HIGHWAY & TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

(CECE -4110)

Assignment 1
Assignment Submitted by Ahmed Majid Salim Al-Amri ID Number: 70112020

P.O.Box-74, Postal Code 133, Al-Khuwair-33, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

[ Sem 1, 2011-2012 ]

Index
List of Figures.. 3 Chapter 1: Highway system Classification. .4-5
1.1) State Area system.......................................................................................................4 1.2) Urban Area system...........4

Chapter 2: Geometric design of highway...6-8

2.1) Design speed...............................................................................................................6 2.2) Why Design traffic volume.............6 2.3) Sight distance..........................................................................6 2.4) Alignment............................. ..........6 2.5) Cross section........................ 7-8

Chapter 3: Pavement Design.. ..9-10 Chapter 4: Tests performed in Highway. ...12-13 Chapter 5: Soil properties...... ..14

Chapter 6: Traffic characteristics.... ..15 References.. ..16

List of figures
Figure 1.1: Mumbai Pune Expressway.
..........................4

Figure 1.2: A typical arterial road in a suburban area (USA).

....................4

Figure 1.3: Cross slope designs for divided highways.

......................7

Figure 1.4: Lane width for single and double lanes

....7

Figure 1.5: Types of

curbs.....8

Figure 1.6: Typical cross section of a highway

...................................................................8

Figure 1.7: Geometric & load transmission characteristics of flexible

and rigid pavements10

Figure 1.8: Schematic diagram of Austroads (2004) chart

strength..10

Figure 1.9:

Schematic diagram of IRC:58 chart...11

Figure 1.10:

Consistency Limits....14

List of figures
Table 1.1: Table 1.2: Table 1.3:
Classifications of Roads and Spacing Standards in Singapore.. 5 Roadway Categories and Classification.5 Comparison of Flexible and Rigid Pavement.9

Highway Systems Classification

1) State Area system:
Roads in this system can be of four types:
National Highways/Expressways

Fig. 1.1 Mumbai Pune Expressway

State Highways Major district roads Rural & other roads

2) Urban Area system:

Roads in this system can be of four types:

Principal arterials (subdivided into highways, freeways, and expressways)

Fig. 1.2: a typical arterial road in a suburban area (USA)

Sub Arterials Collector Local Roads

It can be classified furthermore according to the following table:

TABLE 1.1 Classifications of Roads and Spacing Standards in Singapore

Source: Urban Redevelopment Authority (1992), cited in Chan, 1999

Here is another table showing the features and the function of Highway systems
TABLE 1.2 Roadway Categories and Classification

Source: CTRE, 2000a, 2000b

Geometric design of highway

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There are many factors to be considered while designing a highway and they are as following:
Design speed: The design speed is the speed used in designing a highway and it should matches with the function of that particular type of highway, its topography and many others

Speed used in Different types of roads:

110 km/h for freeways, expressways, and other rural highways 30 to 70 km/h for Urban arterials Design traffic volume

A highway should be designed in such a way that it will be according to the traffic volume for a particular place or city

Traffic volume date may come in two ways:

Average daily traffic Peak-hour traffic Sight distance

1) Stopping sight distance (SSD)

The distance used by the driver to think and react to the situation plus the time he\she applies the break So SSD= lag distance + break applying time

2) Decision sight distance (DSD)

The distance used by the driver to detect any obstacles may face him

3) Overtaking sight distance (OSD)

The distance used by the driver to overtake a slower car in front of him in the road Alignments

1) Horizontal alignment:
The objective of this alignment design is to provide the driver with a smooth entrance curve to the other road and providing a super elevation in such a way that will resist the centrifugal force when the car is entering the curve with a particular speed

2) Vertical alignment:
The purpose of this alignment design is to determine elevation at some points in a particular road to ensure safety and the driver comfort

Cross section

1) Type of Pavement Surface

- High-type pavement: (Retain their shape and do not ravel at the edge if placed on a stable subgrade and they have smooth surface) - Low-type pavement: (Has a tendency toward raveling and are usually used for low volume road and it is normally constructed from gravel, or crushed stone)

2) Cross Slope The slope of the pavement and it is known as camber. Camber is provided to drain water when it is raining.

Fig. 1.3: Cross slope designs for divided highways

3) Lane width This width is determined based on the maximum width of a car and clearance from both sides and it varies from 2.7 to 3.75 m.

