STANDARDS/MANUALS/ GUIDELINES FOR SMALL HYDRO DEVELOPMENT

General Works Manual on Project Hydrology and Installed Capacity

Sponsor: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Govt. of India

Lead Organization: Alternate Hydro Energy Center Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

July 03, 2008

CONTENTS
S.No. TITLE Page No.

1. SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE 2. DATE REQUIREMENT 3. RESOURCES OF DATA 4. COLLECTION OF DATA 5. ASSESSMENT OF QUALITY OF DATA 6. FILLING IN MISSING DATA 7. CONSISTENCY CHECKS 8. PROCESSING AND PRESENTATION OF DATA 8.1. Rainfall Data 8.2. Stream Flow Data 9. EXTENSION OF PERIOD RECORD OF STREAM FLOW DATA 9.1.When Short Term Data Is Available At Project Site 9.2. When Stream Flow Data To Two Lean Seasons And One Flood Season At Site Are Recorded 10. FLOW ASSESSMENT FOR AN UNGAUGED CATCHMENT 10.1. 10.2. 10.3. Long Term Data Of Some Other Site Regional Specific Discharge Regional Model

1 1 1 1 3 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6

7 7 7 8 8 8 9 11

11. WATER AVAILABILITY ASSESSMENT 11.1. 11.2. 11.3. Application of FDC Application of NIH Model When Only Observed Discharge of Two Non-monsoon

Seasons are Available 11.4. 11.5. Energy Curve Daily Pondage 11 11 12 12 17 18 19 19

12. ESTIMATION OF FLOOD DISCHARGE 12.1. 12.2. Computation of Design Flood Spillway Design Flood and Construction Floods

13. SEDIMENTATION 14. WATER QUALITY 15. OTHER HYDROLOGICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL DATA REQUIREMENT 15.1. 15.2. Tail Race Rating Curve Meteorological Data

19 20 20

16. REFERENCES

Table 1: Regional Flow Estimate For Various Levels of Dependability Table 2: Values of the parameters of the Regional Models for Mean Flow

Fig. 1: Annual Rainfall Duration Curve Fig. 2: Regional Hydrographs with 50% dependability Fig. 3: Fig. 4: Flow Duration Curve for July Flows Fig. 5: Flood frequency peak flow vs. return period

GUIDELINES ON PROJECT HYDROLOGY

1. Scope and Objective The scope and objective of these guidelines is limited to hydrological data collection, estimation / assessment and data analysis to establish a reliable flow quantity with time variability and the peak flood discharge at the project site alongwith other hydrological inputs required for project preparation. A large number of text books (Chow, Mutreja, Varshney etc.) on the subject are available alongwith the guidelines of CWC and CEA for the preparation of hydrology chapter of the DPR of the Hydro Power Projects. For specific hydrological issues I.S. Codes and publications of NIH Roorkee are also of great help. Unfortunately the available literature is not of much help in Small Hydro Projects where observed stream flow is either available for a very short period or no data is available or data from other sources is made use of. For the project report preparation of a small hydropower project guide lines of CBI&P (Pub. No. 280) and CEA are available. A publication by Jack J. Fritz is also of help. The purpose of these guidelines is to familiarize the user with the data requirement, the source of data and analysis techniques to be used, considering different constraints in assessing hydrologic inputs, in determining water availability and the peak flood discharge at the project site. Water availability decides the techno-economic feasibility of the project and flood discharge is important for safe design of the structures. In general the objectives of these guidelines are: (1) To provide the user the knowledge of data requirement, about the source of data, and evaluation and extension of data. (2) To familiarize the user with various methods of synthesizing data at an ungauged site. (3) To provide an overview of various analysis techniques available to work out stream flows with time variability and peak flood discharge. (4) To provide knowledge and hydrologic considerations for inputs other than stream flow.

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

2.

Data Requirement The basic requirement is of observed long term stream flow data with

gauge at the project site. Generally such data is not available for the small hydro project sites. The data requirement to use indirect methods to develop the stream flow series the following data shall be obtained: (i) Catchment area with following characteristics: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (ii) 3. (i) Altitude, Raingauge locations and their long term rainfall data River system Land use pattern Snow cover, if any Details of existing projects in the catchment, if any.

