SYSTEM DESIGN CALLS:

THE EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN CYCLE

V Diagram
In this place we need to discuss the role of simulation software, real-time systems and data acquisition in dynamic test applications. Traditional testing is referred to as static testing where functionality of components is tested by providing known inputs and measuring outputs. Today there is more pressure to get products to market faster and reduce design cycle times. This has led to a need for dynamic testing where components are tested while in use with the entire

system either real or simulated. Because of cost and safety concerns, simulating the rest of the the system with real-time hardware is preferred to testing components in the actual real system. The diagram shown on this slide is the V Diagram that is often used to describe the development cycle. Originally developed to encapsulate the design process of software applications, many different versions of this diagram can be found to describe different product design cycles. Here we have shown one example of such a diagram representing the design cycle of embedded control applications common to automotive, aerospace and defense applications. In this diagram the general progression in time of the development stages is shown from left to right. Note however that this is often an iterative process and the actual development will not proceed linearly through these steps. The goal of rapid development is to make this cycle as efficient as possible by minimizing the iterations required for a design. If the x-axis of the diagram is thought of as time, the goal is to narrow the V as much as possible and thereby reduce development time. The y-axis of this diagram can be thought of as the level at which the system components are considered. Early on in the development, the requirements of the overall system must be considered. As the system is divided into sub-systems and components, the process becomes very low-level down to the point of loading code onto individual processors. Afterwards components are integrated and tested together until such time that the entire system can enter final production testing. Therefore the top of the diagram represents the high-level system view and the bottom of the diagram represents a very low-level view.

Notes: V diagram describes lots of applicationsderived from software development. Reason for shape, every phase of design requires a complimentary test phase. High-level to lowlevel view of application. This is a simplified version. Loop Back/ Iterative process, X-axis is time (sum up).

Characteristics of Embedded System:

An embedded system is any computer system hidden inside a product other than a computer

There will encounter a number of difficulties when writing embedded system software in addition to those we encounter when we write applications Throughput Our system may need to handle a lot of data in a short period of time. ResponseOur system may need to react to events quickly TestabilitySetting up equipment to test embedded software can be difficult DebugabilityWithout a screen or a keyboard, finding out what the software is doing wrong (other than not working) is a troublesome problem Reliability embedded systems must be able to handle any situation without human intervention Memory space Memory is limited on embedded systems, and you must make the software and the data fit into whatever memory exists Program installation you will need special tools to get your software into embedded systems Power consumption Portable systems must run on battery power, and the software in these systems must conserve power Cost Reducing the cost of the hardware is a concern in many embedded system projects; software often operates on hardware that is barely adequate for the job.

Embedded systems have a microprocessor/ microcontroller and a memory. Some have a serial port or a network connection. They usually do not have keyboards, screens or disk drives.

Applications:
1. Military and aerospace embedded software applications 2. Communication Applications 3. Industrial automation and process control software

MICROCONTROLLER 3.1.1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLER

A computer-on-a-chip is a variation of a microprocessor which combines the processor core (CPU), some memory, and I/O (input/output) lines, all on one chip. The computer-on-a-chip is called the microcomputer whose proper meaning is a computer using a (number of) microprocessor(s) as its CPUs, while the concept of the microcomputer is known to be a microcontroller. A microcontroller can be viewed as a set of digital logic circuits integrated on a single silicon chip. This chip is used for only specific applications. Most microcontrollers do not require a substantial amount of time to learn how to efficiently program them, although many of them, which have quirks, which you will have to understand before you, attempt to develop your first application. Along with microcontrollers getting faster, smaller and more power efficient they are also getting more and more features. Often, the first version of microcontroller will just have memory and digital I/O, but as the device family matures, more and more pat numbers with varying features will be available. In this project we used PIC 16f877A microcontroller. For most applications, we will be able to find a device within the family that meets our specifications with a minimum of external devices, or an external but which will make attaching external devices easier, both in terms of wiring and programming. For many microcontrollers, programmers can built very cheaply, or even built in to the final application circuit eliminating the need for a separate circuit. Also simplifying this requirement is the availability of micro-controllers wit SRAM and EEPROM for control store, which will allow program development without having to remove the micro controller fro the application circuit. 3.1.2 MICRO CONTROLLER CORE FEATURES High-performance RISC CPU. Only 35 single word instructions to learn. All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are two cycle. Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input DC - 200 ns instruction cycle. Up to 8K x 14 words of FLASH Program Memory, Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data (RAM) Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM data memory. Pin out compatible to the PIC16C73B/74B/76/77 Interrupt capability (up to 14 sources) Eight level deep hardware stack Direct, indirect and relative addressing modes. Memory

Power-on Reset (POR). Power-up Timer (PWRT) and Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST). Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable operation. Programmable code-protection. Power saving SLEEP mode. Selectable oscillator options. Low-power, high-speed CMOS FLASH/EEPROM technology. Fully static design. In-Circuit Serial Single 5V In-Circuit Serial Programming capability. In-Circuit Debugging via two pins. Processor read/write access to program memory. Wide operating voltage range: 2.0V to 5.5V. High Sink/Source Current: 25 mA. Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges. Low-power consumption. In this project we used PIC 16f877A microcontroller. PIC means Peripheral Interface Controller.

The PIC family having different series. The series are 12- Series, 14- Series, 16- Series, 18- Series, and 24- Series. We used 16 Series PIC microcontrollers.

3.1.3

ADVANTAGES

OF

USING

MICROCONTROLLER

OVER

MICROPROCESSOR
A designer will use a Microcontroller to Gather input from various sensors Process this input into a set of actions Use the output mechanisms on the Microcontroller to do something useful RAM and ROM are inbuilt in the MC. Cheap compared to MP. Multi machine control is possible simultaneously.

PIC CONTROLLER

PIC is a family of modified Harvard architecture microcontrollers made by Microchip Technology, derived from the PIC1650 originally developed by General Instrument's Microelectronics Division. The name PIC initially referred to "Peripheral Interface Controller". PICs are popular with both industrial developers and hobbyists alike due to their low cost, wide availability, large user base, extensive collection of application notes, availability of low cost or free development tools, and serial programming (and re-programming with flash memory) capability. They are also commonly used in educational programming as they often come with the easy to use 'pic logicator' software.

Advantages
Small instruction set to learn RISC architecture Built in oscillator with selectable speeds Easy entry level, in circuit programming plus in circuit debugging PIC Kit units available

for less . Inexpensive microcontrollers Wide range of interfaces including IC, SPI, USB, USART, A/D, programmable

comparators, PWM, LIN, CAN, PSP, and Ethernet[8] Availability of processors in DIL package makes them easy to handle for hobby use.

