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Scuba diving
Scuba diving is a form of underwater diving in which a diver uses a scuba set to breathe underwater.[1] Unlike earlier diving, which relied either on breath-hold or on air pumped from the surface, scuba divers carry their own source of breathing gas, (usually compressed air),[2] allowing them greater freedom of movement than with an air line. Both surface supplied and scuba diving allow divers to stay underwater significantly longer than with breath-holding techniques as used in free-diving. A scuba diver usually moves around underwater by using swimfins attached to the feet, but external propulsion can be provided by a diver propulsion vehicle, or a sled pulled from the surface.
Scuba diver
Scuba diving
History
The first commercially successful scuba sets were the Aqualung twin hose open-circuit units developed by Emile Gagnan and Jacques-Yves Cousteau, in which compressed air carried in back mounted cylinders is inhaled through a demand regulator and then exhaled into the water adjacent to the tank[3]. The single hose two stage scuba regulators of today trace their origins to Australia, where Ted Eldred developed the first example of this typeof regulator, known as the Porpoise, which was developed because patents protected the Aqualung's twin hose design. The single hose regulator separates the cylinder from the demand valve, giving the diver air at the pressure at his mouth, not that at the top of the cylinder. The open circuit compressed air systems were developed after Cousteau had a number of incidents of oxygen toxicity using an oxygen rebreather, in which exhaled oxygen is passed through an absorbent chemical to remove carbon dioxide before being breathed again. Modern versions of rebreather systems (both semi-closed circuit and closed circuit) are available, and form the second main type of scuba unit, mostly used for technical and military diving.
Etymology
Original Aqualung scuba set. 1: Air Hose, 2: Mouthpiece, 3: Regulator, 4:Harness, 5: Back plate, 6: Tank
The term "SCUBA" (an acronym for self-contained underwater breathing apparatus) originally referred to United States combat frogmen's oxygen rebreathers, developed during World War II by Christian J. Lambertsen for underwater warfare.[2][4][5] "SCUBA" was originally an acronym, but is now generally used as a common noun or adjective, "scuba".[6] It has become acceptable to refer to "scuba equipment" or "scuba apparatus"examples of the linguistic RAS syndrome.
Scuba diving geology, hydrology, oceanography and underwater archaeology. The choice between scuba and surface supplied diving equipment is based on both legal and logistical constraints. Where the diver requires mobility and a large range of movement, scuba is usually the choice if safety and legal constraints allow. Higher risk work, particularly commercial diving, may be restricted to surface supplied equipment by legislation and codes of practice. Diving activities commonly associated with scuba may include:
Type of diving activity aquarium maintenance in large public aquariums boat and ship inspection, cleaning and maintenance cave diving Classification commercial, scientific commercial, naval technical, recreational, scientific professional commercial commercial military professional military, naval recreational police diving, military, naval public safety, police diving police, naval, public service recreational military scientific, recreational scientific
diver training fish farm maintenance (aquaculture) fishing, e.g. for abalones, crabs, lobsters, scallops, sea crayfish, frogman, manned torpedo media diving: making television programs, etc. mine clearance and bomb disposal, disposing of unexploded ordnance pleasure, leisure, sport policing/security: diving to investigate or arrest unauthorized divers search and recovery diving search and rescue diving spear fishing stealthy infiltration surveys and mapping scientific diving (marine biology, oceanography, hydrology, geology, palaeontology, diving physiology and medicine) underwater archaeology (shipwrecks; harbors, and buildings) underwater inspections and surveys (occasionally) underwater photography underwater tour guiding underwater tourism
Scuba diving
Breathing underwater
Water normally contains the dissolved oxygen from which fish and other aquatic animals extract all their required oxygen as the water flows past their gills. Humans lack gills and do not otherwise have the capacity to breathe underwater unaided by external devices.[2] Although the feasibility of filling and artificially ventilating the lungs with a dedicated liquid (liquid breathing) has been established for some time,[9] the size and complexity of the equipment allows only for medical applications with current technology.[10] Early diving experimenters quickly discovered it is not enough simply Scuba diver on reef to supply air to breathe comfortably underwater. As one descends, in addition to the normal atmospheric pressure, water exerts increasing pressure on the chest and lungsapproximately 1 bar (14.7 pounds per square inch) for every 33 feet (10 m) of depthso the pressure of the inhaled breath must almost exactly counter the surrounding or ambient pressure to inflate the lungs. It becomes virtually impossible to breathe unpressurised air through a tube below three feet under the water.[2] By always providing the appropriate breathing gas at ambient pressure, modern demand valve regulators ensure the diver can inhale and exhale naturally and without excessive effort, regardless of depth. Because the diver's nose and eyes are covered by a diving mask; the diver cannot breathe in through the nose, except when wearing a full face diving mask. However, inhaling from a regulator's mouthpiece becomes second nature very quickly.