Stream flow and rainfall data of adjoining catchments. Sources of Data Raingauge locations, rainfall and snowfall data and other climatological information such as temperature, wind velocity, evaporation, cloud cover etc. are available with the India Meteorological Department (IMD) New Delhi and its regional offices.

(ii)

Major rivers and its tributaries are being gauged regularly by the Central Water Commission, New Delhi and State Governments and long term records of water levels, discharges and sediment load at every gauging site are available. Daily discharges are available and hourly or four hourly gauges during floods are also recorded. However, the Ganga basin data is classified and not readily available. It is very rare that the above recorded data is available for a small hydro project site.

(iii)

The information about catchment can be obtained from survey of India maps.

(iv)

Other sources from where some useful information can be obtained are the concerned. (a) (b) Irrigation Department Agriculture Department

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

(c) (d) 4.

Forest Department District Revenue Department.

Collection of Data The data from above sources may be obtained after receiving permission

from competent authority or on payment if available on sale. As stated earlier, the observed stream flow data is generally not available at the proposed SHP site and in many cases not even a single rain gauge exists in the entire catchment. In such a situation, a gauging station near the site and a few rain gauges in the catchment should be established. The existing guidelines of CEA, CBI&P and IREDA recommend that discharge measurements should be carried out for a minimum of two years covering two lean seasons and one monsoon season. Two years discharge data is too short to develop a long term series but it gives an idea about minimum discharge expected to be available and can be used with the data from other sources to make use of indirect methods for estimating flows and flood discharge. In order to have a longer period observed discharges, the gauging site should be established at the earliest and the data till the preparation of DPR should be made use of in hydrological studies. For gauging and discharge measurement techniques readers may refer guidelines for site investigations. 5. Assessment of Quality of Data For assessing the quality of data, knowledge of methods of measurement and observations, the instruments used and the frequency of observations is essential. For example if discharge measurement is done with the help of floats, the discharge data should be corrected with a suitable factor which is taken as 0.89. The adequate length of data is essential for any hydrologic analysis. The longer the length of data more is the confidence on the reliability of the analysis. Generally data of 25 to 30 years is considered adequate for any statistical analysis. Quality of data is also adversely affected if there are missing data and to increase length of data the missing data is filled-in. The normal procedures adopted are mentioned in following para.

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

6.

Filling-in Missing Data It is generally observed that rainfall and discharge data in many cases are

found missing for some days and even for months. Attempt are made to fill-in missing links using standard methods to make a continuous record. The techniques used are: (i) (ii) (iii) Using values observed earlier for the missing period Interpolation from adjoining values by plotting a smooth curve. Using the average proportion with normals for the adjoining stations. Atleast three stations be used. Nx =
Px 3 Na Nb Nc P + P + P b c a

a , b & c are three adjoining stations. N is normal (mean) precipitation, P is precipitation during shorter period, and x is station of missing data. Use of this method is generally limited to precipitation time periods of not less than a months duration. (iv) Rainfall run-off correlation may be used. Runoff at a downstream site should be adjusted for upstream withdrawals before establishing rainfall runoff correlation. Missing gaps in rainfall data can be conveniently filled-in by using HEC- 4/6 programme of US Army Corps of Engineers. 7. Consistency Checks The consistency of the precipitation as well as the stream flow data can be checked by the technique of double mass analysis. In this method a graph is plotted of cumulative monthly (or any other time period) values at a station to be checked against those of a reliable or a group of adjoining reliable gauging stations of the same period. The data of the station in question is consistent if the above plot is a straight line. The change in the slope of the double mass curve shall be investigated as it may be caused by change in location of gauging site, change in measurement techniques, changes in river regime or any other man made interference. The consistency of data can also be checked by:

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

(i)

A study of stage discharge curve of different periods and outliers may be examined and corrected.

(ii)

Comparing the monthly and annual runoff with corresponding rainfall in the catchment.

