Chapter 5

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SCIENCE - FORM 2
Water and Solutions

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THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

1. Water is a colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid. 2. Water exists in three states, which are solid ( ice ), liquid ( water ) and gas ( steam ). 3. Water can change from one state to another.
4. The changes in the state of water occur at specific temperatures.
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5. The temperature of a substance remains constant, that is it does not rise or drop, during the change of state. 6. The density of water is 1 g per cm3. 1 cm3 of water has a mass of 1 gram. For example, 50 cm3 of water has a mass of 50 g. 7. Water is a poor conductor of heat.
The relationship between the freezing and boiling points of water and the Kinetic Theory
1. When water is cooled, the particles lose kinetic energy ( heat is released ). The particles move more slowly. 2. At freezing point, liquid particles cannot move freely anymore. 3. Liquid particles are pulled together by strong forces of attraction between particles. 4. This is why solid particles cannot move freely. A liquid changes into a solid at freezing point.
5. When heat energy is suppied to a liquid, the liquid particles obtain a lot of kinetic energy and they vibrate faster. 6. At boiling point, the energy obtained enables the liquid particles to overcome and break the forces of attraction between the particles. 7. Liquid particles are freed and change into gas at boiling point.
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1. Ice melts at 0C. 2. Water boils at 1000C. 3. The temperature does not increase when ice melts to form water.
1. Ice changes into water at 00C. 2. Water changes into sream at 1000C. 3. The temperature does not increase when ice changes into water.
Distilled water freezes at 0 0C.
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Distilled water changes into ice at 0 0C.
The freezing point or melting point of water is 0 0C, whereas the boiling point of water is 100 0C. 1. There is no increase in temperature when a solid changes into a liquid and when a liquid changes into a gas. 2. When ice changes into water, the temperature is constant at 0 0C. This temperature is known as the melting point of water. 3. When water changes into ice, the temperature is also constant at 0 0C. This temperature is known as the freezing point of water. 4. The melting poind and the freezing point is the same. A substance melts and freezes at the same temperature. 5. When water changes into steam, the temperature is constant at 100 0C. This temperature is known as the boiling point of water. (a) At stage P : - Ice melts and becomes water at melting point ( 0 0C). (b) At stage Q : - The temperature of water increases. (c) At stage R : - Water boils and becomes steam at boiling point ( 100 0C).
The effects of impurities on the physical properties of water

1. Impurities ( dissolved substance ) can influence the freezing point, melting point and boiling point of water. 2. Impurities increase the boiling point of water but decrease the freezing or melting point of water.
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1. The boiling point of distilled water is 100 0C. 2. The boiling point of the distilled water and common salt mixture is 102 0C. 3. The melting point of the mixture of ice and common salt is - 2 0C.
Impurities increase theboiling point of water but decrease the melting point of ice.
Impuritise decrease the freezing point of water. Water test The presence of water can be determined by the tests as shown in the Table above.
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COMPOSITION OF WATER The electrolysis of water