FEATURES OF PIC16F877A CONTROLLER:

High-performance RISC CPU. Only 35 single word instructions to learn. All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are two cycle.

Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input DC - 200 ns instruction cycle. Up to 8K x 14 words of FLASH Program Memory, Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory

(RAM) Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM data memory. Pin out compatible to the PIC16C73B/74B/76/77 Interrupt capability (up to 14 sources) Eight level deep hardware stack Direct, indirect and relative addressing modes. Power-on Reset (POR). Power-up Timer (PWRT) and Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST). Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable operation. Programmable code-protection. Power saving SLEEP mode. Selectable oscillator options. Low-power, high-speed CMOS FLASH/EEPROM technology. Fully static design. InSingle 5V In-Circuit Serial Programming capability. In-Circuit Debugging via two pins. Processor read/write access to program memory.

Wide operating voltage range: 2.0V to 5.5V. High Sink/Source Current: 25 mA. Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges. Low-power consumption. < 2 mA typical @ 5V, 4 MHz

PIN DIAGRAM;

PERIPHERAL FEATURES:
Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, can be incremented during sleep via external crystal/clock Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and postscaler Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules - Capture is 16-bit, max. Resolution is 12.5 ns

- Compare is 16-bit, max. Resolution is 200 ns - PWM max. Resolution is 10-bit 10-bit multi-channel Analog-to-Digital converter

Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART/SCI) with 9-bit address detection Parallel Slave Port (PSP) 8-bits wide, with external RD, WR and CS controls (40/44-pin only) Brown-out detection circuitry for Brown-out Reset (BOR)

CMOS TECHNOLOGY:
Low-power, high-speed Flash/EEPROM technology. Fully static design. Wide operating voltage range (2.0V to 5.5V). Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges. Low-power consumption.

ARCHITECTURE:

PIN DESCRIPTION: OSC1/CLKI:

Oscillator crystal or external clock input. Oscillator crystal input or external clock source input. ST buffer when configured in RC mode; otherwise CMOS. External clock source input. Always associated with pin function OSC1 (see OSC1/CLKI, OSC2/CLKO pins).

OSC2/CLKO:
Oscillator crystal or clock output. Oscillator crystal output. Connects to The crystal or resonator in Crystal Oscillator mode. In RC mode, OSC2 pin outputs CLKO, which has 1/4 the frequency of OSC1 and denotes the instruction cycle rate.

MCLR/VPP:
Master Clear (input) or programming voltage (output). Master Clear (Reset) input. This pin is an active low Reset to the device. Programming voltage input. RA0/AN0. RA1/AN1. RA2/AN2/VREF-/CVREF. VREFCVREF. RA3/AN3/VREF+. VREF+. RA4/T0CKI/C1OUT. T0CKI.

C1OUT. RA5/AN4/SS/C2OUT/SS/C2OUT.

I/O PORTS:
Some pins for these I/O ports are multiplexed with an alternate function for the peripheral features on the device. In general, when a peripheral is enabled, that pin may not be used as a general purpose I/O pin.

PORTA AND TRISA REGISTER:

PORTA is a 6-bit wide, bidirectional port. The corresponding data direction register is TRISA. Setting a TRISA bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORTA pin an input (i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a High Impedance mode). Clearing a TRISA bit (= 0) will make the corresponding PORTA pin an output (i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin). Reading the PORTA register reads the status of the pins, whereas writing to it will write to the port latch. All write operations are read-modify-write operations. Therefore, a write to a port implies that the port pins are read; the value is modified and then written to the port data latch. Pin RA4 is multiplexed with the Timer0 module clock input to become the RA4/T0CKI pin. The RA4/T0CKI pin is a Schmitt Trigger input and an open-drain output. All other PORTA pins have TTL input levels and full CMOS output drivers. Other PORTA pins are multiplexed with analog inputs and the analog VREF input for both the A/D converters and the comparators. The operation of each pin is selected by clearing/setting the appropriate control bits in the ADCON1 and/or CMCON registers. The TRISA register controls the direction of the port pins even when they are being used as analog inputs. The user must ensure the bits in the TRISA register are maintained set when using them as analog inputs. Note: On a Power-on Reset, these pins are configured as analog inputs and read as 0. The comparators are in the off (digital).

PORT B AND TRISB REGISTER:

PORTB is an 8-bit wide, bidirectional port. The corresponding data direction register is TRISB. Setting a TRISB bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORTB pin an input (i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a High-Impedance mode). Clearing a TRISB bit (= 0) will make the corresponding PORTB pin an output (i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin). Three pins of PORTB are multiplexed with the In-Circuit Debugger and Low-Voltage Programming function: RB3/PGM, RB6/PGC and RB7/PGD. Four of the PORTB pins, RB7:RB4, have an interruption- change feature. Only pins configured as inputs can cause this interrupt to occur (i.e., any RB7:RB4 pin configured as an output is excluded from the interruption- change comparison). The input pins (of RB7:RB4) are compared with the old value latched on the last read of PORTB. The mismatch outputs of RB7:RB4 are ORed together to generate the RB port change interrupt with flag bit RBIF (INTCON<0>). This interrupt can wake the device from Sleep. The user, in the Interrupt Service Routine, can clear the interrupt in the following manner: a) Any read or write of PORTB. This will end the mismatch condition. b) Clear flag bit RBIF. A mismatch condition will continue to set flag bit RBIF. Reading PORTB will end the mismatch condition and allow flag bit RBIF to be cleared. The interrupt-on-change feature is recommended for wake-up on key depression operation and operations where PORTB is only used for the interrupt-on-change feature. Polling of PORTB is not recommended while using the interrupt-on- change feature. This interrupt-on-mismatch feature, together with software configurable pull-ups on these four pins, allow easy interface to a keypad and make it possible for wake-up on key depression.

PORTC AND TRISC REGISTER:

PORTC is an 8-bit wide, bidirectional port. The corresponding data direction register is TRISC. Setting a TRISC bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORTC pin an input (i.e., put the

corresponding output driver in a High- Impedance mode). Clearing a TRISC bit (= 0) will make the corresponding PORTC pin an output (i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin). PORTC is multiplexed with several peripheral functions (Table 4-5). PORTC pins have Schmitt Trigger input buffers. When the I2C module is enabled, the PORTC<4:3> pins can be configured with normal I2C levels, or with SMBus levels, by using the CKE bit (SSPSTAT<6>). When enabling peripheral functions, care should be taken in defining TRIS bits for each PORTC pin. Some peripherals override the TRIS bit to make a pin an output, while other peripherals override the TRIS bit to make a pin an input. Since the TRIS bit override is in effect while the peripheral is enabled, read-modify write instructions (BSF, BCF, XORWF) with TRISC as the destination, should be avoided. The user should refer to the corresponding peripheral section for the correct TRIS bit settings.