(iii)

Comparing monthly specific flows (flow per unit catchment area) with corresponding figures at other sites on same river or the adjoining rivers.

8. 8.1

Processing and Presentation of Data Rainfall Data It is, generally, used to develop rainfall runoff correlation. The rain gauge

records point rainfall and the areal distribution is worked out from the rain-gauge records of the rain-gauges located in side or around the catchment. The average catchment rainfall is estimated on 10-daily or monthly or annual basis by using one of the following methods. (i) Arithmatic mean method used commonly when large number of rain-gauges are uniformly distributed in catchment. (ii) Thiessen Polygon method used when a few rain-gauges are located in and around the catchment. (iii) Isohyetal. method used when large number of rain-gauges are located in the catchment. It is time consuming. HEC 4/6 package can be used to compute average rainfall in the catchment. If long term data is available then 50%, 75% and 90% dependable rainfall can be worked out and used for further hydrological analysis. This analysis of rainfall data is very useful if the raingauges in the catchment and their long term record is available but generally it is rarely available in the catchments of small hydro projects, which harness flow of small catchments. 8.2 Stream Flow Data The stream flow data shall be processed and compiled in suitable formats / tables for appropriate time units generally as 10 day average, monthly and annual runoff, annual maximum flow.

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

9. 9.1

Extension of Period of Record of Stream Flow Data When Short Term Data (5 to 10 years) is available at Project Site Stream flow data of long duration is generally, not available at the

proposed project site. The short term data is normally extended with the help of long term data of other sites on the same stream or in the adjoining catchments. Sometimes the rainfall data is also used to extend the short term discharge data. The correlations are generally developed through regression analysis of short term data of the site with the corresponding period data of other sites where long term data is available. Generally following two regression models are used: Bivariate linear Bivariate curvilinear y = a + bx y = axm (log y = log a + m log x)

A correlation is considered good when correlation coefficient is near unity. In a discharge discharge correlation x and y are discharges of two sites and by using the correlation the short term discharge data is extended with the help of long term data. In a rainfall runoff correlation x may be for rainfall values and y the runoff. Standard computer programmes for statistical relations can be used to determine the best fit regression model. This can also be done manually using least square method (any standard book on hydrology, CBI&P manual etc. may be referred for the computations). 9.2 When stream flow data of two lean seasons and one flood season at site are recorded: In small hydro project sites even the short term data is generally not available and project reports are based on the minimum requirement of discharge observations of two lean seasons and one flood season. In such situations the following approximate method of determining discharges of different dependability utilizing the rainfall data may be used: (i) An annual rainfall duration curve for the catchment of the project is developed (a typical curve is shown in fig. 1). (ii) Find annual rainfall of different dependability (R50, R75, R90) from the curve.

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

(iii)

Find mean annual rainfall of the catchment for the period of discharge observation (Rm).

(iv)

Find the ratios of annual rainfalls of different dependabilities (as determined in (ii) to the mean annual rainfall of the catchment (as determined in (iii)).
r50 = R50 R R ; 75 = 75 and 90 = 90 Rm Rm Rm

(v)

Mean monthly discharges of 50%, 75% and 90% can be computed by multiplying the mean monthly discharges of the observed period by the corresponding ratios (as determined in (iv)).

10.0

Flow Assessment for an Ungauged Catchment Many times situation arises when the discharge observations are available

and flow assessment has to be made for the preparation of project report. Depending on the availability of data of other sites or basins one of the following method may be adopted. 10.1 Long Term Data of some other site: When long term flow measurement data of a site on the same stream or adjoining stream is available. It can be transposed to the proposed site in proportion to the catchment areas of the two sites.
Q1 A A = 1 i.e. Q1 = 1 Q2 Q2 A2 A2

1. 10.2

Denotes ungauged site and 2 the site for which flow data is available. Regional Specific Discharge In this method the discharge data of hydro meteorologically similars river

basin is used. The data is converted with specific discharges which is defined as discharge per unit catchment area. Generally monthly hydrographs of specific discharges of a specific dependability of a number of adjoining basins are plotted on a graph. Typical 50% dependable specific discharge hydrograph of a number of basins are shown in Fig. 2. A mean hydrograph may be drawn which will approximately represent the specific discharges of 50% dependability for the ungauged catchment in the region. The monthly specific discharge values of the

