wet milling process for the production of corn oil from the corn kernels. 3.1.1 The wet milling process for the manufacturing of corn oil Shelled corn enters the system through cleaning machines. Cleaning machine removes foreign materials off the corn mob. Clean corn is send to steep tank where it soaks in circulating water at around 50C. Steeping is done of the corn for 24-48 hours to soften the kernels of corn.

Shelled corn

Corn cleaners Steep Tanks Steep water

Germ Separators

Grinding Mills

Screens Fiber

Centrifugal Separators

Hydroclone Starch Washing

Germs

Gluten

Germ washing
Clean & dry germ

Refinery
Oil expellers Corn germ feed
Starch Products

Crude Oil

Feed products

Fermentation

Oil refining
Alcohols

Refined corn oil

Fig.3.2. Processing of corn oil from corn kernels [25]

19

Kernels of the corn loosen the hull and germ and swell the endosperm. The steeping process facilitates separation of the components of the kernels, loosens gluten bonds to release the starch. After processing from steep water it is fed the animals as it contains 35 to 45% protein of total solids. Soften corn is coarsely ground with water in an attrition mill to remove the hull, the germ and starch. This slurry of coarsely ground corn is forced hydroclones, which centrifugally separates the light weight corn germ. Washing of the germ is next step of this process. Washed germ is conveyed to the oil recovery facilities. Corn germ is recovered and refined after this process. Corn germ oil is then dried and ready to use. Starch of the corn is used in two ways; one for as nutrition starch products and another is the fermentation process to have ethanol production. 3.1.2 The properties and fatty acid composition of corn oil

Corn oil contains fatty acids (saturated and unsaturated both) as shown in Table 1.2. These fatty acids are Palmitic, Stearic, Oleic, Linoleic, Linolenic and Arachidic. Different physical and chemical properties are shown in Table 1.3. Table 3.1 The fatty acid composition of Corn oil esters Corn oil (% content) 9.98 1.80 36.00 50.89 0.98 0.30 12.08 87.87

Fatty Acids (%) Palmitic (C16:0) Stearic (C18:0) Oleic (C18:1) Linoleic (C18:2) Linolenic (C18:3) Arachidic (C20:0) SFA UFA

*SFA= Saturated fatty acids;UFA = Unsaturated fatty acids.

20

3.1.3 Corn production in India India secures its seventh rank in the corn production. Its annual production of corn is around 21000, 000 MT. so, it is clear that it occupies an important place in the present cropping system. Corn is grown for the grain and fodder. The climate conditions and soil properties support for corn production. It is associated with a dark green color leaves, stem, branching and size enlargement. Corn contains the major contents like protein, fiber, starch etc. as shown in Table 3.2. Table 3.2 The properties of corn oil Property Density at 25C kg/m3 Kinematic viscosity at 25C (poise) Water content (mg/kg) Acid value (mg KOH/g oil) Iodine number (g iodine/100 g oil) Calorific Value (MJkg-1) Flash Point (C) Auto ignition point (C) Color Corn oil 921 56.2 749 0.26 127 39.458 254.5 393.3 Yellow Table 3.3 The % content of corn % of total weight of corn 72 10 5.8 4.8 3.0 1.7

Content Starch Protein Fiber Oil Sugar Ash

21

22000

20000

Production X 1000 MT

18000

16000 Corn oil production

14000

12000

10000

Years

Fig.3.3. Production of corn since year 2000 in India [26] 3.1.4 Effect of temperature on the dynamic viscosity of corn oil Corn oil is having high viscosity as other vegetable oils. In this section, effect of temperature on the viscosity of corn oil is examined and shown in fig. 3.4. Viscosity of corn oil at 20C is 0.6poise. Further, temperature of corn oil is raised by 20C and viscosity is measured. A drastic reduction is observed in viscosity with the heating of corn oil at high temperature. Viscosity of corn oil is constantly decreasing with respect to the temperature. Viscosity of corn oil at 100 C is near about the viscosity of diesel fuel. The curve prepared for the viscosity of corn oil with respect to the temperature shows that preheating solves the problem of high viscosity of corn oil.

22

0.7 0.6 Dynamic Viscosity (poise) 0.5

0.4
0.3 0.2 0.1 0 20 40 60 Temperature ( C) 80 100 RCO

Fig. 3.4. Change in dynamics viscosity of corn oil with temperature 3.2 a) Production of methyl ester of corn oil through transesterification Preheating

Corn oil contains small amount of impurities that can be removed with heating of oil at 70C for 30 minutes. Preheating of corn oil removes its moisture. Now this oil is only a mixture of triglycerides. Transesterification can perform only for triglycerides to produce their alkyl esters. b) Transesterification process

Transesterification process is the process to produce alkyl ester of the triglycerides by reacting with alcohol in the presence of base catalyst. For the production of corn oil methyl ester, transesterification is performed in a batch biodiesel reactor of capacity 5000 ml. biodiesel reactor is equipped with speed controller and temperature controller as mentioned earlier. A sample of 1000 ml corn oil is taken for transesterification process. It is then heated upto 70C. 1% KOH (base catalyst) (w/w of oil) is mixed with 200 ml methanol in a separate beaker. When pallets of KOH are totally dissolved in methanol, it is mixed with heated corn oil in biodiesel
23

reactor. Speed of the magnetic stirrer is maintained around 500 rpm and temperature at 70C. Process is kept continued for 2 hours. After this, whole processed mixture is taken out in a separatory funnel. In this funnel, processed mixture is allowed to settle for 48 hours. After settling two layers are noticed, lower layer contains glycerol and upper layer methyl ester of corn oil. Now, glycerol is taken out and methyl esters are separated. c) Washing and drying

After transesterification process, methyl ester of corn oil is processed for washing. In this methyl ester of corn oil is washed with the water at 40C. After washing, it is allowed to settle for 24 hours and then corn oil methyl ester is separated from water. Corn oil methyl ester is then dried at 110C to remove the traces of water. Now this is the purified form of corn oil methyl ester. Yield of biodiesel produced is calculated with the formula given in APPENDIX A.1. The yield of corn oil methyl ester is obtained as 92%. 3.3 a) Production of corn oil ethyl ester from corn oil through transesterification process Preheating

Preheating of corn oil is done similarly as mentioned earlier to remove impurities. Now, this heated corn oil is ready for transesterification process. b) Transesterification

Preheated corn oil is processed for transesterification process. A sample of 1000 ml corn oil is taken for transesterification process. It is then heated to achieve 70C. 1% KOH (base catalyst) (w/w of oil) is mixed with 200 ml ethanol in a separate beaker. When pallets of KOH are totally dissolved in ethanol, it is mixed with preheated corn oil in biodiesel reactor. Speed of the magnetic stirrer is maintained around 500 rpm and temperature at 70C. Process is kept continued for 2 hours. After this, whole processed mixture is taken out in a separatory funnel. In this funnel, processed mixture is allowed to settle for 48 hours. After settling, glycerol is taken out of the separatory funnel. Corn oil ethyl ester is obtained from this process further processing.

24

c)

Washing and drying

Transesterified corn oil is then allowed to wash to remove impurities. Corn oil ethyl ester is then washed with the water at 40C. After washing, it is allowed to settle for 24 hours and then corn oil ethyl ester is separated from water. Corn oil ethyl ester is then dried at 110C to remove the traces of water. Now this is the purified form of corn oil ethyl ester. The yield of corn oil ethyl ester is obtained as 76%. 3.6 Fuel preparations for testing of engine Corn oil and its alkyl esters have been blended for testing in engine in the fixed proportions with diesel fuel. These are explained in the next chapter in experimental procedure. These blended fuels have been tested and compared for performance and emission characteristics of compression ignition engine with those of diesel fuel. 3.7 Physical and chemical properties of corn oil and its alkyl esters Corn oil (RCO) and its alkyl esters (Corn oil methyl ester and Corn oil ethyl ester) have been compared for various chemical and physical properties. Comparison has been reported in Table 3.4. It is clear from the table that corn oil is having different properties than the diesel fuel as it has high viscosity and long carbon chain. Its other properties such as low calorific value, low pour point and high flash point restrict the use of corn oil as alternative fuel for compression engine. Biodiesel processing of corn oil results in the corn oil alkyl esters (corn oil methyl ester and corn oil ethyl ester). Corn oil methyl ester (COME) and corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) are better substitutes as alternative fuels for CI engine as physical and chemical properties are comparable with diesel fuel. These fuels are also having potential for storage and long term operation. Problems of ring sticking, nozzle coking and gumming are not associated due to almost similar physical properties as diesel fuel. Cetane number is also improved in case of alkyl esters of corn oil. Corn oil alkyl esters are having comparable density and viscosity as diesel fuel. Production of corn oil methyl ester is nearer to 100% whereas corn oil ethyl ester is produced less in mass percentage of corn oil.

