WAVE MOTION

The method of propagation of energy in which medium particles vibrate at their mean position and energy is
transferred from one place to the another place is said to be WAVE MOTION.
OR PULSE => Any disturbance created in the medium is said to be pulse. Series of pulse is said to be WAVE.
e.g. (Motion of a rod in water and formation of wave).
Properties Of Wave: -
1. Wave are S.H.M. and also produced by any S.H.M.
2. Particles of the medium vibrate at their mean position and energy and momentum are transferred from
one place to other. Medium particles are not going from one place to the other place.
3. The velocity of propagation of energy, say velocity of wave is constant in a medium and changes with
the medium. Whereas the particles of the medium which are having oscillation at their mean position their
velocity changes with time or displacement. Maximum at mean position and minimum at extreme position
velocity of wave is not equal to velocity of vibration of particles (that is v
particle
# v
wave
)
4. Waves have properties like reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction etc.
5. The particles of the medium which are oscillating, their phase (method of vibration) changes with time.
6. The particles close to the source will start oscillating earlier and particles away from source will start
oscillating later
I. Properties Of Medium In Which Formation Of Wave Is Possible :
1.Elasticity: --- Elasticity provides restoring force so particles displayed from the main position will return
to their mean position. it is an essential property for formation of wave in any medium.
2.Inertia : -- Due to this property, medium particles are able to hold the energy with them and can transmit
with the efficiency. In addition to the above two properties resistance also exists in this medium. Higher the
resistance of the medium, energy cannot be transferred for longer displacement.
Types Of Waves : - We can classify waves in several ways
1.(a) Elastic Or Mechanical Waves: - Waves which need medium for their propagation are Elastic Waves
. example. Sound Waves
(b) Inelastic Or Electromagnetic Waves :- The Waves which do not require medium for their
propagation are inelastic waves .They can propagate in medium or vacuum also.e.g.Light Waves.
2.(a) Transverse Waves : - The wave in which particles of medium oscillate perpendicular to the direction
of propagation of wave are said to be transverse wave. e.g. Light Wave, Wave formed in any string or wire
Points About Transverse Waves :-
(i.) They are in the form of Crest and trough
Crest - The part of the medium which is slightly above the mean position is said to be Crest.
Trough The part of the medium which is slightly below the mean position .
(ii.) The waves are formed in the medium having rigidity with them or they are possible in the solids and
also at the surface of the liquid .
(iii.) Distance between the particles of the medium do not change during their motion , hence density &
pressure of the medium remains unchanged during the propagation .Shape of the medium is changed due to the
propagation of these waves.
B. Longitudinal Waves : -- The wave in which particles of medium vibrate in the direction of propagation of
energy.
e.g. Waves formed in air column, sound wave etc.
Points about Longitudinal Waves :-
(i). The waves are in the form of compression and rarefaction.
Compression The part of the medium in which particle of the medium are closer than the mean
position is said to be compression. In compression density and pressure are maximum.
Rarefaction The part of the medium in which particles are away relative to the mean position is said
to be Rarefaction. In Rarefaction density and pressure are minimum.
(ii) The waves are possible in all solids, liquids and gases.
(iii) Distance between particles, density, pressure, and shape of medium all change.
3. (A) Progressive Waves The wave in which energy propagates from one place to the other place .
(B) Stationary or standing Wave The wave in which energy is restricted or limited to a part of
medium and does not propagate further is said to be stationary wave.
Definition Related To The Wave Motion :-
1.Mean Position The position in which body remains stationary forever and potential energy is
minimum & value of force is Zero.
2.Amplitude The maximum displacement from the mean position .It is denoted by a unit is m.
3.Time period The time taken to complete 1 oscillation ,Denoted by T unit is sec.
4.Frequency It is the number of periodic motions executed by body per second-denoted by n .Unit
is hertz (Hz)
5.Angular frequency or Angular velocity The angle rotated per unit time is said to be angular
velocity.
Denoted by
= 2n = 2/T (because n=1/T) Unit is radian / Sec.
6. Wave Length: -
v = / K
The distance between two nearest vibrating particles in a phase is said to be wavelength. Or,
Distance travelled by wave in the time equal to total time period. Or, Distance between two nearest
crests or troughs is said to be wavelength (In transverse wave). Or, Distance between two nearest
compressions or rarefactions is said to be wavelength. (In longitudinal wave)
It is denoted by . Unit is m.
7. Phase: - Phase of a vibrating particle at any time gives the position and direction of motion of particle
at the time. Or Method of vibration of any particle with respect to time or displacement.
8. Phase Angle: - The angle between two lines joining with the centre when body starts the motion, say
t=0 second and the position after any time. Or, the angle between initial line and the line joining the
position of the body at any time with the centre of the reference circle is said to be phase angle at the
time.
Q is the position where time = t and P
0
is the position where time = 0 & displacement = 0 Y
(a) Phase angle at the position Q = QOP = = t
(b) Phase angle at the position Y will be = 90 = /2.
Q
9. INITIAL PHASE DIFFERENCE OR EPOCH: -
The angle made by two positions, one is where time is zero and other
is where displacement is zero with the centre of the reference circle is Po
said to be Epoch. O
Example: - (1) Y P
o
= position for which displacement is zero.
Q(time=t) P = Position from where body starts moving Y'
say position for which t=0.
P(t=0) Q = Position after the motion or time interval t.
Angle rotated in time t = QOP = t.
P
o
(x =0) Phase angle for the position = QOP
0
= (t +
o
)
O Epoch =
o
Y'
Example 2) Y P
o
= Position where displacement is zero.
P = Position from where motion of body starts and t = 0.
Q = Position after the time t interval.
Q(time =t)
Angle rotated in time t = QOP = t.
Phase angle for the position = QOP
0
= (t -
o
)
P
o
(x =0)

Epoch =
o
O

P(t=0)
Y'
Example 3) Y
P
o
= Position where displacement = 0 and t =0.
Q = Position after time t
Q(time = t)
Angle rotated in time t = t
Phase angle = t
P
o
(x =0, t =0) Epoch = 0.
O
Y'
PROPAGATION CONSTANT: - The phase difference between two particle situated at a distance of 1
m apart. Or, Phase difference per unit length in the medium is said to be propagation constant. Denoted by
K
K=2 / .
If distance between two particles is then phase angle difference will be 2 and the phase difference
between two particles at a distance of 1m will be 2 / .
Velocity of Wave: - The distance travelled by energy or disturbance in unit time is said to be velocity of wave.
Denoted by v. v= n
v =(/2) x (2/K) (but, = 2n i.e. n=(/2) and K=(2/) , i.e., = (2/K))
v = / T
Hence,
SOUND WAVES: - The waves due to which our ear drum is vibrated and the vibrations are communicated to
the brain and we hear the sound; are said to be sound waves. Or, the waves which carry the sound energy are
said to be sound wave. Sound waves are longitudinal waves and they need medium for propagation and the
medium will be elastic.
ADUIO RANGE OF SOUND OR AUDIO FREQUENCY 20 Hz to 20 kHz
ULTRASONIC WAVES: -The sound waves having frequency more than audio frequency.
INFRASONIC WAVES: -The sound waves having frequency less than the audio frequency.
PROPERTIES OF SOUND WAVES: -
1) They need a medium for propagation.
2) Their velocity is constant in a medium.
3) There will be reflection and refraction of these waves which are governed by certain rules.
4) There are interference and diffraction in sound waves which proves the wave nature of sound.
POLARISATION: - This phenomenon is not possible in the sound waves so they are longitudinal in nature .
In the light waves the polarization is possible because they are transverse waves. Beats is possible only in
sound wave not in the light waves.
FORMULA OF VELOCITY OF TRANSVERSE WAVE: -
where, T = Tension applied on string.