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

mean hydrograph when multiplied by the area of the ungauged catchment will give the 50% dependable discharge series. Similarly the discharge series of other dependabilities such as 75%, 90% can be generated. 10.3 Regional Model A regional model for generating flows of different dependabilities has been developed by AHEC and Department of Earth Sciences of I.I.T. Roorkee and NIH Roorkee under UNDP GEF Program (MNES, Govt. of India) which is useful for generating the flow duration curve of an ungauged catchment in Himalayas. 11.0 Water Availability Assessment Water availability with time variability at the proposed project site is essential to estimate the power potential and annual energy generation on which depends the financial variability of the project. Since small hydro project is a runof-river scheme the flow duration curve (FDC) is used to know the time variability of flow at a location. The FDC is a simple depiction of flow at a location against percentage of time. It shows a discharge which has equaled or exceeded certain percentage of time out of the total time period which is generally taken as one year. Typical FDCs are shown in Fig. 3. The shape of FDC reflects the hydrological characteristics of the stream. FDC of shape A in Fig. 3 belongs to a flashy stream in which high floods occur for a very short duration and shape C reflects the characteristics of a stream in which variation between high and low flows throughout the year is not large. 11.1 Application of FDC For water availability studies for a SHP the FDC is drawn for 90% dependable years. The 90% dependable year is calculated by arranging in descending order, the annual runoff of all the years for which observed or extrapolated / extended discharge data is available and using Weilbuls formula:

P=

m x 100 N +1

P is dependability percent, m is the rank of runoff of the desired dependability, N is the number of data. If P is 90% N = 19, m works out as

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

90 x (19 + 1) = 18 . Thus 90% dependable flow year will correspond to the runoff 100
which is at rank 18 from the top. For working out the FDC for 90% dependable year, the 10-day discharge series of that year is considered. These 36 discharges are arranged in descending order and percentage of time each has exceeded or equaled is worked out using the above Weilbuls formula. Discharge of rank first will be equaled or exceeded by

1 x 100 i.e. 2.7% of time. Similarly discharge of rank 36 + 1

2 will be equaled or exceeded by 5.4% of time. In this manner percentage of time equaled or exceeded by all the 36 discharges can be worked out and potted. A typical FDC is shown in Fig. 4. From this curve discharges of various dependability such as Q90, Q75, Q50 etc. may be obtained. The energy corresponding to Q90 will be the firm energy from the project. Secondary energy can be generated if the system is designed for a higher discharge. This will, however, be generated for a part period of the year. To decide the design discharge cost of generation is worked out for four or five discharges of dependability less than 90% and the discharge which gives the minimum cost of generation is selected for further planning and design of project. This procedure of developing and using FDC is possible when long term discharge data at site observed or extended is available. 11.2 Application of NIH Model Generally long term discharge data at the site of SHP is not available, the model developed by NIH for ungauged catchments based on

hydrometereologically similar regional catchments can be used. In this model FDC for an ungauged catchment is derived using regionalization procedure. The regions are identified as below:

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

Regions A&B C D E F F G G H I

States covered Jammu and Kashmir Himachal Pradesh Uttarakhand Jharkhand Sikkim West Bengal Assam Arunachal Pradesh Meghalaya Manipur, Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram

For each region based on available data of gauged catchments a mean FDC of that region in terms of Q/Qman and percentage of time is developed. The regional flow estimated values for (Q/qmean)D for various dependability levels (D) are given in Table 1. Qmean for each gauged catchment is related with catchment area (A) in the following form. Qmean = CAm Where C is coefficient and m is exponent. The values of C and m for each region (A to I) are given in Table 2. Knowing the area of ungauged catchment Qmean can be worked out using the values of C & m of the region in which the ungauged catchment lies. This value of Qmean multiplied by the factor (Q /Qmean )D for that region from table 1 will give the required D% dependability flow (QD) for that ungauged catchment. After obtaining QD for different value of D the FDC of the ungauged catchment can be plotted for further planning purposes.