PORTD AND TRISD REGISTERS:

PORTD is an 8-bit port with Schmitt Trigger input buffers. Each pin is individually configurable as an input or output. PORTD can be configured as an 8-bit wide microprocessor port (Parallel Slave Port) by setting control bit, PSP MODE (TRISE<4>). In this mode, the input buffers are TTL.

PORTE AND TRISE REGISTER:

PORTE has three pins (RE0/RD/AN5, RE1/WR/AN6 and RE2/CS/AN7) which are individually configurable as inputs or outputs. These pins have Schmitt Trigger input buffers. The PORTE pins become the I/O control inputs for the microprocessor port when bit PSPMODE (TRISE<4>) is set. In this mode, the user must make certain that the TRISE<2:0> bits are set and that the pins are configured as digital inputs. Also, ensure that ADCON1 is configured for digital I/O. In this mode, the input buffers are TTL. Register 4-1 shows the TRISE register which also controls the Parallel Slave Port operation. PORTE pins are multiplexed with analog inputs. When selected for analog input, these pins will read as 0s. TRISE controls. The direction of the RE pins, even when they are being used as analog inputs. The user must make sure to keep the pins configured as inputs when using them as analog inputs.

MEMORY ORGANIZATION: There are three memory blocks in each of the PIC16F87XA devices. The program memory and data memory have separate buses so that concurrent access can occur and is detailed in this section. The EEPROM data memory block is detailed in.

PROGRAM MEMORY ORGANIZATION:

The PIC16F87XA devices have a 13-bit program counter capable of addressing an 8K word x 14 bit program memory space. The PIC16F876A/877A devices have 8K words x 14 bits of Flash program memory, while PIC16F873A/874A devices have 4K words x 14 bits. Accessing a location above the physically implemented address will cause a wraparound. The Reset vector is at 0000h and the interrupt vector is at 0004h. The data memory is partitioned into multiple banks which contain the General Purpose Registers and the Special Function Registers. Bits RP1 (Status<6>) and RP0 (Status<5>) are the bank select bits. Each bank extends up to 7Fh (128 bytes). The lower locations of each bank are reserved for the Special Function Registers. Above the Special Function Registers are General Purpose Registers, implemented as static RAM. All implemented banks contain Special Function Registers. Some frequently used Special Function Registers from one bank may be mirrored in another bank for code reduction and quicker access.

TIMER0 MODULE:
The Timer0 module timer/counter has the following features: 8-bit timer/counter Readable and writable 8-bit software programmable prescaler Internal or external clock select

 Interrupt on overflow from FFh to 00h Edge select for external clock Timer mode is selected by clearing bit T0CS (OPTION_REG<5>). In Timer mode, the Timer0 module will increment every instruction cycle (without prescaler). If the TMR0 register is written, the increment is inhibited for the following two instruction cycles. The user can work around this by writing an adjusted value to the TMR0 register.

TIMER0 INTERRUPT:
The TMR0 interrupt is generated when the TMR0 register overflows from FFh to 00h. This overflow sets bit TMR0IF (INTCON<2>). The interrupt can be masked by clearing bit TMR0IE (INTCON<5>). Bit TMR0IF must be cleared in software by the Timer0 module Interrupt Service Routine before re-enabling this interrupt. The TMR0 interrupt cannot awaken the processor from Sleep since the timer is shut-off during Sleep.

TIMER1 MODULE:
The Timer1 module is a 16-bit timer/counter consisting of two 8-bit registers (TMR1H and TMR1L) which are readable and writable. The TMR1 register pair (TMR1H:TMR1L) increments from 0000h to FFFFh and rolls over to 0000h. The TMR1 interrupt, if enabled, is generated on overflow which is latched in interrupt flag bit, TMR1IF (PIR1<0>). This interrupt can be enabled/disabled by setting or clearing TMR1 interrupt enable bit, TMR1IE (PIE1<0>). Timer1 can operate in one of two modes: As a Timer As a Counter The operating mode is determined by the clock select bit, TMR1CS (T1CON<1>). In Timer mode, Timer1 increments every instruction cycle. In Counter mode, it increments on every rising edge of the external clock input. Timer1 can be enabled/disabled by setting/clearing

control bit, TMR1ON (T1CON<0>).Timer1 also has an internal Reset input. This Reset can be generated by either of the two CCP modules. Shows the Timer1 Control register. When the Timer1 oscillator is enabled (T1OSCEN is set), the RC1/T1OSI/CCP2 and RC0/T1OSO/T1CKI pins become inputs. That is, the TRISC<1:0> value is ignored and these pins read as 0.

TIMER2 MODULE:
Timer2 is an 8-bit timer with a prescaler and a postscaler. It can be used as the PWM time base for the PWM mode of the CCP module(s). The TMR2 register is readable and writable and is cleared on any device Reset. The input clock (FOSC/4) has a prescale option of 1:1, 1:4 or 1:16, selected by control bits T2CKPS1:T2CKPS0 (T2CON<1:0>). The Timer2 module has an 8-bit period register, PR2. Timer2 increments from 00h until it matches PR2 and then resets to 00h on the next increment cycle. PR2 is a readable and writable register. The PR2 register is initialized to FFh upon Reset. The match output of TMR2 goes through a 4-bit postscaler (which gives a 1:1 to 1:16 scaling inclusive) to generate a TMR2 interrupt (latched in flag bit, TMR2IF (PIR1<1>)). Timer2 can be shut-off by clearing control bit, TMR2ON (T2CON<2>), to minimize power consumption.

IN-CIRCUIT DEBUGGER:
PIC16F87XA devices have a Watchdog Timer which can be shut-off only through configuration bits. It runs off its own RC oscillator for added reliability. There are two timers that offer necessary delays on power-up. One is the Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST), intended to keep the chip in Reset until the crystal oscillator is stable. The other is the Power-up Timer (PWRT), which provides a fixed delay of 72 ms (nominal) on power-up only. It is designed to keep the part In Reset while the power supply stabilizes. With these two timers on-chip, most applications need no external Reset circuitry. Sleep mode is designed to offer a very low current power-down mode. The user can wake-up from Sleep through external Reset, Watchdog Timer wake-up or through an interrupt. Several oscillator options are also made available to allow the part to fit the

application. The RC oscillator option saves system cost while the LP crystal option saves power. A set of configuration bits is used to select various options.

