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INTRODUCTION
Flux () = (MMF/ Reluctance) , Wb ; Reluctance(S) = (l/a) , A/Wb ; Permeance = ( 1/S) , Wb/A ; where l = length of the flux path, m ; A = area of cross section for the flux path, m2 ; = permeability = o r ; o = absolute permeability = 4 x 10 -7 H/m and r = relative permeability. H = Ampere turns / m = MMF/ l = S / l = S Ba /l = (l/a) Ba/l = B/ . or B = H Series magnetic circuit : S = S1 + S2+ Parallel magnetic circuit: Per= Per1+ Per2+... Leakage Coeff. = total flux/useful flux; total flux = useful flux + leakage flux Expressions for reluctance: Sg = lg / o l ys
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If ducts are provided on the stator and on the rotor, then Kcd should be based on half the air gap.
Considering the effect of both slotting and ducts, Kg ( gap contraction factor) = Kgs Kgd where Kgs ={ ys / ys l } and Kgd ={L /Ll } If slots are provided on both sides of the airgap, Kgs = Kgss Kgsr (ss and sr denoting stator and rotor slots respectively). MMF for airgap = H Kg lg ={ B/ o }Kg lg = 8,00,000 B Kg lg . Effect of Saliency : K f = Field form factor = Bave / Bg = = pole arc/pole pitch ;
pole pitch = D/P ; Bave = /( DL/P) _______________________________ 2. MMF calculation for teeth The calculation of MMF for producing flux in the Teeth of the machine is difficult because : i) the teeth are tapered when parallel sided slots are used and this results in variation in the flux density over the depth of the tooth. ii) the slots provide another parallel path for the flux flow, the teeth are normally worked in saturation and hence r becomes low. Following methods are usually employed for the calculation of MMF required for the tapered teeth:i) Graphical method :ATt = Mean ord. x lt Mean ord. is the mean ord. of at variation with tooth depth. ii) Simpsons rule :at mean = (at1 +4 at2 + at3)/6 A/m iii) Bt1/3 method : ATt = at1/3 x lt , where at1/3 = MMF for corresponding to B at 1/3 rd height from the narrow end.
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6. Rating of machines
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IS: 4722-1968: specification for Rotating Electrical machinery: 1. continuous duty 2. short time duty (T Th ) 3. intermittent periodic duty 4. intermittent periodic duty with starting 5. intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking 6. continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading 7. continuous duty with starting and braking 8. continuous duty with periodic speed changes
Advantages of hydrogen cooling: vidyarthiplus.com Compared with air, hydrogen has the following properties:i) (1/14) th density thereby the windage losses and noise reduced ii) 14 times specific heat and 1.5 times heat transfer leading to improved cooling iii) 7 times thermal conductivity resulting in reduced temperature gradient iv) reduced corona effect v) will not support combustion so long as the hyd /air mixture exceeds 3/1. In operation, the fans mounted on the rotor circulate hydrogen through the ventilating ducts and internally mounted gas coolers. The required gas pressure is maintained by a regulator. The precaution to be observed is the stator frame must be gas tight and explosion proof and oil film gas seals at the rotor shaft ends are essential. Induced and Forced ventilation: In induced ventilation, the fan produces decreased air pressure inside of the machine, causing air to be sucked into the machine under the external atmospheric pressure ; and in the forced ventilation, the air is forced into the fan by the fans mounted internally or externally. The ventilation can also be classified as i) Radial, ii) axial and iii) combined radial and axial.