Fig. 1.4: Lane width for single and double lanes

4) Curbs (Kerbs): The boundary between the pavement and the shoulders and it varies from 10-20 cm curbs

Fig. 1.5: Types of curbs

5) Shoulder - Designed to provide structural lateral support for the pavement - Designed to give the driver additional space which are needed for some situations - Has a slope of 2-6% less than the road itself and that is to provide good and quick drainage - Varies from 1.8-3.0 m and should not exceed 3 m or else some drivers may use it as a part of the road

Fig. 1.6: Typical cross section of a highway

 Pavement Design
Types of pavement:
Flexible pavement These pavements reflect the deformation of sub grade and the subsequent layers to the surface Rigid pavement The rigid characteristic of the pavement are associated with rigidity or flexural strength or slab action so the load is distributed over a wide area of sub grade soil.

TABLE 1.3 Comparison of Flexible and Rigid Pavement

Flexible pavement

Rigid pavement

1. Deformation in the sub grade is transferred to the upper layers 2. Design is based on load distributing characteristics of the component layers 3. Have low flexural strength 4. Load is transferred by grain to grain contact 5. Have low completion cost but repairing cost is high 6. Have low life span 7. Surfacing cannot be laid directly on the sub grade but a sub base is needed 8. No thermal stresses are induced as the pavement have the ability to contract and expand freely 9. Thats why expansion joints are not needed 10. Strength of the road is highly

1. Deformation in the sub grade is not transferred to subsequent layers 2. Design is based on flexural strength or slab action 3. Have high flexural strength 4. No such phenomenon of grain to grain load transfer exists 5. Have low repairing cost but completion cost is high 6. Life span is more as compare to flexible 7. Surfacing can be directly laid on the sub grade 8. Thermal stresses are more vulnerable to be induced as the ability to contract and expand is very less in concrete 9. That why expansion joints are needed 10. Strength of the road is less dependent on the strength of the sub grade 11. Rolling of the surfacing in not needed

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dependent on the strength of the sub grade 11. Rolling of the surfacing is needed 12. Road can be used for traffic within 24 hours 13. Force of friction is less Deformation in the sub grade is not transferred to the upper layers.

12. Road cannot be used until 14 days of curing 13. Force of friction is high

Fig. 1.6: Geometric and load transmission characteristics of flexible and rigid pavements: (a) &(b) are for flexible pavements and (c) & (d) are for rigid pavements

There are various methods to design a pavement and they are as following:
1) Basic design principle 2) Portland Cement Association (PCA) Method 3) Austroads method

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Fig. 1.7: Schematic diagram of Austroads (2004) chart for estimation of effective sub grade strength

4) AASHTO method 5) Indian Roads Congress (IRC) method

Fig. 1.8: Schematic diagram of IRC: 58 chart for estimation of load stress at the edge (IRC: 58 2002)

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 Tests performed in Highway construction

1) Soundness: Soundness is the percent loss of material from an aggregate blend during the sodium or magnesium sulfate soundness test. In this procedure, aggregate samples are put through repeated cycles of immersion in saturated solutions of sodium or magnesium sulfate followed by oven drying. The percent loss of material is determined by taking the difference between the original and final (after the specified number of cycles) masses expressed as a percentage of the original mass. This test evaluates the aggregates ability to resist breaking down or disintegrating due to weathering 2) Aggregate impact test: Toughness is the property of a material to resist impact. Due to traffic loads, the road stones are subjected to the pounding action or impact and there is possibility of stones breaking into smaller pieces. The road stones should therefore be tough enough to resist fracture under impact. A test designed to evaluate the toughness of stone i.e., the resistance of the stones to fracture under repeated impacts may be called an impact test for road stones. Impact test may be carried out either on cylindrical stone specimens as in Page Impact test or on stone aggregates as in Aggregate Impact test. The Page Impact test is not carried out now a day and has also been omitted from the revised British Standard for testing mineral aggregates. The aggregate impact test has been standardized by the British Standard Institution and the Indian Standard Institution.

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The aggregate impact value indicates a relative measure of the resistance of aggregate to a sudden shock or an impact, which in some aggregates differs from its resistance to a slow compressive load. The method of test covers the procedure for determining the aggregate impact value of coarse aggregates.