Solar panel
A solar panel (also solar module, photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a packaged, connected assembly of photovoltaic cells. The solar panel can be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in commercial and residential applications. Each panel is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions, and typically ranges from 100 to 320 watts. The efficiency of a panel determines the area of a panel given the same rated output - an 8% efficient 230 watt panel will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 watt panel. Because a single solar panel can produce only a limited amount of power, most installations contain multiple panels. A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of solar panels, an inverter, and sometimes a battery and or solar tracker and interconnection wiring.

Fig : A solar panel or photovoltaic module, is composed of individual PV cells. This crystallinesilicon panel has an aluminium frame and glass on the front.

Theory and construction

Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon. The structural (load carrying) member of a module

can either be the top layer or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most solar panels are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells. These early solar panels were first used in space in 1958. Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in parallel to provide a desired current capability. The conducting wires that take the current off the panels may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition metals. The cells must be connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system. Externally, popular terrestrial usage photovoltaic panels use MC3 (older) or MC4 connectors to facilitate easy weatherproof connections to the rest of the system. Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial panel shading, to maximize the output of panel sections still illuminated. The p-n junctions of mono-crystalline silicon cells may have adequate reverse voltage characteristics to prevent damaging panel section reverse current. Reverse currents could lead to overheating of shaded cells. Solar cells become less efficient at higher temperatures and installers try to provide good ventilation behind solar panels. Some recent solar panel designs include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.

Efficiencies
Depending on construction, photovoltaic panels can produce electricity from a range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range (specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence much of the incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar panels, and they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore, another design concept is to split the light into different wavelength ranges and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges. This has been projected to be capable of raising efficiency by 50%.

Currently the best achieved sunlight conversion rate (solar panel efficiency) is around 20.1% in new commercial products typically lower than the efficiencies of their cells in isolation. The most efficient mass-produced solar panels have energy density values of up to 16.22 W/ft2 (175 W/m2). Crystalline silicon modules Most solar modules are currently produced from silicon photovoltaic cells. These are typically categorized as monocrystalline or polycrystalline modules.

Thin-film modules
Third generation solar cells are advanced thin-film cells. They produce high-efficiency conversion at low cost.

Rigid thin-film modules

In rigid thin film modules, the cell and the module are manufactured in the same production line. The cell is created on a glass substrate or superstrate, and the electrical connections are created in situ, a so-called "monolithic integration". The substrate or superstrate is laminated with an encapsulant to a front or back sheet, usually another sheet of glass. The main cell technologies in this category are CdTe, or a-Si, or a-Si+uc-Si tandem, or CIGS (or variant). Amorphous silicon has a sunlight conversion rate of 6-12%.

Flexible thin-film modules :

Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line by depositing the photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a flexible substrate. If the substrate is an insulator (e.g. polyester or polyimide film) then monolithic integration can be used. If it is a conductor then another technique for electrical connection must be used. The cells are assembled into modules by laminating them to a transparent colourless fluoropolymer on the front side (typically ETFE or FEP) and a polymer suitable for bonding to the final substrate on the other side. The only commercially available (in MW quantities) flexible module uses amorphous silicon triple junction (from Unisolar).

So-called inverted metamorphic (IMM) multijunction solar cells made on compoundsemiconductor technology are just becoming commercialized in July 2008. The University of Michigan's solar car that won the North American Solar Challenge in July 2008 used IMM thinfilm flexible solar cells. The requirements for residential and commercial are different in that the residential needs are simple and can be packaged so that as solar cell technology progresses, the other base line equipment such as the battery, inverter and voltage sensing transfer switch still need to be compacted and unitized for residential use. Commercial use, depending on the size of the service will be limited in the photovoltaic cell arena, and more complex parabolic reflectors and solar concentrators are becoming the dominant technology. The global flexible and thin-film photovoltaic (PV) market, despite caution in the overall PV industry, is expected to experience a CAGR of over 35% to 2019, surpassing 32 GW according to a major new study by IntertechPira.

Solar micro-inverter :
Several companies have begun embedding electronics into PV modules. This enables performing maximum power point tracking (MPPT) for each module individually, and the measurement of performance data for monitoring and fault detection at module level. Some of these solutions make use of power optimizers, a DC-to-DC converter technology developed to maximize the power harvest from solar photovoltaic systems. As of about 2010, such electronics can also compensate for shading effects, wherein a shadow falling across a section of a panel causes the electrical output of one or more strings of cells in the panel to fall to zero, but not having the output of the entire panel fall to zero.

Module performance and aging :

Module performance is generally rated under standard test conditions (STC): irradiance of 1,000 W/m, solar spectrum of AM 1.5 and module temperature at 25C.

Electrical characteristics include nominal power (PMAX, measured in W), open circuit voltage (VOC), short circuit current (ISC, measured in amperes), maximum power voltage (VMPP), maximum power current (IMPP), peak power, Wp, and module efficiency (%). Nominal voltage refers to the voltage of the battery that the module is best suited to charge; this is a leftover term from the days when solar panels were only used to charge batteries. The actual voltage output of the panel changes as lighting, temperature and load conditions change, so there is never one specific voltage at which the panel operates. Nominal voltage allows users, at a glance, to make sure the panel is compatible with a given system. Open circuit voltage or VOC is the maximum voltage that the panel can produce when not connected to an electrical circuit or system. VOC can be measured with a meter directly on an illuminated panel's terminals or on its disconnected cable. The peak power rating, Wp, is the maximum output under standard test conditions (not the maximum possible output). Typical panels, which could measure approximately 1x2 meters or 2x4 feet, will be rated from as low as 75 Watts to as high as 350 Watts, depending on their efficiency. At the time of testing, the test panels are binned according to their test results, and a typical manufacturer might rate their panels in 5 Watt increments, and either rate them at +/- 3%, +/-5%, +3/-0% or +5/-0%. Solar panels must withstand rain, hail, and cycles of heat and cold for many years. Many crystalline silicon module manufacturers offer a warranty that guarantees electrical production for 10 years at 90% of rated power output and 25 years at 80%. The output power of many panels slowly degrades at about 0.5%/year.

Recycling :
Most parts of a solar module can be recycled including up to 95% of certain semiconductor materials or the glass as well as large amounts of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.[13] Some private companies and non-profit organizations are currently engaged in take-back and recycling operations for end-of-life modules.

Recycling possibilities depend on the kind of technology used in the modules:

Silicon based modules: aluminium frames and junction boxes are dismantled manually at the beginning of the process. The module is then crushed in a mill and the different fractions are separated - glass, plastics and metals. It is possible to recover more than 80% of the incoming weight. This process can be performed by flat glass recyclers since morphology and composition of a PV module is similar to those flat glasses used in the building and automotive industry. The recovered glass for example is readily accepted by the glass foam and glass insulation industry.

