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Voltage Sag Detection Technique for a Dynamic Voltage Restorer

Chris Fitzer, Mike Barnes, Member, IEEE, and Peter Green
AbstractDynamic voltage restorers (DVRs) are used to protect sensitive loads from the effects of voltage sags on the distribution feeder. This paper presents and verifies a novel voltage sag detection technique for use in conjunction with the main control system of a DVR. In all cases it is necessary for the DVR control system to not only detect the start and end of a voltage sag but also to determine the sag depth and any associated phase shift. The DVR, which is placed in series with a sensitive load, must be able to respond quickly to a voltage sag if end users of sensitive equipment are to experience no voltage sags. A problem arises when fast evaluation of the sag depth and phase shift is required, as this information is normally embedded within the core of a main DVR control scheme and is not readily available to either users monitoring the state of the grid or parallel controllers. Previous research presented an additional controller, which required phase and sag depth information to manipulate the injection voltage vector returned by the main controller in order to prevent the DVR injection transformers from saturating. Typical standard information tracking or detection methods such as the Fourier transform or phase-locked loop (PLL) are too slow in returning this information, when either applied to the injection voltage vector, or to the supply voltages directly. As a result of this the voltage sag detection method in this paper proposes a new matrix method, which is able to compute the phase shift and voltage reduction of the supply voltage much quicker than the Fourier transform or a PLL. The paper also illustrates that the matrix method returns results that can be directly interpreted, whereas other methods such as the wavelet transform return results that can be difficult to interpret. Index TermsDynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR), voltage sag, voltage sag detection.

I. INTRODUCTION

OLTAGE SAGS are one of many power quality related problems the industrial process sector has to face [1], [2], though sags are one of the most severe. Voltage sags are defined as short duration reductions in the rms supply voltage that can last from a few milliseconds to a few cycles, with typical dip depths ranging from 0.9 to 0.5 pu of a 1-pu nominal. It has been shown that year on year voltage

Paper IPCSD 03101, presented at the 2002 Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, Pittsburgh, PA, October 1318, and approved for publication in the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS by the Industrial Power Converter Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society. Manuscript submitted for review October 15, 2002 and released for publication October 6, 2003. C. Fitzer and M. Barnes are with the Manchester Centre for Electrical Energy, Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, Manchester M60 1QD, U.K. (e-mail: christopher.fitzer@umist.ac.uk; mike.barnes@umist.ac.uk). P. Green is with the Digital Communications Research Group, Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, Manchester M60 1QD, U.K. Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIA.2003.821801

sags cause extensive disruption to the industrial process sector in terms of production loss [1], [3], which make them a particularly important area. There are various solutions to this problem, examples being: Designing inverter drives for process equipment to be more tolerant of voltage fluctuations or the installation of voltage correction devices. For certain end users of sensitive equipment the voltage correction device may be the only cost-effective option available. It has already been shown [1] that for customers of large loads, from the high kilowatt to the low megawatt range, a good solution is the installation of a dynamic voltage restorer (DVR); see Fig. 1. A DVR [4][10] is primarily for use at the distribution level, where the basic principle is to inject a voltage in series with the supply when an upstream fault is detected. Loads connected downstream of the DVR are thus protected from any voltage sags caused by faults elsewhere on the network. The location of the DVR, in terms of the connection arrange) and the type of ment of upstream transformers (typically protection it is to offer to potentially sensitive loads, is a major factor when determining the type of inverter control required. The main DVR control used in conjunction with the sag detection techniques presented in this paper utilizes a type a vector control that only considers the positive and negative sequence information in the supply. The DVR is located downstream of a delta-star distribution transformer (Fig. 1), thus eliminating the need to control the zero sequence. A DVR utilizing vector control can also protect downstream loads from any phase shift that may occur, which results in a DVR system that can protect downstream loads from all types of sags, provided the sag depth is not beyond the capacity of the DVR. The vector control topology is illustrated in Fig. 2. The core of this controller is the phase-locked loop (PLL) [4], [11], [12], which locks a synchronous reference frame to the positive-sequence component of the supply. The angle theta that is used by the synchronous reference frame is also used to generate a reference vector . The difference between the supply and the reference vector produces an injected voltage vector that can be used by the final part of the DVR controller to produce the pulse patterns that are used to control the inverter. This type of control is commonly known as space-vector control and the inverter pulse pattern strategy as space-vector pulsewidth modulation (SVPWM) [4], [5], [7], [13]. Although this and countless other control schemes inherently detect the start and end of any voltage disturbances, such as sags, they cannot directly return information regarding phase shift and voltage drop. The DVR control, Figs. 2 and 3, computes an injection vector at any instant in time, without the need for

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Fig. 1.