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

10

11.3

When Only Observed Discharge of Two Non-monsoon Seasons are available: When no other information except the discharges of two non-monsoon

season at the proposed site is available and no analysis for extension of data is possible, the design discharge for the feasibility stage planning may be taken as three times the minimum observed discharge at site during two non-monsoon seasons. 11.4 Energy Curve The FDC on a different scale represents the energy curve because the energy is power multiplied by time and the power is directly proportional to discharge. It is given by P = 9.81 Q H Where, P is power in kW Q is discharge is cumec H is net head to be utilized in generation in metre

is overall efficiency of generating equipment.

11.5 Daily Pondage A run-of-the river scheme or a small hydro project can be run as a peaking station if daily pondage capacity is provided at the diversion site. It is generally provided by installing high head gates. When a scheme is designed for a discharge more than Q90, all the machines provided will generate when during monsoon the design discharge is available and during non monsoon period when discharges are low most of the machines will be idle. If daily pondage capacity is provided say for 20 hours in a day, the power plant can be run at full capacity for four hours during peak demand. The pondage requirement estimation is as illustrated below: Design discharge is 5 cumec, the minimum flow is 1 cumec. Let the hours for which the ponding of minimum flow is required to run the power plant for peaking are X X = L = (24 - X ) (5 1) X = 19.2 hours.
AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

11

The power plant will run at design discharge of 5 cumec for 4.8 hours in a day. The pondage capacity between FRL and MDDL required will be 1 x 3600 x 19.2 = 69120 cum. 12.0 Estimation of Flood Discharge Estimation of flood discharge is essential for the safety of the diversion structure of the SHP which is generally a weir or barrage or small dam without large storage capacity. In such a case moderation of flood peak is not possible and so the waterway to pass flood should be of adequate capacity. The flood discharge for which the structure is designed is called design flood. It is fixed after due consideration of economic, hydrologic factor and safety of life and property in the downstream. On the basis of the guidelines set out in IS Code 11223 1985 the design flood for the diversion structure shall be a discharge of 100 year return period. 12.1 Computation of Design Flood

12.1.1 Flood Frequency Method For estimating the design flood one of the standard flood frequency methods may be used. Large number of flood frequency methods are available for which the reader can refer any standard book on Hydrology. For the use of any method of flood frequency analysis long term record (about 30 years) of observed flood peak discharges is required. Gumbels method is generally recommended for small hydro projects. (a) According to Gumbels method of moment the flood frequency equation is XT = x + s (0.78 Y 0.45) Where, XT is flood peak of return period T. x is average value of annual flood peaks. s is standard deviation of flood peak series. Y is called reduced variable and is a function of T and its values are as below:

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

12

T 2 5 10 25 50 100

Y 0.37 1.5 2.25 3.2 3.9 4.6

(b)

Method of least square can also be used. The flood frequency equation is of the following form: XT = A + B.Y

Where, Y = - log log T=

T and T 1

N +1 m

m is the rank of peak discharge in descending series of flood peaks and N is the number of flood peaks considered, A & B are constants and can be worked out by using method of least square. After determining A and B, XT for any value of T desired can be worked out from the above equation. (c) Data Plotting Method The annual flood peak data shall be plotted on a semi log paper. The data events are plotted on the ordinate which has the rectangular scale and the return periods are plotted on the abscissa which has the logarithmic scale. For example, if 20-years flood data is available and arranged in descending order then highest flow is assumed to have a return period of 20 years, the second highest flow a return period of 10-years, the third highest a return period of 6.67 years and so on. Such a plot is shown in Fig. 5. It is seen that peak flows of watersheds generally produce linear or near linear curves when plotted on semi log paper. The extrapolation of these linear plots can give the peak flood of 100

