Last Name 1 First Name Last Name Professor English 102-1046 Day Month Year Electric Vehicles Impact

on the Environment and Economy The idea of electrical technology operating an automobile has been around since the midnineteenth century but has lost its popularity when the gasoline-powered car took the spotlight. Although electricity was the preferred method of automotive propulsion at the time, development in internal combustion technology, expansion of petroleum infrastructure and the mass production of gasoline vehicles led to the abatement of electric cars. However, in recent years, growing concern over the environmental impact of gasoline cars and increasing foreign oil dependency have brought about a renewed interest in electric cars. The current cycle of global warming is changing the normal rhythm of climate all living things have come to rely upon. Climate change has brought about environmental and health problems affecting people worldwide. The fundamental cause of this global concern is the greenhouse gas emissions to the Earths atmosphere, primarily carbon dioxide which accounts for 83 percent of the total greenhouse gas emissions in the United States (US EPA, ES-17). It occurs naturally in the carbon cycle, where billions of tons of carbon dioxide are removed from the atmosphere by oceans and growing plants, and are emitted back into the atmosphere through natural processes. When in balance, the total carbon dioxide emissions and removals from the entire carbon cycle are roughly equal; however, the burning of coal, oil and natural gas, and land-use conversion through deforestation, which have driven the industrial economy since the late nineteenth century, have vastly increased the carbon dioxide concentrations in the

Last Name 2 atmosphere. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, global atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide were about 36 percent higher than they were before the Industrial Revolution. In 2009, transportation activities accounted for 31 percent of carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel combustion (see table 1). Virtually all of the energy consumed in this end-use sector came from petroleum products. Nearly 65 percent of the emissions resulted from gasoline consumption for personal vehicle use (US EPA, ES-8). Table 1: CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuel Combustion by Fuel Consuming End-Use Sector (Teragram or million metric tons CO2 Equivalent)

Source: United States; Environmental Protection Agency; Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990 2009; US EPA, 15 April 2011; Web; 03 Dec. 2011; table ES-3. Aside from urban air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, gasoline-powered vehicles also bring about a growing dependency on insecure foreign oil sources and a large trade deficit. Although motor vehicles have contributed largely to American culture and the transcendent U.S. economy, they account largely for the nations deteriorating oil situation. In 2009, there were about 254 million highway vehicles cars, motorcycles and trucks registered in the United States (bts.gov). The utilization of petroleum to fuel these vehicles account for two-thirds of the

Last Name 3 countrys oil use. Recent statistics show the United States to be the number one oil consumer in the world with 18,771 thousand barrels a day, about four times the consumption in Japan who ranks second on the list. The countrys continual decline of domestic crude oil production has fallen to 9, 141 thousand barrels per day and can no longer supply the high consumer demand for petroleum products. As a result, the United States is now the leading importer of oil in the world, with imported oil supplying half of its consumption (eia.gov). Since President Richard Nixon abolished the Mandatory Import Program in April 1973, which had set the limits on oil imports, and rejected recommendations on energy conservation and fuel alternatives, the United States dependency on imported oil has increased so much that it is now considered to be a major constraint on foreign defense policy and a serious cause of economic vulnerability. Most oil imports come from socially and politically unstable or otherwise highly inhospitable regions such as the Middle East and Africa. Such situations are detrimental to the countrys economic health, and changes must be established to secure the U.S. energy supply from price shock and supply disruption. Increasing domestic oil production will occur as a natural response to help reduce the dependence on imported oil but its impact is limited. U.S. oil reserves are insufficient to sustain the countrys current trends of consumption. A secure resolve would be to turn to alternative fuel sources and clean energy vehicles. Electric vehicles have been increasingly regarded as the next big thing for the car industry and governments alike. These cars utilize batteries, hydrogen cells, and other electrical storage devices such as flywheels or ultra-capacitors for automotive propulsion (MacKenzie 33). They are expected to be highly reliable, require little maintenance and with the right source of electricity, be almost pollution-free. When adapted in large-scale, they can significantly improve urban air quality since they emit zero tailpipe pollutants from the point of use. If electric vehicles

