Sex Roles, Vol. 22, Nos.

11/12, 1990

The Influence of Gender Role Typing on the Expression of Depressive Symptoms

Sarah J. Oliver and Brenda B. Toner

University of Toronto

This study investigated the influence o f gender role typing on the expression o f depressive symptoms. Previous research (Padesky & Hammen, 198D has found that men and women differ in their expression o f depressive symptoms and has proposed gender role expectations as a possible explanation. This study considered gender role typing as a possible moderating factor o f depressive symptoms. Undergraduates (99 men, 360 women) were divided into masculine and feminine groups according to the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Depressive symptoms were measured by the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). Gender role typing differences emerged on the BDI with feminine subjects reporting more emotional symptoms than masculine subjects (p < . 05) and masculine subjects reporting more withdrawal and somatic symptoms than feminine subjects (p < .05). The results are consistent with the hypothesis that depressive symptoms are influenced by societal expectations. Future research should consider the influence o f gender role typing on the expression o f depressive symptoms.
Previous research has consistently found gender differences in the expression of symptoms associated with depression (Chevron, Quinlan, & Blatt, 1978; Chino & Funabiki, 1984; Kleinke, Staneski, & Mason, 1982; Hammen & Padesky, 1977; Padesky & Hammen, 1981; Vredenburg, Krames, & Flett, 1986). These studies found that men and women did not differ in their degree of depression, yet interestingly, men and women did differ in their expression of depressive symptoms. Specifically, Hammen and Padesky (1977) reported that the depressed female college students in their study were more likely than the depressed male college students to report the depressive symptoms of self-dislike and indecisiveness, whereas the depressed male college students were more likely to report the depressive symptoms of social withdrawal, sense of failure, and sleep disturbance.
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Based on this research, it appears that men and women may not differ in level of depression but in their manner of expressing their depressive symptoms. Accordingly, subsequent research focused on why men and women differ in their reporting of depressive symptoms. Studies successfully repeated Hammen and Padesky's findings with college students (Chevron et al., 1978; Chino & Funabiki, 1984; Funabiki, Bologna, Pepping, & FitzGerald, 1980; Padesky & Hammen, 1981) and extended the findings to psychiatric inpatients (Vredenburg et ai., 1986). In general, these studies found that depressed male college students and male psychiatric inpatients reported symptoms indicative of social withdrawal and somatic concerns, whereas depressed female college students and female psychiatric patients reported self-blame and self-dislike. One proposed explanation for gender differences in the expression of depressive symptoms is that men and women are expected to behave according to different gender roles (Astor-Dubin & Hammen, 1984; Vredenburg et al., 1986). Gender roles are defined as the prescribed behaviors, attitudes, and traits socially defined as appropriate for one's gender (Lips, 1988). Studies have found substantial agreement in the beliefs of people regarding masculine and feminine gender roles. In particular, feminine individuals are expected to be passive, nurturant, warm, emotional, and dependent. In contrast masculine individuals are expected to be independent, unemotional, and highly self-confident (Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, & Rosenkrantz, 1972; Deaux & Lewis, 1984; Kagan, 1964; Williams & Bennett, 1975). Researchers have proposed that the expression of emotional depressive symptoms is incompatible with the socially defined masculine gender role (Vredenburg et al., 1986). This hypothesis is indirectly supported by studies of how depressed men and depressed women are treated. Hammen and Peters (1977) studied the reactions of students to the description of men and women experiencing depressive emotions. Students evaluated the depressed men more negatively than the depressed women. This pattern of differential negative evaluation of men and women did not occur when the descriptions involved unemotional detached responses to stress. In addition, significantly more feminine traits were attributed to descriptions of depressed men than nondepressed men (Hammen & Peters, 1978). These researchers suggest that depressed men are especially at risk for rejection because of their failure to display masculine characteristics. Accordingly, the expression of depression in a less emotional manner (e.g., somatic concerns, work inhibition, social withdrawal) may be more acceptable for men. The feminine gender role, however, appears to permit emotional expression of depressive symptoms (Hammen & Peters, 1978). The proposed influence of gender roles on the expression of depressive symptoms is related to research on the general effects of gender roles on behavior. The work of Bem has suggested that people differ in the extent to

