Solar energy

Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include solar heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity, solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis, which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent energy problems the world now faces.[1][2] Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

Electricity production

Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). CSP systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. PV converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect. Commercial CSP plants were first developed in the 1980s. Since 1985 the eventually 354 MW SEGS CSP installation, in the Mojave Desert of California, is the largest solar power plant in the world. Other large CSP plants include the 150 MW Solnova Solar Power Station and the 100 MW Andasol solar power station, both in Spain. The 250 MW Agua Caliente Solar Project, in the United States, and the 214 MW Charanka Solar Park in India, are the worlds largest photovoltaic plants. Solar projects exceeding 1 GW are being developed, but most of the deployed photovoltaics are in small rooftop arrays of less than 5 kW, which are grid connected using net metering and/or a feed-in tariff.[85]

Fuel production
Solar chemical processes use solar energy to drive chemical reactions. These processes offset energy that would otherwise come from a fossil fuel source and can also convert solar energy into storable and transportable fuels. Solar induced chemical reactions can be divided into thermochemical or photochemical.[94] A variety of fuels can be produced by artificial photosynthesis.[95] The multielectron catalytic chemistry involved in making carbon-based fuels (such as methanol) from reduction of carbon dioxide is challenging; a feasible alternative is hydrogen production from protons, though use of water as the source of electrons (as plants do) requires mastering the multielectron oxidation of two water molecules to molecular oxygen.[96] Some have envisaged working solar fuel plants in coastal metropolitan areas by 2050- the splitting of sea water providing hydrogen to be run through adjacent fuel-cell electric power plants and the pure water by-product going directly into the municipal water system.[97] Another vision involves all human structures covering the earth's surface (i.e., roads, vehicles and buildings) doing photosynthesis more efficiently than plants.[98]

Tidal power
Tidal power, also called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that converts the energy of tides into useful forms of power - mainly electricity. Although not yet widely used, tidal power has potential for future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable than wind energy and solar power. Among sources of renewable energy, tidal power has traditionally suffered from relatively high cost and limited availability of sites with sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow velocities, thus constricting its total availability. However, many recent technological developments and improvements, both in design (e.g. dynamic tidal power, tidal lagoons) and turbine technology (e.g. new axial turbines, cross flow turbines), indicate that the total availability of tidal power may be much higher than previously assumed, and that economic and environmental costs may be brought down to competitive levels.

 Tidal power issues

Ecological Tidal power can have effects on marine life. The turbines can accidentally kill swimming sea life with the rotating blades. Some fish may no longer utilize the area if they were threatened with a constant rotating object. The Tethys database seeks to gather, organize and make available information on potential

environmental effects of marine and hydrokinetic and offshore wind energy development. Corrosion Salt water causes corrosion in metal parts. It can be difficult to maintain tidal stream generators due to their size and depth in the water. Mechanical fluids, such as lubricants, can leak out, which may be harmful to the marine life nearby. Proper maintenance can minimize the amount of harmful chemicals that may enter the environment.

wave energy

Wave energy is energy captured from the motion of waves either on the surface or by the pressure changes below the surface. Devices either floating on the

surface of the ocean or anchored on the bottom capture this energy. Wave energy technologies can be installed in three separate areas, each with their own environmental impacts: nearshore, offshore and far offshore. Wave energy is still a relatively new technology with projects underway across the world. There are a variety of applications for the wave energy devices each having their own benefits and impacts. Four Types of Wave energy Devices: 1 Terminator Devices 2 Attenuators 3 Point absorbers 4 Overtopping Devices

Terminator Devices A terminator device is attached perpendicular to the waves captured or reflects the wave energy. This device takes up relatively little space in the ocena, but does use up coastline. Some of the best coastline for wave energy is either residential or pristine wilderness. Attenuators Long, segmented floating cylinders which flex as the waves move past them to produce electricity. This device does not use valuable coastline space, but it has to be brought ashore for any type repair. This presents difficulties in transportation of energy from the harvesting location. Point Absorbers A floating buoy attached to a fixed cylinder which moves to produce electricity.The anchors provide substructures for marine life to grow. These devices also take up space in the ocean which could otherwise by used for commericial purposes such as fishing. Overtopping Devices

These devices are composed of reservoirs with up to 14,000m^3 of water filled from incoming waves. The water is released from the reservoir which drives te hydroturbines. Offshore overtopping devices have wave reflectors that concentrate waves which increases the wave height.

