CHAPTER

1
An Overview of Roofing
hroughout history, mankinds need for shelter was second only to the need for food. Prehistoric man took shelter under a roof of stone, arguably the best protection from the elements. Unfortunately, caves were not available everywhere, so early man looked for a substitute roof. And one of the earliest and still most important principles of roofing was discoveredlapping. When the length of any covering for a building, including the walls, is too short to protect the entire run of a wall or roof, it must be installed in rows, or courses, and each course, beginning at the top, must lap over the next course below. As simple and obvious as this sounds, it is very important for draining water off of a built struture. In many parts of the world, abundant natural fibers, such as grass, sticks, heather, and straw, were woven into effective shields against the weather. Thatched, pitched roofs, which are still common in parts of Africa, Asia, South America, and Polynesia, proved to be remarkably efficient. Raindrops travel along each reed several inches and then, before they can penetrate the bundle, are conveyed to the roof eave by lapping the courses. From the eave, the raindrops fall harmlessly to the ground. Americas first settlers from Europe continued to use thatched roofs in this country, particularly in the East. As the settlers pushed westward,

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however, the available hay was needed for animal fodder and other purposes. Settlers searching for an alternative roofing material found it, literally, at their feet. Kansas bricks, made of sod, soon became the roofing standard. The sod bricks were heavy and difficult to manage, and, even worse, they often leaked during heavy rainstorms. Time marched on and so did the search for the perfect roof. Today there are many fine roof coverings available. Asphalt shingles and roll roofing, clay and ceramic tile, metal, slate, wooden shingles and shakes, and cement panels and tiles are used mainly for residential projects. Built-up roofing (BUR) and single-ply membrane roofs are typically used on commercial structures. Before we take a look at roof classifications and materials, lets consider the three factors that architects, builders, designers, and property owners must address before they choose a roof.

Fire Safety and Protection

Fire safety is a particularly important consideration, since the roof is vulnerable to fire from overhead or airborne sources. The fire resistance of roofing materials is tested by the Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL), an independent, not-for-profit public safety testing laboratory. UL established the standard for the testing of roofing materials with the assistance of nationally recognized fire authorities. Manufacturers voluntarily submit materials for testing. The materials then are classified and labeled according to the classes below. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) is a voluntary organization concerned with the development of consensus standards, testing procedures, and specifications. Class A. The highest fire-resistance rating for roofing as per ASTM E-108. This class rating indicates that the roofing material is able to withstand severe exposure to fire that originates from sources outside the building. Class B. This fire-resistance rating indicates that the roofing material is able to withstand moderate exposure to fire that originates from sources outside the building.

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Class C. This fire-resistance rating indicates that the roofing material is able to withstand light exposure to fire that originates from sources outside the building. Many communities require new roof coverings to meet at least the UL Class C standard. This requirement has the backing of nationally recognized authorities such as the National Fire Protection Association and the International Association of Fire Chiefs. Some roofing materials, such as slate and clay tile, offer natural fire protection. Asphalt shingles are manufactured to meet the Class C standard or better. Readily combustible materials, such as wooden shingles, do not meet the UL standard unless they have been chemically treated for fire retardancy (see Chap. 9).

Wind Resistance
UL also tests shingle performance against high winds. To qualify for the UL wind-resistant label, shingles must withstand continuous test winds of at least 60 miles per hour for two hours without a shingle tab lifting. Wind-resistant shingles demonstrated their effectiveness under hurricane conditions during the winds brought to Florida in 1992 by Hurricane Andrew, which at the time was the worst hurricane ever recorded in the United States. Self-sealing asphalt shingles that bear the UL wind-resistant label are manufactured with a factory-applied adhesive. Once the shingles are applied, the sun activates the preapplied thermoplastic sealant and each shingle is bonded to the one below it. Although self-sealers originally were developed specifically for high-wind areas, they are standard in most parts of the country today.

Estimating Life Expectancy

In addition to fire and wind ratings, roof coverings have a life expectancy. Manufacturers offer a guarantee or warranty for their products. For example, most of todays asphalt shingles are designed to provide satisfactory service for 15 to 25 years. Generally, the longer the life expectancy, the more expensive the shingle material. You might find, however, that a more expensive

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shingle is the most economical in the long run because the cost of materials and labor is amortized over a longer period of time. Keep in mind that while the labor cost to apply the shingles varies with the product, it is the same whether the life expectancy of the shingle is 15 or 25 years. Estimate the probable annual cost of a new roof by adding the cost of labor and materials and then dividing the total by the shingles design life. The formula for determining the annual cost of use is Total cost (materials and labor) = annual cost of use Design life

Classifying Roofs
The National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA) classifies roofs into two major categories: low slope roofs and steep-slope roofs. Slope is defined as the degree of roof incline expressed as the ratio of the rise, in inches, to the run, in feet (Fig. 1-1). For example, if the span of a roof is 24 feet and the rise is 8 feet, the pitch is 8 24 or 1 3. Expressed as a slope, the same roof is said to rise 8 inches per 12 inches of horizontal run. If the rise of the same roof span were 6 feet, the pitch would be 1 4 and its slope would be 6 inches per 12 inches of run. Whether a particular roof incline is expressed in pitch or slope, the results of area calculations are the same.

