Solutions of Problems 7 Solution (7.1) i)If A SU (2), then A = A1 and detA = 1.

. So let A= The above conditions imply that a b and ad bc = 1 . From the rst equation we deduce that a = d, Using this we can write A as A= a b b a c = b . c d = d b c a a c b d .

where a, b are complex numbers subject only to the constraint associated with the determinat which is |a|2 + |b|2 = 1 . Setting a = x + iy and b = t + is, we nd that x2 + y 2 + t2 + s2 = 1 which is precisely the equation of the three sphere. ii) We may use the results (t + ix )(t ix ) = t2 + |x|2 , as well as (t + ix )(y ) (y )(t + ix ) = (ix )(y ) (y )(ix ) = 2(x y ) . (note: is the vector product, the symbol was used in class instead - both are ne). Then, (t + ix )(y )(t ix ) = (t2 + |x|2 )(y ) 2((x y ) )(t ix ) = (t2 + |x|2 )(y ) 2t((x y ) ) + 2i((x y ) )(x ) = (t2 + |x|2 )(y ) 2t((x y ) ) 2((x y ) x) 1

We now use the bac-cab formula: a (b c) = b(a c) c(a b). That is, (x y ) x = y |x|2 x(y x). This gives (t + ix )(y )(t ix ) = (t2 |x|2 )(y ) 2t((x y ) ) + 2(x y )(x ).

Solution (7.2) a) To perform this computation we use y = Then U y U + can be written as U y U

+

y3 y1 + iy2

y1 iy2 y3

= = =

e 2 0
i 2

0 e
i 2

y3 y1 + iy2
i 2

y1 iy2 y3 e . 0

e2 0
i 2

0 e
i 2

e y3 e e (y1 + iy2 )

i 2

(y1 iy2 ) i e 2 y 3

0 i e 2

y3 ei (y1 iy2 ) ei (y1 + iy2 ) y3

So we nd that under the above transformation y3 y3 = y3 y1 + iy3 y1 + iy3 = e (y1 + iy2 ) y1 iy3 y1 iy3 = e (y1 iy2 ) . which is also known as y3 = y3 y1 = cos y1 sin y2 y2 = sin y1 + cos y2 . This is a rotation about the y3 axis. b) Similarly U y U + can be written as U y U + = =
1 ) sin( 1 cos( 2 2 ) 1 1 sin( 2 ) cos( 2 )

y3 y1 + iy2

y1 iy2 y3

1 cos( 2 ) sin( 1 2 ) 1 sin( 2 ) cos( 1 2 )

1 1 1 cos( 2 )y3 sin( 1 2 )(y1 + iy2 ) cos( 2 )(y1 iy2 ) + sin( 2 )y3 1 1 1 sin( 1 2 )y3 + cos( 2 )(y1 + iy2 ) sin( 2 )(y1 iy2 ) cos( 2 )y3

cos( 1 2 ) 1 ) sin( 2 = cos y3 sin y 1 sin y3 + cos y1 + iy2

sin( 1 2 ) cos( 1 2 ) sin y3 + cos y1 + iy2 cos y3 + sin y1 2 .

This is also known as y3 = cos y3 sin y1 y1 = sin y3 + cos y1 y2 = y2 which is a rotation about the y2 axis. Note that in the above calculation we have used

sin 2 = 2 cos sin

cos 2 = cos2 sin2 .

