ILCC 2013

1
INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE FOR COMMUNICATION CONFERENCE




ILCC 2013
2






PROCEEDINGS OF ILCC 2013


INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE FOR
COMMUNICATION CONFERENCE 2013

Engaging Global Community: Breaking the barriers
to effective communication

23
rd
25
th
August 2013


First published 2013
Disclaimer : The organizer of ILCC 2013 is not responsible or liable
for any mistake and opinion presented in this proceeding.

e-ISBN: 978-967-418-297-7






Organiser :
Kulliyyah of Languages and Management (KLM),
International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM)

Published by :
IIUM Press
International Islamic University Malaysia

Table of Contents:

No
.
Title Page No.
1 Designing an interactive program in learning Arabic language for non-native
speakers via Virtual Tutor by Ahmed Ragheb Ahmed Mahmoud et. al.
6
2 Students attitudes towards university-required English Language instruction
: A Comparison between Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD) and Universiti T
eknologi Mara (UiTM) by Salinayanti Salim
19
3 The Problems of Learning the Arabic Verbal System among the Malay learners
in Malaysian Universities by Asem Shehadeh Ali
29
4 Arabic Broadcasting as a potential tool of National Integration: Nigerian Experi
ence by Tajudeen Adebayo
44
5 Gender Issues in al-Hilali and Khans English translation of the Quran : An I
nvestigation by Zakariyau I. Oseni
56
6 The English Block of Words as an Innovative Approach in
Teaching English Grammar by Arief Eko Priyo Atmojo, Mutiara Andrianti Suta
rno and Rohandi Latif
61
7 Study of language use of Indonesian proclamation speech by Soekarno (Pragm
atics and Discourse analysis) by La Ode Nggawu
66
8 Common grammatical structures and their role in achieving linguistic oral co
mmunication by Khalid Osman Yousif, Abdul Elaziz M. Haroun and Maryam A
bdul Rahman
77
9 The Study of Language Styles Used by The Members of Tonymacx86 Online Fo
rum: How People Engage Themselves through Language by Alfian Cahyo Budi
ardi and Baity Anggraeni
84
10 Motivation and E-learning: the Experience of Blended Learning by Kristina Mu
llamaa
93
11 Structured Learning Technique: Effort in Promoting Malay Language to Intern
ational Students by Mardian Shah Omar and Sidra Naim Taraq Naemzia
100
12 Comprehension and Ability to Use Word Order by International Students in As
pectof Writing Malay Language by Sidra Naim Taraq Naemzia and Mardian Sh
ah Omar
109
13 Language Planning and Terminology: An Insight of the Mak Yong Terminology
by Puteri Roslina Abdul Wahid, Salinah Jaafar and Tengku Intan Marlina Ten
gku Ali
115
14 English Song as an Asset to Improve Middle-aged EL Learners Listening Skill
by Masoome Noori and Alireza Jamshidi

127
15 Exploration of Cohesive Devices of English to streamline Arabic Communicatio
n Skills by Yahya Toyin Muritala
132
16 Multi Traditional Cultural Exposure Approach in EFLClassroom; Engaging Go
od Appreciation and Communication in Diversity By:Dian KaryaniAstuti
141
17 Humor in Chinese Language Classroom-The Cream of language teachers spe
ech art. By Angus AngThiahHuat
147
18 Culture and Language Use by Yuko Hoshino 154
19 The Impact of Indirect Feedback on L2 Learners in Learning English Languag
e by NazifahHamidun, ZalizaZubir and Nur Farhinaa Othman
159
20 The Impact of Using a repetitive question system of teaching on comprehensi
on of Arabic syntax in universities (A case study of Insaniah University Colege
by Abdul GaniyLuqmanOlowonjaye and ElsayedMakkiElbishrAli Hassan
164
21 Islamic Principles to enhance Effective Communication in Distant Education B
y HasinaBanu Shirin and Mohammad Serazul Islam
169
22 A pragmatic study of media war against military rule in Nigeria (1989-1999) b
y Mahfouz A. Adedimeji
176
23 Improving Young Learners Vocabulary using Benteng-bentengan by Nisrin A
delyna Darayani
189
24 Master of teacher website (MOTWEB): E-learning based application as a syste
m to improve teachers compentency to develop teachers quality in Indonesia b
196
ILCC 2013
4

y Tika Novita Sari, Wahyu Andi Saputra

and Tri Hardiyanti
25 ENHANCING LITERACY SKILLS IN HIGHER EDUCATION THROUGH DI
GITAL STORYTELLING by Leela Chakrabarty
205
26 Linguistic Argumentation and Logic: An Alternative Method Approach in Arabi
c Grammar by Solehah Yaacob
216
27 Fun Lyrics as An English Learning Media Software for Elementary School St
udent via Music Lyric by Wahyu Andi Saputra and Tika Novita Sari.
240
28 Instructional Methods on vocabulary acquisition among EFL language learner
s by Azadeh Asgari
253
29 Language and Communication Skills (LCS) of Leadership in Educational Mana
gement by Safrat Folake Adelakun
261
30 Psychometric Analysis of The Self-Efficacy Encouragement in The University E
nvironment: A Chinese Version
273
31 Lexical Borrowing from the Arabic Language in an Islamic Course Conducted i
n English by Nurul-Ikhlas Arshad

and Mohamed Ismail Ahamad Shah
285
32 English Language Teaching Challenges in Malaysia: Polytechnic Lecturers Ex
perience By Suhaily Abdullah and Faizah Abd Majid
302
33 Mobilizing Peoples Support to Combat Demonstration: (De)legitimization Strat
egy in Arab Spring Political Discourse by Abdul Kadir Sulaiman
312
34 Penggunaan strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri kemahiran bertutur bahas
a arab dalam kalangan pelajar melayu di Pusat Asasi UIAM. Oleh Mastura bin
ti Arshad
319
35 Peminjaman bahasa Sanskrit dalam dialek Melayu Patani dan bahasa Thai:
Sumber Persamaan demi menyelesaikan konflik di Selatan Thai
Oleh: Abdonloh Khreeda-oh
331
36 Analisis strategi kesantunan dalam kritikan oleh: Nasihah Hashim
dan Indirawati Zahid
342
37 Mengajar Prinsip Kesantunan Linguistik Dalam Budaya Melayu Kepada Pelaj
ar Asing. Oleh: Zaitul Azma Binti Zainon Hamzah dan Ahmad Fuad Mat Hassa
n.
357
38 Serangga dalam peribahasa melayu sebagai pelengkap kehidupan. Oleh Ahma
d Fuad Mat Hassan dan Zaitul Azma Zainon Hamzah
364
39 Analisis Kesalahan Umum Struktur Ayat Majmuk oleh Pelajar Asing 371
40

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395
41

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43
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53
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601
54 Colonial impact on the socio-communicative functions of arabic language in
nigeria: an overview by Alfa Muhammed Salisu et. al.
612
55 Code Switching to English in Malayalam Literary Texts by Tania Mary Vivera 621
56 Cross-linguistic and Cross-disciplinary Variation of Lexical bundles in
Academic Writing by Hadi Kashiha et. al.
631
57 Subset-principle, Positive Linguistic Data and a Good Cue by Maryam
Jalalifarahani and Mohammadali Ghovehnodoushan
637














ILCC 2013
6

Designing an interactive program in learning Arabic language for non-native
speakers via Virtual Tutor

Ahmed Ragheb Ahmed Mahmoud
1
, Muhammad Sabri Sahrir
2
,
Rahmah bt Ahmad H. Osman
3

1
Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, IIUM
2
Kulliyyah of Languages and Management, IIUM
3
Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, IIUM
______________________________________________________________________________
Corresponding Author: ragheb@iium.edu.my, Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human S
ciences, International Islamic University Malaysia

Abstract
This research presents the design framework of an interactive program specifically dedicated in teac
hing Arabic language to the non-native speakers. This program is established based on the complete
awareness of the language contents and its four study levels (phonological, morphological, syntacti
cal and semantic) with distinct focus on prominent foundations and theories concerned with academ
ic accomplishment as derived from the e-learning data system. The research is established on textu
al and phonological database involving vocabulary comprehension and its manners of pronunciation
and inferring to the most highly expected errors from the non-native speakers of Arabic. More than
120 users have participated in the process, under the supervision of a specialized teamwork between
the administrative, linguistic, educational and engineering departments. The tentative results have s
tatistically reflected the programs efficiency and its distinctive role in prompting the academic proc
ess and the increase in the cognitive outcome among the students specimen assigned as the experim
ental sample group in comparison to the results of the realizable control sample from the similar co
nventional education. This program garners practical and academic features ensuring more worth in
studying it as to the other e-learning programs. Virtual Tutor does not only embody theoretical foun
dations supported with modern methodological designs as it simultaneously ensures efficient partici
patory role of the users involved.
Keywords: design framework, Arabic language learning, interactive program, non-native speakers,
design and development.

Introduction
This universe is especially unique in its established diversity of tongues and different languages. Th
e difference in world languages should not, however, present an obstacle that seeks to separate one
nation from another. This study is aimed at effectively contributing in bridging the cultural gap betw
een multi-tongued people of different nations through the introduction of an interactive program th
at contributes to a major development in Arabic language teaching for the non-native speakers. The
effort is not dependent upon the linguistics and educational sectors per se as it fuses available tech
nical tools and applications into the Arabic and Islamic environments upon believing that the moder
n technology is an indispensable aspect of the educational process. The research addresses the issue
s of the importance of learning Arabic among non-native speakers, purposes of learning, and learnin
g tools and aids from the western perspectives. The use of technology and literacy among people is
often described in relation to one another and which are specifically known as information literacy a
nd multimedia literacy (Warschauer, 2006).