m
T
v m = Mass per unit length of the string.
Velocity of transverse wave does not depend on frequency of wave, amplitude of wave.
VELOCITY OF LONGITUDINAL WAVE: -

d
E
v where, E = coefficient of elasticity of medium.
d = density of medium.
Velocity of longitudinal wave in solid

d
Y
v where , Y is Youngs Modulus.
Velocity of sound in Iron: -
s m/ 5096
10 7 . 7
10 2
v
3
11

Velocity of sound in Liquid: -

d

v where, = Bulk Modulus or coefficient of volume elasticity.

Velocity of sound in water = s m/ 1483
10 1 . 1
10 2 . 2
3
9

FOR VELOCITY OF LONGITUDINAL WAVES IN GASES: -

(1) According to Newton the propagation of sound in gases is an Isothermal process and temperature remains
constant.
Velocity is given by
d
P
v where, P = pressure applied on gas
d = density of gas.
According ti this formula velocity of sound in air at N.T.P. was calculated as 280m/s. But the real value was
332m/s, so the formula needs a correction.
LAPLACE CORRECTION: -According to the laplace the propagation of sound in gases is an adiabatic
process because compression and rarefaction are formed in the gas and at compression temperature increases
and at rarefaction temperature decreases. Process of formation of compression / rarefaction at a place is very
rapid so temperature cannot remain constant. That is why this is not an Isothermal process but it is adiabatic
process. The relation for velocity
d
P
v

where,
v
p
C
C


FACTORS AFFECTING THE VELOCITY OF SOUND IN ANY GAS: -
1) Effect of pressure on the velocity of sound in gas.
(a)
d
P
v As pressure increases then density also increases so P/d remains constant if temperature is
constant so no effect of pressure on velocity.
Angular frequency
Velocity of wave =
Propagation constant
(b) By gas equation PV = n RT
If n = 1 mole or say mass of gas = mol. wt. then V = mass/density =
d
Mw

RT
d
Mw
P
=>
w M
RT
d
P

Hence
Mw
RT
v
For any gas R,

& Mw are constant. If T is constant then v will be constant for any gas. Hence P will not
effect the velocity of sound in any gas.
2) Effect of Temperature

Mw
RT
v
As

, Mw are constant for a gas so

T v
If v
1
is velocity of sound in gas at T
1
temperature and v
2
is velocity at T
2
temperature then

2
1
2
1
v
v
T
T

T
1
& T
2
are in Kelvin.
If T
1
= 0 C = (0+273) K
T
2
= t C = (t+273) K

1
2
1
2
v
v
T
T

let v
2
= v
t
and v
1
= v
0

2 / 1
0
t
273
1
273
273
v
v

,
_

+
+

t t

273 2
1
v
v
0
t

+
t

,
_

+
273 2
1 v v
0
t
t 0
v
=332 m/s
t
t t
t
61 . 0 v
273 2
332
v
273 2
v
v v
0 0
0
0
+

+
3) Effect of Humidity : -If water vapours are added in air then we say that humidity increases as the density
of water vapour is less then the density of air (at N.T.P. the density of air is 1.29 kg./m3 and density of
water vapour is 0.8kg/m3). Thus decrease in the density will increase the velocity of sound.
4) Effect of density of gas on the velocity of sound : -
(i)
d
P
v d v / 1 If P is constant
(ii)
Mw
RT
v If T of two gases is constant &

or say atomicity of the gases are constant then

Mw / 1 v v
1
= velocity of sound in I gas having Mol. wt. Mw
1
and v
2
= velocity sound in II gas of
Mw
2

1
2
2
1
v
v
Mw
Mw

Ex: - I gas --> H

2
II gas --> O
2

4
2
32
v
v
o
H


v
H
= 4 v
0

General Equation: -

2 1
1 2
2
1
2
2 2
1
1 1
2
1
v
v
T Mw
T Mw
Mw
RT
Mw
RT

5) Effect of frequency of sound on velocity : - Frequency of sound will not effect the velocity or say sound of
different frequency will travel with the same speed. If velocity of different frequency of sound is different
then we would not have enjoyed music.
6) Effect of velocity of wind on velocity of sound : -If the wind is going in the direction of sound, the
velocity of sound will increases and vice-versa.
(A) Velocity of sound in a gas medium and velocity of particles of medium are related.

dx
dy
p
t v v
v
p
= velocity of particle , v= Velocity of sound in the gas.
dx
dy
= slope of the time-displacement curve which is also known as tension / compression.
(B) Velocity of sound in any gas is also related with the rms velocity of of molecules of the gas as: -
rms value of velocity of a molecule of gas,
C
rms
= 1.732 x v (for Isothermal process).
where v is the velocity of sound in gas.
C
rms
=

x v) (1.732
(for adiabatic process).
Reflection And Refraction of Transverse Waves
Reflection of Transverse Waves: -
(i) Free end is treated as Rarer medium.
(ii) Fixed or stationery end is treated as denser medium.
(iii) When reflection of transverse waves is made by denser/fixed end, then crest will return as trough and
trough will return as crest and a phase difference of is produced.
(iv) When the reflection is by free end/ Rarer medium then crest will return as crest and trough as trough and
no phase difference.
(v) No change in velocity, frequency & wavelength during the reflection.
Refraction of Transverse waves: -
1) Velocity of transverse wave is more in rarer medium and less in denser medium.
2) In the case of refraction, velocity and wavelength changes with change of medium. say, if velocity is
more, wavelength will be more.
3) In refraction frequency. of wave remains same.
FREE END Rarer medium.
FIXED END or STATIONARY END Denser medium.
Reflection of Longitudinal waves: -
1) Close end of column or pipe is taken as denser medium.
2) Open end of air column is taken as rarefaction medium.
3) when reflection is by denser medium, compression will return as compression and rarefaction will
return as rarefaction and phase difference of is produced.
4) when reflection is by rarefaction medium, then compression return as rarefaction and vice-versa but no
change in phase.
5) no change in velocity, frequency and wavelength in reflection.
Refraction of Longitudinal waves: -
1) Velocity and wavelength changes with change of medium but frequency remains constant. More the
velocity, more the wavelength.
2) When we compare the velocity of sound in solid, liquid or gas, more the density, more the velocity.
(v
s
>v
l
>v
g
)
3) When we compare the velocity of sound in two different solids or liquids or gases, more the density,
less is the velocity. In gases
d
) P (
Mw
) RT (
v

d
1
Comp. d
3
>d
2
>d
1
Comp. Rarefaction Rare
Rare Comp.