25

Table 3.4
Properties of refined corn oil and its esters in comparison with diesel

Fuel Property Cetane number Kinematic viscosity at 25C (mm2 s1) Cloud point (C) Pour point (C) Flash point (C) Sulfur content (%) Ash content (%) Acid value (mg KOH g1) Copper strip corrosion (50 C, 3 h) Density (25C), kg m3 Calorific Value (MJ kg1) Ester content (%) Alcohol content (%) Free glycerin (%) Total glycerin (%)

RCO100 38.0 56.2 -1.1 -40 254.5 0.921 39.458 -

COME100
55.4

COEE100
54

D100
51.2

4.36 -2 -4 164 0.012 0.016 0.18 1a 0.896 39.8 97.2 0.180 0.013 0.235

7.58 -2 -12 160 0.011 0.017 0.45 1a 0.885 39.934 80 0.180 0.016 0.228

3.25 -33 -15 52 0.15 0.840 44.1 -

So, this is about the corn oil and its alkyl esters. Production and properties of corn oil and its alkyl esters are discussed.

26

Chapter 4

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP AND PROCEDURE

This chapter emphasizes on the details of the engine, arrangements for measurement of fuel flow, air flow, brake power and heating of corn oil. It also includes the measurements of viscosity of corn oil, arrangements for production of biodiesel, measurement of calorific value of fuels, exhaust gas analyzer used and measurement of exhaust gas temperature. Experimental procedure is also discussed in this chapter. 4.1 Introduction Experimental setup consists of a single cylinder, water cooled, four-stroke diesel engine (Kirloskar make, AV1 model) coupled with a hydraulic dynamometer. Modifications have been made by Datacone Engineers Pvt. Ltd., Sangliwadi, India to measure various parameters required to determine the performance of the engine. A 5 gas analyzer is used to evaluate the emission characteristics of engine. The heating arrangement is made to preheat the corn oil and its blends with the diesel fuel. Thermocouples are installed at various places on the engine to measure different temperatures. Corn oil is converted into its methyl ester (termed as corn oil methyl ester) and ethyl ester (termed as corn oil ethyl ester) by transesterification process in the biodiesel reactor. Arrangements have been made to measure various properties of corn oil (RCO), corn oil methyl ester (COME), corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) and their blends with diesel fuel. 4.2 Experimental Setup The design of test rig is shown in fig. 4.1. Fig. 4.2 shows the realized engine test rig. It consists of engine coupled to the hydraulic dynamometer, exhaust gas analyzer, control panel, computer and various sensors to measure the temperatures at different places on the engine.

27

Fig.4.1. The design of the engine test rig

Fig. 4.2. The realized engine test rig 28

4.2.1 Engine Kirloskar make single cylinder diesel engine (model AV1) is used for study as it is most versatile water cooled engine and is widely used for agriculture and electric generation purpose. The technical specifications of the engine used are mentioned below in the Table 4.1. Fig. 4.3 shows the engine.

Fig. 4.3. The Single cylinder, 4-stroke diesel engine (Kirloskar Make,Model - AV1)

Table 4.1 Technical specifications of the engine S.No. 1. Component Name of the engine Unit Description Kirloskar Oil Engine Model AV1 2. Type of engine Vertical, four stroke cycle,

single acting, totally enclosed, high speed, C.I. engine

29

S.No. 3. 4.

Component No. of cylinders Direction of rotation

Unit 1

Description

Counter clockwise (When looking at flywheel )

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

IS Rating at 1500 rpm Bore Stroke Cubic Capacity Compression Ratio No. of Injection Pumps and Type

kW(bhp) mm mm liters -

3.7 (5.0) 80 110 0.553 16.5 : 1 1 number, Single cylinder, flange mounted without camshaft

11. 12.

Governor type Filter type Air Fuel Lubricating Oil

Mechanical centrifugal type

liters -

Dry oil bath type paper element Bypass filter with paper element Bypass filter with paper element Diesel as per IS : 1460 6.5 HD- type 3 as per IS : 4961982

13. 14. 15.

Recommended fuel specification Fuel Oil Tank Capacity Lubricating Oil specification

16.

Mode of Starting

Gear end / Flywheel end Hand start

17.

Apparatus required for starting

Extension shaft, Starting Handle Decompression arrangement

30

S.No. 18.

Component Weight of engine Engine alone Flywheel

Unit kg kg kg Pa 160 114 33 2.5

Description

19.

Maximum permissible back pressure

20.

Maximum permissible intake depression

Pa

1.0

21.

Method of Cooling Cooling water flow rate (For run through system cooling) (Attached with water flow meter)

Cooling Water

lit/min

22. 23. 24. 25.

Lubricating oil sump capacity Lubricating oil consumption SFC at rated hp per 1500rpm Fuel refilling time

lit. lit.

3.3 1.0% of SFC maximum 245 g/kWh(180 g/bhp-hr) 6 hrs (When engine running at rated output)

4.2.2 Dynamometer Hydraulic dynamometer is coupled with engine to measure torque. The power absorbing capacity of the unit increases as speed increases and is suitable for loading of I.C. engines, gas turbines and hydraulic turbines. The dynamometer rotor consists of a series of semi- elliptical pockets on both faces. Within the casing, the stator is also having similar semi elliptical pockets formed in the opposite direction as shown in fig. 4.4. The rotor is rigidly fixed to the shaft by keys and run on ball bearings. A pair

31

of the sliding gates is provided between the rotor and stator, which is opened by means of hand wheel. The power absorbed by the dynamometer is controlled by this way. The hydraulic dynamometer works on the principal of creation of eddies due to vortex flow in between the rotor and stator. The reaction of the stator, transmitted to the casing of the dynamometer due to this flow of water, is balanced by a suitable weighing device with lever arm, spring balance, dead weight etc. Fig 4.5 shows the hydraulic dynamometer coupled to engine shaft. Table 4.2 describes the technical specifications of the hydraulic dynamometer.

Fig. 4.4. Schematic diagram of hydraulic dynamometer [27] 4.2.3 Exhaust gas analyzer A five exhaust gas analyzer made by the INDUS Scientific Private Limited (11/2B, Hennur Bande, Bangalore-560043, India) model PEA205 is used to analyze the exhaust emissions from the engine, i.e. carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), O2 (oxygen),hydrocarbon (HC) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx). Before testing gas analyzer is calibrated for standards by the
32

service person. Fig. 4.6 shows the INDUS 5 gas analyzer. Table 4.3 shows the specifications of gas analyzer.

Fig. 4.5. The hydraulic dynamometer

33

Table 4.2 Technical specifications of the dynamometer

S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Technical Specifications Make Model Type Serial No. Year of manufacturing Max. H.P. R. P. M Dynamometer Constant C

Description Accurate Test Equipment & Engineers, Kolhapur ATE-16 S Water Brake 16079 2004 Continuous 5000/10000 2720

Fig. 4.6. Exhaust gas analyzer (5 gas, INDUS make)

34

4.2.4 Biodiesel reactor A biodiesel reactor is designed to perform the transesterification process to produce the methyl ester and ethyl ester of corn oil by methanolysis and ethanolysis respectively. It consists of a motor with speed control and a heating element around its 5000 ml steel container. It is equipped with speed controller and temperature controller. Design of biodiesel reactor is shown in fig. 4.7. The actual biodiesel reactor is shown in figure 4.8.

Fig. 4.7. The design of Biodiesel rector

35

Fig. 4.8. Biodiesel reactor (capacity 5000 ml) 4.3 4.3.1 Evaluations and measurements Measurement of brake power (BP)

Brake power of engine is evaluated with the help of hydraulic dynamometer coupled to the engine. With the hand lever and water flow load is applied on the engine shaft. A spring balance is fitted with arm of dynamometer, which should not be varying in position with given pointer. Load applied is shown in the indicator of the spring balance which is used to determine the brake power with the help of formula given in APPENDIXA.1.
36

4.3.2

Measurement of speed

A revolution counter is managed to measure the revolution per minute for engine. This is cross verified by the tachometer and found correct. 4.3.3 Measurement of fuel consumption Burette method is used to measure the volumetric fuel flow rate. A glass burette having marks for 25 ml is connected to fuel tank and the engine through a Tee valve. Initially, line is connected to the engine and burette, so burette got filled with fuel. Now, the valve is turned to a position so that the fuel get start to consume from burette. The time is measured for 25 ml of fuel consumption and by this way fuel flow evaluated. In this method density of fuel is used to convert fuel flow volume per unit time to mass per unit time. Fig. 4.9 shows the arrangement of measurement of fuel consumption. 4.3.4 Measurement of exhaust gas temperature Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) is an important performance characteristic of engine. EGT is the measure of the temperature of exhaust gases at the manifold and measured with the thermocouple placed near the exhaust manifold. K-type thermocouple is used for this setup.