Solution (7.3) For these questions, we here give the full proofs for a,b,c only; follow similar principles for the others. In general, use the following general rules in order to discover what the symmetry group is: In each case: try to see if translations are symmetries. Then: try to see if there is one or many points about which rotations are symmetries, whether by all possible angles or by some discrete set of angles. Then: try to see if there are one or many axes about which reection is a symmetry. Translations form the group R or R (depending in how many directions you can translate - here were in 2-d only). Rotations about one given x point (any point) and by all possible angles form the group SO(2); if its not all possible angles that we have, but just n of them (including the 0 angle), then this is the group Zn . Reections about any given x axis form the group Z2 (including the identity transformation). When we put things together: if the group actions commute, then its a direct product. If not, its a semi-direct product. In semi-direct products, we always have the order reections to the left of rotations to the left of translations. Remember that Z2 SO(2) = n O(2), that O(n) R = E (n), that Z2 Zn = Dn (in the latter one the case n = 2 is Z2 Z2 = Z2 Z2 : the semi-direct product becomes a direct product). If there is 2 translation, then there is a factor R . If there is rotation as well, then pick one center, this corresponds to the factor SO(2) in the semi-direct product. If there is reection as well, then pick one axis, this corresponds to the factor Z2 in the semi-direct product. (a) The symmetries are: all rotations w.r.t. the point (2, 3), as well as reections w.r.t. any axis passing by (2, 3). The group is O(2). To prove that these are the symmetries: O(2) is the set of orthogonal matrices, AT = A1 . We just have to show that the transformation (x, y ) (x , y ) = A (x, y ) (2, 3) + (2, 3) is a 3
2

symmetry, or in vector notation, v = A v (2, 3)T + (2, 3)T . We have {(x, y ) R : (x 2)2 + (y 3)2 = 4} = {v R : v (2, 3)T
2 2 2 2

= 4}
2

= {v (2, 3)T R : v (2, 3)T

2 2

= 4}
2

= {A1 (v (2, 3)T ) R : A1 (v (2, 3)T ) = {v R : (v (2, 3)T )T (v (2, 3)T ) = 4} = {v R : |v (2, 3)T )|2 = 4} (b) The symmetries are: reection w.r.t. the x axis only. The group is Z2 . To prove that this is a symmetry: consider the transformation (x, y ) (x , y ) = (x, y ) (this is reection w.r.t. the x axis). Then, {(0, y ) R : 1 < y < 1} = {(0, y ) R : 1 < y < 1} = {(0, y ) R : 1 > y > 1} = {(0, y ) R : 1 < y < 1} and also {(2, 0)} = {(2, 0)}, hence both sets whose union is taken are indeed invariant under that symmetry. (c) The symmetries are: rotation by w.r.t. origin and reections w.r.t. x and y axes. This forms the group D2 [which is the same as Z2 Z2 = V4 ]. One way to see that: we know that D2 is the group of symmetries of the polygon with two vertices (the segment). Evaluate the symmetries: they are the same as those we just described. Hence those we just describe form the group D2 . Other way: rotation by (along with identity) form the group Z2 . Reections form the group Z2 as well. Hence, we simply have to put them together; trying some examples, we see that they commute, hence we put them together with a direct product. Other way: the symmetries we have described contain 4 elements (if we include the identity transformation). Each element square to the identity. We know that the only group with these properties is V4 . To prove that these are the symmetries, we display the transformation and show that each set whose union is taken is invariant. Rotation by w.r.t. origin: (x , y ) = (x , y ), reection wrt x axis: (x , y ) = (x , y ) and reection wrt y axis: (x , y ) = (x , y ). Hence let us consider (x , y ) = (ax, by ) where a, b are signs: a = , b = . We rst note that the condition 2 < x < 2 is the same as 2 < x < 2. Then, {(x, 2) R : 2 < x < 2} = {(ax , b2) R : 2 < ax < 2} = {((x , 2) R : 2 < x < 2} and likewise for the other set {(x, 2) R : 2 < x < 2}. (d) The symmetries are: rotations by /2, , 3/2 w.r.t. origin, as well as reections by axis passing by origin at angles 0, /4, /2 and 3/4. This forms the group D4 . 4
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

= 4}

= {v R : (v (2, 3)T )T AAT (v (2, 3)T ) = 4}

How to see that: exactly as in the rst way above. Or: we have 4 rotations (including identity), so a factor Z4 . Then: we also have reections, so we choose one axis, this is the group Z2 . Hence, Z2 Z4 , which is D4 . (e) The symmetries are: translations along the x axis, rotation by w.r.t. any point on the x axis, and reections w.r.t. x and y axis and any axis parallel to y -axis. The group is D2 R. Translation: factor R. Then: rotations, x a center, factor Z2 . Then, reections, x an axis, factor Z2 . Putting things together: rst reections and rotations, Z2 Z2 = D2 , then with translations: D2 R.