One end Closed Air Column
Closed end Denser medium Opened end Rarer medium.
air
d
2
d
3
One Dimensional equation of wave: -
1) y = a sin t
2) y = a sin(t)
where is the phase difference between the first particle (y = 0) and the particle for which y is written
(t ) = phase angle.
y = 0
x Particle for which equation is written
when considered particle is at a distance of x from the initial position then we can write as also
If is the distance between particle the phase difference = 2
If 1 is the distance between particle the phase difference = 2/
If x is the distance between particle the phase difference = 2x/
so, = 2x/
Hence, above equation will be
y = a sin(t (2x/))
v = n n = v/
= 2n = 2v/
so, equation will be

1
]
1

x 2
t )
v 2
( sin a y

[ ] x vt
2
sin a y t

when wave is going in negative side of x axis then equation will be

[ ] x vt
2
sin a y +

when wave is going in positive side of x axis then equation will be

[ ] x vt
2
sin a y

(3) When y = 0 and t = 0 are not at a point ; say there is an initial phase difference of
0
then

) sin(
0
+ t a y

) x vt (
2
sin a y
0
t t

(4) When
0
= /2 and y = 0 and t = 0 are not at a point then y = a cos t
(5) y = a
1
sin t + a
2
cos t
let a
1
= a cos . 1
a
2
= a sin . 2
y = a sin t cos + a cos t sin
y = a sin(t + )
Squaring 1 and 2 and taking square root, we get
2
2
2
1
a a a +
Q 1. Compare the amplitudes of the following waves: -
) 4 / 2 sin( 5
1
+ t y
) 2 cos( ) 2 sin( 2 5
2
t t y +
sol. ) 4 / 2 sin( 5
1
+ t y ...1
)
2
1
) 2 cos(
2
1
) 2 (sin( 2 2 5
2
+ t t y
by Sin (A+B) = Sin A Cos B + Cos A Sin B
)) 4 / sin( ) 2 cos( ) 4 / cos( ) 2 (sin( 10
2
+ t t y
) 4 / 2 sin( 10
1
+ t y ...2
By 1 & 2
2
1
10
5
2
1

a
a
Q 2.
)
2 v 2
sin( 5
1

x t
y t
...1

) 3 01 . 0 ( sin 5 . 0 t x y
...2
comparing 1 with 2

x
x
01 . 0
2
= 200
Now,
t
t
3
v 2

= 2 v / 3 v = 3 x 200 / 2
Q 3.
)
10
15 ( 2 sin 15 .
x
t y
= ?
sol:
10
2 2 x x

= 10

15
v
15 2
v 2

t
t
v = 15 x 10 = 150
Q 4. ) 005 . 0 6 ( sin 2 . 1
1
x t y + = ?

x
x
005 . 0
2

= 2 / 0.005 = 400
Q 5. Write the equation of a sin wave having a = 0.3 m, = 2 m, frequency = 5 Hz going in negative x
direction.

)
2
sin(

x
t a y +

)
2
2
5 2 sin( 3 . 0
x
t

+


) 10 sin( 3 . 0 x t +

)
2
5 ( 2 sin 3 . 0
x
t +
Principle of super position of waves: -
When two or more than two waves come to a particle of a medium together then the displacement of the
particle will be equal to the vector sum of displacements due to different waves reaching to the point. the
waves coming to the particle will be going further without any change in them. Let the displacement in the
particle due to one wave be y
1
and it is y
2
due to the second wave. Then resultant displacement of the particle
will be y.
2 1
y y y

+
2 1
y y y + (when y
1
and y
2
are in a direction)
2 1
y y y (when y
1
and y
2
are in opposite direction)
Frequency And Amplitude Of Superposed Wave Will Depend On
1) Frequencies of waves coming.
2) Amplitudes of waves coming.
3) Phase difference between the waves coming.
4) Direction of waves coming.
Superposition can have four effects in the sound waves
1) Interference : -When two waves of equal frequency, equal velocity and going in a direction in a medium
are having superposition then they produce effect of interference.
2) Beats: - When two waves having slightly different frequencies, equal velocity and going in a medium
in a direction then they produce effect of Beats. Beat is a special case of Interference.
3) Stationary Waves : -When two waves of equal frequency, equal amplitude and going in opposite
direction or say wave and its reflected wave in a limited medium are having superposition then they
produce stationary waves.
4) Lissaju figures : - when any two waves coming normally in a medium are having superposition then the
displacement of the particle will not be a straight line but will be a curve. The shapes of these curve are
said to be lissaju figures.
Interference Of Sound Waves
Definition: -Redistribution of energy in sound waves due to superposition of waves is said to be interference of
waves. Or, when two waves of equal frequency going in a medium in a direction with a velocity are having
superposition they effect the energy distribution of each other. At certain points where the waves meet in a
phase the displacement or amplitude of the particle becomes more or intensity of sound will be more but at the
other certain points where the waves meet in opposite phase displacement/ amplitude of particle reduces and
intensity of sound reduces. In this way the increase and decrease of energy of sound at different points in
medium due to superposition of waves is said to be interference of waves.
Types of interference: -
1) Constructive interference: - When the waves are superposed in a phase or displacement or intensity
increases than it is said to be Constructive Interference.
2) Destructive Interference: -When the waves are superposed in a opposite phase or displacement or intensity
decreases than it is said to be Destructive Interference.
Condition for interference: -
1) The waves coming for superposition must be from the coherent sources, the wave must meet in a phase
or have constant phase difference.
2) The waves coming for superposition must be having equal frequency, wavelength or velocity.
3) The wave must be propagating in a medium in a direction
4) If the amplitude of waves are equal than the interference will be clear or distinct
5) If the path difference between the wave for reaching to any point in the medium is complete multiple of
say , 2, 3, or the phase difference between the waves is 0,2,4,6, or T, 2T, 3T, then
the point will be point of constructive interference.
6) If the path difference between the waves reaching to a point is odd multiple of /2, say /2 ,3/2, 5/2,
or the phase difference is ,3, 5 or T/2, 3T/2, 5T/2,then the point will be of destructive
interference
Mathematical Analysis of interference
Consider the waves having the same frequency and going along the x direction. Let the amplitude of
the waves be a
1
and a
2
the phase difference between them is then the wave equation will be
y
1
= a
1
sin t
y
2
= a
2
sin (t t )
Displacement of superposed waves will be
y = y
1
+ y
2
y = a
1
sin t + a
2
sin(t + )
y = a
1
sin t + a
2
(sin t cos + cos t sin )
y = sin t(a
1
+ a
2
cos ) + a
2
cos t sin
Let a
1
+ a
2
cos = R cos .................................(1)
a
2
sin = R sin .................................................(2)
y = R sin t cos t R cos t sin
or y = R sin(t t )
This is the equation of wave having amplitude equal to R for the value of R ------------ (1)
2
+

