Table of Contents

A b s t r a c t / S u m m a r y ................................................................................................................2 I n t r o d u c t i o n ................................................................................................................................2 A i m s / O b j e c t i v e s ....................................................................................................................3 T h e o r y ...........................................................................................................................................4 A p p a r a t u s ....................................................................................................................................7 E x p e r i m e n t a l P r o c e d u r e ........................................................................................................8 R e s u l t s ..........................................................................................................................................9 S a m p l e C a l c u l a t i o n s .............................................................................................................19 D i s c u s s i o n s ...............................................................................................................................20 C o n c l u s i o n s ..............................................................................................................................21 R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s ..................................................................................................................21 R e f e r e n c e s .................................................................................................................................22 A p p e n d i c e s ...............................................................................................................................22

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ABSTRACT / SUMMARY

The main purpose of this experiment is to investigate the validity of the Bernoulli equation when applied to the steady flow of water in a tapered duct and to measure the flow rate and both static and total pressure heads in a rigid convergent/divergent tube of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates. The apparatus used is Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration Apparatus, F1-15. In this experiment, the pressure difference taken is from h1- h5. The time to collect 3 L water in the tank was determined. Lastly the flow rate, velocity, dynamic head, and total head were calculated using the readings we got from the experiment and from the data given for both convergent and divergent flow. Based on the results taken, it has been analysed that the velocity of convergent flow is increasing, whereas the velocity of divergent flow is the opposite, whereby the velocity decreased, since the water flow from a narrow area to a wider area. Therefore, Bernoullis principle is valid for a steady flow in rigid convergent and divergent tube of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates, and the flow rates, static heads and total heads pressure are as well calculated. The experiment was completed and successfully conducted.

INTRODUCTION
In fluid dynamics, Bernoullis principle is best explained in the application that involves in viscid flow, whereby the speed of the moving fluid is increased simultaneously whether with the depleting pressure or the potential energy relevant to the fluid itself. In various types of fluid flow, Bernoullis principle usually relates to Bernoullis equation.

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Technically, different types of fluid flow involve different forms of Bernoullis equation.

Bernoullis principle complies with the principle of conservation of energy. In a steady flow, at all points of the streamline of a flowing fluid is the same as the sum of all forms of mechanical energy along the streamline. It can be simplified as constant practices of the sum of potential energy as well as kinetic energy.

Fluid particles core properties are their pressure and weight. As a matter of fact, if a fluid is moving horizontally along a streamline, the increase in speed can be explained due to the fluid that moves from a region of high pressure to a lower pressure region and so with the inverse condition with the decrease in speed. In the case of a fluid that moves horizontally, the highest speed is the one at the lowest pressure, whereas the lowest speed is present at the most highest pressure.

AIMS / OBJECTIVES
1. To investigate the validity of Bernoulli equation when applied to a steady flow of water in a tapered duct.

2. To measure flow rate and both static and total pressure heads in a rigid convergent / divergent tube of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates.

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THEORY
The specific hydraulic model used in this experiment is Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration Apparatus, F1-15.

The test section, which is provided with a number of hole-sided pressure tapings, connected to the manometers housed on the rig, is indeed an accurately machined clear acrylic duct of varying circular cross section. The tapings allow the measurement of static pressure head simultaneously.

A flow control valve is incorporated downstream of the test section. Flow rate and pressure in the apparatus may be varied independently by adjustment of the flow control valve, and the bench supply control valve.

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Consider a system whereby Chamber A is under pressure and is connected to Chamber B, which is as well under pressure. The pressure in Chamber A is static pressure of 689.48 kPa. The pressure at some point, x along the connecting tube consists of a velocity pressure of 68.95 kPa exerted 10 psi exerted in a direction parallel to the line of flow, plus the unused static pressure of 90 psi, and operates equally in all directions. As the fluid enters chamber B, it is slowed down, and its velocity is changed back to pressure. The force required to absorb its inertia equals the force required to start the fluid moving originally, so that the static pressure in chamber B is equal to that in chamber A.