Computer applications in teaching and learning of the Arabic language
The earlier Islamic nation was very much concerned with the spread of the Arabic language. The lin
guistics sciences then in turn has come around to preserve and safeguard the Arabic language from e
rrors and distortions by describing its linguistics theoretical concepts beginning with el-Khalil bin A
hmed el-Faraheedi in his theory of the overview to Sibawayh in his theory of the complete mode
l as discussed in the book and finally to Ibn Jinny in his theory of theoretical concepts consisten
cy of Arabic language sciences as mentioned in his books the secret of syntax and the propertie
s (Ragheb-a, 2011). The spread of Islam all over the world also encourages the spreading of the Ar
abic language; the language of the holy Quran and its prophetic texts. Thus, the Arabic language has
been learnt and taught by different races and tribes from all over the world involving various teachi
ng and learning methods including computational technologies. In the case of Africa, the spread of I
slam also encourages the mastery of the Arabic language because it is considered a sacred language
in order to understand the Holy Quran for fear of subtracting from or adding to the sacred original t
ext (Adewuni Salawu, 2007). Nowadays the use of computer and its applications have invaded and
became an integral part of the modern societies life. Changes within the different aspects of life ha
ppen in a record time and it is the duty of every society to keep up with the information era especiall
y in embracing the computer and its applications which would then see them qualified and well-arm
ed in bracing the rapid changes of this era (al-Harak, 2003). Learning through multimedia is then on
becoming the focus of researchers in computer-assisted language learning in order to enhance the e
ffectiveness of learning process. The term multimedia learning can be defined as the presentation
of material using both words and pictures (Mayer, 2001). In addition, Mayer & Mereno (1998) foun
d that the learners understanding while watching animated images of a certain phenomenon (the lig
htning phenomenon) accompanied with an auditory explanation is much better than the learners un
derstanding of the similar animated images while verbally reading an onscreen-text explanation. T
hese technical developments are now synchronized within the stages of self-learning development.
This involved the use of multi-medias and computer-assisted learning method which increasingly a
ctivated the role of computer in language learning as also specifically seen in the Arabic language.

Based on Mohd Feham and Isarji (2000), Mohd Feham (2006), Ashinida, et al. (2004) and Zawawi (
2008), there is still a lack of use of computer-assisted technology in the Arabic language teaching an
d learning. Furthermore, Mohd Feham (2006) mentioned that there are few inventions and innovatio
ns available in the field of Arabic language learning, due to several reasons that pose a limit to the n
umber of Arabic language educational software and courseware. The majority of Arabic language te
achers were also found to be incompetent in using the computer and courseware in the teaching pro
cess due to poor computer literacy especially among the senior generations (Zawawi, 2008) and als
o lacking computer training (Ashinida et al., 2004). In addition, the technological production of mac
hinery for Arabic language teaching and learning is also being dominated by the American-English l
anguage, be it in terms of software or hardware as pointed out by Ditter (2006). Thus, this paper por
trays the process of designing an interactive computer-assisted Arabic language teaching and learnin
g web-based courseware that is to be used as complementary learning aids for traditional Arabic tex
tbooks. Studies have reiterated that multimedia applications have the ability in assisting the process
of teaching in the classroom in enabling more flexibility and effectiveness (Zamri & Nur Aisyah, 2
011) as well as in providing better learning experience compared to the face-to-face environment (V
incent, Lee, Tan and Syukery, 2005). A particular study in learning Arabic using multimedia found t
hat the audio with images mode was an important aid to learning as compared to text with images m
ode (Aldadalah, Fong & Ababneh, 2010).

Integration of technology and traditional textbook towards the design framework
The acquisition of a foreign language or any language is a process that is extremely complex be
cause of its relation to cognitive, cultural and psychological factors. With the growing interest in tea
ching foreign languages specially the Arabic language. Concerned institutions start to take an intere
st in this field by developing various learning aids such as readable books, audio tapes, CDs or spec
ILCC 2013
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ialized sites on the internet. For instance, there are educational online games that have been specific
ally developed as the instructional aids for the traditional textbook by Muhammad Sabri and Ghazal
i (2012) based on the front-end analysis of the needs of learners, teachers, educational institutions a
nd information technology (IT) facilities (Muhammad Sabri & Nor Aziah, 2011) using the design an
d development research methods and approaches (Muhammad Sabri, Nor Aziah, Zawawi and Nurul
huda, 2012). A similar attempt at integrating educational technology tools in supporting an online ac
ademic reading environment was conducted by Noorizah et. al. (2011), in the design of a prototype
known as Interactive English Language Literacy System (i-ELLS). In addition, the use of traditional
textbook in classroom is undergoing a transformation of becoming digital textbook and courseware
due to widespread computer applications among the digital generation (Lewin, 2009). In this paper,
every one of the Arabic language courses presents the linguistic subject that the student needs to ac
quire through a pre-determined method. The courses have been considered as the real embodiment o
f the Arabic academic program and are regarded as the most important courses developed until now
and are widely used to teach the Arabic language for the non-native speakers such as:
(The arabic language book for the youth) (Siniy, 1983)
(The series of I love Arabic) (Siniy, 1980)
(Series of teaching the Arabic language for the non-native speaker
s) (Group of Authors, 1980)
(The Arabic language in your hands) (Al-Fawzan, et. al., 2004)

a) The Arabic language book for the youth ( )
This book provides an overview of the language and presented it in an integrated way with the Arab
ic sounds for example not separated from the language levels. The Arabic sounds are presented in n
ormal speech of different contexts. This book also does not present the entire vocabulary lesson at o
ne go but in a sequence of connected groups for the purpose of use and not for mere conservation or
memorization. One of the most important features of this book is the creation of an effective way f
or studying the syntax based on the functional approach, it does not depend on analysis or the synta
ctic terminologies; but it processes the four essential linguistic skills equally, believing that languag
e learning and a progress in it is achieved by an awareness of continuous training. Its effectiveness i
s also attributed to the teacher-student relationship as well as between the student and his classmates
. Therefore this book functions as the suitable ground for this connection to enhance the students p
articipation in the learning process and increase his opportunities in using language. The book is als
o concerned with the language of living and depends on the direct approach and it does not use an i
ntermediary language. The book gives a special attention to the pictures, explaining and illustrating
the different situations in the lessons texts and exercises to assist the teacher in the explanation
and also help the student to understand.
The book handles ten major educational topics that reflect the interest and love of the youth with a g
oal for the students to learn the language structures and vocabularies. These topics are presented thr
ough 30 conversational texts and 8 reading texts that contain 110 of the basic structures of the Arabi
c grammar and 445 of the vocabularies and real expressions. The topics include a systematic and co
ntinuous study that spreads the spirit of joy and happiness among students and allows them a chanc
e to express their ideas and interests in Arabic as they would express it in their native language. The
situations present in the book have an important and relevant connection to their lives in the school
and the home by providing them with a fair group of vocabularies and linguistic patterns that would
assist them in expressing themselves.
b) The series of I love Arabic ( )
This series is dedicated to young students, and it presents the classical Arabic language to enable the
students the use of oral and written communication Arabic. It is aimed for the use of Arabic in the c
ommunication and real educational situations, and prepares students for further study of the Arabic
language subjects. The series is composed of four stages, each stage consisting of a book for the stu
dent, a book of exercises, a book for the teacher, with a number of audio recording aids and visual a
ids to be used with the book including cue cards, paintings, records and a manual for the teacher.
Its approach enables the learner to practice the four skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing)
equally and provides training of the language elements such as phonemes, vocabularies and structur
es. The series topics are based on the Arabic Islamic culture and the world cultures and it is also co
ncerned with the childs world and his interests such as: hobbies, play time, life at home and school,
relationships with relatives, friends and neighbours; it discusses the world of animals and plants, an
d the external universe through various modes such as in conversations, stories, songs, narrations, li
nguistic games, and meaningful entertainment to state the etiquette and basic scientific facts. The le
ssons are linked with linguistics exercises and physical and mental activities, individual tasks such a
s in drawing and painting, or group tasks. The series contains approximately 1500 words spread acr
oss the four levels; the basic Arabic vocabularies are concentrated in the first two books also contain
ing the Arabic phonetic system with all its different phenomena. The new vocabularies introduced i
n each lesson are specifically chosen to suit the students expected progress with some words repeat
ed from one lesson to another to ensure familiarity of the words.
c) The series of teaching Arabic for the non-native speakers (
)
This series is published under the supervision of the institution for Arabic language education in the
Islamic university of Imam Muhammad bin Saud; this series is considered as a complete course to t
each Arabic and the concepts of the Islamic science. More than fifty teachers, experts and specialist
s have contributed in writing this series composing of a definitional introduction and thirty seven te
xts for the learner with five manuals for the teachers and eight lexicons. This series is an encycloped
ic work involving a big team of specialists. The book is made up of levels beginning from the prima
ry introduction of the language and its letters to the linguistics descriptions. The book aimed to qual
ify the learner to join Arabic universities in studying the Islamic law sharia, Arabic language, and t
he literature.
d) The Arabic language in your hands ( )
This series come in seven books; three of them meant for students in three varying levels; beginner,
intermediate, and advanced. This series too does not ignore the teachers role so that it includes thre
e books containing the structures and guidelines in teaching language for the non-native speakers. T
he seventh book is, however, considered as the lexicon of vocabularies used in the book with an add
ition of about eight hours of phonetic appendix for each of the students three books.
Research process, participants and milestone
More than 120 users have participated in the research under the supervision of specialized administr
ative, linguistic, educational and engineering teamwork. The details can be viewed at the URL: http:
//www.rdi-eg.com/projects/VirtualTutor.htm. The tentative results have statistically reflected the pro
grams efficiency and its distinctive role in prompting the academic process and the increase in the c
ognitive outcome for the students subjected as the experimental sample as compared to the results o
f the realizable control sample that went through the similar conventional education.