(2)
(2)
R
2
= (a
1
+ a
2
cos )
2
+ (a
2
sin )
2
= a
1
2
+ a
2
2
cos +2a
1
a
2
cos + a
2
2
sin
R
2
= a
1
2
+ a
2
2
+2a
1
a
2
cos
R = cos a 2a a a
2 1
2
2
2
1
+ +
R depends on a
1
,a
2
and
Case 1 When = 0, 2, 4, ... cos = 1
2 1
2
2 1 2 1
2
2
2
1
a a ) a (a a 2a a a R + + + +
Thus, the amplitude of superposed waves is equal to sum of amplitudes of individual waves
If a
1
= a
2
= a then R = 2a
FOR THE INTENSITY
Intensity of any wave is given by I: -
I = Ka
2
Intensity of I wave before superposition
I
1
= Ka
1
2
Intensity of II wave before superposition
I
2
= Ka
2
2
Total Energy before superposition
I= I
1
+I
2
= K (a
1
2
+a
2
2
)
After superposition the intensity of superposed wave I'
I' = K R
2
= K(a
1
+a
2
)
2

I' = K(a
1
2
+a
2
2
+2a
1
a
2
)
So I' > I
Thus, intensity of superposed wave is more than the individual wave, hence the intensity increases at the above
points and this is the case of Constructive Interference.
Case 2: When =, 3, 5, ...
cos = -1

2 1
2
2
2
1
2 a a a a R +
R = (a
1
- a
2
)
If a
1
= a
2
= a then R = 0
Amplitude of superposed wave will be equal to the difference of amplitudes of waves having superposition
Before superposition
Intensity of 1
st
Wave I
1
= Ka
1
2
Intensity of 2
nd
Wave I
2
= Ka
2
2
Total intensity before superposition I'= KR
2
I' = K(a
1
-a
2
)
2

I' = K(a
1
2
+a
2
2
-2a
1
a
2
)
So I' < I
Thus, the intensity of superposed wave decreases when the waves are having superposition in opposite phase
(1) If a
1
= a
2
= a and = /2 or 3/2 then
cos 2
2 1
2
2
2
1
a a a a R + + (cos /2 =0)
2 a a R
2 2
+ a
(2) If a
1
= a
2
= a and = /3 = 60 => cos 60 = 1/2
a a a a R 3
2
1
2
2 2 2
+ +
(3) If a
1
= a
2
= a and = 2/3 = 120 => cos 120 = -1/2
a a a a R +
2
1
2
2 2 2

(4) If a
1
= a
2
= a and = 5/6 = 150 cos 150 = -(3 )/ 2
3 1 1 3
2
3
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
+ + + a a a a a a a R
(3) I
max
= K(a
1
+a
2
)
2

I
min
= K(a
1
-a
2
)
2

2
2 1
2
2 1
min
max
) (
) (
a a K
a a K
I
I

=
2
2
1
2
2
1
) (
) (
I I
I I

+
(4) R
max
= a
1
+a
2
R
min
= a
1
-a
2
or a
2
a
1

2 1
2 1
min
max
a a
a a
R
R

In the Interference of sound waves, conservative of energy holds good, say total energy remains conserved.
The energy of the points where the waves meet in opposite phase shifts to the points where the waves meet in
same phase.
QUINCKS TUBE: - A tube to demonstrate the interference of sound and also find velocity of sound in any
gas.
STRUCTURE: -
1) U shaped two tubes having different bores. One tube can slide inside the other tube. On one hole vibrated
tunning fork is kept and on the other opening a sensitive flame is kept.
Working: -
At the opening A a vibrated tuning fork is kept and at the opening C a sensitive flame is kept. The sound
waves produced by the fork will be reaching to the opening C by the path ADC and ABC. The tube B is
free to move inwards and outwards, so we can change the path ABC. As the paths are equal in length then the
waves reaching to C will be in a phase and will be having constructive interference; so the flame kept will
vibrate very fast.
2) If the B tube is moved slightly outwards then the waves reaching to C will be having a path difference in
between. If the path difference in between is of the order /2, 3/2, 5/2, ... then waves meeting in opposite
phase and will be having destructive interference in between and flame will not oscillate at all. We note the
position of B tube when two constructive interference in order are received and by that we get /2and then
. If the frequency of sound is unknown to us, we can find velocity of sound in air or in gas if gas is filled in
tube by the relation v = n
BEATS
When two waves having slightly different frequencies are going in a direction in a medium having
superposition then the amplitude of superposed waves changes with the time at a place. So at a point or place
the value of intensity will be increasing and decreasing in a regular order. This waxing and waning of sound is
said to be beats.
EXPLANATIONS: - In the beginning the two waves of slightly different frequencies start in a phase but due
to difference in frequency the phase difference between them takes place. At certain points they meet in
opposite phase. Thus, constructive and destructive interference take place. In this way due to the superposition
of waves of slightly different frequencies gives the effect of sound intensity becoming maximum and minimum
at a place. This change in intensity of sound at a place in regular order is said to be Beat.
BEAT PERIOD: The time taken between two beats in order is said to be Beat period. It is denoted by T.
BEAT FREQUENCY: No of beats per sec., denoted by N
Beat: - The effect of becoming once maximum and once minimum of sound at a point is said to be one beat.
1. The number of beats per sec will be equal to the difference of frequency of waves.
2. Our ear can hear 10 beats per seconds maximum. So maximum difference of frequency of waves must be
equal to ten only.
Example to explain beats
(1) At t = 0 A 100 rotation / hour.
B 90 rotation / hour.
(2) After 3 min. A completes 5 rotation
B completes 4.5 rotation
(3) After 6 min. A completes 10 rotation
B completes 9 rotation
Thus A and B will be 10 times in a phase and 10 times in opposite phase in a hour. So 10 beats per hour.
Mathematical expression of beats or prove that the number of beats per second is equal to the difference of
frequency of waves having superposition: -
Consider two waves having frequency m and n and amplitudes a
1
and a
2
both are going along positive
x axis. The equation of waves will be given.
y
1
= a
1
sin
1
t = a
1
sin 2mt ...............................(1)
y
2
= a
2
sin
2
t = a
2
sin 2nt ...............................(2)
Let m n = x
m = (n + x)
so equation will be
y
1
= a
1
sin 2(n+x)t, y
2
= a
2
sin 2nt
Displacement of super posed wave will be
y = a
1
sin 2(n +x)t + a
2
sin 2nt
y = a
1
sin 2nt cos 2xt + a
1
cos 2nt sin 2xt + a
2
sin 2nt
= sin 2nt( a
1
cos 2xt + a
2
)+a
1
cos 2nt sin 2xt
Let a
1
cos 2xt + a
2
= R cos ........................................ (3)
a
1
sin 2xt = R sin ........................................ (4)
y = R sin 2nt cos + R

cos 2nt sin
y = R sin (2nt + ) This is the equation of superimposed wave having amplitude
R, For the value of R (3)
2
+ (4)
2
R = (a
1
cos 2xt + a
2
)
2
+ (a
1
sin 2xt)
2
R = a
1
2
+ a
2
2
+ 2 a
1
a
2
cos 2xt
Case I