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UNIT II DC MACHINES
D = stator bore or armature diameter, m L = stator core length, m p = number of poles Z = Total numbers of armature conductors Iz = current in each conductor(Ia/A) , A E = induced EMF, V P = machine rating (power output),kW Pa = power developed by the armature, kW Q = kVA rating of the machine = flux per pole, Wb = pole pitch ( D/p), m Total Electric loading = p ; Total Magnetic loading = Iz Z
1. Output equation
Pa = E Ia x 10 -3 = (p/A)(ZN/60) Iz A 10 -3 = {2 Bave ac x10-3 } D2 L n = Co D2 L n ___________________________________ where Co = output coefficient
Generator: Pa = (P/) (FW & Iron losses) ; Motor : Pa = P + (FW & Iron losses) For large machines : FW & Iron losses are neglected i.e., Pa = P/ (Generator) =P (Motor) For small machines : FW & Iron losses can be taken as 1/3 rd of the total losses. So, Pa = (P/) (1/3) P (1-)/ = P(2+ )/(3 ) generator
= P + (1/3) P (1-)/
= P(1+2)/(3 ) motor
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The MMF required for the airgap = 50% of the armature MMF and gap vidyarthiplus.com contraction factor = 1.1. The current per brush arm (Ib) = 2Ia/p , A For square poles: L = D/p In the design process, choose p based on f& Ib and then calculate D and L
5. Armature Design
Considerations in choice of number of armature slots : i) mechanical difficulties ii) cooling of armature iii) pulsation of flux iv) cost v)commutation (Slots/pole 9 ) vi) slot pitch (ys = 25 to 35 mm) vii) slot loading (Iz Zs 1500 Amp-cond) viii) suitability of the winding doublelayer Lap or wave ) Slot dimensions: i) the slot area should accommodate the armature conductors and the required insulation depending on the operating voltage ii) Bt1/3 2.1 Wb/m2 iii) deep slots cause eddy current losses iv) slot opening should be narrow to reduce the flux pulsation and hence to reduce eddy current losses. Armature voltage drop = Ia ra ; ra = (Z/2) Lmt /(a2 az ) ; where Lmt = length of mean turn, m = 2L + 2.3 +5ds ; a = no.of parallel paths and az = area of each conductor, m2 .
Height of the pole(hf) chosen based on the MMF to be provided by the pole at full-load. ( ATf at full-load) /(ATArm. at full-load) =1.0 to 1.25 (to overcome armature reaction)
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= .(1) where df = depth of the pole winding. Tf = no.of turns in each field coil. Permissible loss = S qf = 2Lmt hf qf ..(2) _______ Equating (1) and (2) ; f =104 qf / Sf df MMF per metre of the field winding = ATf/ hf = If Tf /hf = f (af Tf )/ hf = f Sf hfdf/hf = f Sf df = Sqrt {2 qf Sf df /}
2.brush friction loss =Wbf = bpAbVc = coefficient of frictionvidyarthiplus.com (0.1 - 0.3) ; b = brush pressure (10 15 kN/ m2) 3. Cooling coefficient = c =k/(1+0.1Vc) ; k = 0.015 0.025 4. Temperature rise c = Qc c /Sc
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= 2AT/ ; since TpIp = TsIs neglecting magnetizing current Aw = total window area ; Kw = window space factor = Ac / Aw Ac = Kw Aw = 2AT/ AT = Kw Aw /2 Rating in kVA = Q = Vp Ip x 10 -3 = Ep Ip x 10 -3 = Et ( Tp Ip )x 10 -3 = 4.44 fm ( Kw Aw /2 ) 10 -3 = 2.22 fm ( Kw Aw ) 10 -3
;
where m = Bm Ai
2. Three-phase transformers
Each window contains two primary and two secondary windings Ac =2 (Tpap + Tsas ) = 4 AT / AT = Kw Aw /4
Using the output equation it can also be shown that vidyarthiplus.com _____ __________ where K = 4.44 f r 10 3 ; r = m / AT E t = K kVA r is a constant for transformer of a given type ,service and method of connection, since m determines the core section and AT fixes the total copper area.
even more effectively. However, larger step sizes larger number of lamination sizes vidyarthiplus.com higher labor cost. Assuming a stacking factor for iron = 0.9 , Net core area / area of circumscribing circle = 0.637 for square core and = 0.710 for stepped core with a= 0.851d , b= 0.526 d ; where d = diameter of the circumscribing circle.
6. Types of Windings
i) Cylindrical winding with circular conductors ii) Crossover winding with circular or rectangular conductors iii) Continuous disc type winding with rectangular conductors iv) Helical winding
7. Design of insulation
i) Electrical insulation: depends on the operating voltage ii) Eddy current loss in the conductors and tank walls iii) Mechanical considerations: high mechanical forces during fault iv) Thermal considerations: depends on cooling Major insulation : between windings and core (grounded) Minor insulation ; between turns and layers Materials : cotton thread, cotton tape, leatheriod paper, millinax paper etc.