Typical location of a DVR in a power network.

Fig. 2.

Main control system topology.

decoupling (separating) information such as, sag depth, phase shift, start, and end times. The same is true for other control schemes, vector or otherwise, that track the difference between two values. When implementing a DVR system, such as the one illustrated in Fig. 1, it may be necessary to switch the DVR offline when little or no injected voltage is required, Fig. 4, then a controlled switch-on otherwise. If a controlled DVR switch-on is required, where injection transformer inrush is to be minimized, then both the magnitude and the phase of each injected voltage are required [14]. In order to obtain these parameters further analysis is required, where the magnitude and phase are required to be available/updated as quickly/regularly as possible. There have been numerous papers published in this area, mainly focusing on the application of the wavelet transform (WT) [15]. This paper investigates the use of a

numerical method to detect voltage sags, their depth and any associated phase shift. The paper highlights the problems with existing techniques such as the Fourier transform and the PLL. The real-time constraints of the WT are also illustrated. II. CURRENT METHODS TO DETECT VOLTAGE SAGS There tends to be no one particular preferred method to detect sags, especially if sag depth and phase shift information are required along with start and end times. There are, however, a selection of standard signal processing techniques that can be used to detect the start and end of a voltage sag and/or the associated dip depth and phase shift. Current methods in use are [4], [11], [15][17] the following: monitoring the peak values of the supply; monitoring of in a vector controller;

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Apart from for the vector control, the sag detection methods tend to be applied to each of the three supply phases separately. In the following sections, unless otherwise stated, a transform applied to a sinusoidal waveform can be interpreted as a transform as applied to each supply phase. A. Monitoring the Peak Values of the Supply The simplest conceptual method of monitoring the supply is to monitor the peak, or amplitude. This can be achieved by simply finding the point at which the gradient of each of the supply phases is zero, then comparing the supply value at that instant with a reference. A controller could be set to recognize if there is a difference greater than 5% and switch in a DVR or appropriate corrective device. The gradient is found, for example, from (1)
Fig. 3. DVR vector control principle.

Gradient

(1)

where is the voltage value at the time instant , and is . the voltage value at the time instant This method returns the sag depth, start, and end times, although to extract phase shift information is difficult since a reference waveform is required. The drawback of this method is that it can take up to half a cycle for the sag depth information to become available and the possibility of noise affecting the differential function. The lack of readily available phase shift information is also less than desirable. B. Monitoring of or in a Vector Controller

This is an obvious method as it utilizes the space vector control method described in Section I, which is part of the core DVR control system. The three supply phases are converted into one phasor which itself is comprised of two orthogonal components and . A synchronous reference frame is locked to via a PLL, Fig. 5, which produces a vector when locked and , otherwise. The vectors are generated by the following formulas: (2):

(2) Fig. 5 illustrates the effect of a balanced sag on the vectors in the rotating frame. If the sag is not accompanied by any phase shift then the following expression is true: i.e., where (4) This is simplest type of voltage sag in terms of detection and (3), (4) control, where monitoring either or will return the state of the supply at any instant in time and, (3)

Fig. 4.

Typical ideal control response to a balanced dip with shift.

locking a narrow bandpass filter or PLL to each phase; applying the Fourier transform to each phase; appling the WT to each phase.

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Fig. 5. Sag detection using the dq frame with a balanced fault with no phase jump.

hence, detect whether or not a sag has occurred. If the balanced sag is accompanied by a balanced phase jump then (3) is no longer valid, because the PLL has to first track the new angle. Hence, initially, (5) where (6) (7) Monitoring will return the sag depth while monitoring and manipulation of will return the initial phase jump information. If an unbalanced sag occurs the ability for this method to return information regarding the individual supply phases is compromised. When an unbalanced voltage sag occurs as in Fig. 7, the supply as seen in both the fixed and the synchronous frames may at any instant in time appear similar to the vector plot in Fig. 6. The unbalanced supply now contains both negative and positive sequence information (all zero-sequence information is assumed to be removed by upstream delta-star distribution transformers, Fig. 1). The space vector now contains an oscillation with a base frequency of 100 Hz, which frame locked onto fixed when viewed in a synchronous

