Coverage of the final exam for moral philosophy

Aquinas
Metaphysics the study of being (existence/reality) as such; it tackles the question about the nature of reality Being o (real being) exists by virtue of the act of existence, which is the first perfection of all beings o It is intrinsically active; to be is to act. Action immediately follows existence. A being acts or operates according to its essence which tells us what sort of thing it is. Its operations are the concrete expression of its (limited) perfection. o It is self-communicative is as much as it pours itself to other beings. First it is rich in existence by virtue of the act of existence though limited by its essence. Secondly it is poor because it does not possess the fullness of existence. Being gives itself to other beings and also receives the action of other beings. Example. Plants need sunlight, water and carbon dioxide from animals and man for photosynthesis. In turn it gives itself as food for man and animals. o Action implies a receiver thus being is relational. To be is to be related to the other. Being achieves fullness in relation to other beings. o All beings are receiver (being as receptivity). Receptivity is perfection otherwise no communication between beings will take place. Every being receives perfection from others towards fuller existence. o Beings then form a network of relation in interaction together building a community. Ex. Ecosystem where minerals, plants, animals and man form part of a whole. o In intelligent and free beings this implies a movement towards communion and ultimately unity with the source of all perfection upon the knowledge of the good and perfection of things. The central theme of Aquinas philosophy is existence. Existence is shared by beings in participation with the Pure Act or God whose essence is existence itself. Essence enables us to say what it is, whereas its existence enables us to say that it is Gods essence is his existence All other beings existence is limited by their nature (essence) as finite creatures

Ethics

Aquinas built upon Aristotles theory of ethics. But whereas Aristotle envisioned a naturalistic morality whereby man could achieve happiness and virtue by fulfilling their natural (rational) capacities or end, Aquinas added to this his concept of mans supernatural end. Aquinas viewed human nature as having both its source and ultimate end in God (Pure Act). Man is able to know the good through his reason. His will on the other hand inclines him toward the achievement of good under the guidance of reason. Man as coming from the Absolute source of Goodness has an innate dynamism towards It. This is made manifest by mans capability of apprehending the general or universal meaning of what is good through his intellect. But since man has free will the achievement of the Absolute Good is left upon his choice. There is in man a primary and natural inclination to good, which he has in common with all things, in as much as everything desires the preservation of its own being according to its nature. Through this inclination the natural law pertains to everything that makes for the preservation of human life and all that impedes its death. The natural law represents mans rational knowledge of the good, by which the intellect directs the will to control mans appetites and passions, leading men to fulfill their natural end. While the natural law directs man to achieve his natural end the divine law guides man towards his supernatural end. The divine law comes directly from God through revelation, a gift of Gods grace, whereby man is directed to his supernatural and ultimate end in God Himself. Natural law o The order of the precepts of natural law is the order of our natural inclinations/mans inclination to the good: Preservation of being Specific ends (common with other animals) like union of husband and wife and education Know the truth about God and live in society (avoid ignorance and avoid offending ones fellowman) Nature of human action o Only actions of which man is master are properly called human. Man is a dominus sui (analyze case: priest dies) o Human acts are those which proceed from a deliberate will act or free choice o Free choice is the power of will and reason The will is free o As to the exercise of its own act - It moves by itself o As to its object - It is inclined towards particular and limited goods Any object that is not good in all respects cannot be willed and only an object which is universally good in all aspects could be willed necessarily. Only happiness is willed as perfect good. But any particular good that lacks something can also be considered not good thus the will could either accept or reject it Man necessarily wills happiness. But choice is concerned about the means (particular goods) to the end (happiness) hence man chooses freely Justice and natural law o The essential nature of justice depends in the wisdom(intellect) of God