Fig. 4.9. Arrangement of fuel flow measurement (Burette method)

37

4.3.5 Measurement of emission characteristics INDUS five gas analyzer is used to measure the emission characteristics of engine. Exhaust gases such as CO (carbon monoxide), CO2 (carbon dioxide), HC (hydrocarbons) and NOx (oxides of nitrogen) have been measured. Before each test, gas analyzer goes through self checking process. It is calibrated by ARAI. 4.3.6 Measurement of viscosity Viscosity of diesel, corn oil, corn oil methyl ester, corn oil ethyl esters and various blends are measured with the Redwood Viscometer No.1 and further converted into poise. Fig. 4.10 shows the Redwood Viscometer No.1 for the measurement of viscosity.

Fig. 4.10. Redwood viscosity meter (No.1)

38

Fig. 4.11. Bomb calorimeter (Aditya Make) 4.3.7 Measurement of calorific values Bomb calorimeter (Aditya make) is used to determine the calorific value of diesel, corn oil, corn oil methyl ester, corn oil ethyl esters and various blends. The instrument is designed according to the I.P.12 and I.S. 1350-1959. Fig. 4.11 shows the bomb calorimeter. 4.4 Error analysis The uncertainties related to data observed from various instruments are shown in Table 4.3. This includes the engine characteristics and exhaust emission characteristics. Standard deviation is the expressing method, in which all this data accuracy is shown. For every test load condition, three readings have been managed and that is checked for accuracy and then these are averaged for final value opted.

39

Table 4.3 The uncertainties of instrumentation Parameter Load Speed Time Temperature CO CO2 HC NOx Power BSFC BTE Uncertainty 2N 5 rpm 1 sec 1C 0.06% vol. 0.5% vol. 12 ppm 12 ppm 2% max 2.5% max 2.5% max

4.5 Experimental Procedure An experimental plan is made to evaluate the performance and emission characteristics of a compression ignition engine for corn oil, corn oil methyl ester, corn oil ethyl ester and their blends with diesel and compare to those of with the diesel fuel. Load of the engine is selected to be 0-100% rated engine load in approximate steps of 25% and all fuels have been tested with these load conditions. This experiment is conducted in three parts. In the first part, blends of refined corn oil (RCO) prepared with diesel fuel in fixed proportions of 25% RCO + 75% D (denoted as RCO25), 50% RCO + 50% D (denoted as RCO50), 75% RCO + 25% D (denoted as RCO75) and 100% RCO (denoted as RCO100) by volume. Performance and emission characteristics of the compression ignition engine is evaluated for these test fuels and compared with the diesel fuel.

40

In second part, blends of corn oil methyl ester (COME) prepared with diesel again in fixed proportions of 25% COME + 75% D (denoted as COME25), 50% COME + 50% D (denoted as COME50), 75% COME + 25% D (denoted as COME75) and 100% COME (denoted by COME100) by volume. Comparison of performance and emission characteristics of the compression ignition engine is made for these test fuels and the diesel fuel. In third part of the experiment, blends of corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) prepared with diesel in proportions of 25% COEE + 75% D (denoted as COEE25), 50% COEE + 50% D (denoted as COEE50), 75% COEE + 25% D (denoted as COEE75) and 100% COEE (denoted by COEE100) by volume. Performance and emissions characteristics also have been evaluated and compared for the test fuels and diesel. Finally, comparison of performance and emission characteristics has been made for refined corn oil (RCO100), corn oil methyl ester (COME100), corn oil ethyl ester (COEE100) and diesel fuel (D100) at different load i.e. 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of the rated engine load. Performance characteristics have been identified as brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and exhaust gas temperature (EGT). Emission characteristics involve the measurement of CO2, CO, HC and NOx emissions. These data are evaluated and compared for earlier discussed conditions. 4.5.1 Starting and running engine

Starting and running procedure of engine is as follows: 1. Fuel is checked first in the fuel tank. 2. Verification of all fuel lines has been completed. 3. Lever of exhaust valve is set in OFF position. 4. Cooling water supply is made. Engine should not be started without starting the flow of cooling water, otherwise engine might get damaged. 5. Engine is first started using diesel fuel; supply of this tank is confirmed to be in action. 6. Crank handle is fixed with output shaft and rotated clockwise.

41

7. After four or five quick rotation, exhaust lever is turned ON position. This causes compression in engine and it gets started. Crank handle is out automatically. 8. Now engine is made to run on diesel fuel for 15 minutes at zero load to achieve stabilized condition. 4.5.2 Engine loading

1. After successful running of the engine at zero load, load is increased with the help of given hand lever and water flow to the dynamometer. Reading of the load is showing in the spring balance dial in kg which is further converted into brake power with given formula in APPENDIX A.1. 2. Load is increased in the fixed steps of 25% of the full load i.e. 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of full load with the help of dynamometer. 3. On each load condition, 10 minutes allowed to get stabilized condition. 4. While unloading, load is decreased slowly to avoid failure due to higher speed. 4.5.3 Method of changing from diesel to other fuel tank

Two separate tanks are used, one for diesel and another for different test fuels such as corn oil, corn oil methyl ester, corn oil ethyl ester and their blends with diesel as mentioned earlier. A Tee valve is used for the diesel fuel line, engine fuel line and other test fuel line. So, when engine is switched on the other test fuel this valve is used. After switching for different fuel, 10 minutes allowed to consume diesel from engine fuel line. Then procedure of loading is repeated for these different fuels. 4.5.4 Preheating of refined corn oil and its blends with diesel fuels

Viscosity of the vegetable oils is a major concern while using as fuel for compression ignition engine. Inherent viscosity of the vegetable oils leads to poor atomization, poor pumping etc. To reduce the viscosity of vegetable oils, preheating is one of the methods used. It is observed that viscosity of RCO is reduced by preheating.

42

Electric heater is used to preheat the refined corn oil (RCO) and its blends to achieve viscosity comparable with diesel fuel. This heater is capable to raise the temperature of the fuel by 300C and equipped with temperature controller. To reduce the heat and temperature loss fuel lines insulated by asbestos.

43

Chapter 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

In this chapter, different performance and emission characteristics of compression ignition are shown for different set of fuels such as blends of corn oil, blends of corn oil methyl ester, blends of corn oil ethyl ester and diesel for different load conditions. Engine ran well on all set of fuels without any engine modifications and without any failure. All results have been shown, discussed and analyzed for each test condition. 5.1 Performance characteristics of engine 5.1.1 Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) Brake specific fuel consumption is the measure of ratio of mass of fuel consumption to the brake power. BSFC generally decreases with respect to the load, and again increases at nearly full load. BSFC is shown in kg/kW-hr for all test conditions. a) Blends of corn oil (RCO) with diesel The variation of BSFC with respect to the engine load for corn oil and its blends is shown in fig. 5.1. The BSFC in general, was found to be increase with increasing proportion of vegetable oil in the test fuels under all load conditions. In this case, BSFC for corn oil and its blends was found higher than that of diesel fuel. This is due to lower calorific value, higher density and higher viscosity of corn oil in comparison with diesel. The specific fuel consumption for D100, RCO25, RCO50, RCO75 and RCO100 are 0.348, 0.396, 0.408, 0.413 and 0.441 kg/kW-hr respectively at full load of the engine. The results indicated that BSFC for corn oil (RCO100) and its blends were higher than that of diesel fuel. b) Blends of corn oil methyl ester (COME) The variation of BSFC with respect to the engine load for corn oil methyl ester (COME) and its blends is shown in fig. 5.2. The BSFC in general, was found to be increase with increasing proportion of biodiesel in the test fuels under all load conditions. In this case, BSFC for corn oil methyl ester and its blends was found higher than that of diesel fuel. This is due to lower
44

1 0.9 0.8 BSFC (g/kWh) 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% D100