Open-circuit regulator
The most commonly used scuba set today is the "single-hose" open circuit 2-stage diving regulator, connected to a single high pressure gas cylinder, with the first stage connected to the cylinder valve and the second stage at the mouthpiece.[1] This arrangement differs from Emile Gagnan's and Jacques Cousteau's original 1942 "twin-hose" design, known as the Aqua-lung, in which the cylinder pressure was reduced to ambient pressure in one or two stages which were all in the housing mounted to the cylinder valve or manifols. The "single-hose" system has significant advantages over the original system for most applications.
Scuba diving
5 In the "single-hose" two-stage design, the first stage regulator reduces the cylinder pressure of up to about 240 bar (3000 psi) to an intermediate level of about 10 bar (145 psi) above ambient pressure. The second stage demand valve regulator, supplied by a low pressure hose from the first stage, delivers the breathing gas at ambient pressure to the diver's mouth. The exhaled gases are exhausted directly to the environment as waste. The first stage typically has at least one outlet port delivering breathing gas at unreduced tank pressure. This is connected to the diver's submersible pressure gauge or dive computer, to show how much breathing gas remains in the cylinder.
Rebreather
Less common are closed circuit (CCR) and semi-closed (SCR) rebreathers,[11] which unlike open-circuit sets that vent off all exhaled gases, process each exhaled breath for re-use by removing the carbon dioxide and replacing the oxygen used by the diver. Rebreathers release little or no gas bubbles into the water, and use much less stored gas volume for an equivalent depth and time because exhaled oxygen is recovered; this has advantages for research, military,[1] photography, and other applications. The first modern rebreather was the MK-19 that was developed at S-Tron by Ralph Osterhout and used the first electronic control system. Rebreathers are more complex and more expensive than open-circuit scuba, and special training and correct maintenance are required for them to be safely used, due to the larger variety of potential failure modes.[11] In a closed-circuit rebreather the oxygen partial pressure in the rebreather is controlled, so it can be increased to a safe continuous maximum, which reduces the inert gas (nitrogen and/or helium) partial pressure in the breathing loop. Minimising the inert gas loading of the diver's tissues for a given dive profile reduces the decompression An Inspiration electronic fully closed circuit rebreather obligation. This requires continuous monitoring of actual partial pressures with time and for maximum effectiveness requires real-time computer processing by the diver's decompression computer. Decompression can be much reduced compared to fixed ratio gas mixes used in other scuba systems and, as a result, divers can stay down longer or decompress faster. A semi-closed circuit rebreather injects a constant flow of a fixed nitrox mixture into the breathing loop, or changes a fixed percentage of the respired volume, so the partial pressure of oxygen at any time during the dive depends on the diver's oxygen consumption or breathing rate. Planning decompression requirements requires a more
Scuba diving conservative approach for a SCR than for a CCR, but decompression computers with a real time oxygen partial pressure input can optimise decompression for these systems. Because rebreathers produce very few bubbles, they do not disturb marine life or make a divers presence known at the surface; this is useful for underwater photography, and for covert work.