From the above illustration, Bernoullis principle relates much with incompressible flow. Below is a common form of Bernoullis equation, where it is valid at any arbitrary point along a streamline when gravity is constant.

...............(1)

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where: is the fluid flow speed at a point on a streamline, is the acceleration due to gravity, is the elevation of the point above a reference plane, with the positive z-direction pointing upward so in the direction opposite to the gravitational acceleration, is the pressure at the point, and is the density of the fluid at all points in the fluid. I f e q u a t i o n ( 1 ) i s m u l t i p l i e d w i t h f l u i d d e n s i t y , , it can be rewritten as the followings;

...........(2) Or ........(3) where: is dynamic pressure,

i s t h e piezometric head o r h y d r a u l i c h e a d ( t h e s u m o f t h e elevation z and the pressure head and is the total pressure (the sum of the static pressure p and dynamic pressure q). The above equations suggest there is a flow speed at which pressure is zero, and at even higher speeds the pressure is negative. Most often, gases and liquids are not capable of negative absolute pressure, or even zero pressure, so clearly Bernoulli's equation ceases to be valid before
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zero pressure is reached. In liquids, when the pressure becomes too low, cavitations occur. The above equations use a linear relationship between flow speed squared and pressure. Generally in many applications of Bernoullis equations, it is common to neglect the values of g z term, since the change is so small compared to other values. Thus, the previous expression can be simplified as the following;

.......(3) where p0 is called total pressure, and q is dynamic pressure, whereas p usually refers as static pressure. Thus, Total pressure = static pressure + dynamic pressure.......(4) However, a few assumptions are taken into account in order to achieve the objectives of experiment, which are as the followings:
The fluid involved is incompressible The flow is steady The flow is frictionless

APPARATUS

Venturi meter Pad of monometer tubes Pump Stopwatch Water

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Water tank equipped with valves water controller Water hosts and tubes

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. T h e t e s t s e c t i o n t u b e i s s e t t o b e c o n v e r g i n g i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f f l o w . 2. T h e p u m p s w i t c h i s o p e n e d . T h e f l o w c o n t r o l v a l v e i s t h e n o p e n e d a n d

the bench valve is adjusted to allow the flow through the manometer.
3. T h e a i r b l e e d s c r e w i s o p e n e d a n d t h e c a p i s r e m o v e d f r o m t h e

adjacent air valve until the same level of water in manometer is reached. The bench valve is adjusted until the h1 h5 head difference of 50mm water is obtained.
4. T h e b a l l v a l v e i s c l o s e d a n d t h e t i m e t a k e n t o a c c u m u l a t e a k n o w n

volume of 3L fluid in the tank is measured to determine the volume flow rate.
5. T h e w h o l e p r o c e s s i s r e p e a t e d u s i n g ( h 1 h 5 ) 1 0 0 a n d 1 5 0 m m w a t e r . 6. N e x t , t h e e x p e r i m e n t i s r e p e a t e d f o r d i v e r g e n t t e s t s e c t i o n t u b e .

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RESULTS
Convergent Flow

Pressure difference = 50 mm water Volume (m3) = 0.003 Time (s) = 46 Flow rate (m3/s) = 6.522x10-5 Distance Pressure No 1 2 3 4 5 head, h h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 into duct (m) 0.00 0.0603 0.0687 0.0732 0.0811 Duct area, A (m2) 490.9 x10-6 151.7 x10 109.4 x10-6 89.9 x10-6 78.5 x10-6
-6

Static Velocity (m/s) 0.1329 0.4299 0.5961 0.7255 0.8308 head h, (m) 145x 10-3 135 x 10 125 x 10-3 110 x 10-3 95 x 10-3
-3