Methods of teaching the Arabic language and samples of interactive learning programs
There are several ways practiced in teaching the foreign languages, and the methods have been deve
loped because of the continuous growth in the need to learn the foreign languages. The need to learn
and study foreign languages have increased especially among those whose nature lives requires the
learning of these languages as well as other diverse needs or purposes in learning a non-native langu
age such as for travelling, work, and studying. Al-Khuliy (1989) mentioned several Arabic language
teaching methods practised as listed below:
a) The traditional way or also known as grammar and translation.
b) The communicative way.
c) The direct way.
d) The audio oral way.
e) The selective way.
ILCC 2013
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It is apparently noticeable that all previously mentioned series vary among themselves in interests, a
ims and the ways the courses are presented. Concerns in teaching Arabic for non-native speakers are
not only addressed in educational books but also available in designated sites on the internet. Amon
g the most important sites are:
1- http://www.rosettastone.com
2- http://afl.ajeeb.com
3- http://www.arabicsp.com
4- http://www.horoof.com
However, all the previously discussed methods existed without accurate and specialized electronic t
echniques to ease the learning and ensure the learners continuity in the learning process. It is sugge
sted for teachers to search for a program based in specialized techniques that help to achieve the exp
ected aims through quick, attractive and simple manner.

Formulating a theoretical framework in developing an interactive Arabic learning program
The summarized idea of this paper is to present a sample of an Arabic computational mechanism in
teaching Arabic language to the non-native speakers through a rich and attractive course that emplo
ys specialized techniques in its educational production. This course adopted an advanced electronic
format enabling activities through the internet and laser cylinders and reinforcing it with the differe
nt learning mediums to ease the learning process and elicit great results on the learner. This was po
ssible due to the experience of the specialized team in educational projects and their in-depth knowl
edge of modern techniques for teaching. The role of this team is not only restricted to the linguistic,
administrative, engineering and technical work but also in deciding on the educational strength of th
e course and its appropriateness to the age of the learners. The technical models and rephrasing tak
e into consideration the psychological side and the educational dimension of the learner resulting in
a mixed group of methods for evaluation and available correct answers. These characteristics are in
accordance to the most highlighted modern educational theories (Ragheb-a, 2011, Ragheb-b, 2011).

a) The goals of the program
Among the major goals of the program are in its aims in:
i) The employment of modern techniques in teaching that would have impact on the non-nativ
e learners emotion, involving the processes of search, uploading, analysis, and connection of mech
anisms.
ii) The flexibility in using this program for persons, associations, or universities from all over t
he world.iii) Extending cultural connections and civilized communication with persons of the non
-Arab institutions.
iv)Enabling the learners to acquire the linguistic, communicative, and cultural aspects efficiently.
v) Spreading the Arab culture through the objective processing of the course.
vi)Strengthening the connection between people of the world.

b) The technical specifications:
The program presents two levels of Arabic learning:
i) The basic level : The level contains 16 units, each unit composes of 6 lessons, so the level co
ntains 96 lessons. The units is as the followings:
a) The first lesson: interactive conversations
b) The second lesson: vocabularies
c) The third lesson: syntactic structures
d) The fourth lesson: listening and comprehension
e) The fifth lesson: speech
f) The sixth lesson: reading and writing
g) Four general tests are available for each level.
ii) The advanced level : The level contains 18 units, each unit composes of 6 lessons, so the lev
el contains 108 lessons. The units design is as the followings:
a) The first lesson: conversation + comprehension excersies + vocabularies + sounds + syntacti
c notice + audio comprehension + speech.
b) The second lesson: listen and read + comprehension excersies + vocabularies + syntactic not
ice.
c) The third lesson: interactive conversation+ comprehension excersies + vocabularies + sound
s + syntactic notice + listen and comprehend + speech.
d) The fourth lesson: listen and read + comprehension excersies + vocabularies + syntactic noti
ce.
e) The fifth lesson: directed writing + calligraphy + dictation.
f) The sixth lesson: free reading + comprehension excersies + vocabularies excersies.
g) Four general tests are available for each level.

iii) Ways and method of presentation for the basic level:
1- Interactive dialogues
The program presents a collection of dialogues that aims to equip the beginner with a group of basic
everyday expressions. The dialogues are presented in full animation between two parties having a
conversation. The user is able to listen to the whole dialogue and imagine the real situation as perfo
rmed by the two parties. The subtitles are shown in a clear diacritized font and the speech sound of
each party is distinct. The user could benefit from listening to the dialogues and enhanced the abilit
y to listen to new words and other benefits include:
a) Listening to the dialogue phrases discontinuously (phrase by phrase) with the ability to repe
at and move to the next or the previous phrase, the goal of this ability is to enable the user to listen,
and examine every phrase well and also get used to hear it.
b) Students are also able to choose one particular party from the two dialogue parties to listen t
o (individual listening) aiming at deepening the users awareness of the expressions he is receiving,
and to increase the ability to simulate and discriminate between the parties roles and to develop the
ability of role playing as the receiver end of a conversation.
2- Audio training tools
There are two ways in training the user to practice the expressions he have listened to :
a) The first way: recording the pronunciation of Arabic letters and words and the program assu
mes the teachers role in correcting the users pronunciation (speech verification).
b) The second way: recording the different phrases and expressions and the ability to replay the
recording to compare between the model dialogues and users accomplishment (users progress and
ability in using the new expressions (Ragheb, 2007).
3- The visual-audio presentation of the vocabularies:
The program presents a collection of simple words that the learner could utilise in daily life accordi
ng to the attempted level.
The program begins with the presentation of a collection of photos ; a click on the photos would pro
duce the audio expression of the photos.

4- The audio training for the vocabularies
The student is able to record the vocabularies he learned and listen to them in his own voice as the p
rogram is able to correct his pronunciation in order to allow the user to keep track of his pronunciat
ion level and learning achievement.
5- Vocabulary bank
The excellent language user or user desiring to learn more vocabularies could be exposed to other w
ords that do not exist in the lesson (but belonging to the same level of the words) by developing larg
e groups of different vocabularies. This vocabulary bank could also facilitate users cognition , achi
eve the reality , or be able to understand the lessons vocabularies as the countries names could be l
inked with the world map and highlighting the desired country on the map (Yaseen, et. al, 2006).
ILCC 2013
12

6- Vocabulary training
The training is one of the effective ways that increases the interactive value of the program and mea
sures the learners success in the learnt or acquired concepts. This training is also concerned with vo
cabularies learnt from the previous presentations. At the beginning of the training session, two phot
os would appear on the screen with one word pronounced and the user would have to decide and ch
oose the correct photo described.
In the case of a wrong choice a mark (x) appears with a voice message to notify that the users choi
ce is wrong. A right choice would display a mark () appearing with a message to indicate correct a
nswer. The training presentation is done in an enjoyable manner that is hoped to entertain the user a
nd motivates him to continue the exercises.
7- The writing training through writing verification
The writing verification is one of the specialized techniques under the development of a group of A
rab institutions. The technique works through a device called the Tablet PC using the Touch screen
pen that the learner could use for training in writing Arabic letters and words. Another method avail
able in mastering Arabic writing is through printing out some exercises and practicing writing the
m. In the case of operating the program through LMS, the user will enter the papers through the opti
cal scanner and send to the supervising teacher through the internet to correct these papers and to re
turn to the user with notes and feedback.
c) Ways and methods of presentation for the advanced level
There are several presentation methods used for the advanced levels such as:
1- Readable texts : The program displays the reading texts in order to teach the reading skill, in
crease vocabularies and also provide a scientific benefit. The texts are presented in the following ma
nner:
a) The user could listen to the text and controls the volume.
b) The complete text appears in a clear font and with full diacritics.
2- The lexicon service : The user enjoys the benefit of a prepared lexicon by just a right click at
the mouse on the word and the lexicon displays the following options (Attia, et. al., 2008) :
a) The meaning of the proposed words
b) The root word
c) Prefixes
d) Suffixes
e) The morphological form of the word.
3- Advanced explanation of the grammatical rules
The program presents grammar lessons through animated cartoon followed by a voice explanation f
lash tutorial of the grammatical rules. The user has control to re-play, pause or stop the tutorial.
4- The advanced search
a) The user could conduct a search under the following characteristics:
b) The search scope is extended to all the vocabularies of a single level.
5- The user could choose different types of search as the following:
a) on the order of all the words
b) on all the words within the same sentences
c) on all the words within the same page
6- Connection services: The user could be connected to a number of additional services throug
h the assisted vocabularies icon. The services are:
a) Additional vocabularies.
b) The units vocabulary bank.
c) The world map.
7- The interactive exercises and tests: An audio message would play with the right or wrong sy
mbols to indicate the right and wrong answers. The user is also allowed access to the accumulated g
rade at the end of the exercises. An audio message accompanied the exercises to create an interactio
n between the user and the presented material. A timer is made available for a more interactive envi
ronment presenting the user a real educational mood and to complete the exercises well.
7-The writing training through writing verification: as mentioned in the basic level discussion.
8-Text to speech service: This is one of the distinguished techniques that enable the learner to enter
any text and read it automatically.
9- The training of right pronunciation: As mentioned in the audio training tools section for the
basic level.
10- Supporting options
This program presents the methods that allow the user to learn without any teacher assistance. The
help and also the questions headers in the first level are in English (or any other language) and in th
e future may provide more than one language option. The advanced level uses only the Arabic langu
age for the help option.
The help icon is available to demonstrate the tasks to the user. Some of these services could be hidd
en or be made to appear for the advanced levels depending on the users necessities.