RCO25
RCO50 RCO75 RCO100

Fig. 5.1. Comparison of BSFC for corn oil and its blends calorific value, higher density and higher viscosity of COME in comparison with diesel. It is also found that calorific value of COME was higher than corn oil (RCO) but lower than diesel fuel. The specific fuel consumption for D100, COME25, COME50, COME75 and COME100 are 0.342, 0.353, 0.371, 0.392 and 0.416 kg/kW-hr respectively at full load of the engine. The results indicated that BSFC for COME100 and its blends were higher than that of diesel fuel. c) Blends of corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) The variation of BSFC with respect to the engine load for corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) and its blends is shown in fig. 5.3. The BSFC for ethyl ester of vegetable oils was reported to be higher than diesel fuel. In this case, BSFC for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends were found higher than that of diesel fuel. Corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) contains low calorific value, higher density and higher viscosity compare to diesel. It is also found that calorific value of COEE was lower than COME and diesel fuel. The specific fuel consumptions for D100, COEE25, COEE50, COEE75and COEE100 are 0.342, 0.360, 0.380, 0.404 and 0.429 kg/kW-hr respectively at full

45

load of the engine. The results indicated that BSFC for COEE100 and its blends were higher than that of diesel fuel.
1 0.9 0.8 BSFC (kg/kW-hr) 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% D100

COME25
COME50 COME75 COME100

Fig. 5.2. Comparison of BSFC for corn oil methyl ester and its blends
1 0.9 0.8 BSFC (kg/kW-hr) 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% D100 COEE25 COEE50 COEE75

COEE100

Fig. 5.3. Comparison of BSFC for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends
46

d) Comparison of BSFC for RCO, COME and COEE with Diesel Fig. 5.4 shows the comparison of BSFC with respect to the engine load for RCO100, COME100 and COEE100 with D100. It is observed from the comparison that RCO100 is having greater BSFC than COME100, COEE100 and D100. This is because RCO100 is having low calorific value and higher viscosity than other fuels. BSFC for RCO100, COEE100 and COME100 were 28.9%, 25.43% and 21.63% greater than that of D100 at full engine load.

1 0.9 0.8 BSFC (kg/kW-hr) 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% D100 RCO100 COME100 COEE100

Fig. 5.4. Comparison of BSFC for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel 5.1.2 Brake thermal efficiency (BTE) Brake thermal efficiency (BTE) is the measure of the ratio of the power output to the energy introduced through fuel injection. The energy introduced by the fuel injection is the measure of product of mass of fuel and lower heating value of fuel. BTE increases with respect to the load and maximum at nearly 75% of full engine load.

47

a) Blends of corn oil (RCO) with diesel The variation of BTE of the engine with engine load for corn oil and its blends with diesel fuel is shown in fig. 5.5. BTE in general, decreases with the increasing blending percentage of vegetable oil with diesel fuel. This is due to lower calorific value, higher density and higher viscosity of vegetable oils than the diesel fuel. The higher viscosity of corn oil leads to poor atomization and combustion and hence the BTE of corn oil is lower than that of diesel fuel. It is reported from the curve between BTE and engine load for blends of corn oil and diesel, that BTE of RCO100, RCO25, RCO50 and RCO75 are lower than that for diesel fuel at all test load conditions. The brake thermal efficiency of D100, RCO25, RCO50, RCO75 and RCO100 are 23.44, 21.13, 21.10, 21.43 and 20.67% respectively at full engine load. Thus the difference in BTE for D100 and blends of RCO is very significant at full load. Fuel consumption increases due to lower heating value and higher density and hence BTE decreases.
25

20 Brake Thermal Efficiency (%)

15

D100 RCO25

10

RCO50 RCO75

RCO100

0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100%

Fig. 5.5. Comparison of BTE for corn oil and its blends b) Blends of corn oil methyl ester (COME) The variation of BTE of the engine with engine load for corn oil methyl ester (COME) and its blends with diesel fuel is shown in fig. 5.6. BTE in general, decreases with the increasing
48

blending percentage of methyl ester of vegetable oils with diesel fuel. This is due to lower calorific value, higher density and higher viscosity of methyl ester of vegetable oils than the diesel fuel. The higher viscosity of COME and its blends lead to poor atomization fuel vaporization and combustion and hence the BTE of COME is lower than that of diesel fuel. The brake thermal efficiency of D100, COME25, COME50, COME75 and COME100 are 23.82,23.71, 23.21, 22.49 and 21.73% respectively at full engine load. Thus the difference in BTE for D100 and blends of COME is very significant at full load.

30 25 Brake Thermal Efficiency (%) 20 D100 15 10 5 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% COME25 COME50

COME75
COME100

Fig. 5.6. Comparison of BTE for corn oil methyl ester and its blends c) Blends of corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) The variation of BTE of the engine with engine load for corn oil and its blends with diesel fuel is shown in fig. 5.7. The brake thermal efficiency generally decreases with the increasing blending percentage of ethyl ester of vegetable oils with diesel fuel. The higher viscosity of corn oil ethyl ester leads to poor combustion. The BTE of corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) is lower than that of diesel fuel. It is reported from the curve between BTE and engine load for blends of corn oil and diesel, that BTE of COEE100, COEE25, COEE50 and COEE75 are lower than that for diesel
49

fuel at all test load conditions. The brake thermal efficiency of D100, COEE25, COEE50, COEE75 and COEE100 are 23.82, 23.21, 22.60, 21.83 and 21.10% respectively at full engine load. Fuel consumption increases due to lower heating value of corn oil ethyl ester and hence BTE decreases.
30 25 Brake Thermal Efficiency (%) 20 D100 15 10 5 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% COEE25 COEE50 COEE75 COEE100

Fig. 5.7. Comparison of BTE for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends d) Comparison of BTE for RCO, COME and COEE with Diesel Fig. 5.8 shows the comparison of BTE with respect to the engine load for RCO100, COME100 and COEE100 with D100. It is observed from the comparison graph that RCO100 is having lower BTE than COME100, COEE100 and D100. This is because RCO100 is having low calorific value, higher density and higher viscosity than other fuels. BTE for RCO100, COEE100 and COME100 were 13.23%, 11.42% and 8.78% lower than that of D100 at full engine load. 5.1.3 Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) Exhaust gas temperature is the measure of temperature of exhaust gases at the exhaust manifold. It is measured with the K-type thermocouple placed near the exhaust manifold. EGT generally increases with respect to the load.

50

30 25 Brake Thermal Efficiency (%)

20
15 10 5 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% D100 RCO100 COME100 COEE100

Fig. 5.8. Comparison of BTE for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel a) Blends of corn oil (RCO) with diesel The variation of EGT with respect to the engine load for corn oil (RCO) and its blends with diesel fuel is shown in fig.5.9. The EGT of corn oil and its blends are higher than that of diesel fuel. It is because of higher viscosity of RCO and its blends, which leads to poor atomization and extended combustion. The viscosity got increased as the blending percentage of corn oil is increased with diesel. The exhaust gas temperature of D100, RCO25, RCO50, RCO75 and RCO100 are 450, 475, 500, 525 and 565C respectively at full engine load. b) Blends of corn oil methyl ester (COME) The variation of EGT with respect to the engine load for corn oil methyl ester (COME) and its blends with diesel fuel is shown in fig.5.10. The EGT of corn oil methyl ester and its blends are lower than that of diesel fuel. Higher viscosity of COME and its blends, which leads to poor atomization and extended combustion and because of this, the EGT of COME blends are lower than that of diesel. The exhaust gas temperature of D100, COME25, COME50, COME75 and

51

COME100 are 450, 444, 440, 441 and 447C respectively at full engine load. it is clear form the graph that EGT at full load is almost similar for all test fuels of COME.
600 500 400 D100 300 200 100 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% RCO25 RC050 RC075 RCO100

Exhaust Gas Temperature C

Fig. 5.9. Comparison of EGT for corn oil and its blends
500 450 Exhaust Gas Temperature C 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% D100 COME25 COME50 COME75 COME100

Fig. 5.10. Comparison of EGT for corn oil methyl ester and its blends
52

c) Blends of corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) The variation of EGT with respect to the engine load for corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) and its blends with diesel fuel is shown in fig.5.11. The EGT of corn oil ethyl ester and its blends are higher than that of diesel fuel. It is because of higher viscosity of COEE and its blends, which leads to poor atomization and extended combustion. The exhaust gas temperature of D100, COEE25, COEE50, COEE75 and COEE100 are 450, 453, 456, 459 and 463C respectively at full engine load. It is clear from the graph that EGT at full load is almost similar for all test fuels of COEE.
500 450 Exhaust Gas Temperature C 400 350 300 D100 COEE25 COEE50 COEE75 COEE100