Dynamic head, (m) 0.0009 0.0094 0.0181 0.0268 0.0352

Total head ho (m) 0.1459 0.1444 0.1431 0.1368 0.1302

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Pressure difference = 100 mm water Volume (m3) = 0.003 Time (s) = 31 Flow rate (m3/s) = 9.677x10-5 Distance Pressure No 1 2 3 4 5 head, h h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 into duct (m) 0.00 0.0603 0.0687 0.0732 0.0811 Duct area, A (m2) 490.9 x10-6 151.7 x10-6 109.4 x10 89.9
-6

Static Velocity (m/s) 0.1971 0.6379 0.8846 1.0760 1.2330 head h, (m) 170 x 10-3 145 x 10-3 125 x 10 100 x 10-3 70 x 10-3
-3

Dynamic head, (m) 0.0020 0.0207 0.0399 0.0590 0.0775

Total head ho (m) 0.1720 0.1657 0.1649 0.1590 0.1475

x10-6 78.5 x10-6

Pressure difference = 150 mm water Volume (m3) = 0.003

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Time (s) = 25 Flow rate (m3/s) = 1.200x10-4 Distance Pressure No 1 2 3 4 5 head, h h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 into duct (m) 0.00 0.0603 0.0687 0.0732 0.0811 Duct area, A (m2) 490.9 x10-6 151.7 x10-6 109.4 x10 89.9
-6

Static Velocity (m/s) 0.2444 0.7910 1.0970 1.3350 1.5290 head h, (m) 190 x 10-3 160 x 10-3 125 x 10 90 x 10-3 40 x 10-3
-3

Dynamic head, (m) 0.0030 0.0319 0.0613 0.0908 0.1192

Total head ho (m) 0.1930 0.1919 0.1863 0.1808 0.1592

x10-6 78.5 x10-6

Divergent Flow Pressure difference = 50mm water Volume (m3) = 0.003 Time (s) = 30 Flow rate (m3/s) = 1.000x10-4
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Distance Pressure No 1 2 3 4 5 head, h h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 into duct (m) 0.00 0.0603 0.0687 0.0732 0.0811

Duct area, A (m2) 490.9 x10-6 151.7 x10-6 109.4 x10 89.9
-6

Static Velocity (m/s) 0.2037 0.6592 0.9141 1.1120 1.2740 head h, (m) 155 x 10-3 130 x 10-3 120 x 10 115 x 10-3 105 x 10-3
-3

Dynamic head, (m) 0.0021 0.1403 0.0426 0.0630 0.0827

Total head ho (m) 0.1571 0.2703 0.1626 0.1780 0.1877

x10-6 78.5 x10-6

Pressure difference = 100 mm water Volume (m3) = 0.003 Time (s) = 23 Flow rate (m3/s) = 1.304x10-4 Distance Pressure No head, h into duct (m) Duct area, A (m2) Velocity (m/s) Static head h, (m) Dynamic head, (m) Total head ho (m)
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1 2 3 4 5

h1 h2 h3 h4 h5

0.00 0.0603 0.0687 0.0732 0.0811

490.9 x10-6 151.7 x10-6 109.4 x10-6 89.9 x10 78.5

-6

0.2657 0.8596 1.1920 1.4510 1.6610

175 x 10-3 135 x 10-3 85 x 10-3 80 x 10 75 x 10-3

-3

0.0036 0.0377 0.0724 0.1073 0.1406

0.1786 0.1727 0.1574 0.1873 0.2156

x10-6

Pressure difference = 150 mm water Volume (m3) = 0.003 Time (s) = 20 Flow rate (m3/s) = 1.500x10-4 Distance Pressure No 1 2 3 head, h h1 h2 h3 into duct (m) 0.00 0.0603 0.0687 Duct area, A (m2) 490.9 x10-6 151.7 x10-6 109.4 Velocity (m/s) 0.3056 0.9888 1.3711 Static head h, (m) 185 x 10-3 135 x 10-3 55 x Dynamic head, (m) 0.0048 0.0498 0.0958 Total head ho (m) 0.1898 0.1848 0.1508
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4 5

h4 h5

0.0732 0.0811

x10-6 89.9 x10-6 78.5 x10-6

1.6685 1.9108

10-3 45 x 10-3 35 x 10-3

0.1419 0.1861

0.1869 0.2211

Using Bernoullis Equation Pressure Head (convergent flow) h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 Total Head, h (m) 0.1459 0.1444 0.1431 0.1368 0.1302 Static Head, hi(m) Va = [2g(hhi)]