Phases and stages of development of the interactive Arabic learning program
The program is developed according to the following phases and stages as shown in Figure 1 :

Scorm

Scorm
Q.C


Figure 1 : Development Phases and Stages for Virtual Tutor
Interactivity and technical features in the interactive learning program
1- Arabic derivational search mechanism
The search of three million words takes a part of second on a windows operating PC with 128 mega
bit internal memory. This technique is implemented completely by using (ANSI C++) that could be
prepared to work easily with any operating system (Microsoft windows, UNIX, mac, or etc.) The a
bility to index all the texts needed to be searched for at one time (total indexing) plus the ability to a
dd or delete any pages from the already prepared index (Differential Indexing).
2- Text to speech mechanism T.T.S. (Arabic Text-to-Speech (TTS)
This Arabic TTS from RDI has a hybrid concatenated/parametric speech synthesizer which affords
a compact system within few tens of megabytes of space. Moreover, RDI's automatic large-scale Ar
abic phonetic transcriptor (diacretizer) is the other distinctive corner stone of ArabTalk. Along wit
h several discretization options, many speech effects in both male and female voices are available fo
r flexibility and high performance in real-time. SDK's for desktop applications, web services, as we
ll as client-server applications are also available for developers. Moreover, male/female Arabic TTS
speaker data bases can be built for certain real-speakers chosen. For more detailed information: htt
p://www.rdi-eg.com/technologies/speech.htm. A high quality TTS is almost similar to the natural hu
man voice. It contains a discretization application to adjust the Arabic text. It consists of high speed
speech generation similar to the speed of the natural human pronunciation and can work with any c
ILCC 2013
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omputer operating system easily. It is also found to be functioning well on mobile applications (Hif
ny, et. al., 2004).
3- Automatic writing (writing verification)
The Tablet PC device enables the learner to use this training technique in the writing style of the Ar
abic letters and words.
4- Speech verification mechanism
It is an automatic system that easily and promptly recognizes the phonetic properties of the new lear
ner (Speaker adaptation). It provides instant response to the learner in discovering his mistakes in re
ading and clarifying the mistakesin detail. This new technique was developed to completely work
with the different and diverse Arabic dialects. It also adapts well to all types of computer operating
system.
5- The lexicon service for the Arabic words
The lexical semantic analysis of the Arabic words offers many applications such as searching by sy
nonyms or antonyms, the generation of semantic fields, or general semantic analysis in the text (Atti
a, et. al., 2008). The sample of screenshot for this interactive learning program in Arabic is shown in
Figure 2 below:

Figure 2 : Sample of interface screenshot for Virtual Tutor
Results and findings:
The tentative results of this project have statistically reflected the programs efficiency and its distin
ctive role in prompting the academic process and the increase in the cognitive outcome among the st
udents specimen assigned as the experimental sample group in comparison to the results of the reali
zable control sample group from the similar conventional education. The study result confirms the f
easibility of technical programs in rapidly teaching the Arabic language; that poses a significant imp
act on achieving better results for special language teachings as seen through the following:
a) The students results showed an improvement for both the traditional method and the experiment
al groups. The group that utilised the program showed a percentage of improvement of 17% and 46
%and as shown in the following Table 1, Table 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4 of results from the experim
ental and control groups:
Table 1: Results for experimental group
% Total Oral Listening Written
59.50% 59.50 27.50 23.00 9.00 Preflight averages
60% 55% 77% 45%
87.00% 87.00 39.17 29.50 18.33 Final test averages
87% 78% 98% 92%
46% 42% 28% 104% Rate of improvement

Table 2: Results for control group
% Total Oral Listening Written
65.50% 65.50 31.67 20.50 13.33 Preflight averages
66% 63% 68% 67%
76.67% 76.67 37.00 24.00 15.67 Final test averages
77% 74% 80% 78%
17% 17% 17% 18% Rate of improvement


Figure 3 : Demonstration of the high index level of the experimental sample control


Figure 4 : Illustration compares the percentage of improvement between technology and the t
raditional way
b) Technology tools are the current attraction especially in an era with information and communicati
on technology as the common denominator among its members.
c) The realization of the principle of equal opportunities which arise from varying levels of Languag
e Learners.
d) To address the problems caused by individual differences that force teachers to accommodate to t
he needs of some learners while unintentionally neglecting other participants, but with this software
the student has the opportunity to learn well either in the classroom or from home.
e) Greater opportunity to communicate with supervisors and parents to report on students, improve
ments especially with the installation of case management system , Learning Management System (
LMS) and linked to a central server for the educational center.
Conclusion
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This paper discussed and presented the developmental stages of an interactive Arabic learning progr
am, the Virtual Tutor. It featured an integration of learning contents into several traditional and cont
emporary text books with several open source web-based applications as a proposed theoretical and
practical sample of design framework. This design framework may be useful in designing interactiv
e Arabic a-learning tools in other educational settings and environment. Its benefits include in contri
buting towards increasing the motivation and positive perception among non-native speakers in lear
ning Arabic.

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About the authors
Ahmed Ragheb Ahmed Mahmoud (Ph.D) is currently an academic staff at the Department of Ara
bic Language and Literature, KIRKHS, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). His resea
rch interests are computational linguistics, educational technology, research methodology, and teach
ing Arabic as a second language.
Muhammad Sabri Sahrir (Ph.D) is currently an academic staff at the Department of Arabic Langu
age and Literature, KIRKHS, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). His research intere
sts are curriculum development and evaluation, educational technology, and teaching Arabic as a for
eign language
Rahmah bt Ahmad H. Osman (Ph.D) is currently an Associate Professor and academic staff at the
Department of Arabic Language and Literature, KIRKHS, International Islamic University Malaysi
a (IIUM). Her research interests are curriculum development and evaluation, educational technolog
y, Arabic and Malay literature and teaching Arabic as a foreign languag
STUDENTS ATTITUDES TOWARDS UNIVERSITY-REQUIRED ENGLISH
LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION: A Comparison between Universiti Brunei Darussalam
(UBD) and Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM)
Salinayanti Salim
Albukhary International University,
Alor Setar, Kedah, Malaysia.
salinayanti@aiu.edu.my


Abstract.

This study assesses students attitudes to University-required English language instruction in
Brunei and Malaysia. The main focus of this study is to investigate the similarities and
differences in the students attitudes towards the English language instruction in Universiti
Brunei Darussalam (UBD), Brunei and Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM), Malaysia with the
secondary focus investigating the probable factors that may have caused such attitudes among
English learners in both countries. These factors may be internal, arising from the students
themselves, or external, that may come from their home, school and also society. Data from both
universities were collected using a process of triangulation through semi-structured interview,
classroom observation and student journal entry and the data was analysed qualitatively. The
findings reveal a generally positive attitude from the participants from both universities with
some significant attitudinal differences to specific English language contexts and that imply the
participants from UBD and UiTM are motivated learners despite their different background in
terms of English language learning and use.

Keywords: Attitudes, English language instruction, Second language learning (SL), Universiti
Teknologi Mara (UiTM), Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD)


I ntroduction
Malaysia was a British colony and that was how English came to have influence in the
country even until present. Even though the government wants to preserve Malay by making it a
medium of instruction in schools, they have been unable to stop the growth of English where it is a
language for international communication. So, with Malay still being the Official language of
Malaysia, there are no constraints for Malaysians to acquire English. However, given its volatile
history with the British colonial powers, it is believed that there are certain groups who are
uncomfortable to see English being well accepted in Malaysia and this will be discussed in detail
throughout this study. Brunei on the other hand, was one of the British protectorate countries from
1888 until 1984 when it regained its independence. Even though Malay is the Official language of
Brunei, English is widely-used and well-accepted in the country, owing much the cordial
relationship between the two countries. It would be interesting to see whether the nature of Brunei
and Malaysias relationship with Britain would have any bearings on their general attitudes towards
the language of their once colonial masters.
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Statement of Problem

The main subject of discussion in this study is the similarities and differences in attitude of
university students towards English language instruction, the possible reasons for any visible
patterns in these attitudes and any identifiable implications they may have on learning outcomes and
related issues. In particular, this study looks at two leading universities in Malaysia and Brunei;
Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) and Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD).

Research Questions
1. What are the learners attitudes towards English in general?
2. What are the learners attitudes towards learning English language instruction
in
universities in Malaysia and Brunei?
2.1 Have these attitudes changed since entering university?
2.2 If these attitudes have changed since entering university, how or why have they changed?
3. What are the factors that led to the attitudes held towards English among
Malaysian
and Bruneian students?


Literature Review
Learners attitudes towards a language have a significant effect on second language learning.
Gardner (1985) mentioned that unlike other subjects such as History, Mathematics and Geography
which are close to the learners culture, a new language is totally from an external cultural
community. The definition of attitude, Allport (1954:45 as cited in Gardner, 1985) states that, an
attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive
or dynamic influence upon the individuals response to all objects and situations with which it is
related.
There have been a number of studies and research done in other countries on attitudes of
learners towards the English language. In Nigeria, English enjoys a higher standing with locals than
does their own language, Yoruba, due to the educational codes of the colonial administration
(Adegbija, 1994). Teachers seem to focus more on English and it influences students attitudes to
favour English rather than Yoruba. In Swaziland, there was a favourable attitude towards having
English as part of education. However, Gardner (1982) found that ethnic identity does affect
learners attitudes of SL learning. Among French-speaking students, their English performance was
low due to their belief that learning English could be a threat to their society.
Amongst the important factors that contribute to learners attitudes towards L2, social
contexts and learning contexts play important roles (Yashima et al., 2004). It is believed that
support and encouragement from family, friends, teachers as well as society can help L2 learners
gain higher self-esteem with frequent communication in their target language. The attitudes of
parents are important especially for learners who are in the early phase of primary socialization.
Flowerdew et al (1998) assert that parents in Hong Kong want their children to learn English in
order to maximize their career prospects. Parents who have positive attitudes towards English will
likely influence their children to favour the language as well. In a study on Malaysian education
policy, Kow (2007) found that regardless of new methods are being created by the Education
Department for better education, it is still up to the teachers how they conduct their classrooms, and
how they interact with the learners who have different levels of proficiency. The fact is that
sometimes the teachers do not explain enough, leaving students confused and lost. Moreover, SL
learners are often afraid of making mistakes in class because they feel incompetent and
embarrassed. As stated by Horwitz et al (1991), SL students may skip classes or taking part in
classroom activities in order to avoid being evaluated negatively by their peers.
Interestingly, according to a study by Atef and Munir (2009), the results indicated that a
high number of students showed their interest in the culture of the English speaking world as
represented by English-language films. Flowerdew et al (1998) found a similar result where mass
media is a significant tool that can shape learners attitudes to favour English by publicizing items
addressing English standards and quoting statements made by academics, the government, and
business leaders. Another factor that is believed to have a significant influence in shaping learners
attitudes towards English is self-perception (Mohd Zulkanain (2008). Students who realize the
importance of English would have motivation to learn it because they know, with English; they
would be able to interact with people from different linguistic background.
In the Malaysian context, English is only a subject in primary and secondary schools whereas
the other subjects are taught in Malay. Since class time for learning English is limited, the teachers
tend to focus on teaching students to pass examinations. This has led to Malaysian students viewing
learning English with instrumental orientation and that they need to get good grades in order to
enter universities. Kaur (1995), in her study on English language functions among Malaysian
schoolchildren, found that young Malaysian students perceive English to be more important for
their personal and academic needs than their social needs. At the tertiary level, according to
Samsiah et al (2009), diploma students at UiTM Kedah have shown a lack of interest in learning
English. This has become a major concern among English language lecturers because the students
are supposed to excel in this subject since English is UiTMs medium of instruction. However, a
study done by Mostafizar (2008) at Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, showed learners positive
attitudes towards English as a second language.
As for Brunei, Jones (2007) argues that Bruneians have accepted English for a better future
and better education, yet at the same time, they preserve the Malay language. English, as stated by
Ozog (1996), has been used in Brunei for official matters such as in government business, education
and trading since 1959. This reflects the Bruneians attitudes towards a foreign language; they are
more open and willing to accept a language other than Malay for the sake of the countrys
development. However, a survey of six local technical and vocational institutions in Brunei by
Rasidah (2009) found that students lack interest in learning English because they have low self-
esteem and they are afraid of making mistakes in the language. This consequently results in
negative attitudes and perceptions towards English as a second language. Even though it is not as
obvious issue as in Malaysia, it is undeniable that there are some students in Brunei who do feel
uncomfortable learning and using English despite knowing its importance.