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which they use gender roles as an idealized standard against which their own behavior is evaluated (Bern, 1974, 1975, 1979, 1981). The degree to which individuals regulate their behavior by gender roles is defined as their gender role typing (Greenglass, 1982). "Masculine" and "feminine" individuals are defined as those who have internalized their appropriate gender role (Bem, 1974). Masculine and feminine individuals are motivated to keep their behavior consistent with their internalized gender role (Bem, 1974). This goal is presumably accomplished by suppressing any behavior that might be considered undesirable or inappropriate for their gender role (Bern, 1975; Kagan, 1964). In her research, Bern (1975) has also identified androgynous and undifferentiated individuals as those less influenced by the masculine and feminine gender roles. Since Bem (1975) has proposed that these individuals do not modify their behavior in accordance with gender roles, they will not be considered in the present research. Research on gender differences in the expression of depressive symptoms has demonstrated differences between men and women (e.g., Hammen & Padesky, 1977). If men and women are divided into those who are influenced by the masculine gender role and those who are influenced by the feminine gender role, a different pattern of depressive symptoms may emerge. For example, a feminine man may not express his depression in a somatic manner, and a masculine woman may. This finding may be overlooked if subjects are grouped by gender alone, and gender role typing is not considered. The present investigation's proposal that gender roles influence depressive symptom expression does not aim to undermine previous findings of gender differences in the manifestations of depression. Rather, it implies that the gender difference in symptom reporting may be further understood by also considering the influence of gender roles. Previous research (Pidano & Tennen, 1985) has considered the influence of gender role typing on the experience of depression, using the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (Blatt, D'Afflitti, & Quinlan, 1976) and a semistructured interview designed by the authors. The research found that the influence of gender role typing was greatest for men in traditionally feminine areas of dependence and intimate relationships, whereas for women the stereotypically masculine concerns of control activity and efficacy were most affected by gender role typing. The present study is related to Pidano and Tennen's work in its focus on the influence of gender role typing on depressive symptoms. The present research differs in its focus on the influence of gender role typing on the expression (i.e., self-report) of depressive symptoms rather than on the actual depressive experiences. The present research does not claim to extend its results to actual behavioral symptoms. Rather, it is studying how undergraduates report their depressive symptoms.

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The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of gender role typing as defined by the Bern Sex Role Inventory (BSRI; Bern, 1981) on the reporting of depressive symptoms as defined by the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979) in undergraduate students. This study extended the findings of Hammen and Padesky (1977) by considering gender role typing as a mediator of depressive symptoms expression. First, following the procedure of Hammen and Padesky, the BDI responses of men and women were compared to test for gender differences. Then, to test the central thesis, the subjects were divided into masculine and feminine groups. The BDI symptoms endorsement of the masculine and feminine groups was compared to determine the influence of gender role typing on the reporting of depressive symptoms. It was hypothesized that masculine and feminine subjects would report depressive symptoms on the BDI consistent with their gender role typing. Specifically, it was predicted that the depressive symptoms of feminine individuals would involve affective symptoms such as self-dislike, indecisiveness, and increased crying. In contrast, it was expected that masculine individuals would report depressive symptoms involving somatic concerns and social withdrawal. In order to test the effect of societal expectations of gender role on the expression of depressive symptoms, BDI item endorsement of both the total sample and the depressed subsample were analyzed. It was expected that the influence of gender roles on the symptom expression of the total sample would be accentuated in the depressed subsample, as previous research has found (Hammen & Padesky, 1977; Padesky & Hammen, 1981). The relevance of studying depressive symptoms of undergraduates as an analogue to clinical depressive symptoms has been questioned by researchers (Gotlib, 1984; Hill, Kemp-Wheeler, & Jones, 1986, 1987). For the present research it was considered appropriate to study undergraduates, since research has indicated that undergraduate students' responses on the BDI are similar to those of clinically depressed patients (Hill et al., 1986, 1987). It has been demonstrated that depressive symptoms of clinical patients and of mildly depressed undergraduates mainly differ in severity and not in the type of symptom (Blatt et al., 1976; Chino & Funabiki, t984; Hill et al., 1987).

METHOD

Subjects
Undergraduate psychology students in second- and third-year classes at the University of Toronto volunteered to participate in the study. No pay-

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ment or class credit was provided. The final sample was 360 female and 99 male single students. The mean age was 21.52 (SD = 2.70) with a range from 18 to 33. Of the sample, 15 were part-time students. Their scores on the three inventories did not differ significantly from the full-time students and were therefore included in the study.