3) CONE PENETRATION TESTING: Cone penetration testing (CPT) is a fast and reliable means of conducting highway site investigations for exploring soils and soft ground for support of embankments, retaining walls, pavement sub grades, and bridge foundations. The CPT soundings can be used either as a replacement (in lieu of) or as complement to conventional rotary drilling and sampling methods. In CPT, an electronic steel probe is hydraulically pushed to collect continuous readings of point load, friction, and pore water pressures with typical depths up to 30 m (100 ft) or more reached in about 1 to 112 h. Data are logged directly to a field computer and can be used to evaluate the geostratigraphy, soil types, water table, and engineering parameters of the ground. By the geotechnical engineer on-site, that will be offering quick and preliminary conclusions for design. With proper calibration, using full-scale load testing coupled with soil borings and laboratory Testing, the CPT results can be used for final design parameters and analysis. 4) California bearing ratio (CBR) The California bearing ratio (CBR) is a penetration test for evaluation of the mechanical strength of road sub grades and base courses. It was developed by the California Department of Transportation before World War II. The test is performed by measuring the pressure required to penetrate a soil sample with a plunger of standard area. The measured pressure is then divided by the pressure required to achieve an equal penetration on a standard crushed rock material. The CBR test is described in ASTM Standards D1883-05 (for laboratory-prepared samples) and D4429 (for soils in place in field), and AASHTO T193. The CBR test is fully described in BS 1377: Soils for civil engineering purposes: Part 4, Compaction related tests. The CBR rating was developed for measuring the load-bearing capacity of soils used for building roads. The CBR can also be used for measuring the load-bearing capacity of unimproved airstrips or for soils under paved airstrips. The harder the surface, the higher the CBR rating. A CBR of 3 equates to tilled farmland, a CBR of 4.75 equates to turf or moist clay, while moist sand may have a CBR of 10. High quality crushed rock has a CBR over 80. The standard material for this test is crushed California limestone which has a value of 100.

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= CBR [%] = measured pressure for site soils [N/mm] = pressure to achieve equal penetration on standard soil [N/mm]

Soil properties
1) Porosity
The ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the soil and is designated as n

2) Void ratio
The ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids and is designated as e

3) Moisture content
The ratio of the weight of water Ww in the soil mass to the oven dried weight of solids Ws expressed as a percentage

4) Degree of Saturation
The percentage of void space occupied by water

5) Density of a soil
The ratio that relates the mass side of the phase diagram to the volumetric side. Three densities are commonly used in soil engineering: total or bulk density, dry density, and submerged or buoyant density

6) Shrinkage Limit (SL)

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When a saturated soil is slowly dried, the volume shrinks, but the soil continues to contain moisture. Continuous drying of the soil, however, will lead to moisture content at which further drying will not result in additional shrinkage. The volume of the soil will stay constant, and further drying will be accompanied by air entering the voids. The moisture content at which this occurs is the shrinkage limit, or SL, of the soil

7) Plastic Limit (PL)

The moisture content at which the soil crumbles when it is rolled down to a diameter of oneeighth of an inch

8) Liquid Limit (LL)

The moisture content at which the soil will flow and close a groove of one-half inch within it after the standard LL equipment has been dropped 25 times

Fig. 1.9: Consistency Limits

9) Shear strength:
The shear strength of soils is of particular importance to the highway engineer, because soil masses will usually fail in shear under highway loads

Traffic characteristics
The three main components of the highway mode of transportation are:

The driver The vehicle The road 1) Driver characteristics:

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The Human Response Process (Actions taken by drivers on a road result from their evaluation of and reaction to information they obtain from certain stimuli that they see or hear)
-

- PERCEPTION-REACTION PROCESS (Based on PIEV theory (P=Perception, I=identification, E=emotion, V=volition)

2) Vehicle characteristics:
- Static Characteristics (The size of the design vehicle for a highway is an important factor in the determination of design standards for several physical components of the highway. These include lane width, shoulder width, length and width of parking bays, and lengths of vertical curves) - Kinematic Characteristics (The primary element among kinematic characteristics is the acceleration capability of the vehicle. Acceleration capability is important in several traffic operations, such as passing maneuvers and gap acceptance)

3) Road characteristics:
- Sight Distance (the length of the roadway a driver can see ahead at any particular time)

References:
Books: 1.1) T. F. Fwa, 2006, THE HANBOOK OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 1.2) Nicholas J. Garber & Lester A. Hoel, Fourth Edition, TRAFFIC AND HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 1.3) R. VANDHIYAN, Lecture notes, HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

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Websites:

2.1) Vertical Alignment

http://www.cdeep.iitb.ac.in/nptel/Civil%20Engineering/Transportation%20Engg %201/17-Ltexhtml/nptel_ceTEI_L17.pdf

2.2) Horizontal Alignment

http://www.cdeep.iitb.ac.in/nptel/Civil%20Engineering/Transportation%20Engg %201/15-Ltexhtml/nptel_ceTEI_L15.pdf

2.3) Road Design Manual

http://www.sddot.com/pe/roaddesign/docs/rdmanual/rdmch05.pdf

2.4) Highway Engineering

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highway_engineering

2.5) Introduction to Highway Engineering

http://www.cdeep.iitb.ac.in/nptel/Civil%20Engineering/Transportation%20Engg %201/02-Ltexhtml/nptel_ceTEI_L02.pdf

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