1. Water is a chemical compound that consists of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen.
2. The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in one molecule of water is 2 : 1. 3. Water can be separate into hydrogen and oxygen through the process of electrolysis.
1. The apparatus is set up as shown in the Figure above.
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2. A few drops of sulphuric acid is added to the distilled water. 3. The circuit is switched on and the electrical current is allowed to flow for 15 minutes. 4. The volume of the gases collected in X and Y are recorded. 5. The electrical current is allowed to flow until both measuring cylinders are filled with gas. 6. The gases in measuring cylinders X and Y are tested with a glowing wood spinter and a burning wood splinter respectively. 7. The observations are recorded in the same table.
1. Oxygen os collected in measuring cylinder X. 2. Hydrogen is collected in measuring cylinder Y. 3. Oxygen is collected at the positive electrode (anode) whereas hydrogen is collected at the negative electrode (cathode). 4. A little sulphuric acid is added to the distilled water to increase the electrical conductivity of water. 5. The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen collected is 2 : 1. Therefore, the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in one water molecule is 2 : 1.
Water is a chemical compound that consists of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen.
1. The symbols for hydrogen and oxygen are h and O respectively. The symbol for one molecule of water is H2O. 2. The positive electrode is known as the anode while the negative electrode is the cathode. 3. Water is a weak conductor of electricity. Therefore, a few drops of sulphuric acid are added to it so that it can conduct electricity better.
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4. The test to confirm the presence of hydrogen and oxygen : (a) Hydrogen produces a 'pop' sound with a burning wooden splinter (b) Oxygen lights up a glowing wooden splinter. 5. Ammeter is used to measure the electric current.
EVAPORATION OF WATER
1. Water in an open beaker dries up without being heated to its boiling point. (a) This is because water particles on the surface of the water escape to the air when the particles absorb enough energy from the surrounding. (b) The particles that escape the surface of water become gas molecules. (c) When the particles evaporate, they remove heat energy from the water. As a result, the water becomes cooler. (d) This process is called evaporation, which occurs at any temperature and time. 2. Factors affecting the rate of evaporation of water (a) Temperature of surrounding Rate of evaporation increases when the surrounding temperature is higher. (b) Movement of air ( wind ) The rate of evaporation is higher when there is movement of air. Wind carries water particles that are released from the surface of water to other places. Therefore, the other particles left in the liquid would have the opportunity to be released into the atmosphere to fill up the empty spaces. (c) Humidity of air Rate of evaporation ois faster when there is only a little water vapour in the air. The presence of a lot water vapour prevents water particles from being evaporated. (d) Surface area of water Rate of evaporation is higher when the exposed surface area of water is larger. A larger surface area exposes a lot of water particles to the atmosphere. Therefore, more water particles would have the opportunity to be released into the atmosphere. 3. The differences between evaporation and boiling are as follows :
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(a) Two sets of apparatus as shown in the diagram are prepared. (b) Observation is made on the water in the evaporating dish.
(a) Water in evaporating dish J, dries up faster than the water in evaporating dish K.
(a) The air in bell jar J is dry because anhydrous calcium chloride absorbs water vapour in the jar (b) Dry air has more spaces that allow water molecules to escape quickly into the air. (c) The air in bell jar K is saturated with water vapour. Less water molecules can escape into this saturated air because the space is very little.
The rate of evaporation increases when humidity of air decreases.
Is the rate of evaporation affected by the temperature of the surrounding?
The rate of evaporation increases when temperature of the surrounding increases.
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(a) Constant : Volume of water, movement of air and humidity. (b) Manipulated : Temperature of the surrounding. (c) Responding : Rate of evaporation.
(a) A drop of water is placed on two evaporating dishes, L and M respectively. (b) Evaporating dish L is placed in the hot sun and evaporating dish M is placed in a room. (c) The drops of water in both evaporating dishes are observed.
The water in evaporating dish L dries up faster than the water in evaporating dish M.
(a) At a higher temperature, water molecules absorb more heat energy. (b) The water molecules possess more kinetic energy and escape from the surface of the water into the air.
The rate of evaporation increases when the temperature increases.
Is the rate of evaporation affected by the surface area of water?
The rate of evaporation is higher when the surface area of water is larger.
(a) Constant : Temperature of surrounding, air movement and humidity of air. (b) Manipulated : Surface area of water. (c) Responding : Rate of evaporation.
(a) One filter paper is folded twice and labeled N. (b) Another filter paper is left unfolded and labeled O. (c) Both of the filter papers are dipped into a beaker of water until they are completely wet. (d) Both of the filter papers are placed on a tile and left in the hot sun. (e) The filter papers are observed from time to time to see which filter paper dries up first.
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Filter paper O dries up faster than filter paper N.
More water molecules escape from a larger surface area into the air.
The larger the surface area, the higher the rate of evaporation.
How does movement of air affect the rate of evaporation?
The faster the air moves, the higher the rate of evaporation.
(a) Constant : Temperature of surrounding, volume of water and humidity of air. (b) Manipulated : Movement of air. (c) Responding : Rate of evaporation.
(a) A drop of water is placed on an evaporating dish P and another drop is placed on an evaporating dish Q. (b) Evaporating dish P is placed under a rotating fan in a room. (c) Evaporating dish Q is placed in a room without a rotating fan.
The water in evaporating dish P dries up faster than the water in evaporating dish Q.
(a) Water molecules that escape into the air is carried away to another place by moving air. (b) More water molecules can evaporate when the air near the surface of the water is less saturated with water molecules.
The rate of evaporation increases ewhen there is moving air.
4. The application of evaporation of water in our daily life.
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(a) Wet clothes dry up faster if : i. the temperature of the environment is high, such as during a hot day. ii. there is moving air. iii. the clothes are spread out so that their exposed surface area is larger. iv. humidity of air is low. (b) Wet hair dries up faster when it is blown by a hairdryer. (c) Agricultural products such as coconut, cocoa, tea, black paper, tobacco and chilies are dried in a hot sun. (d) Marine products such as fishes, prawns and cuttlefishes are dried up under the sun as an efford to preserve them. (e) Marine salt is obtained by the evaporation of sea water.
(f) Processing of food such as milk powder, instant noodles, instant coconut milk involve removel of water from the food materials through evaporation. Preservation by this method enables food to be kept longer because bacteria and fungi cannot grow in them. (g) Evaporation of sweat from the surface of the skin expels excess heat from the body. This helps to cool down the body.
SOLUTION AND SOLUBILITY Solute, Solvent and Solution