250
200 150 100 50 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100%

Fig. 5.11. Comparison of EGT for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends d) Comparison of EGT for RCO, COME and COEE with Diesel The comparison of exhaust gas temperature with respect to the engine load for RCO100, COME100 and COEE100 with D100 is shown in fig. 5.12. The EGT for RCO100 and COEE100 are observed higher than D100 whereas EGT of COME100 is found to be lower than that of D100. The EGT of RCO100, COME100 and COEE are 24.8%,-1% and 2.85 greater than that of D100 at full engine load.
53

600 500

Exhaust Gas Temperature C

400
300 200 100 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% D100 RCO100 COME100 COEE100

Fig. 5.12. Comparison of EGT for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel 5.2 Exhaust emission characteristics 5.2.1 Carbon monoxide (CO) The carbon monoxide (CO) emission from engine is pollutant for environment. CO emission generally increases with respect to the engine load. The CO emissions for different fuels (RCO, COME, COEE and Diesel) are hereby evaluated and compared for all test load conditions. a) Blends of corn oil (RCO) The variation of CO emission from engine with respect to the engine load is shown in fig. 5.13. The CO emissions for blends of corn oil are higher than diesel fuel. This is possibly due to higher viscosity of corn oil and its blends. Higher viscosity is the difficulty in the proper atomization of the corn oil and its blends. This makes rich mixture in engine and during the combustion, it causes more CO due to lack of oxygen. But, at the full load CO emissions are less compared to diesel for corn oil (RCO) and its blends. This could be possibly because of high temperature at full load makes atomization of corn oil and its blends easier and proper combustion can be achieved. The CO emission for D100, RCO25, RCO50, RCO75 and RCO100 are 0.38, 0.38, 0.37, 0.38 and 0.39% respectively at full load condition.
54

0.45 0.4 0.35 CO Emission (%) 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% D100 RCO25 RCO50 RCO75 RCO100

Fig. 5.13. Comparison of CO emission for corn oil and its blends b) Blends of corn oil methyl ester (COME) Fig. 5.14 shows the variation of CO emission with respect to engine load for corn oil methyl ester (COME) and its blends with diesel. With increasing blending percentage of COME in diesel, CO emission decreases for all test load conditions. The differences between blends of COME and diesel fuel are fairly small. The CO emission for COME and its blends decreased significantly at higher loads due to higher oxygen content of COME and its blends compared to the diesel fuel. The CO emissions for D100, COME25, COME50, COME75 and COME100 are 0.38, 0.36, 0.33, 0.3 and 0.25% respectively at full load condition. c) Blends of corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) Fig. 5.15 shows the variation of CO emission with respect to engine load for corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) and its blends with diesel. With increasing blending percentage of COEE in diesel, CO emission decreases for all test load conditions. The differences between blends of COEE and diesel fuel are fairly small. The CO emission for COEE and its blends decreased significantly at higher loads due to higher oxygen content of COEE and its blends compared to the diesel fuel. The CO emissions for D100, COEE25, COEE50, COEE75 and COEE100 are 0.38, 0.37, 0.35, 0.31 and 0.27% respectively at full load condition.
55

0.4 0.35 0.3 CO Emission (%) 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% D100

COME25
COME50 COME75 COME100

Fig. 5.14. Comparison of CO emission for corn oil methyl ester and its blends
0.4 0.35 0.3 CO Emission (%) 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 D100 COEE25 COEE50 COEE75 COEE100

0%

25%

50%
Engine Load %

75%

100%

Fig. 5.15. Comparison of CO emission for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends

56

d) Comparison of CO emission for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel The comparison of CO emission with respect to the engine load for RCO100, COME100 and COEE100 with D100 is shown in fig. 5.16. It is observed that RCO100 is having greater emission of CO than D100 at full load. COME100 and COEE100 are having lower CO emissions than D100. The RCO100, COEE100 and COME100 are having 8.3%, -25% and 30.6% greater CO emissions than D100.
0.45 0.4 0.35 CO Emission (%) 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% D100 RCO100 COME100 COEE100

Fig. 5.16. Comparison of CO emission for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel 5.2.2 Carbon dioxide (CO2) Carbon dioxide is having a great effect on green house gases due to form of blanket effect on the atmosphere asit aids global warming. The CO2emission increases with increase in load. The CO2 emissions with various fuel and their blends are evaluated and compared with diesel. a) Blends of corn oil (RCO) Fig. 5.17 shows the variation of CO2 emissions with respect to the load for the blends of corn oil (RCO) with diesel. The CO2 emissions from RCO blends are lower than that of diesel fuel due to
57

higher viscosity of corn oil than diesel fuel. The CO2 emissions of RCO can however be considered as zero as they are sourced by plants. The CO2 emissions for D100, RCO25, RCO50, RCO75 and RCO100 are 3.8, 3.4, 3.33, 3.25 and 3.19 % respectively at full load of the engine.
4 3.5 CO2 Emision (%) 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% D100 RCO25 RCO50 RCO75 RCO100

Fig. 5.17. Comparison of CO2 emission for corn oil and its blends b) Blends of corn oil methyl ester (COME) The CO2 emissions with the blends of COME at various loads is shown and compared with diesel fuel in Fig. 5.18. The CO2 emissions from COME blends are higher than that of diesel fuel due to lower hydrogen/carbon ratio and lower calorific value of COME. The CO2 emissions of COME can however be considered as zero as they are sourced by plants. The CO2 emissions for D100, COME25, COME50, COME75 and COME100 are 3.8, 3.9, 4.02, 4.11 and 4.19 % respectively at full load of the engine. c) Blends of corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) The CO2 emissions with the blends of COEE at various loads is shown and compared with diesel fuel in Fig. 5.19. The CO2 emissions from COEE blends are higher than that of diesel fuel due to

58

lower hydrogen/carbon ratio and lower calorific value of COEE. The CO2 emissions for D100, COEE25, COEE50, COEE75 and COEE100 are 3.8, 4.0, 4.09, 4.16 and 4.27% respectively at full load of the engine.
4.5 4 3.5

CO2 Emision (%)

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% D100 COME25 COME50 COME75 COME100

Fig. 5.18. Comparison of CO2 emission for corn oil methyl ester and its blends d) Comparison of CO2 emission for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel Comparison of CO2emission for RCO100, COME100 and COEE100 with D100 is shown in fig. 5.20. The RCO100 is having lower emissions compared to D100 because of its higher viscosity. COME100 and COEE100 are having greater emissions of CO2 compared to D100 due to lower calorific value. The RCO100 is having 16.9% lower emission of CO2 compared to the D100, whereas COME100 and COEE100 are having 10.2% and 12.3% greater CO2 emissions compared to the D100. 5.2.3 Hydro carbon (HC) Hydrocarbon emissions (HC) for various fuels with respect to the engine load have studied. HC emission in general, increases with increasing the engine load. HC emissions are evaluated and compared for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel for all test load conditions.
59

4.5 4 3.5 CO2 Emision (%)

3
2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% D100

COEE25
COEE50 COEE75 COEE100

Fig. 5.19. Comparison of CO2 emission for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends
4.5 4 3.5 CO2 Emision (%) 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 D100 RCO100 COME100 COEE100

0
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

Engine Load %

Fig. 5.20. Comparison of CO2 emission for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel
60

a) Blends of corn oil (RCO) HC emissons for corn oil (RCO) and its blends with diesel at test load conditions is shown in fig. 5.21. HC emission is generated due to incomplete combustion. Hydrogen carbon ratio in the fuel also affects the HC emission. RCO and its blends are having lower emission of HC due to these specified reasons. HC emissions for D100, RCO25, RCO50, RCO75 and RCO100 are 33, 32, 32, 31 and 31 respectively at full load.
35 30 HC Emission (ppm) 25 20 15 10 5 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% D100 RCO25 RCO50 RCO75 RCO100

Fig. 5.21. Comparison of HC emission for corn oil and its blends b) Blends of corn oil methyl ester (COME) The variation of HC emissions with respect to load for all test fuels is shown in Fig. 5.22.it increases with respect to the load. This is due to rich fuel mixtures at higher loads. The HC emissions are found to be higher in case of diesel fuel for all test load conditions compared to blends of COME. This is due to presence of higher oxygen content in biodiesel and high combustion temperature, which also promotes oxidation of hydrocarbon emissions. The HC emissions for D100, COME25, COME50, COME75 and COME100 are 33, 31, 30, 27 and 26

61

ppm respectively at full load of the engine. c) Blends of corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) The variation of HC emissions with respect to load for corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) and its blends with diesel is shown in Fig. 5.23.At higher loads, HC emission is higher due to rich fuel mixtures. The HC emissions are found to be higher in case of diesel fuel for all test load conditions compared to blends of COEE. This is due to presence of higher oxygen content in biodiesel and high combustion temperature, which also promotes oxidation of hydrocarbon emissions. The HC emissions for D100, COEE25, COEE50, COEE75 and COEE100 are 33, 32, 31, 28 and 27 ppm respectively at full load of the engine.
35 30 HC Emission (ppm) 25 20 15 10 5 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% D100 COME25 COME50 COME75 COME100