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

13

year return period. This extrapolation can also be done by developing the best fit line using method of least square to determine the constants in the following equations: XT = A + B log10 T 12.1.2 When Peak Flood Data at Site is not available Generally, long record of flood peaks at SHP sites is not available. In that case one of the following approaches may be adopted depending on availability of data. (a) If long term record of flood peaks of some other site on the same stream

or a site in adjoining hydrometereologically similar catchment is available, the flood frequency analysis can be carried out, by methods given above, to determine the peak flood of 100-year return period and the same can be transposed to the ungauged site of the SHP in proportion to area by using following equation:

Qg

Ag = Qu Au

3/ 4

Where, Qg is flood peak of 100 year return period of site of which record is available. Ag is catchment area of site of which record is available. Qu is flood peak of 100 year return period of ungauged site. Au is catchment area of ungauged site. (b) In planning SHP, records of long term flood discharges are seldom available. In such cases an alternative approach would be to estimate storm rainfall of suitable duration with desired return period say 100 years. This information can be obtained from IMD. A suitable unit hydrograph (a characteristic of hydrological the catchment) is derived for the catchment. It is defined as a flood hydrograph of surface runoff resulting from a unit depth (1 cm) of excess rainfall distributed uniformly over the basin area at a uniform rate during unit period (say 3 hr, 3 hr, 4 hr, 6 hr etc.). It can be

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

14

derived from the observed flood hydrographs of a few years if available at the site and the storm rainfall record causing these flood hydrographs. If observed flood hydrographs are not available, a synthetic unit hydrograph based on catchment characteristics can be developed. The procedure for computations of flood hydrograph using the unit hydrograph and the storm rainfall is given in CWC Publication Estimation of Design flood Recommended Procedures 1972, Readers can refer to any standard text book on hydrology for unit hydrograph method of working out flood hydrograph. (c) Use of Regional Unit Hydrograph When no discharge data at site is available, the parameters of unit

hydrograph are evaluated by a regional approach using data of adjoining basins. CWC has made extensive studies of small catchments of river basins dividing them in 27 sub zones and has developed regional unit hydrograph parameters to estimate peak flood discharges resulting from 50 and 100 year return period storm rainfalls. For the derivation of regional unit hydrograph and its application to compute flood hydrograph, reference may be made to relevant CWC study report of the sub zone to which the catchment of proposed SHP belongs. (d) Regional Flood Frequency Analysis: Flood frequency analysis by Gumbels method should be carried out and curve prepared for as many gauging stations in the region as possible whose flood records of atleast 10-15-years are available. A homogeneity check should be carried out. A set of flood ratios (ratio of flood to mean annual flood) is computed for each station over a range of arbitrarily selected return periods with the help of frequency curves. For each of selected return periods the mean of the ratios of all the stations is computed. The resulting means are the flood ratios for the regional frequency curve. These are plotted on extreme value probability

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

15

paper and best fit line by method of least square can be determined. This line is the required regional frequency curve. This curve can be used to determine flood of a specific return period only when mean annual flood of ungauged catchment is known. For this purpose the mean annual floods of all the gauged stations used for developing regional frequency curve are correlated with their catchment areas either by plotting the data on a logarithmic paper or through a suitable regression model. By using this relation the mean annual flood of ungauged catchment corresponding to its area is worked out. This mean annual flood multiplied with flood ratio corresponding to the desired return period obtained from regional frequency curve will give the flood of desired return period of ungauged catchment. (e) When no data of discharges and rainfall are available, the following two methods can be used to assess the peak flood at site. (1) Based on Field Information: A study of physical features near the stream at site shall be made to find the signs of high flood mark which shall be confirmed from local enquiry from old persons living near the stream and the records of local revenue officials and department of Bridge and Roads. After ascertaining the high flood level, the flood discharge corresponding to this level can be computed by using Mannings equation. Area of river cross section (A) at site and river slope (S) shall be obtained by conducting the surveys. The coefficient of Manning n shall be assumed on the basis of physical features of river at site for working out the peak flow from the following equations:

V =
Where,

1 2 / 3 1/ 2 R S n
R= A , P is the perimeter below high flood mark. P

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

16

(2)

Use of Empirical Formulae: There are a large number of empirical relations to estimate peak flood flows on the basis of catchment area. The most commonly used formulae is of Dickens. Q = CA3/4 Where, C is the coefficient which varies from region to region. On the basis of discharge observations of long periods at various locations the country is divided into regions and each region is assigned a value of C for the use in Dickens formulae.