Materials Beck Depression Inventory. The revised BDI (Beck et al., 1979) is a 21-item multiple choice self-report measure of depression. The items assess the symptoms of depression and are rated by the subject from 0 to 3 in terms of intensity. Subjects were considered depressed if their summed score exceeded 9 out of a possible 63 (Beck et al., 1979). The BDI has been validated for use with several populations including undergraduates (Bumberry, Oliver, & McClure, 1978; Hammen, 1980). Short Bern Sex Role Inventory. The short BSRI (Bem, 1981) measures the extent to which individuals identify themselves along traditional gender roles. The short BSRI asks the respondent to indicate on a 7-point scale how well each of the 30 attributes describes him- or herself. Ten of the attributes reflect cultural definitions of masculinity (e.g., independent) and 10 reflect definitions of femininity (e.g., sympathetic), with the remaining attributes serving as filler items. Each respondent receives both a masculinity (Masc) and a femininity (Fem) score. Following the suggested scoring procedure (Bem, 1981), subjects were divided into gender role typing groups according to the medians provided by Bem (1981). Accordingly, subjects with a Fem score above or equal to 5.5 but a Masc score below 4.8 were labeled feminine (N = 87). Likewise, subjects with a Masc score above or equal to 4.8 and a Fern score below 5.5 were labeled masculine (N = 84). The 30-item short version was chosen over the 60-item original BSRI (Bem, 1975) for two reasons. First, in response to psychometric criticisms of the original BSRI (Locksley & Colten, 1979; Pedhazur & Tetenbaum, 1979), Bern has deleted items from the original inventory, creating a shorter inventory with increased internal consistency. Second, the overlap in item content of the original BSRI and the BDI was decreased by the removal of the common items in the formation of the short BSRI. The decreased overlap between the inventories lessens the probability of an inflated positive correlation between the inventories due to similar test content (Hogan, Hogan, Briggs, & Jones, 1983; Nicholls, Licht, & Pearl, 1982). Marlowe--Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MCSDS). The MCSDS (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960) is a measure of social desirability of response style. It consists of 33 items rated in a true-false format. The MCSDS is made

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up of items that reflect culturally sanctioned and approved behaviors that are relatively unlikely to occur. The scale tests the needs of subjects to present themselves in a socially desirable light. The scale is best suited for measuring a motive to avoid negative evaluation or other-deception (Nederhof, 1985). Administration under anonymous conditions has been shown to decrease MCSDS score (Paulhus, 1984). In the present study, the MCSDS was used to screen for other-deception. Accordingly, subjects scoring above two standard deviations of the mean (M = 13.36, SD = 4.91) were removed from the sample (N = 3).

Procedure
Subjects were asked to participate in this study during their regularly scheduled psychology class, in the absence of their professor. The request was made by either a male or a female investigator [no sex o f administrator effect was found, t(457) = 1.69, p -- .11]. Subjects were informed that the aim of the study was the investigation of the relationship between personality and mood. Consenting subjects were given 25 minutes in order to complete the three questionnaires mentioned above, presented in counterbalanced order. No participant needed extra time. Subjects were informed that their responses would be anonymous; accordingly, subjects' names appeared only on the consent form, which was immediately detached from the questionnaires by the subject and collected separately to ensure confidentiality and anonymity.

RESULTS

Gender Differences Total Sample. The mean depression score on the BDI for men was 7.62 (SD = 6.26; N = 99) and for women was 7.95 (SD = 6.29, N = 360). Men
and women did not differ significantly in their level of reported depressive symptoms [t(457) = 0.46, p < .64]. Following the procedure of H a m m e n and Padesky (1977), a stepwise discriminant function analysis was performed on the individual BDI item responses to test the expected finding of gender differences in response patterns. Using a minimum F ratio o f 1.0 as the criterion for item entry, an 8-variable function was derived, [Wilks' lambda = .96, X2(8, N = 459) = 19.27, p < .01]. The probability of correctly classifying the subjects as male

Gender Role Typing Table 1. Items and Standardized Discriminant

Function Coefficients for Total Sample Items Crying Dissatisfaction Expectation of punishment Social withdrawal Fatigue Insomnia Loss o f libido Somatic preoccupation Coefficients b .548 - .543 .477 -.403 .374 - .373 -.340 .316