1. Figure above shows that when some sugar is added to a beaker of water and stirred, the sugar is no more visible.
2. The sugar which is soluble in water is called solute. 3. The water is called solvent because it dissolves the sugar. 4. The mixture that is formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent is called a solution. 5. The particles of a solute and a solvent are evently distributed in a solution. At any part of the solution, the taste, appearance and composition are the same.
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6. (a) A substance which dissolves in other substances is a solute. (b) A liquid that dissloves other substances is a solvent. (c) When a solute dissolves in a solvent, a solution is formed. 7. Water is the most common solvent because it dissolves many types of substances. 8. Petrochemical solvents are used to dissolve oil and grease.
Dilute, Concentrated and Saturated Solution

1. When a little solute dissolved in a solvent, a dilute solution is formed. 2. A concentrated solution is formed when more solute dissolvend in a solvent. 3. When a solute cannot dissolved anymore in a solvent at a given temperature, a saturated solution is formed.
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Solution and Suspension

1. Mixtures of liquids can be divided into : (a) Solutions (b) Suspensions 2. (a) Mixtures which contain dissolved substances are called solutions. (b) Mixtures which contain insoluble substances are called suspensions, 3. The following table summarises the differences between a solution and a suspensions.
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1. Glucose which dissolves in water forms a clear solution. 2. Tea leaves which do not dissolve in water form a suspension.
Solubility
1. Solubility of a solute is the quantity of solute in grams that will dissolve in 100 ml of solvent at a
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certain temperature to produce a saturated solution. Therefore, solubility refers to the maximum amount of a solute that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent.
2. The unit of solubility is g per ml of solvent. 3. For example, at a temperature of 300C the solubility of sodium chloride in water is 39 g per 100 ml of water. 4. At 300C, 39 g of sodium chloride will dissolve in 100 ml of water to form a saturated solution. 5. The solubility of a solute is affected by : (a) the nature of a solvent (b) the nature of a solute (c) the temperature of a solvent 6. The nature of solvents. (a) A substance has different solubilities in different solvents. (b) The examples are : i. Sugar ( solute ) dissolves faster in water ( solvent ) than in other solvents like alcohol and oil. ii. Ink ( solute ) dissolves quikly in acetone and alcohol but dissolves very slowly in water. 7. The nature of solutes. (a) Different solutes have different solubilities in a given solvent. (b) For example, salt is more soluble in water than in a suspension of wheat flour. 8. The temperature of solvents. (a) The solubility of a solid in a liquid solvent increases if the temperature of solvent increases. (b) The solubility of a gas in a liquid solvent decreases if the temperature of solvent increases. (c) Most solutes are more soluble at higher temperatures than at lower temperatures. (d) For example, common salt dissolves faster in a hot water than in cold water.
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(a) Iodine crystals in distilled water ( beaker S ) do not dissolve. (b) Iodine crystals in alcohol ( beaker T ) dissolved.
The solubility of a solute depends on the solvent.
Is solubility affected by the nature of the solute?
The nature of the solute affects its solubility.
(a) Constant : Volume and temperature of solvent. (b) Manipulated : Types of solutes. (c) Responding : Solubility of the solutes.
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(a) Beakers U and V are filled with 60 ml of water respectively. (b) 25 g of fine sugar is added to beaker U and 25 g chalk powder is added to beaker V. (c) Both mixture are stirred at the same rate and then, they are left aside.
(a) Sugar in beaker U dissolves quickly in water when it is stirred. (b) Chalk powder in beaker V takes much longer time to dissolve in water.
Different solutes have different rates of solubility in a solvent.
Solubility The Rate of Dissolving a Solute