Last Name 4 are developed to be a well-functioning sustainable transportation system, their use would curb greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution, reduce oil imports, mitigate the trade deficit, and secure the U.S. economy. In Owning an Electric Car, Michael Boxwell presents significant benefits of an electric motor that powers an electric car over the internal combustion engine of a gasoline-powered car. Electric motors often achieve 90 percent energy conversion efficiency over the full range of speed and power output that can be precisely controlled (8). It does not consume energy when it is not moving, unlike internal combustion engines that only have 25 percent energy output because internal mechanisms continue to run even when idle (8). Because electric vehicles are more energy efficient, they will reduce the overall burden on energy resources. Electric cars provide full torque from rest thus, delivering a stronger acceleration. This eradicates the need for a gear box and consequently, offers smooth operation, less noise and no vibration compared to internal combustion engines. Despite their many potential benefits, the widespread adoption of electric cars is challenged by several barriers and limitations. Schiffer identifies two broad explanations as to why the electric car is not the current prevailing mode of transportation in the United States: the consumerist theory and the technological constraint theory (1). The consumerist theory is the most generally held of all. It assumes that the consumers determine a products fate. A product will not succeed if it has shortcomings in performance or characteristics important to the buyer or user. In the case of electric cars, the consumerist theory goes hand-in-hand with the technology constraint theory. Consumers will not patronize and have confidence in products that rely on technologies that have fundamental limitations. The electric cars weakest point consumers consider is the limited driving range. Undeniably, electric cars

Last Name 5 have a shorter mileage. Most electric cars can only go about 100 to 200 miles before recharging; gasoline vehicles can go over 300 miles before refueling (fueleconomy.gov). For electric cars, this value is variable because when traveling in higher speeds, the range per charge can significantly drop compared to lower speed use. This is not a concern when traveling around town, running errands, and commuting between work and home. According to the U.S. Department of Transportation, an average American driver travels 29 miles per day by car, with an average single journey of about 12 miles. One charge can securely provide enough power to most people who travel on a regular basis. Boxwell, an electric car owner himself, compares the concerns that non-electric car owners have about range with the perceptions that existing electric car owners have about range: Non-electric car owners perceive that range is going to be a constant issue. They believe that they will be restricted because they cannot simply visit a filling station to refuel their cars. Electric car owners like the fact that every time they go out to use their car, it is fully charged up and ready to go. They have enough fuel to go wherever they need to and theyll never have to visit a filling station ever again (11). Indeed, electric cars are in their element in cities and urban areas but that does not hinder them from long distance driving. Because charging infrastructures are not yet as ubiquitous as gasoline refueling stations, running out of power while on the road can be quite disconcerting. Coulomb Technologies, an electric vehicle infrastructure company dedicated to manufacturing and establishing electric vehicle charging systems and application services, offers an ingenious solution to this issue. Its open charging system network, ChargePoint, operates in fourteen countries and is the largest in the world. There is a vast expansion of charging infrastructure

Last Name 6 across the United States. At present, there are 1,795 charging infrastructures in operation, some of which are free of charge. This is part of Coulomb Technologies thirty-seven million dollar ChargePoint America program which has been made possible by a fifteen million dollar grant funded by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act through the Transportation Electrification Initiative administered by the Department of Energy. This shows that U.S. Government advocates the transition to green and sustainable transportation. There is also a federal income tax credit of up to thirty thousand dollars that is currently available to purchasers of electric vehicle charging stations (coulombtech.com). Another sustainable energy company, Better Place, has organized market-based transportation infrastructure that supports electric vehicles. In order for electric cars to provide an adaptable solution, they need to deliver the same freedom to go anywhere that drivers of combustion engine cars enjoy today. Their solution is a network of battery switching stations that use a robotic system to switch new batteries for depleted ones. Better Place has made significant progress in developing technology and forging into new territories. They currently operate in Israel, Denmark and Australia, and are continually developing their deployment to other markets such as North America and Japan. Electric cars can be plugged into a standard household power socket as well. Electric car owners can make arrangements to plug in their car when they are at their destination, thereby, enabling them to travel father. A full charge from a standard household socket typically takes around 10 hours on North Americas 110-volt supply. Most electric cars can provide 80 percent charge in two hours from a standard socket (Boxwell 11). Advances in charging and battery technology can considerably reduce the charging time. Recently manufactured electric cars, like the Nissan Leaf, have the option to utilize a dedicated charging point, such as the charging