781

altem descriptions are from Beck (1967, p. 189). bMen were more likely to endorse items with negative coefficients. W o m e n were more likely to endorse items with positive coefficients.

or female using the obtained function is .62. The items and their coefficients are presented in Table I. As expected, the analysis revealed that men in the sample were characterized by more somatically oriented problems (problems sleeping, decreased libido), more social withdrawal, and more dissatisfaction than were women. Women were characterized by more emotive symptoms (crying, sense of punishment) than were men. Women in this sample were more likely than men to endorse the somatic preoccupation symptom. Depressed Subsample. A cutoff score of 10 and above on the BDI was used to classify subjects as mildly depressed. This cutoff score was used as it most efficiently differentiates mildly depressed from nondepressed undergraduate students (Beck, Steer, & Garbin, 1988; Kendall, Hollon, Beck, Hammen, & Ingram, 1987). The mean depression score for men was 15.19 (SD = 4.93; N = 31) and for women was 15.30 (SD = 5.31; N = 116). The difference in degree o f reported depression of depressed men and depressed women was not significant [t(145) = 0.10, p = .92]. A stepwise discriminant function analysis with the depressed subsampie yielded a significant function [Wilks' lambda = .829, X2(9, N = 147) = 26.36, p < .001]. The probability of correct classification by sex using the 9-item function was .73. The items and their coefficients are listed in Table II. The analysis revealed that depressed men were characterized by the more somatically oriented symptoms o f sleep disturbance, suicidal thoughts, social withdrawal, and decreased libido relative to depressed women. Depressed women were distinguishable from men by their emotive symptoms o f crying, sense o f failure, and sadness. Depressed women, in addition, tended to exhibit a somatic preoccupation that differentiated them from depressed men.

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Oliver and Toner

Function Coefficients for Depressed Subsample Items* Coefficientsb Somatic preoccupation .591 Insomnia - .560 Suicidal ideas -.492 Dissatisfaction - .353 Crying .341 Sense of failure .340 Social withdrawal -.329 Loss of libido -.327 Sadness .294 Item descriptions are from Beck (1969, p. 333). bMen weremore likelyto endorseitems with negative coefficients. Womenwere more likely to endorse items with positive coefficients.

Gender Role Typing and Symptom Expression

Having demonstrated gender differences in the report of BDI symptoms, it was of central importance to this investigation to assess the influence of gender role typing on the report o f BDI symptoms. A discriminant function analysis o f masculine and feminine groups was not used as this analysis is not reliable with small samples and many variables (Tatsuoka, 1970). Instead, by factor analysis, BDI items were grouped into factors that were then used to compare the masculine and feminine groups. The 21 items of the BDI for the total sample were submitted to a principal components factor analysis and rotated to a varimax solution. Five factors emerged accounting for 5070 of the total variance in the BDI items. The standard procedure of retaining items with a factor loading over .40 to define that factor (accounting for 15070 of the variance) was observed. The factors and the BDI item loadings are presented in Table III. The factors have been named Self-Dislike, Withdrawal, Somatic Concerns, Listlessness, and Weight Loss, as indicated in Table III. Factor names are based on the BDI items with the strongest loadings. The factors found in the sample are similar to BDI factors found previously with undergraduate samples (Hill et al., 1986). Factor scores for subjects were computed for each factor based on the sum of the defining factor items. Using these factors as dependent variables, independent t-test comparisons were completed to compare masculine and feminine individuals on their symptom expression. Men and women were considered separately. Women: Total Sample. The mean BDI score for masculine women (N = 53) was 6.66 (SD = 4.44). For the feminine women (N = 105), the mean

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Table II1. Beck Depression Inventory Factor and Item Loadings for Total Sample Factor Item loading Factor 1: Self-Dislike Guilt .71 Self-dislike .70 Expectation of punishment .68 Sense of failure .64 Sadness .60 Pessimism .59 Self-accusation. .50 Factor 2: Withdrawal Work retardation .69 Social withdrawal .62 Fatigability .56 Dissatisfaction .53 Suicidal ideas .49 Factor 3: Somatic concerns Somatic preoccupation .67 Loss of libido .67 Crying .51 Irritability .42 Factor 4: Listlessness Fatigability .42 Insomnia .75 Anorexia .62 Factor 5: Weight loss Weight loss .81 Body image change .45