1. The rate of dissolving a solute indicates how fast a substance can dissolve in a given amount of solvent, at a certain temperature. 2. The time when a solute is added to a solvent until it has completely dissolved determines the time for dissolving process. 3. Factors affecting the rate of dissolving are : (a) The size of solute particles. (b) The rate of stirring the solvent. (c) The temperature of solvent. (d) The volume of solvent.
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Fine sugar in beaker E dissolves first.
1. Fine sugar particles have a larger surface area than the coarse sugar particles. 2. Larger surface area that come into contact with the solvent increases its dissolving rate.
The smaller the solute particles, the higher the rate of dissolving.
Does the rate of stirring have an effect on the rate of dissolving?
Stirring increases the rate of dissolving a solute in a solvent.
(a) Constant : The volume and temperature of solvent, size of solute particles and mass of solute particles. (b) Manipulated : The rate of stirring the solvent.
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(c) Responding : The rate of dissolving the solute.
1. Beaker G and H are filled with 50 ml of water respectively. 2. 15 g of fine sugar is added ro each beaker. 3. The contant of beaker G is stirrid, while beaker H is left unstirred. 4. The mixtures are observed.
Sugar in beaker G dissolves quickly.
1. Stirring increases the frequency of collisions between the solute particles and the solvent particles. 2. This causes the solute particles to diffuse into the spaces between the solvent particles more easily.
The rate of dissolving a solute increases when the solvent is stirrid.
How does the temperature of solvent affect the rate of dissolving?
The rate of dissolving increases when the temperature of solvent increases.
(a) Constant : The volume of solvent, size and mass of solute particles, stirring rate. (b) Manipulated : The temperature of solvent. (c) Responding : The rate of dissolving.
1. Beaker I is filled with 50 ml of cold water. 2. Beaker J is filled with 50 ml of hot water. 3. 50 g of fine sugar is added to both of the beakers. 4. The mixtures are stirrid at the same rate and observed.
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Fine sugar in beaker J dissolves first.
1. The solute particles absorb heat energy from the solvent. 2. The dissolved solute particles move fast and diffuse quickly into the spaces between the solvent particles.
The higher the temperature of a solvent, the higher the rate of dissolving a solute.
How does the volume of a solvent affect the rate of dissolving?
The higher the volume of a solvent, the higher the rate of dissolving.
(a) Constant : the temperature of solvent, the size of solute particles , the mass of solute and the stirring rate. (b) Manipulated : The volume of solvent. (c) Rsponding : The rate of dissolving.
1. Beaker K is filled with 25 ml of water and beaker L is filled with 50 ml of water. 2. 15 g of fine sugar is added to each beaker. 3. The mixtures are stirred and observed.
Sugar in beaker L dissolves first.
1. The solute particles dissolve quickly in a larger volume of solvent because the larger volume of solvent contains more empty spaces between the particles.
The Importance of Water as a Solvent in Daily Life