Using Continuity Equation Duct Area, Ax106 (m2) Vb = Flow rate Q/ A 0.1329 0.4299 0.5961 0.7255 0.8308

Difference

(Va-Vb) /Vb, % 0 -0.09 -0.03 -0.06 0.02

0.145 0.135 0.125 0.110 0.095

0.1329 0.4295 0.5959 0.7251 0.8310

490.9 151.7 109.4 89.9 78.5

Pressure Difference = 50mm

Using Bernoullis Equation Pressure Head (convergent flow) h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 Total Head, h (m) 0.1720 0.1657 0.1649 0.1590 0.1475 Static Head, hi(m) 0.170 0.145 0.125 0.100 0.070 Va = [2g(hhi)] 0.1981 0.6373 0.8849 1.0759 1.2331

Using Continuity Equation Duct Area, Ax106 (m2) 490.9 151.7 109.4 89.9 78.5 Vb = Flow rate Q/ A 0.1971 0.6379 0.8846 1.0760 1.2330

Difference

(Va-Vb) /Vb % 0.51 -0.09 0.04 -0.009 0.008

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Pressure Difference = 100mm

Using Bernoullis Equation Pressure Head (convergent flow) h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 Total Head, h (m) 0.1930 0.1919 0.1863 0.1808 0.1592 Static Head, hi(m) 0.190 0.160 0.125 0.09 0.04 Va = [2g(hhi)] 0.2426 0.7911 1.0967 1.3347 1.5293

Using Continuity Equation Duct Area, Ax106 (m2) 490.9 151.7 109.4 89.9 78.5 Vb = Flow rate Q/ A 0.2444 0.7910 1.0970 1.3350 1.5290

Difference

(Va-Vb) /Vb, % -0.74 0.013 -0.03 -0.02 0.02

Pressure Difference = 150mm

Using Bernoullis Equation Pressure Head (divergent flow) h1 Total Head, h (m) 0.1571 Static Head, hi(m) Va = [2g(hhi)]

Using Continuity Equation Duct Area, Ax106 (m2) Vb = Flow rate Q/ A 0.2037

Difference

(Va-Vb) /Vb, % -0.34

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0.155

0.2030

490.9

h2 h3 h4 h5

0.1521 0.1626 0.1780 0.1877

0.130 0.120 0.115 0.105

0.6585 0.9142 1.1118 1.2738

151.7 109.4 89.9 78.5

0.6592 0.9141 1.1120 1.2740

-0.11 0.01 -0.02 -0.02

Pressure Difference = 50mm

Using Bernoullis Equation Pressure Head (divergent flow) h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 Total Head, h (m) 0.1786 0.1727 0.1574 0.1873 0.2156 Static Head, hi(m) Va = [2g(hhi)]

Using Continuity Equation Duct Area, Ax106 (m2) Vb = Flow rate Q/ A 0.2657 0.8596 1.1920 1.4510 1.6610

Difference

(Va-Vb) /Vb, % 0.04 0.05 -0.02 -0.01 -0.01

0.175 0.135 0.085 0.080 0.075

0.2658 0.8600 1.1918 1.4509 1.6609

490.9 151.7 109.4 89.9 78.5

Pressure Difference = 100mm

Using Bernoullis Equation Pressure Head (divergent Total Static Head, Va = [2g(h-

Using Continuity Equation Duct Area, Vb = Flow

Difference

(Va-Vb)

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flow)

Head, h (m)

hi(m)

hi)]