Fig. 5.22. Comparison of HC emission for corn oil methyl ester and its blends d) Comparison of HC emission for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel The HC emission for RCO100, COME100 and COEE100 for full load condition is compared with D100. As shown in fig. 5.24, RCO100, COME100 and COEE100 are having lower HC emissions compared to D100 at full load of the engine. HC emissions for RCO100, COME100 and COEE100 are 3.1%, 22.3% and 18.1% lower than that of D100.
62

35 30 HC Emission (ppm) 25

20
15 10 5 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100%

D100

COEE25
COEE50 COEE75 COEE100

Fig. 5.23. Comparison of HC emission for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends
35 30 HC Emission (ppm) 25 20 15 10 5 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% D100 RCO100

COME100
COEE100

Fig. 5.24. Comparison of HC emission for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel
63

5.2.4 Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) NOx (oxides of nitrogen) is a major pollutant in case of diesel engine exhaust emissions. NOx also increases with respect to the engine load. Viscosity, cetane number, heat release rate, oxygen content and calorific value of fuels are some major factor affecting emission of NOx in compression ignition engine. a) Blends of corn oil (RCO) The variation of NOx emission for corn oil (RCO) and its blends for all test load conditions is shown in fig. 5.25.Results express that less NOx emissions have been found in case of corn oil (RCO) and its blends than the diesel fuel. The NOx emissions increased with the engine load, due to a higher combustion temperature. The higher viscosity and lower calorific value lead to poor combustion and hence less NOx emission is observed in case of RCO and its blends. The NOx emissions for D100, RCO25, RCO50, RCO75 and RCO100 are 412, 409, 403, 396 and 382 ppm respectively at full engine load.

450
400 350 NOx Emission (ppm) 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100%

D100
RCO25 RCO50 RCO75 RCO100

Fig. 5.25. Comparison of NOx emission for corn oil and its blends
64

b) Blends of corn oil methyl ester (COME) Fig. 5.26 shows the NOx emissions versus engine load graph for corn oil methyl ester and its blends. The NOx emissions are found more in case of COME and its blends compared to diesel fuel for all test load conditions. Most probably higher viscosity, increased heat release rate and higher oxygen content are the reason for the higher NOx emissions in case of COME and its blends than that of diesel fuel. High cetane number also influences on the NOx emissions as it would result in shortened ignition delay period thereby allowing less time for air/fuel mixing before the premixed combustion phase. Consequently, a weaker mixture would produce low NOx formation. But in case of COME and its blends, extra oxygen content in the molecules are responsible for high NOx emissions. The NOx emissions for D100, COME25, COME50, COME75 and COME100 are 412, 420, 429, 438 and 447 ppm respectively at full load of the engine.
500 450 400 NOx Emission (ppm)

350
300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% D100 COME25 COME50 COME75 COME100

Fig. 5.26. Comparison of NOx emission for corn oil methyl ester and its blends c) Blends of corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) Fig. 5.27 shows the NOx emissions versus engine load graph for corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) and
65

its blends. The NOx emissions are found more in case of COEE and its blends compared to diesel fuel for all test load conditions. High cetane number also influences on the NOx emissions as it would result in shortened ignition delay period thereby allowing less time for air/fuel mixing before the premixed combustion phase. Consequently, a weaker mixture would produce low NOx formation. But in case of COEE and its blends, extra oxygen content in the molecules is responsible for high NOx emissions. The NOx emissions for D100, COEE25, COEE50, COEE75 and COEE100 are 412, 420, 429, 436 and 442 ppm respectively at full load of the engine.
500 450 400 NOx Emission (ppm) 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% D100 COEE25 COEE50 COEE75 COEE100

Fig. 5.27. Comparison of NOx emission for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends

d) Comparison of NOx emission for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel NOx emissions for RCO100, COME100 and COEE100 are evaluated and compared those of with D100 for test load conditions as shown in fig. 5.28. It is observed that NOx emission is found lower in case of RCO100 than the diesel fuel by 7.28%. COME100 and COEE100 are having higher emissions of NOx compared to diesel by 8.49% and 7.28% respectively at full engine load.
66

500 450 400 NOx Emission (ppm) 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0% 25% 50% Engine Load % 75% 100% D100 RCO100 COME100 COEE100

Fig. 5.28. Comparison of NOx emission for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel In this chapter performance and emission characteristics have been evaluated and compared for blends of corn oil (RCO), corn oil methyl ester (COME) and corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) with diesel fuel at approximate steps of 25% of rated engine load.

67

Chapter 6

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE

6.1 Conclusions In this present study, corn oil and its biodiesels (methyl ester and ethyl ester) are tested as alternative fuels for compression ignition engine. Performance and emission characteristics of compression ignition engine are evaluated using blends of corn oil (RCO), corn oil methyl ester (COME) and corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) and compared those of with diesel fuel at engine load 0-100% with approximate steps of 25% i.e. 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% & 100% of full engine load. Based on this study following conclusions have been madeBrake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) decreased with increase in load. For RCO, COME and COEE and their blends BSFC found higher than neat diesel. BSFC for RCO100, COEE100 and COME100 were 28.9%, 25.43% and 21.63% greater than that of D100 at full engine load. Brake thermal efficiency (BTE) found increase with increase in load. At higher load, BTE decreased for all test fuels. For RCO, COME and COEE and their blends BTE observed lower than diesel. BTE for RCO100, COEE100 and COME100 were 13.23%, 11.42% and 8.78% lower than that of D100 at full engine load. Exhaust gas temperature found increased with increase in load. EGT found higher than diesel fuel for RCO, COEE and their blends. COME and its blends are having lower EGT compared to diesel fuel. EGT of RCO100, COME100 and COEE are 24.8%, -1% and 2.85 higher than that of D100 at full engine load. CO emission observed higher with RCO and its blends compared to diesel fuel. The biodiesels (COME, COEE and their blends) are having lower CO emissions than the neat diesel fuel. RCO100, COEE100 and COME100 are having 8.3%, -25% and -30.6% greater CO emissions than D100. Carbon dioxide is having a great effect on green house gases due to form of blanket effect on the atmosphere as it aids global warming.CO2 emissions increase with increase in load. The RCO100 is having 16.9% lower emission of CO2 compared to the D100,
68

whereas COME100 and COEE100 are having 10.2% and 12.3% greater CO2 emissions compared to the D100. However biodiesel and their blends are having greater emissions of CO2 than the diesel fuel but net emissions are zero as biodiesels are sourced by plants. HC emissions found increased with increase in load. HC emissions observed lower in case of RCO, COME, COEE and their blends than diesel. HC emissions for RCO100, COME100 and COEE100 are 3.1%, 22.3% and 18.1% lower than that of D100. An appreciable result has been recorded in NOx emission with RCO and its blends. NOx found lower for RCO and its blends compared to diesel. In case of COME, COEE and their blends NOx emissions are higher compared to diesel. Higher oxygen content of biodiesels is responsible for higher NOx emissions compared to diesel. RCO100 is having maximum reduction of 6.86% in NOx emission compared to diesel. COME100 and COEE100 are having 8.49 and 7.28% greater NOx emission than that of D100. Corn oil (RCO) and its blends are having comparable performance and emission characteristics compared with diesel fuel. NOx reduction is very attractive result with RCO and its blends. But higher viscosity and lower calorific value restricts the recommendation of corn oil as alternative fuel for diesel engine. Biodiesel corn oil methyl ester (COME) and its blends are having better performance characteristics compared to corn oil (RCO) and its blends. Emission characteristics of engine with COME and its blends are comparable with those of diesel fuel. Corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) and its blends are having comparable performance and emission characteristics of engine with diesel fuel. From the results, it is stated that biodiesel are better substitute of diesel fuel than the diesel fuel. COME and COEE both biodiesels found to be effective as alternative fuels for diesel engine. However COME and is blends are having better results compared to the COEE and its blends but COEE and its blends are recommended as COEE is totally renewable. Corn oil ethyl ester (COEE) is better options than RCO and COME as alternative fuel for compression ignition engine without any modifications. But the addition of higher percentage of biodiesel blends with diesel fuel decreases brake thermal efficiency and increase brake
69

specific

fuel

consumption.