Non-silicon based modules: they require specific recycling technologies such as the use of chemical baths in order to separate the different semiconductor materials. For cadmium telluride panels, the recycling process begins by crushing the module and subsequently separating the different fractions. This recycling process is designed to recover up to 90% of the glass and 95% of the semiconductor materials contained. Some commercial-scale recycling facilities have been created in recent years by private companies.

Since 2010, there is an annual European conference bringing together manufacturers, recyclers and researchers to look at the future of PV module recycling.

Fig : An installation of 24 solar panels in rural Mongolia

Inverter circuit Description

Here is a 100 Watt inverter circuit using minimum number of components. I think it is quite difficult to make a decent one like this with further less components. Here we use CD 4047 IC from Texas Instruments for generating the 100 Hz pulses and four 2N3055 transistors for driving the load. The IC1 Cd4047 wired as an astable multivibrator produces two 180 degree out of phase 100 Hz pulse trains. These pulse trains are preamplifed by the two TIP122 transistors. The out puts of the TIP 122 transistors are amplified by four 2N 3055 transistors (two transistors for each half cycle) to drive the inverter transformer. The 220V AC will be available at the secondary of the transformer. Nothing complex just the elementary inverter principle and the circuit works great for small loads like a few bulbs or fans. If you need just a low cost inverter in the region of 100 W, then this is the best.

Fig : 100 Watt Inverter Circuit This 100W inverter circuit works great for small loads like a fan or 2-3 bulbs/lamps. In this circuit as IC1 we used a CD 4047 IC to generate 100Hz frequency (180 degree out of phase). CD 4047 IC is from Texas Instruments. It is mostly used as Astable/Monostable signal generator

device. In this circuit it is triggered as astable multivibrator by the capacitor C1 between the Pin 1 and 3 of CD4047. And VR1 is used to adjust the frequency of signal.

Four 2N3055 transistors are used to amplify the pulse trains that are pre-amplified by two TIP122 transistors. There used three transistors for each side (half cycle), one TIP122 & two 2N3055 transistor to drive the output transformer (TX in circuit). Four 2N3055 transistors are used as driving transistor. An inverters maximum output power depends on two factors; one is the max current rating of transformers primary winding and other factor is the current rating of driver transistors.

Transformer:
Use a 12v-0-12v, 10A step-down transformer in reverse. Thats mean secondary winding (12v-012v) will be the primary and primary winding (220VAC side) will be the secondary (output). So that it will worked like a step-up transformer. You can also use a 5A transformer instead of 10A, if you couldnt have 10A. But the output power will decrease to 60 Watt.

+12VDC: A good quality 12V car battery could be used for DC 12V. Parts VR1 R1, R3, C1 C2 D1 D2 Q1, Q2, F1 IC1 Q3, = Q4 Q5, = = = 9.1V = Q6 = 10A = BY127 Zener TIP122 2N3055 = R2 R4, R5, = 250K = R6 list (Variable 4.7K-1/4W = : resistor/POT) Resistor 0.1R-5W 0.022uF 220uF-25V Diode Diode Transistor Transistor Fuse CD4047

TX = 12-0-12V, 10A Step-down Transformer

Notes

A 12 V car battery can be used as the 12V source. Use the POT R1 to set the output frequency to50Hz. For the transformer get a 9-0-9 V, 10A step down transformer. But here the 9-0-9 V winding will be the primary and 220V winding will be the secondary. If you could not get a 10A rated transformer, dont worry a 5A one will be just enough. But the allowed output power will be reduced to 60W.

Use a 10 A fuse in series with the battery as shown in circuit. Mount the IC on an IC holder. Remember this circuit is nothing when compared to advanced PWM inverters. This is a low cost circuit meant for low scale applications.

Inverter Design Tips

The maximum allowed output power of an inverter depends on two factors. The maximum current rating of the transformer primary and the current rating of the driving transistors. For example ,to get a 100 Watt output using 12 V car battery the primary current will be ~8A ,(100/12) because P=VxI . So the primary of transformer must be rated above 8A. Also here ,each final driver transistors must be rated above 4A. Here two will be conducting parallel in each half cycle, so I=8/2 = 4A.

Compact Fluorescent Lamp

A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), also called compact fluorescent light, energysaving light, and compact fluorescent tube, is a fluorescent lamp designed to replace an incandescent lamp; some types fit into light fixtures formerly used for incandescent lamps. The lamps use a tube which is curved or folded to fit into the space of an incandescent bulb, and a compact electronic ballast in the base of the lamp. Compared to general-service incandescent lamps giving the same amount of visible light, CFLs use one-fifth to one-third the electric power, and last eight to fifteen times longer. A CFL has a higher purchase price than an incandescent lamp, but can save over five times its purchase price in electricity costs over the lamp's lifetime. Like all fluorescent lamps, CFLs

contain mercury, which complicates their disposal. In many countries, governments have established recycling schemes for CFLs and glass generally. CFLs radiate a spectral power distribution that is different from that of incandescent lamps. Improved phosphor formulations have improved the perceived color of the light emitted by CFLs, such that some sources rate the best "soft white" CFLs as subjectively similar in color to standard incandescent lamps.

Fig: Compact Fluorescent Lamp

Design
There are two types of CFLs: integrated and non-integrated lamps. Integrated lamps combine the tube and ballast in a single unit. These lamps allow consumers to replace incandescent lamps easily with CFLs. Integrated CFLs work well in many standard incandescent light fixtures, reducing the cost of converting to fluorescent. 3-way lamp bulbs and dimmable models with standard bases are available. Non-integrated CFLs have the ballast permanently installed in the luminaire, and only the lamp bulb is usually changed at its end of life. Since the ballasts are placed in the light fixture, they are larger and last longer compared to the integrated ones, and they don't need to be replaced when the bulb reaches its end-of-life. Non-integrated CFL housings can be both more expensive and sophisticated. They have two types of tubes: a bi-pin tube designed for conventional ballast, and a quad-pin tube designed for an electronic ballast or a conventional ballast with an external starter. A bi-pin tube contains an integrated starter, which obviates the need for external heating pins but causes incompatibility with electronic ballasts.