1. Water which is known as the universal solvent is a very important compound in our lives. 2. Water is used as solvent during preparation of foods and drinks like tea, coffee and fruit juices. 3. Water is also needed to dissolve detergent for washing clothes, cars, cooking utensils and lab apparatus.
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4. Water which covers 70% of the Earth's surface is the solvent in rivers, seas, ponds and lakes. 5. Human body processes like digestion of food, respiratory, excretory and blood circulatory need water as a solvent. 6. Water is used as a solvent in many types of industries that manufacture foods, drinks, medicines, detergents and textiles. 7. Plants need water for photosynthesis and transpiration processes. 8. Aquatic organisms are able to live in water because oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolve in water.
Organic Solvent
1. Some organic substances are not soluble in water, but they are soluble in organic solvents like alcohol, petrol, kerosene, turpentine, acetone and ether.
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Acid and Alkali

1. Two main groups of solutions are acids and alkalis. 2. Acids can be classified as : (a) Organic acids (b) Inorganic or mineral acids. 3. Organic acids. (a) Organic acids which contain carbon are normally found in plants and animals. (b) Common organic acids are shown in the Table above. 4. Inorganic acids (a) Mineral salts are used to prepare inorganic acids. Therefore, it is also called mineral acids. (b) Common inorganics acids are : i. NItric acid ii. Sulphuric acid iii. Hydrochloric acid
WATER PURIFICATION
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Methods of Water Purification

A. Filtration 1. Filtration process removes suspended solid particles like sand, mud, dirts and dry leaves. 2. The process can be done by a sand filter. The process which is fast and cheap does not remove : (a) Dossolved substances like mineral salts (b) Microorganisms
1. The filtrate looks clean, colourless and adourless. 2. Some microorganisms are observed under the microscope.
1. Suspended solid particles are trapped by the layers of sand and stones when the water flows through the sand filter. 2. Dissolved substances and microorganisms pass through the sand filter.
Filtrasion only removes the suspended solid particles. The filtrate is not suitable for drinking because it contains microorganisms.
B. Boling
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1. Microorganisms in water like bacteria and protozoa may cause dysentery, cholera, diarrhoea and typhoid. 2. Boiling kills most of the microorganisms to make the water safe to be drunk. 3. This process purifies only a small amount of water for drinking.
C. Chlorination 1. Chlorination is a process of adding chlorine to water. 2. Chlorine kills microorganisms and it can be used to used to treat large volumes of water. 3. Chlorine is used to kill bacteria and in swimming pools.
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D. Distillation 1. Distillation is a process that removes microorganisms, suspended solid particles and dissolved substances. 2. The product of distillation is distilled water ( pure water ). 3. Pure water is not suitable for drinking because it does not contain dissolved mineral salts.
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1. The distillate is colourless and odourless. 2. The distillate does not leave residue on the microscope slide. 3. The distillate does not contain microorganisms when observed under a microscope.
Distilled water does not contain microorganisms, but it is not suitable for drinking because it doesnot contain dissolved mineral salts.
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