Ocean thermal energy

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) uses the temperature difference between cooler deep and warmer shallow or surface ocean waters to run a heat engine and produce useful work, usually in the form of electricity. However, the temperature differential is small and this impacts the economic feasibility of ocean thermal energy for electricity generation. The most commonly used heat cycle for OTEC is the Rankine cycle using a lowpressure turbine. Systems may be either closed-cycle or open-cycle. Closed-cycle engines use working fluids that are typically thought of as refrigerants such as

ammonia or R-134a. Open-cycle engines use vapour from the seawater itself as the working fluid.

Related activities => A.

) Air conditioning
The 41 F (5 C) cold seawater made available by an OTEC system creates an opportunity to provide large amounts of cooling to operations near the plant. The water can be used in chilled-water coils to provide air-conditioning for buildings. It is estimated that a pipe 1 foot (0.30 m) in diameter can deliver 4,700 gallons per minute of water. Water at 43 F (6 C) could provide more than enough airconditioning for a large building. Operating 8,000 hours per year in lieu of electrical conditioning selling for 5-10 per kilowatt-hour, it would save $200,000$400,000 in energy bills annually.

B. ) Aquaculture

Aquaculture is the best-known byproduct, because it reduces the financial and energy costs of pumping large volumes of water from the deep ocean. Deep ocean water contains high concentrations of essential nutrients that are depleted in surface waters due to biological consumption. This "artificial upwelling" mimics the natural upwellings that are responsible for fertilizing and supporting the world's largest marine ecosystems, and the largest densities of life on the planet.

C. ) Mineral extraction
The ocean contains 57 trace elements in salts and other forms and dissolved in solution. In the past, most economic analyses concluded that mining the ocean for trace elements would be unprofitable, in part because of the energy required to pump the water. Mining generally targets minerals that occur in high concentrations, and can be extracted easily, such as magnesium. With OTEC plants supplying water, the only cost is for extraction.

Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. The Geothermal energy of the Earth's crust originates from the original formation of the planet (20%) and from radioactive decay of minerals (80%).[1][2] The geothermal

gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots (ge), meaning earth, and (thermos), meaning hot.

History
Hot springs have been used for bathing at least since paleolithic times[9] The oldest known spa is a stone pool on Chinas Lisan mountain built in the Qin dynasty in the 3rd century BC, at the same site where the Huaqing Chi palace was later built. In the first century AD, Romans conquered Aquae Sulis, now Bath, Somerset, England, and used the hot springs there to feed public baths and

underfloor heating. The admission fees for these baths probably represent the first commercial use of geothermal power. The world's oldest geothermal district heating system in Chaudes-Aigues, France, has been operating since the 14th century.[10] The earliest industrial exploitation began in 1827 with the use of geyser steam to extract boric acid from volcanic mud in Larderello, Italy.

Nuclear power
Nuclear power is the use of sustained nuclear fission to generate heat and electricity. Nuclear power plants provided about 5.7% of the world's energy and 13% of the world's electricity, in 2012.[1] In 2013, the IAEA report that there are 437 operational nuclear power reactors (although not all are producing electricity[2]),[3] in 31 countries.[4] With approximately 140 naval vessels using nuclear propulsion in operation, powered by some 180 reactors.[5][6][7]

There is an ongoing debate about the use of nuclear energy.[8][9][10] Proponents, such as the World Nuclear Association, the IAEA and Environmentalists for Nuclear Energy contend that nuclear power is a sustainable energy source that reduces carbon emissions.[11] Opponents, such as Greenpeace International and NIRS, believe that nuclear power poses many threats to people and the environment.

Life cycle
A nuclear reactor is only part of the life-cycle for nuclear power. The process starts with mining (see Uranium mining). Uranium mines are underground, openpit, or in-situ leach mines. In any case, the uranium ore is extracted, usually converted into a stable and compact form such as yellowcake, and then transported to a processing facility. Here, the yellowcake is converted to uranium hexafluoride, which is then enriched using various techniques. At this point, the enriched uranium, containing more than the natural 0.7% U-235, is used to make rods of the proper composition and geometry for the particular reactor that the fuel is destined for. The fuel rods will spend about 3 operational cycles (typically 6 years total now) inside the reactor, generally until about 3% of their uranium has been fissioned, then they will be moved to a spent fuel pool where the short lived isotopes generated by fission can decay away. After about 5 years in a spent fuel

pool the spent fuel is radioactively and thermally cool enough to handle, and it can be moved to dry storage casks or reprocessed.