Methodology
This research is qualitative in terms of the nature of the data used. Any study on attitudes
needs to have more than one standpoint for validity and therefore, in this study, three qualitative
research instruments were employed. The validity of this study is thus enhanced by a process of
triangulation through three data sources: semi-structured interview, classroom observation and
student journal-entry. The instruments used to collect data were Focus-group interviews, Classroom
observations and Student journal-entry.
A form of non-probability sampling called purposive sampling was used to select cases for
the study. The cases were selected from a variety of studies in two different universities in two
ILCC 2013
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different countries. The population make-up of both universities is diverse given that they attract
qualified students from all parts of Malaysia and Brunei respectively.
This study adopted the objectivist grounded theory approach where, according to Charmaz
(2002: 677), the researcher derives meaning form the data; meaning inheres in the data and the
grounded theorist discovers it. The method of analysis of this research therefore involved the
researcher reviewing the responses to each question and identifying primary themes that emerge
from the data that were felt to be potentially significant.

Discussion of Main Findings

This study intended to explore students attitudes towards English in Malaysia and Brunei
without any anticipation of what patterns or themes might emerge from the data. The themes for the
data emerged only after the fieldwork was completed and the data was analysed according to the
themes. This study investigated university students attitudes towards English in general and as a
required subject in universities in Malaysia and Brunei. The results show that students from both
universities are motivated learners. They recognized the social values of English and the importance
of English for individuals as well as their countrys future development as evidently shown below:




UiTM Participant 1 [UiTM:P1]

...it would be embarrassing if we meet some tourists and we do not know how to
speak English. [Translated]
UBD Participant 1 [UBD:P1]
Generally speaking, English is an international language. We can meet people from
different views.

Such behaviour shows that the participants in this study generally have positive attitudes
towards English. The participants also realised that English is not only used in educational settings
but is also very important when they are outside the classroom. Hence, it is obvious that the
sociolinguistic environment and the attitudes of learners are very much interconnected.

Regardless of their different levels of proficiency in English, the participants agreed that
their English Language classes were very important and they would still take the classes even if
they were not a university requirement. Again, this demonstrated favourable attitudes towards
English in the educational environment. Even though there were a few participants from both UiTM
and UBD who would be reluctant to take the English classes if given the choice, they admitted the
classes had been very helpful in their studies. As for the participants from UiTM, they all agreed
that English classes had taught them a lot and their English skills had been improved.

There would appear to be a similar attitude between students of both UiTM and UBD
towards university-required English language instruction. While most students are favourable
towards it, there are several in both universities who resent it, but for quite different reasons: UiTM
students resent having to take up English language lessons because of a lack of practice and
confidence in the language due to a lack of opportunity during their pre-university study; while
UBD students dislike having to do English language classes at university because they feel they
have had more than adequate training and competence in English, having learnt and used it
throughout their education prior to joining university. In other words it could be argued that the
Malaysian students demonstrated "a sense of inadequacy and anxiety" while their Bruneian
counterparts displayed a degree of "self-satisfaction and complacency".

The participants from UBD and UiTM seemed to have different opinions on the factors that
influenced their attitudes and perceptions towards the English language. The majority of the
participants believed that self-perception is the biggest factor that would determine ones attitudes
towards learning English. Other than that, the Malaysians believed that parents have the most
responsibilities in shaping their childrens attitudes towards English and if they expose their
children enough to it, the children will have positive attitudes and be motivated to continue learning
in school and universities. The Bruneians, on the other hand, believed that school is the place where
they learn and improve their English.

Response to Research Questions

In response to Research Question 1 regarding the students attitudes towards English in
general, the evidence shows that participants from both UiTM and UBD have desirable attitudes
towards the English language. The participants were aware that English is highly demanded in
many sectors and industries, in education fields, as well as for intercultural communication.
[UiTM:P2]
English is important especially during the interview for any jobs which might be
conducted in English. [Trans]
[UBD:P2]
In Brunei, we need English for both private and government sectors because
mostly...what the higher authorities want is English so we want to survive for that.
Apart from that, the participants believed that English is necessary even in their own country
as they might come across tourists who only understand English and they will only be able to help if
they can speak English well. In addition, as claimed by some participants, there are a lot of books
and magazines written in English which can easily be bought in their country, even in rural areas
that could help in their English language improvement. The results however is contradictory to Siti
Norlianas (2008) finding that students who live in urban areas have more favourable attitudes
towards English than students in rural areas because they have more reading materials and positive
influences from their parents or siblings who may also speak English at home. According to Nielsen
(2003), people learn English not just for employment, advancement in the workplace and academic
purposes, but also as it gives access to different media and other English materials like books and
magazines. Hence, it can be said that English cannot be avoided nowadays because of its status as
an international language. Everyone seems to have their own reasons to learn the language.

Apart from that, the study also compared the results retrieved from the fieldwork from both
universities. The Malaysian participants hoped to use fluent and accurate English and most of them
understood that their cultural identity as Malays would not be threatened. Nevertheless, one
participant from UiTM appears to be a bit more nationalistic and feels uneasy seeing the English
language being the priority language in Malaysia. Beyond that, this study has shown that the
participants from Malaysia are eager to improve their English communication skills. The Bruneians,
ILCC 2013
24

however, are not as eager as the Malaysians due to sufficient exposure to English from a young age
and also the fact that the Bruneians use English more frequently. This could be the result of
Malaysias education policy deciding the English language is only taught as a subject in both
primary and secondary schools. In Brunei, English has been the medium of education in school
since 1985 when the government came up with the bilingual system of education.
[UBD:P1]
In Brunei, from primary (school), we are obligated somehow by the government
to study the second language from kindergarten till even A- level (Form 6).
Significantly, this has led to different perceptions between participants from UiTM and
UBD where the Bruneians are more accepting of non-native speakers speaking in English as
compared to the Malaysians. The Bruneians are so accustomed to English that it has become their
daily language along with Malay. Conversely, in Malaysia, English is not as widely used and
communicating in English in public is less acceptable.

Research Question 2 considers the learners attitudes towards learning English in
universities in UBD and UiTM. There are favourable attitudes towards English Language
instruction among the majority of the participants in this study from both universities. This positive
behaviour was expressed through their confession of willingness to take the English classes even if
the classes had not been compulsory for their course.
[UiTM:P3]

As for me, I would like to learn English even if it is not compulsory here because
in the future, we never know what is going to happen or what kind of people we
have to meet. [Trans]

[UBD:P3]
Because you know during our English back then, form five, this LC class, the
content is very good because I did not know how to write essays back then. But in
this class, it really explains.
They seemed to recognize the advantages of taking those classes either in their current study
or for their future development. However, there were a few students from both universities who
admitted they would not take the English classes for different reasons. The participant from
Malaysia was rather nationalistic and claimed that learning English might be seen as an act of
betrayal to the country.
[UiTM:P6]

I would have not taken the subject because I just dont see why we need to be
proud of using the foreign language when we have our own language to be proud
of. We can take Japan as an example, they clearly do not depend on English and
yet they have their own influence all over the world, why cant we be like
Japan?[Trans]

The participants from Brunei who were confident with their English skills did not feel the
need to re-learn certain lessons which had already been taught in school. Regardless, all participants
from both universities agreed that the English classes were very useful.

This research has also revealed that some students from both universities are very anxious of
their English speaking ability thus it makes them nervous whenever they are in English classes.
[UiTM:P5]

Some really had questions to ask, but since the questions had to be in English,
they were reluctant to ask their questions. [Trans]

The inability to express themselves in English and a lack of vocabulary seemed to be the
main reasons for the UiTM participants reluctance to take part in activities in their English classes.
However, the participants from UBD who tended to be better English speakers also did not
participate as much in English classes because they were very concerned about others reactions
when they spoke in class. They did not want to stand out from the crowd because of their English.
Similarly, Price (1991) revealed that most SL learners refuse to practice the target language because
they have had unpleasant experiences of being teased and by other students.
[UiTM:P2]
The thing about Brunei, you know theres a word pengucapan, mean
judgemental. We have, you know, when it comes to people, we talk about
other people, especially in class.