Gas mixtures
For some diving, gas mixtures other than normal atmospheric air (21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, 1% trace gases) can be used,[1][2] so long as the diver is properly trained in their use. The most commonly used mixture is Nitrox, also referred to as Enriched Air Nitrox (EAN), which is air with extra oxygen, often with 32% or 36% oxygen, and thus less nitrogen, reducing the likelihood of decompression sickness or allowing longer exposure to the same pressure for equal risk. The reduced nitrogen may also allow for no stops or shorter decompression stop times and a shorter surface interval between dives. A common misconception is that nitrox can reduce narcosis, but research has shown that oxygen is also narcotic.[12][13] Several other common gas mixtures are in use, and all need specialized training for safe use. The increased oxygen levels in nitrox help reduce the risk of decompression sickness; however, below the maximum operating depth of the mixture, the increased partial pressure of oxygen can lead to an unacceptable risk of oxygen toxicity. To displace nitrogen without the increased oxygen concentration, other diluents can be used, usually helium, when the resultant three gas mixture is called trimix, and when the nitrogen is fully substituted by helium, heliox. For technical dives, some of the cylinders may contain different gas mixtures for the various phases of the dive, typically designated as Travel, Bottom, and Decompression gases. These different gas mixtures may be used to extend bottom time, reduce inert gas narcotic effects, and reduce decompression times.
Nitrox cylinder marked up for use showing maximum safe operating depth (MOD)
Scuba diving
Diver mobility
The diver needs to be mobile underwater. Streamlining dive gear will reduce drag and improve mobility. Personal mobility is enhanced by swimfins and Diver Propulsion Vehicles.
The removal ("ditching" or "shedding") of diver weighting systems can be used to reduce the diver's weight and cause a buoyant ascent in an emergency. Diving suits made of compressible materials decrease in volume as the diver descends, and expand again as the diver ascends, causing buoyancy changes. Diving in different environments also necessitates adjustments in the amount of weight carried to achieve neutral buoyancy. The diver can inject air into dry suits to counteract the compression effect and squeeze. Buoyancy compensators allow easy and fine adjustments in the diver's overall volume and therefore buoyancy. For open circuit divers, changes in the diver's average lung volume during a breathing cycle can be used to make fine adjustments of buoyancy. Neutral buoyancy in a diver is a metastable state. It is changed by small differences in ambient pressure caused by a change in depth, and the change has a positive feedback effect. A small descent will increase the pressure, which will compress the gas filled spaces and reduce the total volume of diver and equipment. This will further reduce the buoyancy, and unless counteracted, will result in sinking more rapidly. The equivalent effect applies to a small ascent, which will trigger an increased buoyancy and will result in accelerated ascent unless counteracted. The diver must continuously adjust buoyancy or depth in order to remain neutral. This is a skill which improves with practice until it becomes second nature.
Scuba diving
Underwater vision
Water has a higher refractive index than air similar to that of the cornea of the eye. Light entering the cornea from water is hardly refracted at all, leaving only the eye's crystalline lens to focus light. This leads to very severe hypermetropia. People with severe myopia, therefore, can see better underwater without a mask than normal-sighted people. Diving masks and hemets solve this problem by providing an air space in front of the diver's eyes.[1] The refraction error created by the water is mostly corrected as the light travels from water to air through a flat lens, except that objects appear approximately 34% bigger and 25% closer in salt water than they actually are. Therefore total field-of-view is significantly reduced and eyehand coordination must be adjusted.
(This also affects underwater photography: a camera seeing through a flat port in its housing is affected in the same way as its user's eye seeing through a flat mask viewport, and so its operator must focus for the apparent distance to target, not for the real distance.) Divers who need corrective lenses to see clearly outside the water would normally need the same prescription while wearing a mask. Generic and custom corrective lenses are available for some two-window masks. Custom lenses can be bonded onto masks that have a single front window or two windows. A "double-dome-ported mask" has curved viewports in an attempt to cure these faults, but this causes a refraction problem of its own. Commando frogmen concerned about revealing their position when light reflects from the glass surface of their diving masks may instead use special contact lenses to see underwater. As a diver descends, he must periodically exhale through his nose to equalize the internal pressure of the mask with that of the surrounding water. Swimming goggles are not suitable for diving because they only cover the eyes and thus do not allow for equalization. Failure to equalise the pressure inside the mask may lead to a form of barotrauma known as mask squeeze.[1][15]
Light underwater
Water preferentially absorbs red light, and to a lesser extent, yellow and green light, so the color that is least absorbed by water is blue light.[16]
Ultraviolet 300nm Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red Infra-red 400nm 475nm 525nm 575nm 600nm 685nm 800nm
Scuba diving
Underwater communication
A diver cannot talk underwater unless he is wearing a full-face mask, but divers can communicate, using hand signals.