Last Name 7 infrastructures from Coulomb Technologies, which provides a much higher electrical current that can charge up batteries faster. From a depleted battery, the Leaf can fully charge in 30 minutes from a 480-volt fast-charging station. Nissan also offers the consumer the option to have a charging station installed in their homes so they can charge it at night or when not in use at a highly convenient place. The average estimated cost of a standard home charging dock installation in a typical new home is approximately $2,000 plus tax and license fees (nissan.com). Federal tax credits may offset a portion of the costs. On the other hand, Ford Motor has partnered with Coulomb Technologies to provide nearly five thousand free in-home charging stations for some of the automaker's first electric vehicle customers, under the Ford Blue Oval ChargePoint Program (coulombtech.com). Most consumers would think that the price premium would shift from gasoline to electric. They worry that they will have to pay more for their electric bill since they would be plugging in their electric car in their garage. Actually, it costs much less to charge a plug-in than to buy gasoline. Exactly how much varies depending on the vehicle and electricity rates. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, electric vehicles will travel roughly three miles per kilowatt hour. In Southern Nevada, electricity rates hover at around 5.5 cents per kilowatt hour. An electric vehicle that has a battery capacity of one hundred miles can fully charge for $1.83. A person who drives one thousand miles per month will pay $18 for charging. Driving an electric vehicle is like paying for $0.46 per gallon of gasoline in a twenty-five miles per gallon car. Electric companies also offer their electric-vehicle customers an incentive. NV Energy, for example, offers a special electric vehicle time-of-use rate that allows customers to charge their vehicle during the utilitys off-peak hours between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m. at a discounted rate.

Last Name 8 Electric car enthusiasts are always keen to point out the fact that their cars do not produce any pollution when they are being used. Detractors point to the coal-fired power plants generating the electricity. Coal is the most common fuel for generating electricity in the United States. In 2010, 4 percent of the country's nearly 4 trillion kilowatt hours of electricity used coal as its source of energy. Emissions from electricity generation accounted for the largest portion (33 percent) of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2009 (US EPA, ES-15). It is inarguable that there is no such thing as an environmentally-friendly automotive technology. However, the electricity that powers electric cars can come from renewable energy sources, such as hydropower, geothermal, solar, wind and biomass. Due to higher prices of oil and natural gas, the U.S. government is working towards expanding the utilization of renewable energy. In 2010, about 10 percent of U.S. electricity was generated from renewable sources (US EPA, 93). If renewable energy becomes extensive enough, it will be able to power most activities of all economic sectors. Denmark, for example, presents a strong case for the economics of the transition. Denmark is the leading wind power nation in the world. Its vast wind farms provide one-fifths of its electricity (time.com). Denmarks DONG Energy estimates that the countrys entire fleet of 2 million passenger vehicles, if replaced with electric cars, could run on fewer than 750 windmills which is about 60 percent of the installed wind capacity Denmark has right now. This sustainable attitude towards renewable energy could serve as a role model to countries working towards green growth. The electric car has progressed into a new level of sophistication from when it first emerged. It is definite that electric cars will deliver long-term benefits for the environment and the national economy. In order to achieve this, we must overcome the crucial issues impeding our progression towards a greener mentality with organization and persistent focus towards each

Last Name 9 individual issue. With the ongoing development of battery technology, charging infrastructure, and modern functionality, enhanced support to its development and the increasing enthusiasm of the masses, the vision of electric cars dominating the roads may be realized.

Last Name 10 Works Cited Boxwell, Michael. Owning an Electric Car. 2010 ed. Warwickshire, U.K.: Code Green, 2010. Print. MacKenzie, James J. The Keys to the Car: Electric and Hydrogen Vehicles for the 21st Century. [Baltimore]: World Resources Institute, 1994. Print. Schiffer, Michael Brian. Taking Charge: The Electric Automobile in America. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1994. Print. United States of America. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990 2009. US EPA, 15 Aug. 2011. Web. 03 Dec. 2011. United States of America. U.S. Energy Information Administration. Department of Energy. International Energy Outlook. US EIA, 31 Mar. 2011. Web. 03 Dec. 2011. Nissan Leaf: Electric Car. nissanusa.com. Web. 14 Dec. 2011. Ford Puts Charge in Electric Vehicle Plans. coulombtech.com. Web. 14 Dec. 2011. Electric Cars. fueleconomy.gov. U.S. Department of Energy. Web. 14 Dec. 2011. Timeline: Oil Dependence and U.S. Foreign Policy. CFR.org. Ed. Robert McMahon. Council on Foreign Relations. Web. Number of U.S. Aircraft, Vehicles, Vessels, and Other Conveyances. BTS.gov. Bureau of Transportation Statistics. Web. Bryan, Walsh. Denmarks Wind of Change. Time Magazine. 16 Mar. 2009. Web. 15 Dec. 2011.