8. Window dimensions
a = width of the largest samping ; d = dia of the circumscribing circle D = distance between centres of adjacent limbs Ww , Hw = width and height of the window ( length of the window) Hy = height of the yoke For core type: D = d + Ww ; W = D+a ; H = Hw + 2 Hy
For core type, the yoke section may be either rectangular or stepped. In rectangular yoke vidyarthiplus.com sections, depth of the yoke = depth of the core; when stepped cores are used the core depth = width of the largest stamping; area rectangular yokes = Ay = Dy Hy = a Hy For three phase transformers : W = 2d + a Window space factor, Kw = Ac/Aw = 10 /(30+kV) Area of the window = Aw = Hw Ww ; Aw = 2apTp/ Kw (single-phase) = 2apTp/ Kw ( three-phase) For shell type : Dy = b ; Hy = a ; W = 2Ww+4a ; H = Hw + 2a
above certain rating, plain tank becomes inadequate to dissipate losses and the area is increased by providing tubes. For vidyarthiplus.com larger ratings forced air cooling is used. If tubing is provided, the oil circulation is improved due to the head of the oil, and this causes an additional dissipation by convection of about 35 % .
Let x St be the area of the cooling tubes. Then Loss dissipated by the tank surface 12.5 St W/0C Loss dissipated by the tubes (1.35 x 6.5) x St W/0 C = 8.8 x St W/0 C Total loss dissipated by the tank and oil tubes = (12.5 St + 8.8 x St ) W/0C Hence = ( Pi + Pc)/ (12.5 St + 8.8 x St ) Total tube area x St = (1/8.8) [ {(Pi + Pc)/ } 12.5 St ] The number of tubes = nt = Total tube area /( dt lt ) The arrangement of the tubes on tank side walls should be made uniformly with a spacing of usually 75 mm. Examples of calculation of nt and the arrangement of the tubes should be studied.
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2. Choice of Bave
i) Low Bave large size machine for a given hp ii) high Bave large magnetizing current low power factor iii) high Bave high iron loss iv) high Bave high m less Tph low leakage reactance larger diameter for the circle diagram larger over load capacity For 50 Hz motors Bave : 0.3 to 0.6 Wb/m2
lower diameter for the circle diagram lower over load capacity
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For 50 Hz motors ac : 10,000 to 45,000 amp.cond/m The value ac chosen depends on the ventilation and cooling It should be remembered that the Power factor (PF) and efficiency() of the motor at full load increases with the rating of the machine. Again and Pf are higher for high speed motors compared to low speed motors.
The stator winding can be connected in star or delta. The motors meant for starting with star- delta starter should be designed with delta connected stator winding. Stator slot pitch = yss = D/Ss where Ss =number of stator slots Stator outer diameter Do = D + 2 dss + 2dcs Where dss = stator slot depth and dcs = stator core depth Air gap length = 0.2 + 2 sqrt(DL) where Dand L are in metre.
After designing the main dimensions, the following calculations can be made: i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) The flux per pole, m
=
Bave DL/p
Turns in series per phase, Tph = V/ (4.44f m Kw ) Number of slots per pole per phase can be suitably assumed Slot pitch should not exceed about 24 mm Number of conductors per slot should be rounded off Tph recalculated Iph = [Q x 103 /(3 400)] for star and [Q x 103 /(3 400)] /3 for delta connection
viii)
Assuming suitable current density (s) , conductor area required is calculated (as = Iph / s )
ix) x)
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Total area of the slot = copper area /slot space factor Slot space factor is to account for the space for insulation
xi) A suitable tooth flux density is assumed and tooth width is calculated xii) slot width = slot pitch- tooth width (at different diameters) xiii) The core flux(m/2) , core area and core depth are calculated assuming a core flux density. Core depth = core area/ Li xiv) The rotor bar and end rings are designed (sq.cage rotor) xv) The rotor winding is designed similar to stator winding (wound rotor)
6. No-load current
Iron loss component = Il =(Iron loss/phase) /Vph
Magnetizing component = Im =(0.427 p ATtotal )/( Kws Tph ) ATtotal = sum of the ampere turns for airgap ,stator tooth and core and rotor core. No-load current = In = { Il 2 + Im 2 }1/2 The leakage reactance calculations are made to find x1 , x2 and x01 . tooth and
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2. Output Equation
Q = m Eph Iph 10-3 = 11 Bave ac Kw x 10-3 D2L ns = Co D2L ns Where Co = output coefficient (see Unit -4 for derivation) D and L are separated using L/ ratio or maximum specified peripheral speed of the rotor. Damper winding is used for starting and damping rotor oscillations that occur during sudden load changes.