Two divers giving the sign that they are "OK" on a wreck in the Dominican Republic.
2.
Thumb extended downward from clenched fist. GO DOWN or GOING DOWN Thumb extended upward from clenched fist. GO UP or GOING UP OK! or OK? Divers wearing mittens may not be able to extend 3 remaining fingers distinctly. A diver with only one free arm may make this signal by extending that arm overhead with finger tips touching top of head to make the O shape. Signal is for long-range use. This is the opposite of OK! The signal does not indicate emergency.
3.
4.
Thumb and forefinger making a circle with three remaining fingers extended (if possible). Two arms extended overhead with finger tips touching above head to make a large O shape.
5.
OK! or OK?
6.
Hand flat, fingers together, palm down, thumb sticking out, then hand rocking back and forth on axis of forearm. Hand waving over head (may also thrash hand on water). Fist pounding on chest. Hand slashing or chopping throat.
SOMETHING IS WRONG
7.
DISTRESS
8. 9.
Indicates signaler's air supply is reduced. Indicates that the signaler cannot breathe.
All signals are to be answered by the receivers repeating the signal as sent. When answering signals 7 & 9, the receiver should approach to offer aid to signaler.[17]
Scuba diving
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Scuba diving either by distending the tissue locally, or blocking small blood vessels, shutting off blood supply to the downstream side, and resulting in hypoxia of those tissues. This effect is called decompression sickness[2] or 'the bends', and must be avoided by reducing the pressure on the body slowly while ascending and allowing the inert gases dissolved in the tissues to be eliminated while still in solution. This process is known as "off-gassing", and is done by restricting the ascent (decompression) rate to one where the level of supersaturation is not sufficient for bubbles to form. This is done by controlling the speed of ascent and making periodic stops to allow gases to be eliminated. The procedure of making stops is called staged decompression, and the stops are called decompression stops. Decompression stops that are not computed as strictly necessary are called safety stops, and reduce the risk of bubble formation further. Dive computers or decompression tables are used to determine a relatively safe ascent profile, but are not completely reliable. There remains a statistical possibility of decompression bubbles forming even when the guidance from tables or computer has been followed exactly. Decompression sickness must be treated as soon as practicable. Definitive treatment is usually recompression in a recompression chamber with hyperbaric oxygen treatment. Exact details will depend on severity and type of symptoms, response to treatment, and the dive history of the casualty. Administering enriched-oxygen breathing gas or pure oxygen to a decompression sickness stricken diver on the surface is a good form of first aid for decompression sickness, although death or permanent disability may still occur.[20] Nitrogen narcosis Nitrogen narcosis or inert gas narcosis is a reversible alteration in consciousness producing a state similar to alcohol intoxication in divers who breathe high pressure gas at depth.[2] The mechanism is similar to that of nitrous oxide, or "laughing gas," administered as anesthesia. Being "narced" can impair judgment and make diving very dangerous. Narcosis starts to affect some divers at 66 feet (20 m). At this depth, narcosis manifests itself as a slight giddiness. The effects increase drastically with the increase in depth. Almost all divers are able to notice the effects by 132 feet (40 meters). At these depths divers may feel euphoria, anxiety, loss of coordination and lack of concentration. At extreme depths, hallucinogenic reaction and tunnel vision can occur. Jacques Cousteau famously described it as the "rapture of the deep".[3] Nitrogen narcosis occurs quickly and the symptoms typically disappear during the ascent, so that divers often fail to realize they were ever affected. It affects individual divers at varying depths and conditions, and can even vary from dive to dive under identical conditions. However, diving with trimix or heliox dramatically reduces the effects of inert gas narcosis. Oxygen toxicity Oxygen toxicity occurs when oxygen in the body exceeds a safe partial pressure (PPO2).[2] In extreme cases it affects the central nervous system and causes a seizure, which can result in the diver spitting out his regulator and drowning. While the exact limit is idiomatic, it is generally recognized that Oxygen toxicity is preventable if one never exceeds an oxygen partial pressure of 1.4 bar.[21] For deep divesgenerally past 180 feet (55 m), divers use "hypoxic blends" containing a lower percentage of oxygen than atmospheric air. For more information, see oxygen toxicity.