If 2xt = 0, 2, 4, 6,... 2n
then cos 2xt = 1
R = a
1
+ a
2
At these points amplitude of wave becomes maximum and Intensity of sound is also max.
We can calculate the time between two maxima of sound as
2xt = 0, 2, 4, 6,... 2n
t = 0, 1/x, 2/x, 3/x, ... n/x
So time taken between two maxima in order will be t
2
t
1
= (1/x) 0 = (1/x)
So number of maxima per second at a place or frequency of beat = x
Case II If 2xt = , 3, 5, , (2n+1)
then cos 2xt = -1
R = a
1
a
2
At these points amplitude of wave will be minimum and Intensely will be minimum we can calculate the time
between two minima of sound at a place as
2xt = , 3, 5, , (2n+1)
t = 1/2x, 3/2x, 5/2x, ... (2n+1)/2x
time taken bet two minima will be
t
2
t
1
=1/x
So member of minima per second at a place will be x.
Thus we get x maxima per second & x minima per second at a place or say x beats per second. Thus number of
beats are equal to the difference of frequency of waves having superposition.
Points: -
1. The effect of becoming sound maximum once and minimum once is said to be one beat.
2. Number of beat per second is equal to difference of frequency of waves having superposition.
beat frequency x = m-n
beats period T = 1/x = 1/m n
3.
2 1
2 1
min
max
a a
a a
R
R

4.
2
2 1
2
2 1
min
max
) a a (
) a a (
I
I

=
2
2
1
2
2
1
) (
) (
I I
I I

+
5. Beats is a special case of interference.
6. In the interference intensity of sound changes with displacement where as in beats. Intensity changes with
time at a place or point in a regular order.
7. In sound beats are possible in light polarisation is possible.
8. If frequency of wave is increased by 25% then prove that wave length will decrease 20%
v = n
1

1
= n
2

2
If n
1
= n and
1
=
then n
2
= n + 25% =
n n
4
5
100
125


now n
1

1
= n
2

2
=

8 . 0
5
4
2
1 1

n
n
n
n
Change in wavelength = - 0.8 = 0.2
Change in percentage = (0.2/) x 100 = 20%
9. Conditions Required for Beats: -
(a) Difference of frequency must be maximum to 10 (Hz).
(b) Direction of motion of waves muse be same.
(c) If amplitudes are equal beats will be clear.
10. Difference between interference & beats: -
Interference Beats
1
2
3
4
Frequency of waves coming for superposion
must be equal.
Value of phase different at a point will be
constant with time.
Value of intensity remains constant at any
point.
Value of amplitude remains constant at a
point does not changes with time.
Frequency of waves must be slightly different.
Value of phase difference at a point changes with
time.
Value of intensity changes with time in a regular
order at a point.
Value of amplitude changes at a point with time
in a regular order.
Uses of beats: - (1) To find frequency of tunning fork.
(2) To find the gases present in mines.
(3) For setting of musical instruments.
Stationary wave
When two waves having equal frequencies, equal amplitudes and equal velocities are going in opposite
directions in a medium are having superposition or simply say when a wave and its reflected wave are having
superposition in limited medium then the amplitude of superposed wave changes with position such
superposed wave is said to be stationary wave. These waves are possible in limited medium and they are
having nodes and antinodes in them.
Node: - The point where the displacement of particle of medium is nearly zero is said to be node.
Antinode: -The point where the displacement of particle of medium is maximum is said to be antinode.
Stationary waves are of two types: -
(1) Longitudinal stationary waves: - The waves which are formed due to superposition of longitudinal
waves.
e.g. : - wave formed in air column.
(2) Transverse stationary waves: - The waves which are formed due to superposition of transverse waves.
e.g. : - wave formed in any wire/string.
Conditions required for stationary wave
(1) Any wave and its reflected wave are having superposition.
(2) Medium must be limited.
Mathematical/analytical treatment of stationary wave: -
The process of reflection in wave is in two conditions: -
(A) When Reflection is by Denser Medium: -
In String reflection by rigid end.
In Air column reflection by closed end.
Let any wave is going along positive side of x - axis then its equation: -
)
2 v 2
sin(
1

x t
a y
wave
Equation of reflected wave
)
2 v 2
sin(
2

x t
a y +
Ref. wave
- => phase difference of
Equation of superposed wave
)
2 v 2
sin( )
2 v 2
sin(

x t
a
x t
a y +

)
v 2
sin( ) vt 2 cos( 2

t
a y

)
2
sin( )
2
cos( 2 sin sin
D C D C
D C
+


)
2
cos( )
2
sin( 2 sin sin
D C D C
D C
+
+
so
)
2
sin( )
vt 2
cos( 2

x
a y
let sin (2x/) = R
so y = R cos(2vt/)
The equation of superposed wave having amplitude R. For the value of R
Case I: - 2x / = 0, , 2, 3, n
Sin(2x / ) = 0
then R = 0
At these points the amplitude is zero so they are nodes and Reflecting point is node .
For the position or distance between nodes: -
2x / = 0, , 2, 3, , n
x = 0, /2, 2/2, 3/2, , n/2
(1) Distance between nearest or conjugate or successive or two nodes in order will be /2
(2) At x = 0 or at reflecting point node is formed.
Case II: - 2x / =/2, 3/2, 5/2, 7/2,
sin (2x/) = t 1
then R = t 2a
At these points amplitude is maximum so they are antinodes.
For the position or distance between antinodes: -
2x / = /2, 3/2, 5/2,7/2,
x = /4, 3/4, 5/4, 7/4,
(1) Distance between two nearest antinodes is (/2).
(2) First antinode will be at a distance of (/4) from reflecting point.
(B) When reflection by rarefaction medium: -
In string reflection by free end.
In Air column reflection by open end.
Equation of incident wave
)
2 v 2
sin(
1

x t
a y
Equation of reflected wave (without change of phase of having change in direction only) will be
)
2 v 2
sin(
2