CFLs have two main components: a magnetic or electronic ballast and a gas-filled tube (also called bulb or burner). Replacement of magnetic ballasts with electronic ballasts has removed most of the flickering and slow starting traditionally associated with fluorescent lighting, and has allowed the development of smaller lamps directly interchangeable with more sizes of incandescent bulb. Electronic ballasts contain a small circuit board with rectifiers, a filter capacitor and usually two switching transistors. The incoming AC current is first rectified to DC, then converted to high frequency AC by the transistors, connected as a resonant series DC to AC inverter. The resulting high frequency is applied to the lamp tube. Since the resonant converter tends to stabilize lamp current (and light produced) over a range of input voltages, standard CFLs do not respond well in dimming applications and special lamps are required for dimming service. Standard shapes of CFL tube are single-turn double helix, double-turn, triple-turn, quadturn, circular, and butterfly. CFL light output is roughly proportional to phosphor surface area, and high output CFLs are often larger than their incandescent equivalents. This means that the CFL may not fit well in existing light fixtures. Some CFLs are labeled not to be run base up, since heat will shorten the ballast's life. Such CFLs are unsuitable for use in pendant lamps and especially unsuitable for recessed light fixtures. CFLs for use in such fixtures are available. Current recommendations for fully enclosed, unventilated light fixtures (such as those recessed into insulated ceilings), are either to use "reflector CFLs" (R-CFL), cold-cathode CFLs or to replace such fixtures with those designed for CFLs. A CFL will thrive in areas that have good airflow, such as in a table lamp.

Other CFL and lighting technologies

Another type of fluorescent lamp is the electrodeless lamp, known as magnetic induction lamp, radiofluorescent lamp or fluorescent induction lamp. These lamps have no wire conductors penetrating their envelopes, and instead excite mercury vapor using a radio-frequency oscillator.

The cold-cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) is a form of CFL. CCFLs use electrodes without a filament. The voltage of CCFLs is about 5 times higher than CFLs, and the current is about 10 times lower. CCFLs have a diameter of about 3 millimeters. CCFLs were initially used for document scanners and also for back-lighting LCD displays, and later manufactured for use as lamps. The efficacy (lumens per watt) is about half that of CFLs. Their advantages are that they are instant-on, like incandescent lamps, and they have a long life of approximately 50,000 hours. CCFLs are an effective and efficient replacement for lighting that is turned on and off frequently with little extended use (for example, in a bathroom or closet). A few manufacturers make CFL bulbs with mogul Edison screw bases intended to replace 250- and 400-watt metal halide lamps, claiming a 50% energy reduction; these lamps require rewiring of the lamp fixtures to bypass the lamp ballast. Solid-state lighting using light-emitting diodes (LEDs) now fills many specialist niches such as traffic lights. Household LED lights, which have recently become available to consumers, now compete with CFLs for high-efficiency house lighting as well. The luminous efficacy of available LED lamps does not typically exceed that of CFLs, though there have been LED lamps available for purchase with better than 90 lm/W overall luminous efficacy at least since early 2012. U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) tests of commercial LED lamps designed to replace incandescent or CFLs showed that average efficacy was still about 30 lm/W in 2008 (tested performance ranged from 4 lm/W to 62 lm/W). Solid-state lighting continues to improve; in June 2011 the 8 products in the A-line bulb configuration that DOE tested ranged from 50 to 97 lumens per watt, with an average of 62 lumens/watt. General Electric discontinued a 2007 development project intended to develop a highefficiency incandescent bulb with the same lumens per watt as fluorescent lamps. Meanwhile other companies have developed and are selling halogen incandescent bulbs that use 70% of the energy of standard incandescents.

Comparison

Incandescent Halogen Fluorescent

LED (Generic)

LED (Philips)

LED (Philips L Prize)[102]

Electricity usage

60 W

42 W

13 W

9W

12.5 W

9.7 W

Lumens

860

570

660[103]

900

800

910

Lumens/Watt

14.3

13.6

50.8

100

64

93.4

Color Temperature Kelvin

2700

3100[104] 2700

3000

2700

2727

CRI

100

100

82

>75

85

93

Lifespan (hours)

2,000

3,500

8,000

25,000

25,000

30,000

Rechargeable Battery
A rechargeable battery, storage battery, or accumulator is a type of electrical battery. It comprises one or more electrochemical cells, and is a type of energy accumulator. It is known as a secondary cell because its electrochemical reactions are electrically reversible.

Rechargeable batteries come in many different shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt systems connected to stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different combinations of chemicals are commonly used, including: leadacid,nickel

cadmium (NiCd), nickel polymer (Li-ion polymer).

metal

hydride (NiMH), lithium

ion (Li-ion),

and lithium

ion

Rechargeable batteries have lower total cost of use and environmental impact than disposable batteries. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same sizes as disposable types. Rechargeable batteries have higher initial cost but can be recharged very cheaply and used many times.

Fig: 12V Battery

Usage and Applications

Rechargeable batteries are used for automobile starters, portable consumer devices, light vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs, golf carts, electric bicycles, and electric forklifts), tools, and uninterruptible power supplies. Emerging applications in hybrid electric vehicles and electric vehicles are driving the technology to reduce cost and weight and increase lifetime. Traditional rechargeable batteries have to be charged before their first use; newer low self-discharge NiMH batteries hold their charge for many months, and are typically charged at the factory to about 70% of their rated capacity before shipping. Grid energy storage applications use rechargeable batteries for load leveling, where they store electric energy for use during peak load periods, and for renewable energy uses, such as storing power generated from photovoltaic arrays during the day to be used at night. By charging batteries during periods of low demand and returning energy to the grid during periods of high

electrical demand, load-leveling helps eliminate the need for expensive peaking power plants and helps amortize the cost of generators over more hours of operation. The US National Electrical Manufacturers Association has estimated that U.S. demand for rechargeable batteries is growing twice as fast as demand for nonrechargeables .

Charging and Discharging

During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the negative material is reduced, consuming electrons. These electrons constitute the current flow in the external circuit. The electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer for internal ion flow between the electrodes, as in lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium cells, or it may be an active participant in the electrochemical reaction, as in leadacid cells. The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery charger using AC mains electricity, although some are equipped to use a vehicle's 12-volt DC power outlet. Regardless, to store energy in a secondary cell, it has to be connected to a DC voltage source. The negative terminal of the cell has to be connected to the negative terminal of the voltage source and the positive terminal of the voltage source with the positive terminal of the battery. Further, the voltage output of the source must be higher than that of the battery, but not much higher: the greater the difference between the power source and the battery's voltage capacity, the faster the charging process, but also the greater the risk of overcharging and damaging the battery. Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery. Slow "dumb" chargers without voltage- or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking 14 hours or more to reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge cells in two to five hours, depending on the model, with the fastest taking as little as fifteen minutes. Fast chargers must have multiple ways of detecting when a cell reaches full charge (change in terminal voltage, temperature, etc.) to stop charging before harmful overcharging or overheating occurs. The fastest chargers often incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells from overheating. Battery charging and discharging rates are often discussed by referencing a "C" rate of current. The C rate is that which would theoretically fully charge or discharge the battery in one