On the whole, corn oil and its biodiesels (COME and COEE) can be used as alternative fuels for compression ignition engine without any engine modifications. 6.2 Scope of future work Yield of ethyl ester of corn oil was nearly three fourth of the corn oil used. With variation in reaction time, quantity of catalyst, temperature and speed of magnetic stirrer, this problem can be resolved. NOx emissions were higher in case of alkyl esters of corn oil. So, exhaust gas recirculation method can be implemented to overcome this problem. Performance and emission characteristics can be evaluated with variation in injection timing and injection pressure for corn oil and its alkyl esters. Effect of compression ratio on the performance, emission and combustion characteristics can be compared for corn oil and its alkyl esters with diesel fuel. Study of performance and emission characteristics of compression ignition engine by preheating of corn oil alkyl esters can be made.

70

REFERENCES
[1] A. Ramadhas, S. Jayaraj, and C. Muraleedharan, Use of vegetable oils as I.C. engine fuels A review, Renewable Energy, vol. 29, no. 5, pp. 727742, Apr. 2004. [2] D. Agarwal, L. Kumar, and A. K. Agarwal, Performance evaluation of a vegetable oil fuelled compression ignition engine, Renewable Energy, vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 11471156, Jun. 2008. [3] Y. D. Wang, T. Al-Shemmeri, P. Eames, J. McMullan, N. Hewitt, Y. Huang, and S. Rezvani, An experimental investigation of the performance and gaseous exhaust emissions of a diesel engine using blends of a vegetable oil, Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 26, no. 1415, pp. 16841691, Oct. 2006. [4] K. Pramanik, Properties and use of jatropha curcas oil and diesel fuel blends in compression ignition engine, Renewable Energy, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 239248, Feb. 2003. [5] S. Bari, T. H. Lim, and C. W. Yu, Effects of preheating of crude palm oil (CPO) on injection system, performance and emission of a diesel engine, Renewable Energy, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 339351, Nov. 2002. [6] A. K. Agarwal and A. Dhar, Experimental investigations of performance, emission and combustion characteristics of Karanja oil blends fuelled DICI engine, Renewable Energy, vol. 52, pp. 283291, Apr. 2013. [7] S. P. Singh and D. Singh, Biodiesel production through the use of different sources and characterization of oils and their esters as the substitute of diesel: A review, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 200216, Jan. 2010. [8] J. Van Gerpen, Biodiesel processing and production, Fuel Processing Technology, vol. 86, no. 10, pp. 10971107, Jun. 2005. [9] M. Senthil Kumar, A. Kerihuel, J. Bellettre, and M. Tazerout, Experimental investigations on the use of preheated animal fat as fuel in a compression ignition engi ne, Renewable Energy, vol. 30, no. 9, pp. 14431456, Jul. 2005. [10] M.P. Punia, and A.S. Jethoo, Jatropha Plantation for Biodiesel Production in Rajasthan : Climate , Economics and Employment, Universal Journal of Environmental Research and Technology, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1420, 2012. [11] H. Mulimani, M. C. Navindgi, and O.D. Hebbal, Extraction of Biodiesel from Vegetable Oils and their Comparisons, International Journal of Advanced Scientific Research and
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Technology, vol. 2, pp. 242250, 2012. [12] A.L. Haiter, R. Ravi, S. Arumugham, and K. Thyagarajan, Performance , emission and combustion evaluation of diesel engine using Methyl Esters of Mahua oil,International Journal of Environmental Sciences vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 639649, 2012. [13] M. Karabektas, G. Ergen, and M. Hosoz, The effects of preheated cottonseed oil methyl ester on the performance and exhaust emissions of a diesel engine, Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 28, no. 1718, pp. 21362143, Dec. 2008. [14] . elikten, E. Mutlu, and H. Solmaz, Variation of performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with diesel, rapeseed oil and hazelnut oil methyl ester blends, Renewable Energy, vol. 48, pp. 122126, Dec. 2012. [15] D. J. P. Selvam and K. Vadivel, Performance and Emission Analysis of DI Diesel Engine Fuelled with Methyl Esters of Beef Tallow and Diesel Blends, Procedia Engineering, vol. 38, pp. 342358, Jan. 2012. [16] A. E. Pillay, S. C. Fok, M. Elkadi, S. Stephen, J. Manuel, M. Z. Khan, and S. Unnithan, Engine Emissions and Performances with Alternative Biodiesels: A Review, Journal of Sustainable Development, vol. 5, no. 4, Mar. 2012. [17] M. I. Al-Widyan, G. Tashtoush, and M. Abu-Qudais, Utilization of ethyl ester of waste vegetable oils as fuel in diesel engines, Fuel Processing Technology, vol. 76, no. 2, pp. 91103, May 2002. [18] S. Puhan, N. Vedaraman, G. Sankaranarayanan, and B. V. B. Ram, Performance and emission study of Mahua oil (madhuca indica oil) ethyl ester in a 4-stroke natural aspirated direct injection diesel engine, Renewable Energy, vol. 30, no. 8, pp. 12691278, Jul. 2005. [19] R. Kumar, A. K. Dixit, G. S. Manes, R. Khurana and S. K. Singh, Emission and Performance Characteristics of Jatropha Ethyl Ester Blends with Diesel Fuel in a C . I . Engine, International Journal of Automobile Engineering, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 3447, 2012. [20] A. M. Syam, R. Yunus, T. Idaty, and M. Ghazi, Synthesis of Jatropha curcas -based Methyl Ester and Ethyl Ester as Biodiesel Feedstocks, Pertanika J. Sci. & Technology, vol. 20, pp. 165 173, 2012. [21] B. Baiju, M. K. Naik, and L. M. Das, A comparative evaluation of compression ignition engine characteristics using methyl and ethyl esters of Karanja oil, Renewable Energy, vol. 34, no. 6, pp. 16161621, Jun. 2009.

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[22] S. Puhan, N. Vedaraman, B. V Rambrahamam, and G. Nagarajan, Mahua ( Madhuca indica) seed oil : A source of renewable energy in India, Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, vol. 64, no. November, pp. 890896, 2005. [23] B. U. Rashid, M. Ibrahim, S. Ali, M. Adil, S. Hina, I. H. Bukhari, and R. Yunus, Comparative study of the methanolysis and ethanolysis of maize oils using alkaline catalysts, GRASAS Y ACEITES, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 3543, 2012. [24] B. F. Lin, J. H, Huang, D. Y. Huang, Experimental study of the effects of vegetable oil methyl ester on DI diesel engine performance characteristics and pollutant emissions, Fuel, vol. 88, pp. 177985, 2009. [25] C.R. Associations, Corn Oil, 2006. [26] http://www.indexmundi.com/cornoilproduction/india (Last Accessed on June 2013). [27] http://www.wikipedia.org/hydraulicdynamometer/ (Last Accessed on June 2013).

73

APPENDIX A
APPENDIX A.1 FORMULAE USED

Brake Power (BP) kW

Where W= Load in kg C=Dynamometer Constant = 2720 N= Speed in r.p.m.

Fuel Consumption Rate (mf)

Rate of fuel consumption = mf =

Where kg/s

cm3/s

fuel mf t

= Density of fuel in kg/m3 =Fuel consumption rate in kg/s = Time taken to consume 25cc of fuel in s

Brake thermal efficiency (BTE) BTE=bth =

Where bth BP =Brake thermal efficiency =Brake Power in kW

CVf =Calorific value of fuel in kJ/kg mf =Fuel consumption rate in kg/s

Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) BSFC= Where mf BP =Fuel consumption rate in kg/s = Brake Power in kW kg/kW-hr

Biodiesel yield (wt%) Biodiesel yield (wt%) =

II

APPENDIX B
APPENDIX B.1.5 Production of corn since year 2000 in India Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Corn oil production (1000 MT) 12040 13160 11150 14980 14180 14710 15100 18960 19730 16720 21730 21750 21000

APPENDIX B.1.6 Change in dynamics viscosity of corn oil with temperature Temperature (C) 20 40 60 80 100
III

Dynamic viscosity of RCO (poise) 0.6 0.358 0.213 0.118 0.045

APPENDIX B.5.1 Comparison of BSFC (kg/kW-hr) for corn oil and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 0.900
0.687505 0.408527 0.376352 0.348228

RCO25 0.900
0.698853 0.448744 0.390668 0.396764

RCO50 0.900
0.646566 0.450163 0.422091 0.408283

RCO75 0.900
0.715747 0.497976 0.415668 0.413445

RCO100 0.900
0.703723 0.483137 0.423963 0.441318

APPENDIX B.5.2 Comparison of BSFC (kg/kW-hr) for corn oil methyl ester and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 0.9
0.661804 0.408527 0.376352 0.342612