As for Research Questions 2.1 and 2.2, which ask if the students attitudes have changed
since entering university, and how or why, the results indeed showed a change in the attitudes of the
students from Malaysia from when they were in secondary school to when they were in university.
There is a positive change in these students attitudes towards English maybe because of their new
environment that encourages them to learn English and they seem to realize that English is
important for their future development.
[UiTM:P1]
I felt English was not important back in the day, but when I entered the university
and I saw all the books were in English, I realised I had to like English somehow.
[Trans].
The finding was similar to Choy & Troudi (2006: 129) which stated that student attitudes
towards learning English seemed to be more positive when they were in college most probably due
to environments that encouraged and required the use of English for communication and learning.
Despite the fact that English classes made some students uncomfortable, they appeared to have
increased their self-esteem and gained more confidence with their English skills. In addition, the use
of English in social settings was more acceptable to the students UiTM. The result from UBD on
the other hand, showed no changes in the students attitudes towards English as the Bruneian
students generally have a positive attitude towards English from the time they enter primary and
secondary school which could be a reflection of the views held by the larger Bruneian population.

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26

In response to Research Question 3 which asks about the factors that might have influenced
learners attitudes towards English, the answers varied with each participant. Each participant from
both UiTM and UBD personally stated more than one factor that might have an influence on
attitudes towards English, but all of them seemed to agree that personal motivation is the most
important factor that will determine their attitudes towards English. They believe if a person has
strong determination to learn English, he or she will have an effort to overcome any difficulty.

[UITM: P4]

It doesnt matter where we are or with whom we hang out, it really depends on
ourselves to learn the language. [Trans]

[UBD: P1]

I believe it depend on ones determination whether or not to learn English.


Other significant factor which most participants from UiTM agreed on is parental
involvement; where parents are believed to play a big role in influencing learners attitudes towards
English. Malaysian students would depend on their parents to buy sufficient English language
reading materials such as books and magazines so the learners would have enough exposure to
English, given the fact the students do not get enough exposure to English in primary and secondary
school. On the other hand, the UBD participants believed that after personal motivation, school and
friends are the next important factors that are responsible in shaping learners attitudes towards
English. This is again not shocking because the Bruneian bilingual education policy established in
1985 increased exposure to English because most of the subjects in school were taught in English as
claimed by one of the UBD participants:

[UBD: P4]

By right, we talk (spoke) English from the British rule...protectorate. So we have
good opportunity to learn English because we have English schools. We have
good impressions in terms of encouraging students to talk, speak in English until
university level, they do have English.


Living in an English-speaking environment, as suggested by some participants from both
universities, is also a factor that can create a favourable attitude towards the language because they
believed it is necessary to have some pressure in learning it. According to Gonzales and Bautistas
(1986) assertion, the best way to learn a language is to live in a place with people who use that
language, which would help learners acquire it faster for the sake of survival. Media was also
suggested by several participants from UiTM and UBD as a factor in determining ones attitudes
towards English. With all the unlimited English programmes on television nowadays which can
give sufficient exposure to English, media is seen as another important factor that would generate
positive attitudes towards English.

Conclusion

It had been assumed that due to geographical, sociocultural and sociolinguistic proximity
and parallels between Brunei and Malaysia, a comparative study could be a futile attempt and
nothing new would be learnt. However, as this study progressed, those similarities began to appear
increasingly superficial only and proved to be deceptive. Indeed lessons were learnt in that attitudes
can differ between groups despite all circumstantial equalities and relative parallels, such that
seemingly minor differences can have exponential permutations.



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The Problems of Learning the Arabic Verbal System among the Malay learners in Malaysian
Universities


Associate Professor Dr. Asem Shehadeh Ali,
Arabic Language and Literature Department
Kulliyyah of revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences
International Islamic University Malaysia

Abstract.

This study attempts to look into and analyze through Error Analysis the occurrences of linguistic
errors among Malay students of Arabic in the use of the verbal system of Arabic. The Introduction
highlights some issues and concepts pertinent to second/foreign language learning acquisition, as well
as their implications to teaching. This study analyzes through Error Analysis the identified errors
committed by a group of Malay learners of Arabic. Interferences from the mother tongue are also
analyzed. The conclusion and recommendations are made based on the findings of this study with the
aim of helping students in the learning of the target language.

Keywords: The Subjects, the Test, Analysis, Summary.

Introduction

The main objective of the error analysis is to identify areas of difficulty as encountered by the
respondents, after which, a comparison will be made through the procedures of error analysis.A study
of the learner's errors is important due to its pedagogical significance and its theoretical value in
providing for a better comprehension of second language acquisition. There is, however, a need
initially to undertake a study on the nature of the errors occurring in specific learning situations.
According to Corder, "Until we are able to give a Linguistic explanation of the nature of a learner's
errors we can neither propose pedagogical measures to deal with them nor infer from them anything
about the processes of learning" (Corder,1974:205). With regard to adults, error analysis studies have
revealed that some errors committed by second language learns can be attributed in interference from
the mother tongue, while many other errors result from strategies such as overgeneralization and
simplification which are common to children acquiring their first language. (Coole.1973; B.Taylor,
1975; Richards, 1971; Hanannia and Gradman, 1977). On the significance of learners errors, Corder
further writes: "A learner's errors are significant in three different ways. First to the teacher, in that
they will tell him, if he undertakes a systematic analysis, how far towards the goal the learner has
progressed and, consequently, what remains for him to learn. Second, they provide the researcher
with evidence of how language is learned or acquired. Third, they are indispensable to the learner
himself, because we can regard the making of errors as a device the learner uses in orders to learn. It
is a way the learner has of testing his hypothesis about the nature of the language he is learning. The
making of errors then is a strategy employed by both children acquiring their mother tongue and by
those learning a second language" (Corder, 1967:167). One of the features of most versions of the
communicative approach is the toleration of mistakes or 'errors' produced by learners. Traditionally,
errors were considered negative aspects and had to be eradicated. The more recent acceptance of
errors in learners' language is based on a fundamental shift in perspective from the more traditional
view of how second languages are acquired. In Corder's own words (In Richards, 1974: 25), "we
must therefore make a distinction between those errors which are the product of such chance
circumstances and those which reveal his knowledge of the language to date, or, as we may call it, his
transitional competence". To Corder mistakes are not significant to the process of language learning.
Corder (1967) introduces an important distinction between'errors' and 'mistakes'. Mistakes are due to
performance factors such as memory limitation, spelling pronunciations, fatigue, emotional strain, etc.
ILCC 2013
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Errors, on the other hand, are systematic and consistent deviances which characterize the learner's
linguistic system at a given stage of learning. A learner's errors provides evidence of the system of the
language that he is using at a particular point in the course and it must be repeated that he is using
same system, although it is not yet the right system. The learners test their hypotheses about the
nature of the language they are learning. The making of errors, then, is a strategy employed both by
children acquiring their mother tongue and by those learning a second language. The Malay students
failure to learn correct Arabic could be looked upon as an indication of the actual acquisition process
in action. An 'error', then, is not something which hinders a student's progress, but is probably a clue
to the active learning progress being made by a student as he tries out strategies of communication in
the new language. Just as children acquiring their L1 produce certain ungrammatical forms in the
acquisition process, so we might expect the L2 learner to produce overgeneralizations at certain
stages.Perhaps the task of the second language learner is a simple one, that the only hypotheses he
needs to test is: 'Are the systems of the new language the same or different from those languages that I
know? And if different, what is their nature? The evidence for this is that a large number of the
learners errors are related to the system of his mother tongue. These are ascribed to interference from
the habits of the mother tongue.

2. The Subjects


The subjects of this study are selected from undergraduate students of the International Islamic
University in Malaysia. The total sample comprises 56 students picked at random from the Foundation
Centre - International Islamic University in Malaysia, as well as the University in the main campus of
which 36 were female and 20 were male students.The range of the learners' ages was from 18-23
which is identified by the code. The Quranic Language Programme ranges from level one to level six
in the Foundation Centre as well as in the main campus.The learners are placed in different levels
based on their performance in the placement tests which are held at the Foundation Centre or at the
University. All the subjects were Malay native speakers who were learning Arabic and had completed
level six (Intermediate Quranic for HsVI- Old Code: LQ 2046, new code: Quranic Language for Hs V-
LQ2426). The duration for each level is one semester. The number of contact hours per semester is 84
hours. Usually a beginner needs to complete a course of six semesters to fulfill his Quranic Language
programme requirement, which means 126 hours contact hours. The instruction time is spent on
reading and discussing topics from a chosen textbook as well as extracts from authentic Arabic texts
for the purpose of developing and increasing reading proficiency, vocabulary and comprehension.


2.1 The Test


The test which was administered contained one hundred questions. The emphasis of this test is on
the correct usage of the verbal system in Arabic. This means that Malay learners of Arabic, towards
the end of the Arabic course, should be able to correctly use aspects of the verbal system in Arabic.
The test questions were answered within a 2-hour period and were supervised by the class lecturer.
Controlled responses were employed to get the learners to reveal some specific aspects of their
interlanguage. Elicited response, as a method for data collection, was employed in the study of certain
aspects of language acquisition strategies. The administered test has the advantages of: "(1) forcing
the experimental subject to form a desired target language structure, and (2) assuring that the subject
understands the semantics of the structure which he/she is required to produce. Moreover, by forcing
a subject to form a structure which he has not completely mastered, the investigation can gain insights
into how the subject understands language operation and how he organizes new constructions in his
interlanguage". (Corder, 1973:13) At the end of the allocated time, the 56 assignments were collected.
Data analysis was undertaken through stages as suggested by Corder (1974). These stages which
involve error analysis comprise the recognition, description and explanation of errors.

2.2 Analysis of the Results

After approximately 3 semesters (Advanced level from Level 4-6), the respondents should have
acquired the competence and knowledge covered by the scope of the test, that is, the conjugation and
functions of Arabic verbs. The following types of verbs are tested: Application of the Perfect verb,
Imperfective verbs; Verb categories. In the analysis of the results of the test, emphasis is focused on
the verbs. The emphasis is on the students' knowledge of various verbal conjugations and their distinct
uses in Arabic. The errors will be presented and discussed one by one, that is from number 1, down to
the last item. The Arabic sentence will be stated with its corresponding English translation. The
students incorrect responses are marked by an asterisk (*). Comments on the possible source of
errors(s) will be made at the end of each corresponding number in question. Comments shall still be
made for items where no errors occur.

Test.