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Scuba diving
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Scuba diving Injuries due to contact with the solid surroundings Diving suits also help prevent the diver's skin being damaged by rough or sharp underwater objects, marine animals, coral, or metal debris commonly found on shipwrecks.
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Scuba diving
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British Sub Aqua Club (BSAC) based in the United Kingdom, founded in 1953 and is the largest dive club in the world European Committee of Professional Diving Instructors (CEDIP) [26] based in Europe since 1992 (see Cedip on French Wiki pages) Confdration Mondiale des Activits Subaquatiques (CMAS), the World Underwater Federation National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI) based in the United States Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC) based in the United States Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI) based in the United States, largest recreational dive training and certification organization in the world Scottish Sub Aqua Club (SSAC or ScotSAC) [27] the National Governing Body for the sport of diving in Scotland. International Training SDI, TDI & ERDi [28] - based in the United States, TDI is the world's largest technical diving agency, SDI is the recreational division focusing on new methods and online courses, and ERDi is the public safety component. Scuba Schools International (SSI) based in the United States with 35 Regional Centers and Area Offices around the globe. YMCA Scuba based in the United States, provided by Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA); discontinued after 2008.
Scuba diving
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References
[1] US Navy Diving Manual, 6th revision (http:/ / www. supsalv. org/ 00c3_publications. asp?destPage=00c3& pageID=3. 9). United States: US Naval Sea Systems Command. 2006. . Retrieved April 24, 2008. [2] Brubakk, Alf O; Neuman, Tom S (2003). Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving, 5th Rev ed. United States: Saunders Ltd. p.800. ISBN0-7020-2571-2. [3] Cousteau J.Y. (1953) Le Monde du Silence, translated as The Silent World, Hamish Hamilton Ltd., London; ASIN B000QRK890 [4] Vann RD (2004). "Lambertsen and O2: beginnings of operational physiology" (http:/ / archive. rubicon-foundation. org/ 3987). Undersea Hyperb Med 31 (1): 2131. PMID15233157. . Retrieved April 25, 2008. [5] Butler FK (2004). "Closed-circuit oxygen diving in the U.S. Navy" (http:/ / archive. rubicon-foundation. org/ 3986). Undersea Hyperb Med 31 (1): 320. PMID15233156. . Retrieved April 25, 2008. [6] "Compact Oxford English Dictionary - scuba" (http:/ / www. askoxford. com/ concise_oed/ scuba?view=uk). Oxford University Press. . [7] HSE press release E061:05 - 5 May 2005 HSE issues warning over recreational dive training http:/ / www. hse. gov. uk/ press/ 2005/ e05061. htm [8] Statutory Instruments 1997 No. 2776 HEALTH AND SAFETY, The Diving at Work Regulations 1997, http:/ / www. legislation. gov. uk/ uksi/ 1997/ 2776/ contents/ made [9] Hirschl, RB; et al (1995). "Liquid ventilatory in adults, children, and full-term neonates". Lancet 346 (8984): 12011202. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(95)92903-7. PMID7475663. [10] Sekins, KM; et al (1999). "Recent innovation in total liquid ventilation system and component design". Biomedical instrumentation and technology 33 (3): 277284. PMID10360218. [11] Richardson, D; Menduno, M; Shreeves, K. (eds). (1996). "Proceedings of Rebreather Forum 2.0." (http:/ / archive. rubicon-foundation. org/ 7555). Diving Science and Technology Workshop.: 286. . Retrieved August 20, 2008. [12] Hesser, CM; Fagraeus, L; Adolfson, J (1978). "Roles of nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in compressed-air narcosis." (http:/ / archive. rubicon-foundation. org/ 2810). Undersea Biomed. Res. 5 (4): 391400. ISSN0093-5387. OCLC2068005. PMID734806. . Retrieved April 8, 2008. [13] Brubakk, Alf O; Neuman, Tom S (2003). Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving, 5th Rev ed. United States: Saunders Ltd. p.304. ISBN0-7020-2571-2. [14] Elert, Glenn (2002). "Density of Seawater" (http:/ / hypertextbook. com/ facts/ 2002/ EdwardLaValley. shtml). The Physics Factbook. . Retrieved April 16, 2010. [15] NOAA Diving Manual, 4th Edition, Best Publishing, 2001 [16] Hegde, M (30 September 2009). "The Blue, the Bluer, and the Bluest Ocean" (http:/ / disc. sci. gsfc. nasa. gov/ oceancolor/ additional/ science-focus/ ocean-color/ oceanblue. shtml). NASA Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services. . Retrieved 27 May 2011. [17] Miller, James W. NOAA Diving Manual Diving for Science and Technology. 2nd ed. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979. 6.11. [18] Deaths During Skin and Scuba Diving in California in 1970 (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ pagerender. fcgi?artid=1518314& pageindex=1#page) [19] Is recreational diving safe?, por Ikeda, T y Ashida, H (http:/ / archive. rubicon-foundation. org/ 6770) [20] Longphre, J. M.; P. J. DeNoble; R. E. Moon; R. D. Vann; J. J. Freiberger (2007). "First aid normobaric oxygen for the treatment of recreational diving injuries" (http:/ / archive. rubicon-foundation. org/ 5514). Undersea Hyperb Med. 34 (1): 4349. ISSN1066-2936. OCLC26915585. PMID17393938. . Retrieved May 3, 2008. [21] Lippmann, John; Mitchell, Simon (2005). "Oxygen". Deeper into Diving (2nd ed.). Victoria, Australia: J.L. Publications. pp.1214. ISBN0-9752290-1-X. OCLC66524750. [22] "Thermal Conductivity" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ tables/ thrcn. html), Georgia State University, accessed February 15, 2008 [23] Weinberg, R. P.; E. D. Thalmann. (1990). "Effects of Hand and Foot Heating on Diver Thermal Balance" (http:/ / archive. rubicon-foundation. org/ 4247). Naval Medical Research Institute Report 90-52. . Retrieved May 3, 2008. [24] Nuckols ML, Giblo J, Wood-Putnam JL. (September 1518, 2008). "Thermal Characteristics of Diving Garments When Using Argon as a Suit Inflation Gas." (http:/ / archive. rubicon-foundation. org/ 7962). Proceedings of the Oceans 08 MTS/IEEE Quebec, Canada Meeting (MTS/IEEE). . Retrieved April 17, 2009. [25] http:/ / www. acuc. org/
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[26] http:/ / www. cedip. org/ [27] http:/ / www. scotsac. com/ [28] http:/ / www. tdisdi. com
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Further reading
Cousteau J.Y. (1953) Le Monde du Silence, translated as The Silent World, Hamish Hamilton Ltd., London; ASIN B000QRK890 Ellerby D. (2002) The Diving Manual, British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC); ISBN 0-9538919-2-5 Dive Leading, BSAC; ISBN 0-9538919-4-1 The Club 1953-2003, BSAC; ISBN 0-9538919-5-X Richardson D. (2008) Open Water Diver Manual, PADI; ASIN B004JZYO0E Free Scuba textbook by George D. Campbell, III called Diving With Deep-Six (http://www.deep-six.com/ page50.htm)
External links
Divers Alert Network (http://www.diversalertnetwork.org/)Diving Emergencies/Hyperbaric Chamber Assistance Scuba diving travel guide from Wikitravel
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License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/