Fig. 6. Sag detection using the dq frame.

velocity vector (positive sequence) appears as a pure 100-Hz oscillation in the and components, Figs. 711. Figs. 711 illustrate the difficulty in determining the supply magnitude (or sag depth) and phase information of the supply phases. The Synchronous frame components and oscillate with a frequency of 100 Hz due to the unbalanced fault, or negative sequence, which means it can take up to half a cycle before a minimum value is reached. Unlike for the case of a balanced fault there is no direct relationship between the

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Fig. 7. Supply voltage as seen by the DVR during an upstream fault.

Fig. 10.

Magnitude of the supply vector V .

Fig. 11.

The d and q of the supply vector.

Fig. 8.

Trajectory of the supply vector V .

control scheme to detect both magnitude and phase but there are no current publications in this method. D. Appling the Fourier Transform to Each Phase A technique that can return information regarding the state of a system supply is the Fourier transform to each supply phase. The advantage of this method is that it can return magnitude and phase of each frequency component within the supply, which is particularly important if there are harmonics present, such as the fifth or seventh. In order to prevent errors occurring with the information returned regarding the fundamental (50 Hz) the previous methods effectively filter out harmonics other than the fundamental. The effect of doing so can be to introduce transient delays in detecting changes in the phase of the fundamental. The Fourier transform or the practical digital implementation of it, the windowed fast Fourier transform (WFFT) automatically accounts for all frequencies (bearing in mind the Nyquist Criterion). Depending on the type of controller the information regarding frequencies other than the fundamental can either be used or ignored. Although the WFFT can return accurate steady-state information about the supply phases, the WFFT kernel is itself an averaging function. Thus, it can take up to one cycle of the fundamental when a sag has commenced before information regarding the magnitude and phase can be assumed accurate. As with the previous detection methods the WFFT can easily be implemented within a real-time control system. E. Applying the WT to Each Phase The application of the WT to detect faults within electrical power systems is becoming increasingly popular [15], as it can

Fig. 9. Phase of the supply vector V .

values of , at any instant and the magnitudes of the individual supply phases: many different values of supply voltage can give the same and values. An advantage though is the relative ease at which it can be implemented within a practical real-time control system [4], [5], [17]. C. Locking a Narrow Bandpass Filter or PLL to Each Phase This sag detection method is similar to the previous method, except that the PLL is applied to each supply phase independently and is tuned to respond to phase jumps in the supply quickly. Although this method can track changes in supply phase it cannot directly return information regarding sag depth. As with the previous PLL method it can be easily be implemented in real time and can be used if only phase jump information is required. It may be possible to use this method as part of a larger

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Fig. 12. Supply phase sampled at regular intervals.

detect changes in the state of the supply phases quickly. The main differences between the WT and WFFT is the former operates in the time as opposed to the frequency domain and uses variable window sizes (multiresolution analysis) to capture changes. In theory it is possible to use this method to detect and sudden changes in the supply state, which could be used to determine sag start and end times, depth, and phase shift information. The WT returns different signatures depending on the type of sag that occurs and training a neural network to respond to these could for example be used to detect voltage sags. The difficulties with using this method are as follows. The signatures returned can be difficult to directly interpret and the use of large neural networks is difficult to implement in real time. There is also a delay associated with many mother wavelets as data either side of a time instant may be required in the convolution process. III. NUMERICAL MATRIX SAG DETECTION METHOD A numerical sag detection method has been developed that, unlike the previous methods, has a small time latency when implemented and returns results that are directly interpretable. The method is applied to each supply phase independently and as such can monitor the start or end of a sag, sag depth, and any phase jump. The method involves sampling the supply and storing the data in a matrix format, Fig. 12. Provided bands of dominant supply frequency components are known, a set of (8)(11) can be developed

phase of the fundamental with respect to a cosine wave; phase of the fifth harmonic with respect to a cosine wave; angular frequency of the fundamental; angular frequency of the fifth harmonic; time; sampling period; current sample of the supply voltage; previous samples of the supply voltage. In order to allow for a unique solution, the number of equations to be solved increases or decreases depending upon the harmonics detected in the supply. For illustration simplicity (8)(11) have been developed assuming that 5th is the only dominant harmonic. The two frequencies (50 and 250 Hz) generate four unknowns, magnitude and phase, hence, four simultaneous equations are required if a unique numerical solution is to be found (12) No. of Simultaneous Equations Required Total No. of Frequencies (12)