Building Low-Slope Roofs

Low-slope roofs can have slopes as minor as 18 inch per 12 inches. These roofs employ a waterproof roofing system and are found primarily on commercial structures. A low-slope roof system generally consists of a roof membrane, insulation, and one of a number of surfacing options. To control the application and improve the quality of low-slope roofing, a variety of specifications and procedures apply to the assembly of the roofing components. These specifications and procedures are generally accepted and used throughout the United States. Roofing systems that meet these specifications normally can be expected to give satisfactory service for many years.

AN OVERVIEW OF ROOFING

F I G U R E 1 - 1 Degrees of slope.

Climatic conditions and available materials dictate regional low-slope procedures, which can vary greatly in different parts of the country. Lowslope roofs are essentially a custom product. They are designed for a specific building, at a specific location, and manufactured on the jobsite.

Membrane Components
Low-slope membranes are composed of at least three elements: waterproofing, reinforcement, and surfacing. Some materials within the membrane might perform more than one function. The waterproofing agent is the most important element within the roof membrane. In BUR and modified bitumen roofing (MBR), the waterproofing agent is bitumen. In single-ply roofing, the waterproofing agent is synthetic rubber or plastic (for more information, see Chaps. 7 and 8). The reinforcement element provides stability to the roof membrane; it holds the waterproofing agent in place and provides tensile strength. In BUR, reinforcement is typically provided by organic or glass-fiber

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roofing felts. In MBR, the reinforcement is generally glass-fiber felt or polyester scrim, which is fabricated into the finished sheet by the manufacturer. Polyester and other woven fabrics are used as reinforcements for elastomeric and plastomeric, single-ply membranes. Some singleply membranes do not require reinforcement because the waterproofing material is inherently stable. The surfacing materials protect the waterproofing and reinforcement elements from the direct effects of sunlight and weather exposure. They also provide other properties, such as fire resistance, traffic and hail protection, and reflectivity. Some single-ply membranes are self- or factory-surfaced. Aggregate, which is field-applied, and mineral granules, which are usually factory-applied, are the most common types of surfacing materials. Smooth-surfaced coatings, however, are increasing in popularity.

Membrane Classifications
Low-slope roof membranes can usually be grouped, or classified, into the general categories reviewed below. There are, however, hybrid systems that might not fit into a category, or that might be appropriate in several categories. A brief overview of each category is provided here. For specific information, please refer to the referenced chapter.
BUILT-UP ROOFING (BUR)

BUR, which uses asphalt or coal tar products, is by far the oldest of the modern commercial roofing methods. Many commercial buildings in this country have BUR roofs. The large number of 20-, 30-, and even 40-year-old BUR roofs that are still sound attests to the systems durability and popularity. Roofing materials continue to evolve, however, and improvements are continually being made to asphalt and coal tar pitch, the basic bitumen components of BUR. Asphalt tends to be more popular with most roofers than coal tar. (See Chap. 5.)
MODIFIED BITUMEN ROOFING (MBR)

Since the first MBR membranes were manufactured in the United States in the late 1970s, they have become one of the roofing industrys fastest-growing materials. The popularity and specification of MBR membranes has increased steadily for more than two decades. Con-

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tractors have found the materials easy to use and easily inspected. MBR systems provide a time-tested, high-performance, reliable roof. See Chaps. 5 and 6.
SINGLE-PLY SYSTEMS

Since they first appeared in the 1950s, single-ply materials have become increasingly popular in the United States. Whether imported from Europe or produced domestically, these high-tech products have proven themselves in a wide variety of climates during more than three decades of use. As described in Chap. 6, there are many different single-ply roofing products.

Constructing Steep-Slope Roofs

Steep-slope roofs have a pitch greater than 212 inches per 12 inches and are generally found in residential homes. As a part of design, this water-shedding roof system uses the roofs steep slope for water runoff and leakage protection. The slope of the drainage surface dictates the type of roofing material that can be used.