1. Properties of the drinking water that is supplied to consumers : (a) Does not contain colour or smell. (b) Does not contain suspended particles or harmful substances. (c) Does not contain harmful microorganisms. (d) Contains dissolved mineral salts. 2. Diagram above shows the stages in a water treatmet plant.
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3. Strorage reservoir (a) River water is pumped and collected in a storage reservoir. (b) The stagnant water allows mud, silt and other suspended solid particles to sink to the bottom of the reservoir. (c) As the water is exposed to the sunlight, some of the dangerous bacteria in the water are killed by the sunlight. (d) Some of the large solid particles are removed by a metal screen. 4. Coagulation tank (a) From the reservoir, water is forced through an aeration system to dissolve oxygen. Aeration system helps to remove unpleasant smell from the water. (b) In the coagulation tank, slaked lime and alum ( aluminium sulphate ) are added to the water. (c) Alum sticks fine solid particles tohether to form larger lumps. While, slaked lime reduces the acidity of water. 5. Sedimantion tank (a) Then, water flows into the sedimantion tank. (b) The larger lumps settle down to the bottom of the tank. 6. Filtration tank (a) As water flows into the filtration tank, it passes through layers of sand filters. (b) Suspended particles and sediment are trapped by the sand filters, and then removed. 7. Chlorination and fluoridation tank (a) Clean water flows into the chlorination tank. (b) A small amount of chlorine is mixed to the water to kill microorganisms, like bacteria and fungi. (c) The water is enriched by adding a small quantity of fluoride salt to prevent tooth decay. 8. Storage. (a) Then, treated water flows into the storage tank. (b) From the storage tank, water is pumped into the supply ponds which are situated on a higher ground than consumers' houses. (c) Clean water is supplied to the consumers' houses through pipes. Conservation of Water 1. Water should be used carefully in order to avoid wastage and shortage of water. 2. Several steps need to be taken to save water, that include : (a) Closing the water tap after using it. (b) Using water from cup and not running water from tap to rinse teeth after brushing. (c) Reusing the water used for washing fruits and vegetables to water plants. (d) Using buckets of water and not running tap water connected to a hose to wash car.
ACIDS AND ALKALIS
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The role of water in acids and alkalis

Acids and alkalis show their properties in the presence of water.
1. Dry acids and alkalis do not show their properties. 2. The citric acid solution shows acidic properties. 3. The sodium hydroxide solution shows alkaline properties.
The function of water is no enable acids and alkalis to show their properties.
Acids
1. An acid is a chemical substance that has a hydrogen atom, which can be replaced by a metal or ammonium. 2. Acids can be divided into two groups and the differences are shown below.
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3. Acids exist in three states which are : (a) solid - for example, tartaric acid (b) liquid - for example, ethanoic acid ( acetic acid ) (c) gas - for example, hydrogen chloride The properties of acids Acids have the following properties : (a) taste sour (b) corrosive (c) change blue litmus paper to red (d) have pH values of less than 7 (e) react with carbonates to release carbon dioxide and form salt and water
Example :
(f) react with reactive metals ( magnesium / aluminium / zinc / iron ) to release hydrogen and form salts
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Example :
(g) reacts with alkalis to form salt and water ( neutralisation process )
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1. Concentrated sulphuric acid is orrosive. 2. Hydrogen is released when magnesium tape react with dilute hydrochloric acid.
3. Carbon dioxide is released when marble reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid.
The properties of acids include : (a) tate sour (b) corrosive (c) change blue litmus paper to red (d) pH values of less than 7 (e) release hydrogen as it reacts with magnesium (f) release carbon dioxide as it reacts with calcium carbonate
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An acid can be operationally defined as a substance that has a sour taste, is corrosive, has a pH value of less than 7, release hydrogen when reacting with active (reactive) metals and releases carbon dioxide when reacting with calcium carbonate.
Alkalis
1. An alkalis is a hydroxide or metal oxide that dissolves in water. 2. Examples of alkalis are potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide ( lime water ), and ammonium hydroxide ( ammonia solution ) The properties of alkalis Alkalis have the following properties : (a) taste bitter (b) feel slippery like soap when touched with the fingers (c) corrosive (d) change red litmus paper to blue (e) have pH values of more than 7 (f) reacts with ammonium salts to release ammonia when heated
Example : (g) react with acids to form salt and water ( neutralisation process )
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1. A concentrated sodium hydroxide solution is corrosive. 2. Ammonia gas that has alkaline properties is released when a mixture of sodium hydroxide and ammonium chloride is heated.
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The properties of alkalis include : (a) taste bitter (b) corrosive (c) change red litmus paper blue (d) have pH values of more than 7 (e) react with ammonium chloride is heated
An alkalis can be operationally defined as a substance that tastes bitter, is corrosive, has a pH value of more than 7 and release ammonia gas when heated with ammonium salt.
pH values
1. The pH value of a substance shows if the substance is acidic, neutral or alkaline. 2. The pH scale has values from 1 to 14. (a) Acidic conditions ( pH 1 - 6 ) : a substance with a value of pH 1 is far more acidic than a substance with a pH value of 6 (b) Neutral condition ( pH 7 ) : neither acidic nor alkaline (c) Alkaline conditions ( pH 8 - 14 ) : a substance with pH value of 14 is far more alkaline than a substance with a pH value of 8 3. The pH values of substances are determined by using pH paper or universal indicator solutions.
Acidic and alkalis substances in everyday life