x t
a y +
Equation of superposed wave will be
)
2 v 2
sin( )
2 v 2
sin(

x t
a
x t
a y + +


)
2
cos( )
vt 2
sin( 2

x
a y
)
2
cos( )
vt 2
sin( 2

x
a y
let cos (2x/) = R
so y = R sin (2vt/)
This is the equation of superposed wave having amplitude R. For the value of R
Case I: - If 2x / = 0, , 2, 3, n
cos (2x / ) = t 1
then R = t 2a
These are the cases of antinodal points and Reflecting point is anti node ..
For the position or distance between antinodes
2x / = 0, , 2, 3, , n
x = 0, /2, 2/2, 3/2, , n/2
(1) Distance between two nearest antinodes is /2
(2) Reflecting point say x = 0 is antinode.
Case II: - 2x / =/2, 3/2, 5/2, 7/2,
cos (2x/) = 0
R = 0
These are the cases of nodal points.
For the position or distance between nodes: -
2x / = /2, 3/2, 5/2,7/2,
x = /4, 3/4, 5/4, 7/4,
(1) Distance between two nearest nodes is (/2).
(2) First antinode will be at a distance of (/4) from reflecting point say x = 0.
Thus equation of stationary wave is given as
1)
)
2
sin( )
vt 2
cos( 2

x
a y
(When reflection is by denser medium)
2)
)
2
cos( )
vt 2
sin( 2

x
a y
(When the reflection is by rarefactionr medium)
Points about stationary waves: -
(1) The particles of medium which do not vibrate say remains at mean position always are said to be nodes.
(2) The particle of medium which are between two nodes having maximum displacement are said to be
antinodes.
(3) Distances between two successive or nearest nodes or antinodes is (/2) and distance between two nearest
nodes and antinodes is(/4).
(4) All the particle except nodes will be having simple harmonic motion.
(5) The particles between two nearest nodes will be having motion in a phase but with different amplitudes.
The particles on the other side of node will be having motion in opposite phase.
(6) Different particles are having motion at their mean position but their velocities are different.
(7) Energy is not transferred from one place to other in stationary waves.
(8) At antinodes change in the density of medium and change in pressure is maximum.
(9) At antinodes change in density and pressure is maximum.
Difference between progressive and stationary wave: -
Progressive Stationary
(1) In these waves crest and trough or compression
and rarefactionfaction propagates with a constant
velocity.
The wave does not propagate in any direction but
appears and disappears at same place.
(2) Every particle of medium comes to mean position
once and then goes to the maximum displacement.
This order is maintained by particles one after other.
Particles of medium come to mean position and
position of maximum displacement together.
(3) Energy is transferred from one particle to other
with constant velocity.
Mean energy is not propagated.
(4) Particles are getting equal maximum velocity. Velocity is zero at nodes and every particle is getting
different maximum velocity.
(5) Maximum velocity and maximum strain. At nodes velocity is zero strain is maximum and at
antinodes velocity is maximum but strain is minimum.
Some definitions in sound: -
(1) Tone: - The sound of single frequency.
(2) Node: - The sound of two or more frequencies.
(3) Fundamental tone: - The sound of minimum frequency in any node.
(4) Harmonics: - The exact multiple of fundamental tone present in any node are said to be Harmonics.
(5) Over Tone: - second, third, fourth Harmonics present in any second are said to be Over Tone.
Vibrations in any stretched string: -
I mode of vibration
l = /2 or = 2l
v = n or n
1
= v/2l
Fundamental Tone or I Harmonics.
II mode of vibration
l =
n
2
= v/ l
II Harmonics or I over tone.
III mode of vibration
l = 3 / 2
= 2l / 3
n
3
= 3v / 2l
or III Harmonics or II over tone.
n
1
: n
2
: n
3
:: 1: 2 : 3
Law of Vibration in any stretched string
We know
m
T
v v = n
m
T
n
m
T 1
n

m
T
2
1
n
l
For Fundamental Tone
Thus n depends on l, T and m
(1) Law of length: - If T applied and m are constant then
t cons
l
tan
2
1
n
or n = K / l
or n x l = constant
n x l
1
= n x l
2
= n x l
3
=constant
If T and m are constant n 1/l
(2) Law of Tension: - If l applied and m are constant then T K n
or
t cons
T
tan
n

t cons
T T T
tan
n n n
3
3
2
2
1
1

If l and m are constant
T
n
1

(3) Law of mass per Unit length: - If T and l are constant then
m
K
n
or t cons m n tan
t tan cons m n m n m n
3 3 2 2 1 1

If T and l are constant
m
n
1

Let M is the mass of l length of string then

d r
l
d l r
l
d V
l
M
m
2
2

Law of radius: - If in addition of l and T the density d is constant then n (1/r)
Law of density: - If in addition to l and T radius of wire r is also constant then n (1/d)
Stationary wave in pipe or air column: - Any straight pipe having air in it and in which sound is produced by
vibrating the air in it is said to be organ pipe or air column.
Types of air column: -
(1) One end open or one end closed or closed air column.
(2) Both end open or open air closed.
Note: - In air column their diameter should be less in comparison to length. The diameter such in size so that
air can come and go in them. The walls must be rigid and coefficient of viscosity of air in them must be
negligible.
Formation of stationary wave in closed air column
(1) When the turning fork is vibrated at the open end of air column compression and rarefaction are produced
in the air of air column These compression and rarefaction will go towards the closed end and will be reflected
as you like compression and rarefaction respectively.
(2) At the open end the compression and rarefaction. are reflected as you like rarefaction and compression
respectively.
(3) A series of compression and rarefaction. will be going and coming in air column or a wave is going in air
column and its reflected wave is coming in air column Due to superposition a stationary wave is formed in air
column having Node at closed end and antinode at open end.
(4) Different mode of vibration in closed air column
n
1
:n
2
:n
3
::1:3:5
Thus we get odd harmonic in the closed air column
Different modes of vibration in open air column: -
Thus we get even and odd both the harmonics in open air column
Q.No. 1. Find the ratio of fundamental frequency in open and closed
air columns of equal lengths.
Ans. n
open
= v/2l
n
closed
= v/4l
so n
open
/ n
closed
= 2 : 1
Q.No. 2. Find the ratio of length of open and closed air column having or vibrated with same fundamental
frequency
n
open
= v/2l
1
n
closed
= v/4l
2
n
open
= n
closed
v/2l
1
= v/4l
2
or 2l
1
= 4l
2
or l
1
= 2l
2

Q.No. 3. Any open air column is having l length and fundamental tone n.
The column is dipped half in water. Find the frequency of fundamental tone
n
open
= v/2l
n
closed
= v/2l
so n
open
/ n
closed
= 1 : 1
Q.No. 4. Frequency produced in air column depends as
(1) n