Aesthetic Considerations
Unlike the case with low-slope roofing material, when designing the steep roof, appearance is very important. Lets look at some of the materials used to cover steep roofs. A brief overview of the most common steep-slope materials is provided here. For more information, please refer to the referenced chapter.
ASPHALT SHINGLES

Asphalt shingles are the most commonly used material for residential roofing in the United States today. They are made in a variety of styles. The most popular is the square-butt strip shingle, which has an elongated shape and is available with three, two, or one tab (without cutouts). Less popular today are the hex shingle and individual shingles which are available with interlocking or staple-down tabs. Of the three types, the square-butt strip shingle provides the most attractive roof covering. Todays generation of dimensional, or architectural, asphalt shingles has elevated the art of roof design, especially in the residential reroofing

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and new construction markets. Thicker, stronger, and more natural looking than typical three-tab shingles, dimensional shingles add a visual effect of depth and distinction to homes. What is more, with the addition of shadowlines and random, laminated tabs, architectural shingles can capture with uncanny accuracy the old-fashioned warmth and elegance of roofs constructed of wood shakes or shingles and slates. Chapter 7 discusses asphalt products in detail.
WOOD SHINGLES

From a historical perspective, wood shingles and shakes could be considered the most American of all roofing materials. The abundant supply of forested land on the newly settled continent made wooden roofs prevalent in Colonial times, an era in which the most common roof coverings in Europe were slate, tile, and thatch. Wood shingles from trees as diverse as oak, eastern white cedar, pine, hemlock, spruce, and cypress were used, depending on local availability. Today, wood shakes and shingles are used for a variety of architectural styles and effects. (See Chap. 8.)
SLATE ROOFS

As a roofing material, slate is long-lasting and extremely durable. Certain types of slate have a longevity of more than 175 years. No manmade roofing material can make that claim. Like other shingles, slate is bought by the square. Permanence does not come cheap, but maintaining a slate roof and replacing the few slates that might chip or break is relatively inexpensive when compared to replacing other roofs every 20 to 25 years. Chapter 9 discusses the cutting of slate and its application.
CLAY TILE

Their simplicity of form and shape makes traditional tapered mission tiles ideal for funneling and shedding water from pitched roofs. Modern extrusion, pressed-form processes, and high-tech gas-fired kilns have replaced the primitive method of shaping clay tiles over human thighs and then baking them either in the sun or in wood-fired beehive kilns. With these advances in manufacturing, tremendous improvements in performance, quality, and product diversity have

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developed. The features and benefits of clay tiles are discussed in Chap. 10.
FIBER-CEMENT SHINGLES

Because of manufacturing processes and the raw materials used within them, fiber-cement products do not experience the natural decomposition that can occur with wooden roofing: curling, cracking, and splitting. And because of the absence of organic fibers, other problems like dry rot and the attraction of termites are nonexistent. Most fiber-cement shingles and tiles are manufactured with an efflorescence preventative, which inhibits the unsightly leaching of salts associated with other manufactured products. Fiber-cement products are discussed with clay tiles in Chap. 10.
METAL ROOFING

The reasons for selecting metal roofing are both obvious and surprising. Metal roofing allows the owner or architect to make a design statement. When the roof is high-pitched and part of the integral building design, the architectural possibilities of metal roofing are not attainable with any other material. When the roof is low-pitched and serves solely as a functional water barrier, the weatherproofing capabilities of metal roofing exceed those of any other materials available. Chapter 11 discusses the types of metal roofing available and their application methods.

Steep-Slope Roof Styles

While low-slope roofs are generally limited to flat-roof styles and are seldom found on residential structures, steep-roof styles vary greatly (Fig. 1-2). Of the steep-roof styles, the gable roof is the most common. It has a high point, or ridge, at or near the center of the house or wing that extends from one end wall to the other. The roof slopes downward from the ridge in both directions. This roof style gets its name from the gable, which is the triangular section of end wall between the rafter plate and the roof ridge. The roof on one side of the ridge is usually the same size and slope as the roof on the other side. The gable roof of the saltbox house is an

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F I G U R E 1 - 2 (A) Typical steep-slope roof styles. (B) Roofing terminology.

exception. An architecture common in New England, the saltbox has different slopes and slopes of different lengths. A hip roof also has a ridge, but the ridge does not extend from one end of the roof to the other. The lower edge of the roof, or eave, is at a constant height and the roof slopes downward to the eaves on all

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11

sides. The point where two roof surfaces meet at an outside corner is called a hip. The junction where two roof surfaces meet at an inside corner is called a valley. A shed roof slopes in only one direction, like half a gable roof. The roof has no ridge and the walls that support the rafters are different heights. The shed roof has several variations. One is the butterfly roof, where two shed roofs slope toward a low point over the middle of the house. In another variation, two shed roofs slope upward from the eaves, but do not meet at a ridge. The wall between the two roofs is called a clerestory, and is often filled with windows to let light into the interior of the house. A gambrel, or barn roof, has double slopes: one pair of gentle slopes and one pair of steep slopes. Like a gable roof, the gambrel roof slopes in both directions from a center ridge. At a point about halfway between ridge and eave, however, the roof slope becomes much steeper. In effect, the lower slope replaces the upper exterior walls of a two-story house. It is common to add projections through the roof, called dormers, for light and ventilation. Just as a gambrel roof is like a gable roof with two different slopes, a mansard roof is like a hip roof. From a shorter ridge, the roof drops in two distinct slopes to eaves that are the same height all the way around the structure. Up to 40 percent of the building is roof with the mansard roof design. In addition to typical residential applications, mansard roofs are often used for apartment complexes, commercial buildings, and even institutions such as schools.