1. Lemon juice and vinegar have a sour taste. things with sour waste contain acids. 2. Many things in our daily lives contain alkalis. 3. The following procedure is used tio determine if a substance is acidic or alkaline in our daily life : (a) Add two drops of universal indicator solution to a test tube containing the substance to be tested. mix the substance with water if needed. (b) Compare the colour of the solution formed with the universal indicator chart. (c) Determine the pH of the solution and the acidic or alkaline conditions of the substance.
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The uses of acids and alkalis in our everyday life Acids and alkalis have many uses in our daily life.
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Neutralisation
1. Neutralisation is the reaction that occurs between an acid and an alkali to form salt and water. 2. The word equation below represents the neutralisation reaction between an acid and an alkali.
3. At the neutralisation point, all the acid completely reacts with the alkali. The solution formed does not show acidic or alkaline properties and has a pH value of 7. 4. The salt formed from the neutralisation process depends on the type of acid and alkali used, as shown in the following table.
5. The method of mixing an acid with an alkali using a burette to achieve the point of neutralisation is known as the titration method.
PRESERVING WATER QUALITY
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Water pollution occurs when water is dirtied by waste thrown into it. Polluted water is no longer suitable for living things.
Water pollutants
There are various water pollutants :
The effects of water pollution on living things

Water pollution brings about adverse effects on the equilibrium in nature.
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Steps to control water pollution

1. Water pollution must be controlled so that water is suitable for living things including human beings. 2. The steps to control water pollution include : (a) control methods of waste disposal.
Copyright 2005 Kenshido International Sdn Bhd
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Score A Notes

Water and Solutions

THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

4. The changes in the state of water occur at specific temperatures.

Distilled water freezes at 0 0C.

Distilled water changes into ice at 0 0C.

The effects of impurities on the physical properties of water

COMPOSITION OF WATER The electrolysis of water

1. The apparatus is set up as shown in the Figure above.

The rate of evaporation increases when humidity of air decreases.

Is the rate of evaporation affected by the temperature of the surrounding?

The rate of evaporation increases when temperature of the surrounding increases.

The rate of evaporation increases when the temperature increases.

Is the rate of evaporation affected by the surface area of water?

Filter paper O dries up faster than filter paper N.

How does movement of air affect the rate of evaporation?

The rate of evaporation increases ewhen there is moving air.

4. The application of evaporation of water in our daily life.

SOLUTION AND SOLUBILITY Solute, Solvent and Solution

Dilute, Concentrated and Saturated Solution

Solution and Suspension

The solubility of a solute depends on the solvent.

Is solubility affected by the nature of the solute?

The nature of the solute affects its solubility.

Different solutes have different rates of solubility in a solvent.

Solubility The Rate of Dissolving a Solute

Fine sugar in beaker E dissolves first.

Does the rate of stirring have an effect on the rate of dissolving?

Stirring increases the rate of dissolving a solute in a solvent.

(c) Responding : The rate of dissolving the solute.

Sugar in beaker G dissolves quickly.

The rate of dissolving a solute increases when the solvent is stirrid.

How does the temperature of solvent affect the rate of dissolving?

The rate of dissolving increases when the temperature of solvent increases.

Fine sugar in beaker J dissolves first.

How does the volume of a solvent affect the rate of dissolving?

Sugar in beaker L dissolves first.

The Importance of Water as a Solvent in Daily Life

Acid and Alkali

Methods of Water Purification

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

ACIDS AND ALKALIS

The role of water in acids and alkalis

Acidic and alkalis substances in everyday life

PRESERVING WATER QUALITY

The effects of water pollution on living things

Steps to control water pollution

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