(8) (9) (10) (11) where magnitude of the fundamental (50 Hz); magnitude of the fifth harmonic (250 Hz);

If dominant harmonics are not included in the equations the solution can contain errors, with the size of the errors referred to as the sensitivity of the matrix to unknown harmonics. Typically, the sensitivity of the matrix increases for a given sampling rate with the order of the unknown harmonics, for example, a small amount of 20th may give the same errors as a large amount of fifth. The matrix method does however allow harmonics close together in the frequency spectrum to be grouped into bands and included as one harmonic entry in the matrix without any serious performance degradation in the sag detection results. It has also been found that the sensitivity increases with increasing numbers of harmonics included in the matrix and a smaller sampling period . It is assumed that the matrix method would be used with an additional controller that determines, which harmonics are present on a cycle-by-cycle basis, using an FFT or similar. The simultaneous equations would then be updated accordingly. However, this controller explanation is not relevant in this paper and is therefore not included. Instead, the only the common dominant harmonics are included in the matrix, such as fifth or seventh [1]. Any zero-sequence harmonics need not be included in the equations as the DVR is assumed to be connected downstream of the delta-star distribution transformer. Expanding and rearranging (8)(11) into a standard matrix format (13) and (14), as shown at the bottom of the next page, manipulates the frequency components into pairs of solvable simultaneous equations, which effectively converts the original equations into a more readily analyzable state. As the sampling period and the angular frequencies , are known the inverse of matrix and the variables , , , can be evaluated. The magnitude and phase of each harmonic component included in the matrix can now be found. To equate and , (15) (16)

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Fig. 13.

Supply voltage (50 and 250 Hz).

Fig. 15.

Phase of the 50-Hz component of the supply.

Fig. 14. Magnitude of the 50-Hz component of the supply (spike in the results due to transient settling time).

Fig. 16.

Filtered supply (250 Hz removed).

Equating (15) and (16) gives (17) (18) (19) The ability of this method to decouple the individual frequency components in the supply is a key feature when the strong voltage harmonics are present. Figs. 1316 illustrate the ability of the numerical matrix method to extract information regarding the fundamental. The supply in Fig. 13 contains two dominant frequency components, 50 and 250 Hz (fifth).

Figs. 14 and 15 highlight the accuracy to which information regarding the fundamental magnitude and phase can be extracted and the response time to which changes can be tracked. A byproduct of the numerical calculations is a filtered supply Fig. 16, with the unwanted frequency component fifth removed. The response time to detect changes in magnitude and phase of the fundamental 50-Hz component depends on the sampling rate and the number of dominant harmonic components present in the supply, assuming they are included in the matrix (20) Response Time Sampling Rate No. of Frequency Components.

(20)

In order to improve response time a smaller sampling rate can be used, although as explained previously, this will increase the sensitivity of the matrix, which may lead to previously negligible harmonics producing errors.

(13)

(14)

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Fig. 17. The 3-kW medium-power hardware rig.

It is also important to note that the ability of the DVR to correct for voltage sags is not directly dependent on the performance of the matrix method. The main space-vector controller is primarily responsible for this. The main purpose of the matrix method is to extract information from the main controller, thus, the spike seen in the results would either be ignored by additional numerical controllers using the data or rejected visually by a user monitoring the data. IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS In order to test the ability of the matrix method with real data, a real-time algorithm has been developed and implemented in the control system of a 3-kW DVR laboratory prototype, Fig. 17. To introduce a fault, Fig. 17, a variable impedance is placed in series in between the source and the delta-wye transformer. This configuration gives fault types that are comparable with those experienced in a real power system at distribution level, Fig. 1. The DVR system is connected to a nominal 415-V rms threephase supply with the load rated at 3 kW, which is sufficient to test the DVR dynamic response. In a practical DVR installation at the distribution level, the magnitudes of any voltage harmonics are usually small, with the lower order harmonics normally dominant [1]. In the case of the laboratory prototype the source impedance of the laboratory power supply is unusually high, which results in a significant fifth harmonic created by a nearby computer cluster. To avoid large errors in the results returned from the sag detection algorithm the fifth-order harmonic is accounted for in the sag detection matrix. The switching harmonics created by the three-phase inverter, are also found to create significant voltage harmonics across the source impedance and the digital phase shifters used to correct for the time delay of the fundamental (50 Hz) through the digital control system unavoidably causing amplification of them. As explained previously it is possible to group harmonics into bands, however due to the number of distinct frequency bands and the sampling rate it is not possible to include them all in the matrix without introducing a significant latency in the detection time (12) and (20). As the sampling frequency is fixed
Fig. 18. Phase-a supply voltage.