Man as a rational creature participates in Gods wisdom (eternal law) in the natural law o Man could discern the eternal law through the natural light of reason o The natural law as far as general principles are concerned , is the same for all; both as a norm of uprightness and as equally knowable. But as to certain concrete cases that are conclusions from the general principles, it is the same only in the majority of cases, both as a norm and as knowable Human law and Divine law o Human law the kind of discipline compelling by fear of punishment o Though man has a natural aptitude to virtuous action, others have an evil disposition and prone to vice, who cannot be easily moved by words. o It is necessary to restrain them from evil by fear. o When they are thus kept from doing evil, a quite life is assured to others; and they are themselves led eventually by force of custom to do voluntary what once they did only from fear and thus to practice virtue o Divine law is necessary to direct human life for four reasons: o Because it is by law that man is directed to proper actions in relation to is final end. o On account of the uncertainty in human judgment, especially in contingent and specific matters o The judgement of man cannot penetrate to the interior motives, which are hidden and can only reach the exterior actions which appear o So that no evil should remain unprohibited and unpunished. Conscience o Refers to that inner voice that advises me and commands me in the presence of a moral decision as to how to act in a given concrete situation: this action is good; you ought to do it, you should do it; or This action is evil; you should not do it. It declares as well an obligation to do the good, speaking with authority, and coming to us from some higher source. o It is a strictly cognitive act, a judgment of our reason, which applies the basic innate orientation of the human spirit toward the total human good, our final end, to the particular situation confronting us and calling for decision here and now. This basic orientation towards the total good that is our final end St. Thomas calls the natural law imprinted in our hearts by God, a participation in the divine law in Gods intellect which is his plan for our happiness and final destiny. o Because the voice of conscience manifests itself not just as giving advice but as commanding us, laying an obligation upon us, in the mode of a judge which we are free to follow or reject but not to abolish or change at will it has taken on, almost universally, in all the past cultures we know, the aspect of the voice of God, or of a higher power guiding us toward the authentic good for which we are destined, or at the very least, of the voice (or higher, better, authentic) self, which we should respect and listen to if its our wish to become truly good persons, deserving of the respect of others. o This voice of conscience operates both antecedently, before my free decision, either as guiding me through warning or command, and consequently, after the decision, by praise or blame Requirements of a mature conscience:

A certain self-possession through self-consciousness and the ability to reflect on ones actions; A basic commitment of oneself as a person to the moral good, to live as a good person, which is the conscious taking possession and ratification of the deep innate drive of our nature as finalized towards its ultimate good, put in us by our Creator before our conscious moral life begins; A certain fund of practical life experience from which we have learned to recognize the most probable consequences of certain types of actions, expressed by the maxim, Actions have consequences; The personalization of this voice is conscience, so that I am at least implicitly aware that this is genuinely my own judgment, proceeding from sight into the values which I have personally internalized and expressing my own authentic self and/or the voice of a higher authority speaking within me.

Limitations of conscience Conscience can be uncertain happens when faced with situations so complex, where the priority of values involved will be so obscure, that we will be unable to see clearly the appropriate moral decision to make. In such a case, conscience can for some time remain prudently suspended, while we unravel the various apparent conflicts of values and bring some order into the complexity. Then we can decide to follow one path of action as the most plausibly accessible to my reason here and now. Conscience is fallible due to following reasons: lack of mature selfawareness, lack of ability or willingness to reflect on ones actions and their probable consequences, distorted training by parents or other social influences which induce biases or blind spots in the recognition of moral values, lack of adequate life experience to interpret accurately what is at stake in the situation before one, especially if it is complicated, impatience or undue haste in making judgments, even previous bad habits of ignoring or rejecting the voice of conscience. We must in the last analysis follow what our conscience clearly command us to do with certainty, after we have sincerely tried our best to come to a reasonable decision, since our own reason is the ultimate immediate norm of all responsible human action. "If you don't act according as your conscience judges, you will end up judging according as you act."

Kant Differences between Aristotle, Aquinas and Kants ethics o Kants ethics as anthropocentric Enlightenment o Enlightenment is mans emergence from his self-incurred immaturity o Immaturity is the inability to use ones own reason or understanding without the guidance of another

This immaturity is self-incurred if its cause is not lack of understanding but lack of resolution and courage Public use and private use of reason o Public use of reason is the use which anyone may make of it as a man of learning addressing the entire reading public o Private use of reason is that which a person may make of it in a particular civil post or office with which he is entrusted Kantian Imperatives o The will as practical reason is a power to choose independently of any inclination except on the dictates of pure reason which serves as its ultimate objective principle. o The conception of an objective principle so far as this principle is necessitating for a will is called a command (of reason) or duty, and the formula of this command is called an Imperative. Hypothetical Imperative o Is the practical necessity of a possible action as a means to achieve something else which one desires. The action is good only to some purpose Imperatives of skill (Technical) Necessary measures or means a man must take to the extent that he chooses to pursue any end or goal Imperatives of prudence (Pragmatic) Necessary measures or means that man, out of practicality, must take if he wants to attain happiness, a goal which, in Kants view, all men as a matter of fact seek by natural inclination Categorical Imperative (Moral) o Declares an action to be of itself objectively necessary without making any reference to a purpose, i.e. Without having any other end Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law (universality) Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end (man as an end) Act always on the maxim of such a will in us as can at the same time look upon itself as making universal law (autonomy) Similar principles in ordinary ethics Confucius and Jesus Christ

Habermas

Refer to powerpoint.