hour. For example, trickle charging might be performed at C/20 (or a "20 hour" rate), while typical charging and discharging may occur at C/2 (two hours for full capacity). The available capacity of electrochemical cells varies depending on the discharge rate. Some energy is lost in the internal resistance of cell components (plates, electrolyte, interconnections), and the rate of discharge is limited by the speed at which chemicals in the cell can move about. For lead-acid cells, the relationship between time and discharge rate is described by Peukert's law; a lead-acid cell that can no longer sustain a usable terminal voltage at a high current may still have usable capacity, if discharged at a much lower rate. Data sheets for rechargeable cells often list the discharge capacity on 8-hour or 20-hour or other stated time; cells for uninterruptible power supply systems may be rated at 15 minute discharge. Flow batteries, used for specialised applications, are recharged by replacing the electrolyte liquid. Battery manufacturers' technical notes often refer to VPC; this is volts per cell, and refers to the individual secondary cells that make up the battery. (This is typically in reference to 12volt lead-acid batteries.) For example, to charge a 12 V battery (containing 6 cells of 2 V each) at 2.3 VPC requires a voltage of 13.8 V across the battery's terminals. Non-rechargeable alkaline and zinccarbon cells output 1.5V when new, but this voltage drops with use. Most NiMH AA and AAA cells are rated at 1.2 V, but have a flatter discharge curve than alkalines and can usually be used in equipment designed to use alkaline batteries.

Damage from cell reversal

Subjecting a discharged cell to a current in the direction which tends to discharge it further, rather than charge it, is called reverse charging. Generally, pushing current through a discharged cell in this way causes undesirable and irreversible chemical reactions to occur, resulting in permanent damage to the cell. Reverse charging can occur under a number of circumstances, the two most common being:

When a battery or cell is connected to a charging circuit the wrong way around. When a battery made of several cells connected in series is deeply discharged.

In the latter case, the problem occurs due to the different cells in a battery having slightly different capacities. When one cell reaches discharge level ahead of the rest, the remaining cells will force the current through the discharged cell. This is known as "cell reversal". Many batteryoperated devices have a low-voltage cutoff that prevents deep discharges from occurring that might cause cell reversal. Cell reversal can occur to a weakly charged cell even before it is fully discharged. If the battery drain current is high enough, the cell's internal resistance can create a resistive voltage drop that is greater than the cell's forward emf. This results in the reversal of the cell's polarity while the current is flowing. The higher the required discharge rate of a battery, the better matched the cells should be, both in kind of cell and state of charge, in order to reduce the chances of cell reversal. In some situations (such as when correcting Ni-Cad batteries that have been previously overcharged), it may be desirable to fully discharge a battery. To avoid damage from the cell reversal effect, it is necessary to access each cell separately: each cell is individually discharged by connecting a load clip across the terminals of each cell, thereby avoiding cell reversal.

Damage during storage in fully discharged state

If a multi-cell battery is fully discharged, it will often be damaged due to the cell reversal effect mentioned above. It is possible however to fully discharge a battery without causing cell reversal--either by discharging each cell separately, or by allowing each cell's internal leakage to dissipate its charge over time. Even if a cell is brought to a fully discharged state without reversal, however, damage may occur over time simply due to remaining in the discharged state. An example of this is the sulfation that occurs in lead-acid batteries that are left sitting on a shelf for long periods. For this reason it is often recommended to charge a battery that is intended to remain in storage, and to maintain its charge level by periodically recharging it. Since damage may also occur if the battery is overcharged, the optimal level of charge during storage is typically around 30% to 70%.

Depth of discharge
Depth of discharge (DOD) is normally stated as a percentage of the nominal ampere-hour capacity; 0% DOD means no discharge. Seeing as the usable capacity of a battery system depends on the rate of discharge and the allowable voltage at the end of discharge, the depth of discharge must be qualified to show the way it is to be measured. Due to variations during manufacture and aging, the DOD for complete discharge can change over time or number of charge cycles. Generally a rechargeable battery system will tolerate more charge/discharge cycles if the DOD is lower on each cycle. SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS 5.1 SOFTWARE TOOLS MPLAB Protel Propic HI-Tech PIC C Compiler

5.2 MPLAB INTEGRATION MPLAB Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is a free, integrated toolset for the development of embedded applications employing Microchip's PIC micro and dsPIC microcontrollers. MPLAB IDE runs as a 32-bit application on MS Windows, is easy to use and includes a host of free software components for fast application development and super-charged debugging. MPLAB IDE also serves as a single, unified graphical user interface for additional Microchip and third party software and hardware development tools. Moving between tools is a snap, and upgrading from the free simulator to MPLAB ICD 2 or the MPLAB ICE emulator is done in a flash because MPLAB IDE has the same user interface for all tools. Choose MPLAB C18, the highly optimized compiler for the PIC18 series microcontrollers, or try the newest Microchip's language tools compiler, MPLAB C30, targeted at the high performance PIC24 and dsPIC digital signal controllers. Or, use one of the many products from third party language tools vendors. They integrate into MPLAB IDE to function transparently from the MPLAB project manager, editor and compiler.

5.3INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED C: Ex: Hitec c, Keil c HI-TECH Software makes industrial-strength software development tools and C compilers that help software developers write compact, efficient embedded processor code. For over two decades HI-TECH Software has delivered the industry's most reliable embedded software development tools and compilers for writing efficient and compact code to run on the most popular embedded processors. Used by tens of thousands of customers including General Motors, Whirlpool, Qualcomm, John Deere and many others, HI-TECH's reliable development tools and C compilers, combined with world-class support have helped serious embedded software programmers to create hundreds of breakthrough new solutions. Whichever embedded processor family you are targeting with your software, whether it is the ARM, PICC or 8051 series, HI-TECH tools and C compilers can help you write better code and bring it to market faster. HI-TECH PICC is a high-performance C compiler for the Microchip PIC micro 10/12/14/16/17 series of microcontrollers. HI-TECH PICC is an industrial-strength ANSI C compiler - not a subset implementation like some other PIC compilers. The PICC compiler implements full ISO/ANSI C, with the exception of recursion. All data types are supported including 24 and 32 bit IEEE standard floating point. HI-TECH PICC makes full use of specific PIC features and using an intelligent optimizer, can generate high-quality code easily rivaling hand-written assembler. Automatic handling of page and bank selection frees the programmer from the trivial details of assembler code. 5.4 EMBEDDED C COMPILER ANSI C - full featured and portable Reliable - mature, field-proven technology Multiple C optimization levels An optimizing assembler Full linker, with overlaying of local variables to minimize RAM usage