1 / l (2) n 1/r (3) n v (4) n Temp (5) n Pressure
(6) n 1/(density) (7) n Y (gas constant)
Q.No. 5. Frequency of tuning fork depends
(1) n

thickness (t) (2) n

1/(l)
2
(3) n

E (4) n

d (5) n

1 Temp
d
E
l
t A
n
2

E = modulus of elasticity of substance of tuning fork. t = Thickness

d = density of substance of tuning fork. A = Constant
Q.No. 6. In fork transverse Vibration
In stem longitudinal vibration
2 Nodes and 3 Antinodes
Q.No. 7. If we put water in air column in place of air frequency will increase and velocity of will increase.
Q.No. 8. If we put wax on the arm of tuning fork than frequency will decrease. If we file the arm then the
frequency will increase.
Q.No. 9. If we put H
2
in place of air in air column the frequency will increase.
undamped vibrations
Simple Harmonic motion
Damped vibrations
Undamped vibrations: -Any body which is free to vibrate is displaced from mean position and then left free to
oscillate, the body oscillates under the effect of restoring force. If the value of frictional force is zero then the
amplitude of vibrations remains constant, such oscillations are said to be ideal free vibration or undamped
vibrations. In these vibrations frequency of vibrations depends on the body it self or say restoring force acting
only. The frequency of vibrations is said to be natural frequency or fundamental frequency.
Damped vibrations: - The vibration in which there is a force acting between medium and vibrating body say
frictional force is there in the motion. In such vibration amplitude of vibration will be in decreasing order such
vibration is said to be damped vibrations.
Forced vibrations: -If any body is free to vibrate and any periodic force is applied on the body to vibrate the
body, the force is said to be driver force. In the beginning body will try to oscillate with its natural frequency,
but periodic force will insist to produce the frequency of periodic force and lastly body will vibrate with the
frequency of periodic force of driver. In such vibrations amplitude and energy both remain conserved with
time such vibration are said to be forced vibrations.
Resonance: - The condition of forced vibration when their frequency becomes equal to the natural frequency of
vibrating body. Or , say frequency of driver force becomes equal to natural frequency of driven body then the
amplitude of vibrations becomes maximum, the phenomenon or condition is said to be resonance.
Explanation of resonance: -When the frequency of periodic force is equal to the natural frequency of vibrating
body then the motion and force are in a phase or force and motion will be working in a way that energy of the
vibrations will be increasing or pay amplitude will be increasing.
As the amplitude increases the damping force will be increasing and loss of energy due to damping will
be increasing. In a particular condition the energy given by periodic force to the vibrating body becomes equal
to loss of energy due to damping then amplitude of vibration becomes constant the condition is resonance and
vibration are said to be resonance vibration.
Sharpness of resonance and damping: - when damping is less resonance will be sharp. Sharp means that if
position or condition is changed slightly amplitude will change a lot. Damping is less in wire and more in air
column so resonance is more sharp in wire than air column
Resonance air column: - The air column in which the length is changed according to need so the air column
can have resonance with different frequency is said to be resonance air column
Structure of resonance air column: -
(1) A metallic tube of having length one metre and diameter nearly four centimetre.
(2) A rubber tube connecting lower end of metallic tube with reservoir
(3) The reservoir is moved upwards or downwards to change the length of air column
(4) There is a plastic or glass tube which is kept parallel to metallic tube and connected with lower end of
metallic tube
(5) A meter scale fixed parallel to metallic tube which is used to see the level in tube or to find the length of air
column
(6) A wooden stand on which all the above tubes and pot are clamped and kept exactly in vertically plan.
Working principle of resonance tube: -
4
1

l
4
3
2

l
2 4
2
4 4
3
1 2

l l
) ( 2
1 2
l l
) ( 2 v
1 2
l l n n
t

t 61 . 0 v v
t 0

(In M.K.S. System)
End correction: -In the air column the antinode formed at open end is not exactly at the end of air column but it
is slightly above the end but measurement is taken from the end hence there is an error in the measurement for
which we need a correction which is known as end correction. End correction is numerically equal to the
distance of antinode form the open end. The antinode formed is not at the open end because the vibrations are
not stopped at the end due to inertia.
Let the end correction is x then
l
1
+ x = /4 ... (1)
l
2
+ x = 3/4 ... (2)
(1) x 3 will be 3 l
1
+ 3x = 3/4 ... (3)
by (2) and (3) 3l
1
+ 3x = l
2
+ x
2x = l
2
3l
1

x = (l
2
3l
1
)/2
(1) End correction depends on the size of air column
x = 0.6 R( for open end) R = internal Radius of air column
x = 1.2 R( for both end open)
(2) Value of end correction also depends on frequency second.
Meldes experiment: - The experiment in which stationary wave is formed in a stretched string. Electrically
mentioned Tuning fork is used to produce the vibration in the string.
Structure of meldes experiment: -
(1) To vibrate the tuning fork an electromagnet is kept between the forks of the tuning fork with the help of
screw and leaf the arrange is made such that circuit becomes on and off with a constant frequency and that
causes vibration in the arms of tuning fork
(2) A string nearly 2 m long is connected to one arm of tuning fork. It is stretched due to weight applied on it
using pulley and a pan.
(3) There are two methods to produce the vibration the string
(a) Transverse method: - In this arrangement the tuning fork vibrates perpendicular to the length of the string.
(1) A transverse progressive wave is produced in the string which is reflected by the pulley. Due to
superposition of the waves stationary wave is formed in the string.
(2) We change the length of the string or the weight applied on the string so that node and the antinode formed
are steady.
(3) We count the number of loops and measure the length of loops. We find tension applied on string and mass
per unit length of string.
(4) Frequency of vibration produced in any string is given by n =
m
T

1
m
T
l
P
n
2
P = number of loops, and l = length of P loops.
This n = N = Frequency of Tuning Fork also.
(b) Longitudinal method: - In this arrangement vibrations in the arm of tuning fork are along the length of
string.
Vibrations in string will be having frequency n'
m
T
l
P
2
n' , 2n' = N = Frequency of tuning fork , so frequency of tuning fork
m
T
p
P
N
Lissajous figure: -If any two waves are coming normally to any particle of medium simultaneously than the
resultant path of the particle is having different shapes, these shapes are known as Lissajous figures. The
shape of figures depends on
(1) Frequencies of wave coming.
(2) Amplitude of wave coming.
(3) Phase difference between the waves
Composition of two waves having equal frequencies
Dopplers effect: - When source of sound and listener are coming closer than the frequency of sound heard by
listener seems to be more than the frequency of sound produced by source. Similarly when source and listener
are going away then the frequency of sound heard by listener is less than the frequency of sound produced by
source. The apparent change in the frequency of sound due to relative motion between source and listener is
said to be Doppler effect. We can study the effect in three parts: -
1.When source is in motion and listener is stationary: - consider any source S producing sound of frequency
n. Let any listener L which is at a distance of v from source. Let the velocity of sound in the medium in
which S and L are present in v wave length of sound produced = v/n
(a) Let the source is coming closer to listener with velocity v
s
the source will travel a distance v
s
in one second the distance between S and L will be v-v
s
and n waves
will be accommodated in the distance (v- v
s
) . So new wave length will be '
'= (v-vs) / n
apparent frequency n' = v/ ' = (v x n)/(v-v
s
)
n' > n
(b) if S is going away from L
Then n' = (v x n)/(v+v
s
) n' < n
v
Relative velocity of sound with respect to source will be v-v
s