12.2

Spillway Design Flood and Construction Floods As already stated above, a SHP is a run-of-river project where there is no significant storage at river diversion site. Hence, peak flood cannot be moderated. Therefore, the water way for the barrage / weir or spill way of low height diversion dams shall be provided for the design flood. The design flood is decided on consideration of economic and hydrological factors as well as the safety in the downstream. Normally the design flood for barrage / weir is taken as flood of 100 year return period and SPF for the spillway of a diversion dam. During construction of a diversion structure the river flow has to be diverted. The diversion arrangement has to be planned and designed for a certain discharge which is always associated with some amount of risk of being exceeded. This again depends on hydrologic, economic factors and the construction sequence and schedule. When the diversion is to be done for non-monsoon flow and monsoon flood can be allowed to pass over in complete barrage / weir, the diversion arrangement can be

planned and designed for the maximum non-monsoon flow in the past 10 years. In case the monsoon flood can not be allowed to pass the incomplete structure the diversion for a SHP project can be planned for a flood a return period of 4 to 5 times the construction period of the project. Suppose the construction will take 3 years to complete, the diversion design flood shall be of 15 to 20 years return period. However, there is

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

17

always a risk of its being exceeded. In that case the expected damage should be assessed and compared with the extra cost involved in designing diversion arrangement for a flood of higher return period. 13.0 Sedimentation SHPs generally operate at full installed capacity during monsoon period like any other run-of-river scheme with a small diversion structure without storage. During this operation silt laden water of monsoon flows is diverted into water conductor. It is seen to cause damage and sometimes very serious damage to under water components of the generating equipment such as runners, guide vanes etc. resulting in loss of generation and costly repair and maintenance of equipment. The problem is more severe in projects located on Himalayan streams which carry lot of sediment during monsoon. Studies have shown that the rate of sediment erosion may be expressed as: W S1, S2, S3, S4, Mr Vx Where, w is rate of erosion, S1, S2 S3, S4 are the coefficients of sediment characteristics such as concentration, hardness, size and shape, Mr is coefficient of erosion resistance of base metal of equipment, and Vx is relative velocity of flow in turbine with exponent x which depends on type of turbine (x = 3 for Francis turbine, 2.5 for guide vanes, 2.5 for nozzles of Pelton wheel and 1.2 for Pelton wheel buckets). It has been observed that high concentration of even fine angular quartz particles (hardness 7 on Mohs scale) cause maximum erosion in high head power plants. A variety of sediment exclusion and extraction measures are provided to reduce size and concentration of sediment particles in the flow reaching the generating equipment in order to reduce the damage due to silt erosion. The planning and design of these measures depend on the sediment characteristics. Hence, even at the planning stage the above characteristics of sediment i.e. size, shape, hardness and concentration, which are site specific should be assessed with as much accuracy as possible for planning and design of cost

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

18

effective sediment exclusion and extraction measures. Sediment sampling at site for concentration, sieve analysis and petrographic analysis (for mineral composition and shape) is essential at the diversion site. The knowledge of these sediment characteristics is also important for turbine manufactures. The design and dimensions of desilting measures depend on the size of particles which is to be extracted. There is no universally accepted criterion to decide the size of particle to be extracted. As a guide line if the presence of quartz in sediment is not significant, extraction of (+) 0.5 mm size particles through vortex type desilting measures is adequate for medium and high head plants. If quartz is predominant desilting basin to extract + 0.2 mm is generally provided. It may be combined with other measures such as vortex tube, ejector etc. for greater effectiveness.

14.0

Water Quality Besides the sediment, the chemical analysis of water is important to have

a knowledge of presence of salts and the nature of water (acidic or alkaline) which will have the effect on the metal of gates and equipment, and concrete structure. The parameters generally determined in chemical analysis are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 15.0 15.1 Other Hydrological and Meterelogical Data Required: Tail water rating curve: Dissolved solids pH value Suspended solids Total hardness Sulphates, carbonates, bi-carbonates, chlorides iron, calcium, magnesium Electrical conductivity.