Comprehensive C library with all source code provided Includes support for 24-bit and 32-bit IEEE floating point and 32-bit long data types Mixed C and assembler programming Unlimited number of source files Listings showing generated assembler Compatible - integrates into the MPLAB development tools IDE, MPLAB ICD and most 3rd-party

Runs on multiple platforms: Windows, Linux, UNIX, Mac OS X, Solaris

5.5 EMBEDDED DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT This environment allows you to manage all of your PIC projects. You can compile, assemble and link your embedded application with a single step. Optionally, the compiler may be run directly from the command line, allowing you to compile, assemble and link using one command. This enables the compiler to be integrated into third party development environments, such as Microchip's MPLAB IDE. 5.6 EMBEDDED SYSTEM TOOLS 5.6.1 ASSEMBLER An assembler is a computer program for translating assembly language essentially, a mnemonic representation of machine language into object code. A cross assembler (see cross compiler) produces code for one type of processor, but runs on another. The computational step where an assembler is run is known as assembly time. Translating assembly instruction mnemonics into opcodes, assemblers provide the ability to use symbolic names for memory locations (saving tedious calculations and manually updating addresses when a program is slightly modified), and macro facilities for performing textual substitution typically used to encode common short sequences of instructions to run inline instead of in a subroutine. Assemblers are far simpler to write than compilers for high-level languages.

5.6.2 ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE HAS SEVERAL BENEFITS Speed: Assembly language programs are generally the fastest programs around. Space: Assembly language programs are often the smallest. Capability: You can do things in assembly which are difficult or impossible in High level languages. Knowledge: Your knowledge of assembly language will help you write better programs, even when using High level languages. An example of an assembler we use in our project is RAD 51. 5.6.3 SIMULATOR Simulator is a machine that simulates an environment for the purpose of training or research. We use a UMPS simulator for this purpose in our project. 5.6.6COMPILER A compiler is a program that reads a program in one language, the source language and translates into an equivalent program in another language, the target language. The translation process should also report the presence of errors in the source program. Source Program Target Program

Compiler

Error Messages

There are two parts of compilation. The analysis part breaks up the source program into constant piece and creates an intermediate representation of the source program. The synthesis part constructs the desired target program from the intermediate representation. 5.6.7 COUSINS OF THE COMPILER ARE 1. Preprocessor. 2. Assembler. 3. Loader and Link-editor. A naive approach to that front end might run the phases serially. 1. Lexical analyzer takes the source program as an input and produces a long string of tokens. 2. Syntax Analyzer takes an out of lexical analyzer and produces a large tree. Semantic analyzer takes the output of syntax analyzer and produces another tree. Similarly, intermediate code generator takes a tree as an input produced by semantic analyzer and produces intermediate code 5.6.8 PHASES OF COMPILER The compiler has a number of phases plus symbol table manager and an error handler.

Input Source Program Lexical Analyzer

Syntax Analyzer Symbol Table Manager

Semantic Analyzer Intermediate Code Generator Code Optimizer Code Generator Out Target

Error Handler

Program FABRICATION DETAILS The fabrication of one demonstration unit is carried out in the following sequence. Finalizing the total circuit diagram, listing out the components and sources of procurement. Procuring the components, testing the components and screening the components. Making layout, repairing the interconnection diagram as per the circuit diagram.

Assembling the components as per the component layout and circuit diagram and soldering components. Integrating the total unit, interwiring the unit and final testing the unit.

5.7 DESIGN OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM Like every other system development design cycle embedded system too have a design cycle. The flow of the system will be like as given below. For any design cycle these will be the implementation steps. From the initial state of the project to the final fabrication the design considerations will be taken like the software consideration and the hardware components, sensor, input and output. The electronics usually uses either a microprocessor or a microcontroller. Some large or old systems use general-purpose mainframe computers or minicomputers.

USER INTERFACES
User interfaces for embedded systems vary widely, and thus deserve some special comment. User interface is the ultimate aim for an embedded module as to the user to check the output with complete convenience. One standard interface, widely used in embedded systems, uses two buttons (the absolute minimum) to control a menu system (just to be clear, one button should be "next menu entry" the other button should be "select this menu entry"). Another basic trick is to minimize and simplify the type of output. Designs sometimes use a status light for each interface plug, or failure condition, to tell what failed. A cheap variation is to have two light bars with a printed matrix of errors that they select- the user can glue on the labels for the language that he speaks. For example, most small computer printers use lights labeled with stick-on labels that can be printed in any language. In some markets, these are delivered with several sets of labels, so customers can pick the most comfortable language. In many organizations, one person approves the user interface. Often this is a customer, the major distributor or someone directly responsible for selling the system.

TOOLS
Like typical computer programmers, embedded system designers use compilers, assemblers, and debuggers to develop embedded system software. However, they also use a few tools that are unfamiliar to most programmers. Software tools can come from several sources: Software companies that specialize in the embedded market. Ported from the GNU software development tools. Sometimes, development tools for a personal computer can be used if the embedded processor is a close relative to a common PC processor. Embedded system designers also use a few software tools rarely used by typical computer programmers. One common tool is an "in-circuit emulator" (ICE) or, in more modern designs, an embedded debugger. This debugging tool is the fundamental trick used to develop embedded code. It replaces or plugs into the microprocessor, and provides facilities to quickly load and debug experimental code in the system. A small pod usually provides the special electronics to plug into the system. Often a personal computer with special software attaches to the pod to provide the debugging interface.

DEBUGGING
Debugging is usually performed with an in-circuit emulator, or some type of debugger that can interrupt the microcontroller's internal microcode. The microcode interrupt lets the debugger operate in hardware in which only the CPU works. The CPU-based debugger can be used to test and debug the electronics of the computer from the viewpoint of the CPU. This feature was pioneered on the PDP-11. As the complexity of embedded systems grows, higher level tools and operating systems are migrating into machinery where it makes sense. For example, cell phones, personal digital assistants and other consumer computers often need significant software that is purchased or provided by a person other than the manufacturer of the electronics. In these systems, an open programming environment such as Linux, OSGi or Embedded Java is required so that the thirdparty software provider can sell to a large market.

5.8 COMPONENTS USED 1. Step Down Transformer 2. Diodes 3. Capacitors 4. Regulators 5. Light Emitting Diodes 6. RTC 7. Driver ICs 8. PIC microcontroller 9. Relays 10. Crystal Oscillator 11. Resistors :( 230/12V) 1 No. :(1N4007) 4 No :1000F 1 No, 22pF- 2 Nos :7812 1 No, 7805 1 No :LED`s 2Nos :PCF8583 :ULN 2003 1No :16f877A 1 No :Single Pole Single Throw Type 2Nos :4MHz 1Nos :330 1Nos,10 K- 5 No :1 K 2Nos