Part 1: Underline the correct verb fil a and week verb filmutal in the
following:

Lexical error/ meaning: The word a and yastaiyqiu , respectively, have the same
meaning. The students perhaps thought that the meaning of the word a 'to wake up' when
used before the subject 'tariq' was acceptable in Arabic. The response yastaiyqiu 'to wake up' is
similar in meaning to the verb a.
In the second response : fiil sa , the students were not cognizant of the rules of the 'weak
verb' fil mutal which includes those forms in which one of the two glides (i,e. 'waw' and 'ya')
formulates one of their radicals.

Part 2: Fill in the blank with the suitable verb fil mahmz 'hamzated verb'.

Lexical error/meaning. Form: The learner uses the verb yalub 'to require, to ask' which, in
Malay is minta 'to ask'. This is probably an error due to mother-tongue interference. The majority of
students gave the correct response. This may be attributed to the fact that they were cognizant of the
word l 'never', 'not to' which was a clue for the use of the verb ta'kul 'to eat'.
In another response, 2 students used the verbs: yamal 'to do; yufakkir

'to think'. The learners

understood the meaning of the sentence with regard to the context of the sentence which could be
acceptable in Arabic if the learners had used yalub 'to require'.

Part 3: Fill each blank with the suitable verb fil muaaf 'double verb'.

Lexical error/ meaning .form: Some responses show that the students failed to choose a 'double verb'
thats second and third radicals are identical. One learner, perhaps, thinking that any verb with two
identical radicals can be the answer, used farraa

which is a derived verb formulated from the

simple active stem faria

'to be happy' by interjecting various affixes to express modified

implications relative to the original conjecture which is denoted by the stem word. Another response
is istayiqaa

'to wake up', where the learner used the verb to complete the meaning because he
could not apply the rule of 'double verb' in Arabic.

Part 4: Choose the correct verb al-fiil al-mithl weak verb' in the following passage, and
identify the verb.
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Lexical error/meaning.form: The majority of the students gave the correct answer. Some learners
chose the 'weak verb' but they could not identify the verb. Perhaps these students could not apply or
recognize the rules of the weak verb, or could not express themselves in the response.

Part 5: Fill each gap with the suitable verb.

Lexical error/meaning .form: In general the learners used verbs which are not suitable at the lexical
level. The verb yadhhabu 'to go' must be followed by the preposition ila 'to' not min
'from'. One learner used the verb da 'to call; to invite'. He used a deviant structure.

Lexical errors/meaning: Most of the learners could not recognize a suitable fiil mithl 'assimilated
verb'.
Mother tongue interference is apparent in the use the of verb yaluba 'to request' which is similar
in meaning to the Malay word meminta 'to request' or yalubu in Arabic.

Part 6: Fill each gap with the suitable verb fil ajwaf 'hollow verb'.

Lexical error/meaning: The learners responses include dhahaba

'to go' perfective, yadhhab

'to go imperfective, dhihbu 'going' are influenced by their mother tongue 'Malay' when
they assumed that all these verbs dahaba , dhihb , yadhhab give the semantic equivalent. In Malay
the verb pergi 'to go' can be used in the sentence as in the following: Tariq pergi ke sekolah sains
where the learner uses the verb pergi which is similar in meaning to the Arabic: yadhhab, dhahaba,
dhihb. The learners were not cognizant of the hollow verb in Arabic, which is one with a glide for its
second radical.

Part 7: Fill each gap with the suitable verb fiil nqi (defective verb).

Lexical error/form: The learners used the verb braka 'to bless'; adaqa 'to say the truth'
; kasiba 'to gain'. These words are acceptable in the context of the sentence. The other response,
biidhni

(which is said whenever one refers to the future), is a contracted form of the phrase
bidhni followed by the name of Allah, which is an expression referring to the future. The learner used
the same technique. The other response, malaa

'to fill', dakhala 'to enter' are not acceptable

because these verbs must be followed by the preposition bi 'in with for the verb malaa. Another
response, dakhala 'to enter'. The learner thought perhaps that this verb is intransitive as it is followed
by an object. They could not differentiate between the verb adkhala ' to increase his heart with
faith' which an intransitive verb. The learners could not create any verb that followed the rule of fiil
nqi, (defective verb).

Part 8: Put the verb in brackets in the correct tense fil mujarrad (naked or stripped verb).

Lexical error/form: The learners were not cognizant of the derived verb which is formulated from the
simple active stem shakka 'to doubt' by interjecting various affixes (i.e. prefixes, infixes, and
suffixes) to express modified implications relative to the original conjecture which is denoted by the
stem word.


Part 9: Put each word in brackets in the correct tense.
All the learners provided the correct tense for the verbs in sentences (24, 25, 26), where they could
formulate a verb connected with the pronouns anta you; antuma you dual. This shows
that the learners were cognizant of the rules of fil ma (perfective verb), connected with
pronouns where the verb must be changed according to the nominative case-ending.

Part 10: Form a nominal phrase from the following sentences:

Grammatical error/Subject-verb agreement: The learners responses show that they could not
formulate a nominal sentence which begins with the subject (substantive and pronoun), where the
following word is an adjective, a preposition, a prepositional phrase, or a verb. The learners used a
verb which must follow the subject which is a substantive (Noun-plural-female). The verb must be
yu'didna , 'to prepare' (they). We can add the suffix 'na' pronoun (female-plural) to the verb
yu'did which is the root. We do not combine the radical 'da' in one letter. This is because in
Malay, the verbal system is characterized by the use of prefixes.
However, the sentence can be translated as in the following: In Malay when the verb begins with s, the
prefix me- is modified to meny- and the initial phoneme of a verb beginning with s is dropped: me +
sedia + Kan --> menyediakan to prepare. The Malay learner, assuming that the verb yu'idu does
not need any change in its radicals because in Malay the verb menyediakan 'to prepare' can be used
for all the subjects that predicate it (singular, plural). In Arabic, the verb must be joined with a pronoun
that refers to the subject. There is subject-verb agreement.
Similar linguistic errors are found in items (28, 29), as stated and analyzed earlier. Again, this
particular structure, among other syntactic errors, contains similar areas of difficulty, in so far as the
right application of Arabic verbs is concerned: the use of the verb with the predicate nouns and
pronouns. The problem of the application of the rule of agreement between the subject and the verb
in number and in person seems to be the biggest difficulty the learners face. In order that the learners
use the appropriate verbs, they have to be familiar with the various uses of the verbs especially when
those verbs are preceded by particles.

Part 11: Put the verb in brackets in the correct tense (fil ajwaf hollow verb').

Grammatical error/Subject-verb agreement: The responses show that most of the learners are not
cognizant of the root of the verb, because they think that the verb fuzna

which consists of the form

fuz + na, where the learner considered the root as fuz

and the suffix as na. In another response one

learner mentioned the same verb without recognizing the root.

Part 12: Put the verb in brackets in the correct tense (fil ma) 'perfect verb'.

Grammatical error/Subject-verb agreement: The responses show that most of the students could
not use the verb qla to say' when it was joined with the pronoun huma 'they' (dual). When we add
the glide refers to the dual'
35. * qul, * taqul ,

* yaqul

Grammatical error/Subject-verb agreement: The learners use the verbs; qul 'you (male,
single) say', taqul 'she says', yaqul he says'
It is possible that learners thought that the verb qul was the answer where the glide 'wa' should be
added after the letter q. The verb qla to say', when it is joined with the pronoun anti you
(female, singul.), the glide ' ' must be omitted. We can replace it with the glide 'wa' . The prefix
'' is added to qul to indicate that the verb is an imperative verb which requires the pronoun ''.
Otherwise, in Arabic, a subject (noun or pronoun) and a verb form must agree in person and number.
By person is meant 1st, 2nd or 3rd; by number is meant singular or plural. In addition to pronouns as
subjects, nouns are also used as subjects. Any noun whether common (al-rajul the man'; al-
marratu the woman'; al-wilatu the table') or proper (Zainab , Ali , Malaysia
, etc.), is always in the 3rd person, either singular or plural. This particular syntactic feature is
pertinent to Arabic due to its verbal changes which are unknown in Malay. Thus, a Malay learner of
ILCC 2013
34

Arabic has to be initially familiar with the different endings (conjugations) of the verb (in any tense), a
part from the task of being able to correctly identify the correct person and number of the subject. In
this rule agreement seems to be elementary but which learners of Arabic are too often oblivious of or
careless about. In Malay, the pronouns dia, kami, beliau, kita, awak semua, engkau semua, kamu
semua, anda sekelian, and mereka apply to either male or female speakers. (Liaw. 1996:54)
Arabic shows gender distinction in the 3rd person singular (huwa 'he', hiya 'she') and in all its plural
forms 'nanu' we, antum you all', hum they (masculine), and hunna they
(feminine). These gender aspects when attached to a verb will change morphological features.

Part 13: Rewrite the verb based on the pronoun amr in brackets.

Grammatical error/agreement in number: The learners could not use the verb when it is attached
with the pronoun because, as mentioned before, this particular syntactic feature is pertinent to Arabic
due to its verbal change which is unknown in Malay, e.g.
a. Mereka balik lewat.
They (masculine, feminine) - came back late'
b. Dia balik lewat.
'She/he came back late'
It is noticeable in Malay sentences that there is no verbal change in the verb balik to come back'. In
Arabic, note the verbal changes as in the following:
a) Mereka balik (v) lewat.
Hum d
They (m) came/they
b) Dia balik lewat.
Hiya adat mutakhiratan
She came/she late
It is observed that the verb d 'to come back' has verbal changes; Humawa d (he), hiya
dat (she), hum d 'they' (masculine), hunna udna 'they'
(feminine), huma d 'they' (masculine - dual), huma dat they' (feminine
- dual).

Grammatical error/agreement in number: It is noticeable from the responses above, that the
learners could not make suitable conjugations for the verb when it was joined with the pronoun
(plural, singular, dual). The Malay verbal system, in most cases, is characterized by the use of prefixes
or suffixes and its reliance upon modal auxiliaries (Hj Omar. Asmah & Ramah. 1985: 7).
In Malay there is no change in the conjugation of a verb e.g.:
39. - ina

biawtin lin

We cried with a loud voice
(Malay) - Kami menjerit dengan kuat.
The verbs jerit 'to cry' ada 'to be here' balik 'to come back' do not undergo changes in their forms.