Ax106 (m2)

rate Q/ A 0.3056 0.9888 1.3711 1.6685 1.9108

/Vb, % 0.43 -0.03 -0.01 0.01 0

h1 h2 h3 h4 h5

0.1898 0.1848 0.1508 0.1869 0.2211

0.185 0.135 0.055 0.045 0.035

0.3069 0.9885 1.3710 1.6686 1.9108

490.9 151.7 109.4 89.9 78.5

Pressure Difference = 150mm

Figure 1 Graph of Total Head versus Pressure Head for Convergent Flow

Figure 2 Graph of Total Head versus Pressure Head for Divergent Flow

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

Divergent Flow Pressure difference = h1 - h5 = 100 mm water Flow rate = 0.003/23 = 1.304 10-4 m3/s

Velocity, v =

Flow rate Area into duct

= 1.304 10-4m3/s
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490.9 x 10-6 m2 = 0.2657 m/s

Dynamic head = v2 2g = (0.2657 m/s) 2 x 9.81m/s2 = 0.0036 m

2

Total head = Static head + Dynamic head = (0.0036 + 1175x10-3) m = 0.1786 m

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DISCUSSION
Referring back to the objectives of the experiment, which are to investigate the validity of the Bernoullis equation when applied to the steady flow of water in a tapered duct as well as to measure the flow rate and both static and total pressure heads in a rigid convergent and divergent tube of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates. As fluid flows from a wider pipe to a narrower one, the velocity of the flowing fluid increases. This is shown in all the results tables, where the velocity of water that flows in the tapered duct increases as the duct area decreases, regardless of the pressure difference and type of flow of each result taken. From the analysis of the results, we can conclude that for both type of flow, be it convergent or divergent, the velocity increases as the pressure difference increases. For instance, the velocities at pressure head h5 at pressure difference of 50 millimetres, 100 millimetres and 150 millimetres for convergent flow are 0.8308 m/s, 1.5290 m/s and 1.2740 m/s respectively, which are increasing. The same goes to divergent flow, whereby the velocities are decreasing when the pressure difference between h1 and h5 is increased. Note that for divergent flow, the water flows form pressure head h5 to h1, which is from narrow tube to wider tube. Next, the total head value for convergent flow is calculated to be the highest at pressure head h1 and the lowest at pressure head h5, whereas the total head for divergent flow is in a different case where it is calculated to be the highest at pressure head h5 and the lowest at pressure head h1. There must be some error or weaknesses when taking the measurement of each data. One of them is, the observer must have not
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read the level of static head properly, where the eyes are not perpendicular to the water level on the manometer. Therefore, there are some minor effects on the calculations due to the errors.

CONCLUSION
From the experiment conducted, the total head pressure increases for both convergent and divergent flow. This is exactly following the Bernoullis principle for a steady flow of water and the velocity is increasing along the same channel. The second objectives, where the flow rates and both static and total head pressures in a rigid convergent / divergent of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates are to be calculated, are also achieved through the experiment.

RECOMMENDATION
Repeat the experiment several times to get the average value. Make sure the bubbles are fully removed and not left in the manometer. The eye of the observer should be parallel to the water level on the manometer. The valve should be controlled slowly to maintain the pressure difference. The valve and bleed screw should regulate smoothly to reduce the errors Make sure there is no leakage along the tube to avoid the water flowing out

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REFERENCES
B.R. Munson, D.F. Young, and T.H. Okiishi, Fundamentals of

Fluid Mechanics, 3rd ed., 1998, Wiley and Sons, New York. Douglas. J.F., Gasiorek. J.M. and Swaffield, Fluid Mechanics, 3rd edition, (1995), Longmans Singapore Publisher.
Giles, R.V., Evett, J.B. and Cheng Lui, Schaumms Outline

Series

Theory

and

Problems

of

Fluid

Mechanics

and

Hydraulic, (1994), McGraw-Hill intl.

APPENDICES

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