BDI score was 8.14 (SD = 6.60). The means did not differ significantly [t(156) = 1.47, p = .14]. The t-test comparisons o f masculine and feminine g r o u p scores on the B D I factors for the total g r o u p are presented in Table IV. As predicted, the s y m p t o m s o f the Self-Dislike factor (i.e., guilt, selfdislike, expectation o f punishment, sense o f failure, sadness, pessimism, selfaccusations) were reported by feminine w o m e n to a significantly greater degree than masculine w o m e n . Further, feminine w o m e n reported having significantly m o r e severe s y m p t o m s represented by the Weight Loss factor (i.e., weight loss, b o d y image change) than did masculine women. Also consistent with the present hypotheses, masculine w o m e n reported a significantly greater degree o f Listlessness s y m p t o m s (i.e., fatigability, insomnia, anorexia) t h a n did feminine w o m e n . Women." Depressed Subsample. The mean BDI score for masculine women ( N = 7) was 14.14 (SD = 6.74). For the feminine women ( N = 36), the mean B D I score was 15.50 (SD = 5.83). The means did not differ significantly It(41) = 0.55, p = .59].

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Oliver and Toner Table IV. Comparisons of Masculine (Masc) and Feminine (Fem) W o m e n on Beck Depression Inventory Factors: Total Sample
Gender role typing M a s c ( n = 53) F e m ( n = 105) Factors Self-Dislike Withdrawal Somatic Concerns Listlessness Weight Loss ap < .05.
M SD M SD t

2.11 2.42 1.38 1.45 0.37

1.54 2.15 1.30 1.64 0.08

3.21 2.72 1.40 0.98 0.80

3.14 2.53 1.57 0.91 1.17

2.40" 0.76 0.09 2.30* 2.40 a

BDI factor comparisons between masculine and feminine women in the depressed subsample are presented in Table V. As with the total sample, depressed feminine women scored significantly higher than depressed masculine women on the Self-Dislike factor. In addition, depressed masculine women reported a significantly greater degree of symptoms on the Listlessness factor than did feminine women. Men: Total Sample. The mean BDI score for masculine men (N = 19) was 8.37 (SD = 5.92). For the feminine men ( N = 12), the mean BDI score was 9.67 (SD = 5.50). The means did not differ significantly [t(29) = 0.61, p = .55]. Factor comparisons between masculine and feminine men are presented in Table VI. As predicted, masculine men reported symptoms of the Withdrawal factor to a greater degree than did feminine men. Contrary to the present predictions, however, no significant difference was found between masculine and feminine men in their report of symptoms indicating somatic concerns or self-dislike.

Table V. Comparisons of Masculine (Masc) and Feminine (Fem) W o m e n on Beck Depression Inventory Factors: Depressed Sample
Gender role typing M a s c ( n = 7) Factors Self-Dislike Withdrawal Somatic Concerns Listlessnessa Weight Loss
M SD

F e m ( n = 36)
M SD t

3.14 5.60 2.71 (4.00) 1.29

1.95 3.41 1.50 -0.95

6.42 5.33 2.64 (1.00) 1.58

3.17 2.47 1.84 -1.46

2.60 b 0.22 0.10 (49) b 0.52

*The Listlessness factor was tested by a nonparametric test due to heterogeneity of variance. Median values are given in place o f means, M a n n - W h i t n e y U in place of t ratio.

~p < .05.

Gender Role Typing Table VI. Comparisons of Masculine (Masc) and Feminine (Fern)

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Men on Beck Depression Inventory Factors: Total Sample Gender role typing Masc(n = 19) Fem(n = 12) M SD M SD 2.95 2 . 5 1 4 . 6 7 3.14 4.16 2 . 9 1 2.08 1.73 1.16 1.26 1.17 1.03 1.26 1 . 2 0 1.75 1.29 0.42 0.69 0.42 0.67

Factors Self-Dislike Withdrawal Somatic Concerns Listlessness Weight Loss ap < .05.