Fig. 19. Magnitude of phase-a supply voltage.

at 1200 Hz due to the detection algorithm being part of a larger DVR control topology and the property that makes the matrix method more sensitive to the neglected harmonics if only one of the higher order frequencies is included, all the high order switching related harmonics have been left out. Although this does generate some degradation in the quality of the results obtained, it is the optimum solution given the constraints of the laboratory DVR system. The following experimental results, Figs. 1823, illustrate the response of the sag detection algorithm when presented with a three-phase balanced fault.

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Fig. 20. Phase-a supply voltage.

Fig. 22.

Phase-a injected voltage.

Fig. 21. Angle of phase-a supply voltage.

Fig. 23.

Phase-a load voltage.

The sag detection algorithm operates on each supply phase independently, with the results obtained from one phase being comparable with the other two. Fig. 18 is a snapshot of the supply at the point when a voltage sag commences. The figure illustrates the fifth harmonic component present and the level of the higher order switching harmonics. There is a small transient time before the supply settles down to its steady-state value, which appears to be due to the impedance of the laboratory prototype. Fig. 19. Illustrates the time taken for the matrix algorithm to detect the change in supply voltage. The apparent noise on the waveform is due to the switching frequency harmonics not included in the matrix. The large spike around 0.01 s highlights the settling time or time latency of the algorithm in returning correct results when presented with a transient change. Any sudden transient change can be represented as high-order harmonics for which the matrix method is already known to be sensitive to, which accounts for the magnitude of the error spike. The transient decay experienced between 0.010.02 s is an effect due to two factors. Firstly, the system supply voltage experiences a disturbance when the voltage sag occurs, Fig. 18. Secondly the digital phase shifters which are used to correct for the steady-state time latency of the main DVR control system require a significant time to settle, thus producing a transient time latency. As stated earlier, the performance of the matrix method does not directly relate to the performance of the DVR system as a

whole. The transient settling time of the matrix method therefore should not be taken to reflect the transient response of the main DVR control. The transient response of the matrix method along with its sensitivity to unknown harmonics is an important area that does require further discussion. However the authors feel that a detailed discussion of this topic is not necessary in order to verify the fundamental concept of the matrix method and may also obscure some of the important steady-state results presented. Figs. 20 and 21 illustrate the ability of the detection algorithm to return the phase of the supply during the steady-state period of a sag. Fig. 22 shows the DVRs response to a sag, i.e., the voltage it injects in order to compensate the sag. Fig. 23 illustrates the DVRs ability to maintain the load voltage constant. The error between 0.010.017 s is due to the transient time latency of the digital phase shifters, which are part of the DVR control. Figs. 22 and 23 have been included for completeness to show that the matrix method has been implemented as part of a working real-time DVR control scheme. Space-vector control is used to control the overall DVR, which has already been presented in [5]. V. CONCLUSION A novel sag detection algorithm has been proposed and compared to other sag detection algorithms. Results from an experimental prototype DVR have been presented and the algorithm is shown to work well.