COME25 0.9
0.677704 0.427878 0.39226 0.353583

COME50 0.9
0.703929 0.444248 0.404948 0.37113

COME75 0.9
0.725028 0.457405 0.421452 0.392107

COME100 0.9
0.743135 0.469963 0.434992 0.416196

APPENDIX B.5.3 Comparison of BSFC (kg/kW-hr) for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 0.9
0.661804 0.408527 0.376352 0.342612

COEE25 0.9
0.6865697 0.4344977 0.3999914 0.3607435

COEE50 0.9
0.7157779 0.4527961 0.4144517 0.3801571

COEE75 0.9
0.741453 0.4689 0.434008 0.404278

COEE100 0.9
0.760755 0.482297 0.448498 0.429805

APPENDIX B.5.4 Comparison of BSFC (kg/kW-hr) for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 0.9
0.661804 0.408527 0.376352 0.342612

RCO100 0.9
0.703723 0.483137 0.423963 0.441318

COME100 0.9
0.743135 0.469963 0.434992 0.416196

COEE100 0.9
0.760755 0.482297 0.448498 0.429805

IV

APPENDIX B.5.5 Comparison of BTE (%) for corn oil and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 0
12.33487 19.9822 21.69053 23.82658

RCO25 0
11.99678 18.68325 21.46065 21.13091

RCO50 0
13.32665 19.14099 20.41398 21.10441

RCO75 0
12.38296 17.79819 21.32245 21.43709

RCO100 0
12.9648 18.88414 21.51985 20.67361

APPENDIX B.5.6 Comparison of BTE (%) for corn oil methyl ester and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 0
12.33487 19.9822 21.69053 23.82658

COME25 0
12.29643 19.59436 21.37357 23.7115

COME50 0
12.24067 19.39582 21.27818 23.21707

COME75 0
12.16455 19.28192 20.92681 22.49295

COME100 0
12.17172 19.24669 20.79402 21.7331

APPENDIX B.5.7 Comparison of BTE (%) for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 0
12.33487 19.9822 21.69053 23.82658

COEE25 0
12.19523 19.27023 20.93263 23.21005

COEE50 0
12.00586 18.9788 20.73469 22.6052

COEE75 0
11.90352 18.8226 20.33584 21.83128

COEE100 0
11.92426 18.80883 20.22625 21.10594

APPENDIX B.5.8 Comparison of BTE (%) for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 0
12.33487 19.9822 21.69053 23.82658

RCO100 0
12.9648 18.88414 21.51985 20.67361

COME100 0
12.17172 19.24669 20.79402 21.7331

COEE100 0
11.92426 18.80883 20.22625 21.10594

APPENDIX B.5.9 Comparison of EGT (C) for corn oil and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 140 175 230 310 450 RCO25 150 195 245 330 475 RCO50 161 195 265 356 500 RCO75 162 198 280 400 525 RCO100 165 210 300 450 565

APPENDIX B.5.10 Comparison of EGT (C) for corn oil methyl ester and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 140 175 230 310 450 COME25 136 172 226 307 444 COME50 132 167 221 303 440 COME75 130 162 217 299 441 COME100 128 160 211 295 444

APPENDIX B.511 Comparison of EGT (C) for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 140 175 230 310 450 COEE25 141 176 231 312 453 COEE50 142 177 233 314 456 COEE75 143 177 235 316 459 COEE100 144 179 237 320 463

APPENDIX B.5.12 Comparison of EGT (C) for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 140 175 230 310 450 RCO100 165 210 300 450 565 COME100 128 160 211 295 444 COEE100 144 179 237 320 463

VI

APPENDIX B.5.13 Comparison of CO (%) emissions for corn oil and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 0.05 0.14 0.15 0.18 0.38 RCO25 0.048 0.13 0.14 0.18 0.37 RCO50 0.044 0.13 0.15 0.19 0.38 RCO75 0.038 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.37 RCO100 0.04 0.13 0.17 0.22 0.39

APPENDIX B.5.14 Comparison of CO (%) emissions for corn oil methyl ester and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 0.05 0.14 0.15 0.18 0.38 COME25 0.045 0.13 0.14 0.17 0.36 COME50 0.04 0.125 0.13 0.16 0.33 COME75 0.035 0.12 0.12 0.15 0.3 COME100 0.03 0.11 0.11 0.14 0.25

APPENDIX B.515 Comparison of CO (%) emissions for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 0.05 0.14 0.15 0.18 0.38 COEE25 0.048 0.13 0.14 0.17 0.37 COEE50 0.04 0.13 0.13 0.17 0.35 COEE75 0.038 0.12 0.13 0.16 0.31 COEE100 0.032 0.12 0.12 0.16 0.27

APPENDIX B.5.16 Comparison of CO (%) emissions for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 0.05 0.14 0.15 0.18 0.38 RCO100 0.04 0.13 0.17 0.22 0.39 COME100 0.03 0.11 0.11 0.14 0.25 COEE100 0.032 0.12 0.12 0.16 0.27

VII

APPENDIX B.5.17 Comparison of CO2 (%) emissions for corn oil and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 1 1.25 1.78 2.33 3.8 RCO25 0.95 1.1 1.7 2.12 3.4 RCO50 0.94 1.08 1.67 2.11 3.33 RCO75 0.9 1.03 1.65 2.1 3.25 RCO100 0.85 1 1.47 2.1 3.19

APPENDIX B.5.18 Comparison of CO2 (%) emissions for corn oil methyl ester and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 1 1.25 1.78 2.33 3.8 COME25 1.05 1.3 1.84 2.38 3.9 COME50 1.09 1.37 1.9 2.48 4.02 COME75 1.12 1.43 1.98 2.53 4.11 COME100 1.18 1.5 2 2.6 4.19

APPENDIX B.519 Comparison of CO2 (%) emissions for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 1 1.25 1.78 2.33 3.8 COEE25 1.07 1.33 1.9 2.41 4 COEE50 1.11 1.4 1.95 2.52 4.09 COEE75 1.13 1.46 2.07 2.59 4.16 COEE100 1.21 1.55 2.15 2.68 4.27

APPENDIX B.5.20 Comparison of CO2 (%) emissions for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 1 1.25 1.78 2.33 3.8 RCO100 0.85 1 1.47 2.1 3.19 COME100 1.18 1.5 2 2.6 4.19 COEE100 1.21 1.55 2.15 2.68 4.27

VIII

APPENDIX B.5.21 Comparison of HC (ppm) emissions for corn oil and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 1 1.25 1.78 2.33 3.8 RCO25 0.95 1.1 1.7 2.12 3.4 RCO50 0.94 1.08 1.67 2.11 3.33 RCO75 0.9 1.03 1.65 2.1 3.25 RCO100 0.85 1 1.47 2.1 3.19

APPENDIX B.5.22 Comparison of HC (ppm) emissions for corn oil methyl ester and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 15 17 21 31 33 COME25 14 16 20 29 31 COME50 13 15 19 28 30 COME75 12 14 18 26 27 COME100 11 13 15 24 26

APPENDIX B.5.23 Comparison of HC (ppm) emissions for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 15 17 21 31 33 COEE25 14 16 20 29 32 COEE50 13 16 20 29 31 COEE75 13 15 19 27 28 COEE100 12 14 17 25 27

APPENDIX B.5.24 Comparison of HC (ppm) emissions for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 15 17 21 31 33 RCO100 14 16 20 29 32 COME100 11 13 15 24 26 COEE100 12 14 17 25 27

IX

APPENDIX B.5.25 Comparison of NOx (ppm) emissions for corn oil and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 107 145 225 357 412 RCO25 105 143 222 349 409 RCO50 100 139 219 341 403 RCO75 97 134 213 334 396 RCO100 93 128 208 321 382

APPENDIX B.5.26 Comparison of NOx (ppm) emissions for corn oil methyl ester and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 107 145 225 357 412 COME25 110 150 230 363 420 COME50 113 153 235 375 429 COME75 119 156 240 382 438 COME100 121 159 243 388 447

APPENDIX B.5.27 Comparison of NOx (ppm) emissions for corn oil ethyl ester and its blends
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 107 145 225 357 412 COEE25 111 146 229 365 420 COEE50 115 147 232 372 429 COEE75 116 148 235 377 436 COEE100 117 150 238 382 442

APPENDIX B.5.28 Comparison of NOx (ppm) emissions for RCO, COME and COEE with diesel fuel
Load 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% D100 107 145 225 357 412 RCO100 93 128 208 321 382 COME100 121 159 243 388 447 COEE100 117 150 238 382 442