t 1.69 2.23 a 0.02 1.07 0.02

M e n : Depressed Subsample. T h e m e a n B D I score f o r m a s c u l i n e m e n ( N = 6) was 15.83 (SD = 2.32). F o r the feminine m e n ( N = 6), the m e a n B D I score was 14.33 (SD = 2.25). T h e m e a n s d i d n o t d i f f e r significantly [t(10) = 1.14, p -- .28]. A s with the t o t a l s a m p l e , the d e p r e s s e d s a m p l e i n d e p e n d e n t t tests revealed the W i t h d r a w a l f a c t o r to be significant, as s h o w n in T a b l e V I I . A s p r e d i c t e d , s y m p t o m s i n d i c a t i n g w i t h d r a w a l were r e p o r t e d as being significnatly m o r e severe for depressed masculine m e n t h a n depressed feminine men. T h e W i t h d r a w a l f a c t o r c o m p a r i s o n o f m a s c u l i n e t o f e m i n i n e m e n achieved greater significance with t h e d e p r e s s e d s u b s a m p l e t h a n with the t o t a l sample. T h e s a m p l e size, h o w e v e r , h a d d e c r e a s e d to 12 m e n f r o m 31. A c c o r d ingly, these d a t a s h o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d with c a u t i o n .

DISCUSSION T h e results o f the present s t u d y have d e m o n s t r a t e d the influence o f g e n d e r a n d g e n d e r role t y p i n g o n t h e r e p o r t i n g o f depressive s y m p t o m s . In

Table VII. Comparisons of Masculine (Masc) and Feminine

(Fem) Men on Beck Depression Inventory Factors: Depressed Sample Gender role typing Masc(n = 6) Fem(n = 6) Factors M SD M SD t Self-Dislike 6.00 1.55 7.33 1.37 1.58 Withdrawal 7.33 1.51 2 . 3 3 2.26 4.52 Somatic Concerns 1.50 1.64 1.67 1.03 0.21 Listlessness 2.50 1.05 2.50 1.05 0.00 Weight Loss 1.00 0.89 0.67 0.67 0.67 "p < .001.

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keeping with previous research (e.g., Hammen & Padesky, 1977), men and women differed in their BDI symptom endorsement. In support of the present hypothesis, it was found that masculine men and women differed from feminine men and women, respectively, on their endorsement of BDI symptoms.

Gender Differences
In general, the results of the present sample are consistent with those of previous studies using the BDI (Hammen & Padesky, 1977; Vredenburg et al., 1986). No difference in the level of depression as assessed by the BDI was found between men and women. As expected, men and women differed in their pattern of symptom expression. Specifically, men endorsed more somatic and withdrawal symptoms (i.e., social withdrawal, dissatisfaction, insomnia, suicidal ideas, and loss of libido) than did women. Women in this sample reported more emotional symptoms (i.e., crying, sadness, expectation of punishment, and sense of failure) than did men. Inconsistent with previous research, however, the symptom of somatic preoccupation was found to be reported by women more than men, especially in the depressed subsample. This finding appears to challenge the conclusion that men, as compared to women, are highly somatic in their expression of depression (Hammen & Padesky, 1977). Future research will need to systematically investigate this discrepancy further. Although the importance of the somatic preoccupation finding cannot be overlooked, it should be noted that the somatic preoccupation symptom is one of many somatically oriented symptoms on the BDI. In keeping with previous research (Hammen & Padesky, 1977; Kleinke et al., 1982), men in this sample were characterized by their endorsement of other somatic symptoms (i.e., loss of libido, insomnia). Somatic preoccupation excepted, the symptoms discriminating men and women appear similar to those of previous investigations (e.g., Hammen & Padesky, 1977).

Gender Role Typing

It was proposed that the self-reporting of depressive symptoms may be influenced by masculine and feminine gender roles (Astor-Dubin & Hammen, 1984; Vredenburg et al., 1986). By dividing subjects into gender role typing groups, it was possible to test this proposal. Support for this hypothesis is found in the present results. The depressive symptoms that differentiated masculine and feminine individuals appear to reflect gender roles.