iii) In high voltage machines slot width required is more to accommodate vidyarthiplus.com thicker insulation smaller tooth width small allowable Bave iv) stability : Pmax =VE/Xs . Since high Bave gives low Tph and hence low Xl Pmax increases and improves stability. v) Parallel operation : Ps = (VE sin)/Xs ; where is the torque angle. So low Xs gives higher value for the synchronizing power leading stable parallel operation of synchronous generators. Guide lines : Non-salient pole alternator : 0.54 0.65 Wb/m2 Salient pole alternator : 0.52 0.65 Wb/m2
Non-salient pole alternators : 1- 1.5 ; Salient pole alternators : 0.5 0.7 Effect of SCR on machine performance
vidyarthiplus.com i) Voltage regulation : A low SCR high Xd large voltage drop poor voltage regulation..
ii) Parallel operation : A low SCR high Xd low synchronizing power parallel operation becomes difficult.
iii) Short circuit current : A low SCR high Xd low short circuit current. But short circuit current can be limited by other means not necessarily by keeping a low value of SCR. iv) self excitation : Alternators feeding long transmission lines should not be designed with small SCR as this would lead to large terminal voltage on open circuit due to large capacitance currents. Summarizing ,high value of SCR leads to i) high stability limit ii) low voltage regulation iii) high short circuit current iv)large air gap The present trend is to design machines with low value of SCR, this is due to the recent development in fast acting control and excitation systems.
6. Length of airgap
The length of air gap very much influences the performance of a synchronous machine. A large airgap offers a large reluctance to the path of the flux produced by the armature MMF and thus reduces the effct of armature reaction. Thus a machine with large airgap has a small Xd and so has i)small regulation ii) high stability limit iii) high synchronizing power which makes the machine less sensitive to load variations iv) better cooling at the gap surface v) low magnetic noise and smaller unbalanced magnetic pull. But as the airgap length increases, a large value of Field MMF is required resulting in increased cost of the machine.
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data and then feed them to the computer again. The computer calculates the new vidyarthiplus.com performance with the revised data. This process is repeated till the required performance is achieved. In the synthesis method, the required performance values are also given to the computer as input. The computer through an iterative process alters the dimensions till the required performance is obtained. In the hybrid method, by some human intervention, a combination of analysis and synthesis methods are adopted.
The method of design optimization using computers : i) ii) iii) iv) v) Choice of independent variables Variable transformation Forming the constraint functions for the performance Forming the objective function (OBJ) Applying the minimization technique till the OBJ becomes with in the chosen tolerance.
Example of Design of optimization of Induction Motors The independent variables which has a significant effect on the performance are stator core diameter, stator core length , stator core depth, stator slot depth, stator slot width, rotor slot depth, rotor slot width, end ring depth, end ring width, . airgap length and airgap flux density. The other variables in the design are either taken as constants dased on the voltage and power rating of the machine or they are in some way related to the above 11 variables. During the course of optimization when the variables undergo incrementing or decrementing, they should also be constrained to be with in practical ranges. This is obtained by variable transformation. For example for airgap Xact = X tran + Lg min ; where they respectively denote actual and transformed values and Lg min = minimum airgap required. Performance Specifications:
1. Starting torque 2. maximum torque 3. Full- load power factor 4. full -load efficiency 5. full load slip 6.tooth and corevidyarthiplus.com flux densities 7. starting current 8. temperature rise 9. cost of the machine. Objective function The objective function is formed by comparing the specified and calculated values of the performance quantities at each iteration. Objective function minimization can be carried out either using conventional methods such as Powels algorithm or Rosenbrock method or the recent techniques such as Genetic algorithm. It should be noted that the independent variables or the performance specifications vary with the type of machine and its application.