15.1.1 It is the stage vs discharge curve and is required at the diversion site and

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

19

at the downstream of the power house for the planning design and operation of the project. If gauge discharge data for a couple of years is available the required curve can be obtained by plotting this data. On logarithmic paper this is generally a straight line. It can be extrapolated for peak flow. 15.1.2 If the gauge discharge data is not available, it can be developed by using Mannings equation as described in para 12.1. From the river cross section, discharges are worked out for different water depths in the section and the plot gives stage discharge curve.

15.2

Metereological Data Besides the rainfall data the following metereological data of the proposed

site for SHP are required for proper planning, design and operation of the project. These can also be obtained from IMD. (i) Air and water temperature in different days of the year with monthly and seasonal maxima and minima. (ii) Wind velocity and direction: Maximum velocity is required for design of structures. (iii) Evaporation : It is required to assess loss of water in reservoir, if storage is provided. (iv) Annual Climatic Changes: It is needed to plan the construction sequence and schedule. (v) Seismicity: It is required for design of structures. Based on geographical location of project, it can be assessed from IS:1839. References: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Hydrology by Ven-ta-Chaw Hydrology by K.N. Mutraja Hydrology by R.S. Varshney Manual on Planning and Design of SHP, Pub. No. 280 CBI&P. Guidelines for Planning SHP, CEA.

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

20

6.

Report on UNDP- GEF Hilly Hydro Project, Vol. III Regional FDC Published by MNES, Govt. of India, 2002.

7.

Estimation of Design Flood Recommended Procedure CWC, Sept. 1972.

8. 9. 10. 11.

Sub-Zone Flood Estimation Reports, CWC. IS : 11223 1983. IS : 1839. Small and Mini Hydropower Systems Jack, J. Fritz., McGraw Hill, 1982.

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

21

Table 1: Regional Flow Estimates for Various levels of Dependability Region Regional Values for (Q/Qmean)D For Various Dependability Levels D = 25% A B C D E F G H I 1.1562 1.2240 1.1797 1.2828 0.7374 1.0942 1.3075 1.1436 1.2451 D = 50% 0.6584 0.8434 0.6609 0.8364 0.2711 0.5089 0.8500 0.4909 0.5511 D = 60% 0.5428 0.7360 0.5399 0.7078 0.1974 0.3896 0.7148 0.3551 0.3957 D = 75% 0.4011 0.5888 0.3917 0.5315 0.1226 0.2551 0.5270 0.2053 0.2198 D = 80% 0.3577 0.5396 0.3466 0.4729 0.1031 0.2171 0.4640 0.1646 0.1716 D = 90% 0.2686 0.4304 0.2544 0.3447 0.0675 0.1444 0.3257 0.0913 0.0856

Table 2: Values of the parameters of the Regional Models for Mean Flow Sl. No. 1. Region State covered m C Coefficient of correlation (R) 0.0808

Jammu & Kashmir (Except Leh & Kargil)

0.06046

3.8189

2.

Jammu & Kashmir (Leh & Kargil)*

Q/A = (1/2)(Q/A)Leh + (Q/A)Kargil = 0.05804 0.86811 0.89075 0.74795 0.98920 0.26817 0.1200 0.0463 0.0652 0.0577 2.2807 0.8759 0.8174 0.7742 0.8467 0.3706

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

C D E F G

Himachal Pradesh Uttar Pradesh/Uttarakhand Bihar/Jharkhand West Bengal & Sikkim North Assam & Arunachal Pradesh

8. 9.

H I

South Assam & Meghalaya Manipur, Nagaland, Mizoram & Tripura

0.48589 1.22343

1.4136 0.0151

0.6820 0.9435

*An average model developed due to lack of data.

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

22

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

23

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

24

AHEC/MNRE/SHP Standards/General Manual on Project Hydrology /July 2008

25