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Consistent with the prediction that feminine individuals would endorse more self-deprecating and emotional symptoms than masculine individuals, feminine women reported significantly more symptoms within the Self-Dislike and the Weight Loss factors than did masculine women. The symptoms defining the Self-Dislike factor (i.e., self-dislike, sadness, sense of failure) are emotional and consistent with the feminine gender role (Broverman et al., 1972). Although Weight Loss could be considered as a somatic symptom, when reported with Self-Dislike and Body Image Change, it may be more indicative of a general concern for appearance, as has been found with anorexia nervosa patients (Garner, Garfinkel, Stancer, & Moldofsky, 1976). It is proposed that because these symptoms are consistent with the feminine gender role, they have been reported by feminine women more than masculine ones. As predicted, masculine individuals reported significantly more symptoms oriented around withdrawal and listlessness than did feminine individuals. The symptoms defining the Withdrawal factor (i.e., work retardation, social withdrawal, and fatigability) are consistent with the masculine gender role. According to research, this gender role dictates that men are the family financial providers (Deaux & Lewis, 1984) and that they are highly active and competitive (Broverman et al., 1972; Deaux, 1984). The masculine depressive symptoms in the present study appear oriented around these expected roles and behaviors. Finally, it was demonstrated that symptoms on the Listlessness factor were reported to a significantly greater degree by masculine women than feminine women. The symptoms defining the Listlessness factor (anorexia, insomnia, fatigability) are somatically oriented and not self-deprecating. As masculine women have internalized the masculine gender role (Bem, 1975), emotionality may be inconsistent with their internalized gender role. Instead, masculine women have reported their depression by symptoms reflecting somatic concerns. In the present study, the observed gender role typing differences in BDI symptoms endorsement were very similar for the total sample and the depressed subsample. Masculine and feminine individuals in the depressed subsample differentially endorsed symptoms on the Self-Dislike, Listlessness, and Withdrawal factors to a greater extent than the total sample. These results suggest that the influence of gender roles on the symptom expression of the total sample are accentuated in the depressed subsample. The depressed subsample results are consistent with the present hypothesis of gender role typing affecting depressive symptoms expression. Due to the small sample size and to the proposal that BDI measures transient depression in students that may not persist for longer than a day (Sacco, 1981; Zimmerman, 1986), the results of the depressed subsample should be interpreted cautiously.

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This study has found support for the hypothesis that masculine and feminine gender roles may be influential in the expression of depressive symptoms. The findings of previous research that depressed men are characterized by withdrawal symptoms may be more applicable to masculine men than feminine men. Similarly, the emotional symptoms associated with women may be more appropriately associated with feminine women than masculine women. Accordingly, gender role typing should be considered in addition to gender in an understanding of the expression of depressive symptoms. The investigators are aware of the suggestion that, when used with students, the BDI may be a measure of general psychopathology (Gotlib, 1984), and that elevated BDI scores may be due to a number of factors other than primary depression (Depue & Monroe, 1978). Although the BDI may not be valid for identifying depression as a nosological entity distinct from other disorders (Depue & Monroe, 1978), the use of the BDI in the investigation of the syndrome of depression (i.e., constellation of depressive symptoms) is defensible (Deardoff & Funabiki, 1985; Kendall et al., 1987). Furthermore, it has been found that the BDI symptoms of student samples showed good comparability with psychiatric patients diagnosed as depressed (Hill et al., 1986, 1987). Hill and his colleagues concluded that the similarity of symptoms in the psychiatric and student groups provides evidence that the BDI measures the same qualitative kind of depression at subclinical and clinical levels, and that this offers some justification for the use of analogue studies (Hill et al., 1986, 1987). Therefore, although it cannot be proposed that the present results are unique to the diagnosis of depression, the comparability between depressed psychiatric and student samples suggest that these results could be extended to a clinical setting. Accordingly, future research should investigate the influence of gender role typing on depressive symptom expression with a clinical population. Two additional limitations should be noted in interpreting the present research. First, it cannot be assumed that the present results can be generalized to actual depressive behavior. This investigation has considered the report of depressive symptoms and the influence of gender role typing on this reporting. Based on the responses of the self-report inventories alone, no conclusions can be drawn about the influence of gender role typing on the depressive behavior. Second, given that students answered both the BSRI and the BDI at the same sitting, the direction of the causality cannot be deduced. Research has indicated that gender role typing may result from depression (Flett, Vredenburg, Pliner, & Krames, 1985). The present study indicates the presence of a relationship between gender role typing and depressive symptom expression, but no directionality. The results of the present study of undergraduate college students suggest that the relationship between gender, gender role typing, and the presen-

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tation of depressive symptoms merits further investigation. Despite the limitations mentioned, the finding that masculine and feminine individuals differ in their depressive symptom expression is of interest. If the socialization of men and women into gender roles affects the expression of depressive symptoms, then gender roles should be taken into consideration when studying depressive symptoms. REFERENCES
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