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The transient response of the matrix method along with its sensitivity to unknown harmonics is an important area that will require further future research. REFERENCES
[1] M. H. J. Bollen, Understanding Power Quality Problems: Voltage Sags and Interruptions. New York: IEEE Press, 1999. [2] M. F. McGranaghan, D. R. Mueller, and M. J. Samotyj, Voltage sags in industrial systems, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 29, pp. 397403, Mar./Apr. 1993. [3] J. C. Smith, J. Lamoree, P. Vinett, T. Duffy, and M. Klein, The impact of voltage sags on industrial plant loads, in Proc. Int. Conf. Power Quality: End-Use Applications and Perspectives (PQA91), 1991, pp. 171178. [4] C. Zhan, C. Fitzer, V. K. Ramachandaramurthy, A. Arulampalam, M. Barnes, and N. Jenkins, Software phase-locked loop applied to dynamic voltage restorer (DVR), in Proc. IEEE-PES Winter Meeting, 2001, pp. 10331038. [5] C. Zhan, V. K. Ramachandaramurthy, A. Arulampalam, C. Fitzer, S. Kromlidis, M. Barnes, and N. Jenkins, Dynamic voltage restorer based on voltage space vector PWM control, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 37, pp. 18551863, Nov./Dec. 2001. [6] N. Gyugyi et al., Apparatus and method for dynamic voltage restoration of utility distribution networks, U.S. Patent 5 329 222, July 12, 1994. [7] K. Haddad, G. Joos, and S. Chen, Control algorithms for series voltage regulators in faulted distribution systems, in Proc. IEEE PESC99, vol. 1, 1999, pp. 418423. [8] A. Kara, P. Dahler, D. Amhof, and H. Gruning, Power supply quality improvement with a dynamic voltage restorer (DVR), in Proc. IEEE APEC98, vol. 2, Feb. 1519, 1998, pp. 986993. [9] R. Buxton, Protection from voltage dips with the dynamic voltage restorer, in Dynamic Voltage RestorersReplacing Those Missing Cycles, IEE Half Day Colloq., Feb. 11, 1998, pp. 3/13/6. [10] K. Chan, Technical and performance aspects of a dynamic voltage restorer, in Dynamic Voltage RestorersReplacing Those Missing Cycles, IEE Half Day Colloq., Feb. 11, 1998, pp. 5/15/25. [11] V. Kaura and V. Blasko, Operation of a phase locked loop system under distorted utility conditions, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 33, pp. 5863, Jan./Feb. 1997. [12] J. G. Nielsen, F. Blaabjerg, and N. Mohan, Control strategies for dynamic voltage restorer compensating voltage sags with phase jump, in Proc. IEEE APEC01, vol. 2, 2001, pp. 12671273. [13] H. Fujita and H. Akagi, The unified power quality conditioner: the integration of series and shunt active power filters, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 13, pp. 315322, Mar. 1998. [14] C. Fitzer, A. Arulampalam, M. Barnes, and R. Zurowski, Mitigation of saturation in dynamic voltage restorer connection transformers, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 17, pp. 10581066, Nov. 2002. [15] A. C. Parsons, W. M. Grady, and E. J. Powers, A wavelet-based procedure for automatically determining the beginning and end of transmission system voltage sags, in Proc. IEEE-PES Winter Meeting, vol. 2, 1999, pp. 13101315.

[16] H. S. Song and K. Nam, Instantaneous phase-angle estimation algorithm under unbalanced voltage-sag conditions, Proc. IEEGeneration, Transmission, Distrib., vol. 147, no. 6, pp. 409415, Nov. 2000. [17] D. Gregory, C. Fitzer, and M. Barnes, The static transfer switch operational considerations, in Proc. PEMD Conf., Apr. 1618, 2002, pp. 620625.

Chris Fitzer received the B.Sc. (Hons.) degree in electronics from the University of Central Lancashire, Preston, U.K., in 1999, and the Ph.D. degree from the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST), Manchester, U.K., in 2003. Since 2003, he has been a Research Engineer at UMIST. His research interests include dynamic voltage restorers for voltage sag mitigation, flywheel energy storage systems and power electronics for microgrid applications, power electronics and control systems for rail power delivery applications, transformer saturation prevention, digital signal processing, digital control of power quality devices, and hybrid filters.

Mike Barnes (M96) received the B.Eng. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Warwick, Coventry, U.K., in 1993 and 1998, respectively. He was a Research Associate on a DTI/LINK project on low-cost switched reluctance drives and a Lecturer at the University of Warwick. For the last three years, he has been a Lecturer at the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, Manchester, U.K., where his research interests have covered power electronics applied to power systems, machine drives, and photovoltaics.

Peter Green received the M.A. degree from Cambridge University, Cambridge, U.K., in 1988, and the M.Sc. degree from the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST), Manchester, U.K., in 1990. In 1991, he joined the Communication Engineering Group, Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, UMIST, where he is currently a Senior Lecturer. His research interests include HF spectral occupancy, high-rate data waveforms for HF communication systems, communication system applications of DSPs, and the analysis of the binary and polyphase sequences.