v
s
v
Relative velocity of sound with respect to source will be v + v
s

v
s
2. When listener is moving and source S is stationary: - consider any source producing sound of the frequency
n. Let the sound is received by listener L which is at a distance of v from S. Let the velocity of sound in the
medium in which S and L are present is v
(a) if L is coming towards S with the velocity v
L
: - Let the frequency of sound heard is n' then
n'= n + number of waves in the distance v
L

L
v
n n' + as v = n or = v/n
v
v v
v
v
n n'
L L
n n n +

+
v
) v n(v
n'
L
+
n' > n
(b) When L is going away from S
v
) v - n(v
n'
L
n' < n
3.when both S and L are moving
(a) Sound V
V
s
V
L
S L
Consider any source S producing sound of frequency n and moving with v
s
velocity towards L. Let any listener
which is at a distance of v from S, heard the sound .let the L is moving with v
L
velocity going away from s
when we assume that only s is moving then apparent frequency of source will be n'.
s
v - v
n v
n'

This n' frequency is received by listener going away from s so apparent frequency n'' will be
) v - v(v
n v ) v - (v
v
)n' v - (v
' n'
S
L L


) v - (v
) v - n(v
' n'
S
L

sound V
(b) S V
s
V
L
L
) v - (v
) v n(v
' n'
S
L
+

(c)
) v (v
) v n(v
' n'
S
L
+
+

(d)
) v (v
) v - n(v
' n'
S
L
+

(e) Effect of the motion of air present

(i). When air is going in the direction of sound
S
L
v w v
v w v
' n'
t +
t +

w = velocity of air/ wind

(ii). When air is going in the opposite direction to the sound
S
L
v w v
v w v
' n'
t
t

4.when any source get sound after reflection

(a) Frequency of direct sound received by L will be same because no relative motion between S and L
(b) Apparent frequency of reflected sound will be n''

n

,
_

S
S
v v
v v
' n'
5.
Frequency of direct sound
S
v v
n v
n'
+

Frequency of reflected sound

S
v - v
n v
' n'

6. .
Frequency of direct sound
S
v v
n v
n'

Frequency of reflected sound

S
v v
n v
n'

7.
When S coming closer than apparent frequency
cos v - v
n v
' n'
S

When S is going away the apparent frequency of sound will be

cos v v
n v
' n'
S
+

8.
When S is coming towards L or S approaches to L or before taking over
S
v - v
n v
' n'

After taking over

S
v v
n v
' n'
+

S
S
v - v
v v
' n'
n' +

9.Doppler effect is not applicable in the case when v

S
> v or v
L
> v
10. Uses of Dopplers effect in sound SONAR (Sound navigation and ranging)
To find the velocity of submarine in sea: - ultra sonic sound waves (high frequency sound waves) are emitted
by SONAR situated at seacoast. The waves go in sea and reflected by moving submarine. The reflected wave
is received by SONAR and its wavelength is find out. The wave length appears to be changed because
submarine behave like a moving source. Let the velocity of the submarine is v
S
and coming towards the
SONAR then the velocity of source of reflected waves will be 2 v
S
.Now apparent frequency of wave n' .
S
v 2 v
n v
n'

S
v 2 v
n v
'
v

n
v 2 v
'
S

( )

,
_

v
v 2
1
v
v 2 v
'
s
S
v
v 2
'
S

v
v 2
'
S

' < When submarine is coming closer
v
v 2
S

' < When submarine is going away

Dopplers effect in light :- the apparent change in the frequency or wave length of light waves due to relative
motion of source and observer is called Dopplers effect or Dopplers displacement .
Violet shift :- when s and o come closer frequency appears to be increasing and wave length appears to be
decreasing or apparent wave length shift towards the violet end of spectrum so this is called violet shift.
Red shift :- when s and o are going away the apparent frequency appears to be decreasing and wave length
appears to be increasing so apparent wave length shifts towards the red end of spectrum .This is said to be red
shift .
To Calculate the change in frequency due to Dopplers effect :- consider any source of light s emitting light of
frequency consider any observer o .Let the velocity of light is c .When s and o are coming closer with the
relative velocity v then appear frequency of light using relativity .
c
v
- 1
c
v
1
'
+

When s and o are going away
2
1
2
1
c
v
1
c
v
1 '

,
_

,
_

+
v<<c so using (1+x)
n
= (1+nx) when x<1

,
_

+
,
_

+
2c
v
1
2c
v
1 '

,
_

+ + +
2
2
c 4
v
c 2
v
2c
v
1 '
0
c
v
2
2

,
_

+
c
v
1 '
c
v
'

+
c
v
'


1
]
1

c
v
1
c
'
c
1
]
1

c
v
1
1
'
1
1
c
v
1 '

1
]
1

+
1
]
1

c
v
1 '
c
v
'


c
v
'-


when S and O are going away
c
v

c
v

Uses of Dopplers effect
1. To find the velocity of stars and galaxies: - The star and galaxy emit light , in their spectrum H
2
,He,Hg etc.
are seen .The wave lengths of their lines are determine and compared with the actual wave length and
difference in wave length is calculated .
c
v
t

t
c
v
this we can find the velocity of any star of galaxy . as comes out positive so star is going away from earth . this
observation proves the theory of expanding universe .
2.To find the velocity of any aeroplane
RADAR (Radio waves detection and ranging)
Radio waves are emitted by the RADAR in air , they are reflected by any aeroplane or air craft the frequency
or wave length of reflected wave is determined by which we calculate the velocity of air craft as .
c
v 2
t
c
v 2
t
is positive or is negative then areoplane is coming closer.
3.Determination of rotatation of sun: -
the wave lengths of light coming from diametrically opposite edges of sun is measured and concluded that it
rotates east to west at its own axis with the speed 2 km/s
4. Explanation of width of spectral line : -
On the basis of observations taken using Dopplers effect the width of spectral line is not negligible but it is
having finite value. The cause of finite width is random motion of atoms emitting light according to kinetic
theory of gases the random motion is possible in all directions. At a given temp. The probable apparent
maximum change in wavelength of light will be
c
v
t
Width of spectral line will be
( + ) ( - ) = 2
c
v 2
2

t
as v << c
So we cannot observe it in ordinary experiment