Part 14 : Form a nominal phrase from the verbal phrase.

Grammatical error/Subject-verb agreement: In the responses mentioned above, it is noticeable that
the learners could not apply the rule on subject - verb agreement, where the subject noun or pronoun
agrees with the verb in number (singular or plural, or dual). This particular feature is, as mentioned
before, pertinent to Arabic due to its verbal inflection e.g. when the subject is plural/feminine or
masculine the conjugation of the verb must be changed according to the subject. The Malay learners
did not use the verb with its verbal inflection may be because their mother tongue verbal system, in
most cases, is characterized by the use of prefixes or suffixes and its reliance upon modal auxiliaries
or he did not know the rules of Subject-verb agreement.

Part 15: Put the verb in brackets in the correct tense fil nqi (defective verb) and omit the
pronoun amru al-raf.

Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense: Some responses show that the learners could not use the
correct tense fiil nqi when joined with the pronoun, because the verb inflection in Arabic
requires a change in the conjugation of the verb. It is possible that the learners thought that any verb
ending with the glide 'aa' was 'a defective verb' (fiil nqi ). They could not apply the rule of
fiil nqi which is formed from the root verb.

Part 16: Put each verb in brackets in the correct tense fiil nqi 'defective verb'.

Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense: It is noticeable from the responses above that most
mistakes were in the application of the perfective verb when joined with the pronouns. When we use
the defective verb raiya 'to accept'; a 'to give' the perfective of the verb is changed by
adding a pronoun at the end of verb when the verb is preceded by the pronoun hunna 'they (female)'
and the pronoun anta you (sing.mascl.)

Part 17: Form a nominal phrase from the following sentence.

Part 18: Put each verb in brackets in the correct tense fiil nqi (defective verb).

Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense: The learners' responses show that the rule of adding a
pronoun to al- fiil nqi 'defective verb' is missed by the learners. They used verbs which
have no syntactic features like akhfaytu , khifti . Where the learners could not use the
conjugation of the verb akhf , when joined with the pronoun (you.female, sing) the glide ii is
placed before the lettert which refers to the pronoun anti .
In another response, bakaw they, bakahum

, it is clear that the learner could not apply the

rule correctly. In the other responses, rumna , ramatn ,

the learners also could not apply the

rule of adding the pronoun to the defective verb which requires us to add the glide w to refer to the
pronoun.

Part 19: Put each verb in brackets in the correct tense fil mabni lilmajhl (Passive
verb).

Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense: The learners' responses show that they could not
formulate the perfective forms of the verbs qara'a 'to read', farada

to commend' sharaa

'to explain' by changing the vowels that are interlaced between the characters of the involved root.
Where the passive voice of the verbs above, can be triconsonantal or quadri-consonantal, it is
morphologically formed according to the fixed patterns of : fuila

like qurria

, furria

,
sharria

, which respectively mean, 'to be read', 'to be commanded', and 'to be explained'. The
imperfective passive of the verbs yushhidu , yatarimu , made in compatibility with the
paradigm yufilu as yushhadu (passive), yatarimu

(passive).
The learners used the verb qaraat , qurria

, qurria .

Perhaps they think that the verb

qaraat is a passive verb but they make an orthographic mistake. They must write the verb as
kurri'at.

In another response, the learner did use the verb correctly (agreement-verb). The 'pro-agent' al-
qiatu the story' is 'a feminine; therefore the verb must agree with al-qiatu. In the next
response, the learner uses the verb shuriat al-darrsu

when there must be verb agreement

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because the (pro-agent) naib al-fil is a noun (dual). In the nominative case the noun must
be al-darsn. We add the glide (dual) at the end of the word al-dars to become al-darsn
, which is in the accusative case.
This is because the student ignored the syntactical restriction in the sentence. Some students could not
use the rule for the passive verb in Arabic. In Malay the passive voice is different. For example: the
item (56)
quriat al-kiatu

'
The story is read' passive.
In Malay the active sentence is changed into the passive by making the direct object the subject, (2) the
subject is made the agent (expressed) or (implied) which may be preceded by the preposition 'by' oleh,
and (3) placing the verb in the passive form. (Hj Omar. Asmah & Rama. 1989:45)

Part 20: Rewrite the following sentence using the Particles 'adawtu al-nab (negative
Imperfective).
dhahaba al-talmdhu ila al-mukhtabari lilistim ila al-ddarsi

'The students went to the lab to listen to lesson'
Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense :The responses above show that the learners could not
apply the rule of the subjunctive when used with these particles (kay , li ,

likay , lau , atta

) which if employed can indicate explicitly a kind of conjecture or projection. These responses or
mistakes occur because in Malay the particles kay, li, atta, likay can precede the verb, when there is
no verbal change. Examples:
It is noticeable that the particle untuk 'for' when it precedes the verbs belajar 'to study', berjumpa 'to
meet', yastami'u 'to listen', there is no verbal change. This causes the learner to be unable to apply the
rule of the negative imperfective adawt-al-nab .

Part 21: Answer the following questions using the particle lan will not'.

Grammatical error/subject-verb agreement: The learners' responses show that they are influenced
by their mother language (MALAY) where they used the future particle akan 'will' prior to verbs;
tanam 'to sleep', takhruju 'to go out', yauru 'to attend; because the Arabic
sentences (64, 65, 66) could be translated into Malay as shown below:
It is noticeable from the examples above, that the learners translated the phrase tidak akan tidur or
keluar or hadir; into the Arabic language using the future particle sa 'will' preceding verbs. This
because the learners are influenced by his/her mother language (Malay), where he/she assumed tidak
akan tidur (will not sleep) to mean * lan satanam or * lan satakhruj ; or * lan
saaur , which are unacceptable in Arabic grammar. At the same time, the learners
responses also show that the students fail to apply the rule on subject verb agreement. The subject al-
tiflataan is dual, and therefore requires the corresponding 2nd person singular verbal form. Similar
linguistic errors are found to have been committed for the above structure (64, 65, 66), as stated and
analyzed earlier.
Part 22: Answer the following questions using the particle lam will not'. Begin the answer with
the words in brackets.

Grammatical error/subject-verb agreement :The responses above show the learners' failure to apply
the rule of the particle lam , literally 'not', which structurally represents the negation of Arabic
Perfective. This particle lam has the force of syntactically converting the Indicative verbs yusidn
, yanfau ,

and taiyn which are incorporated in (67, 68, and 69) above, into the
Jussive mood.
The learners use the verbs yusaidu , sad , yusid , and sada , They could
not use the verb following lam in the jussive mood, which requires the rule on subject-verb agreement.
The students could not apply the rule of agreement, where the verb yusid , when prior to lam
'particle negation', the subject al-abawain 'parents' (dual) requires the corresponding 2nd
person singular verbal form yusida . Examples. 67.a. al-'abawni lam yusida ibnahum
/ / /
Parents (dual) not help both

b. Ibu-bapa tidak menolong anaknya.Or mereka (plural) tidak menolong anaknya.
Or dia (she/he) tidak menolong anaknya.Or kamu tidak menolong anaknya.
It is observable from the above that menolong does not change; and there is no subject-verb
agreement. Similar linguistic errors are found in the responses (68, 69), where these syntactic errors,
exemplify a similar area of error.
Part 23: Fill in the blank with the suitable verb fil muri (Imperfective verb), use the
negativizer 'l' not.
Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense: Some responses show the students' failure to apply the
rule with the Imperfective Jussive when preceded by the negativizer l 'not'. The learners use the verbs
in deviant conjugations the verbs kharaja (perfective), Yakhruju (imperfective). The
learners seem to have failed to learn the correct conjugation of the imperfective jussive when it is
preceded by the negativizer l 'not', where the verb must change into the jussive which requires al-
sukn at the end of it.
The learner must use the verbs; l takhruj , l tabas , and l tayas ,

Part 24: Put the following phrases in the correct tense as shown in the example.

Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense: The learners' responses show that they could not apply
the rule of the Imperative in Arabic; which is formed by omitting the pronominal prefix of the Jussive
and replacing it with an 'alif'. In the response (73) the learners use the verb l tamal , which is
the Imperative form (male, sing), and the verb litalub (male, sing), this is because in Malay there
is no verbal change, or no different conjugation with regard to the order for the person reference. There
is no pronoun-verb - agreement in Malay.
The Malay verb exhibits no verbal change. The other responses (74, 75) are similar, where the
students make use of the same form. These errors, appear perhaps, because the learners could not
apply the rule of the Imperative verb in Arabic.

Part 25: Underline the inchoative verb (fil nsikh ) and classify its type.

Lexical error/form: In this part of the test most of the learners could not differentiate the types of
inchoative verb fil nsikh, which is classified into the verb of initiative fil al-shur , verb
of hope fil raj , verb of approximation fil muqrabah . This shows that the
learner failed to learn the fil naasikh 'inchoative verb' which the learner must learn to use with each
verb in context.


Part 26: Complete the sentence with the suitable verb fil al-shar (the protasis).

Grammatical error/wrong choice of tense : The learners responses show that they use the verb in
the conditional sentence when the verb follows the conditional particles which, if used, would require
both the Protasis and the Apodosis.The learners use the perfective "qaraa" instead of taqra
(Jussive verb- imperfective), this is because in Malay the protasis may be isolated from the Apodosis.
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The learner, perhaps, thinks that the perfect verb qaraa is acceptable because in Malay the verb can be
Perfect in the protasis, and imperfective in Apodosis. Another response shows that the learner follows
the rule in Malay, where the conditional sentence begins with a pronoun, e.g. 83.a. mahma (taqrau)
yazidka marifatan wa thaqfatan.
/ )( / / / / b. (Apa) saja yang kamu baca, kamu akan
tambah ilmu.

The response in (84) shows that the learners make the same mistakes as in item (83), where he/she uses
the noun mal, and the perfective amala .

Part 27: Put the verb in brackets in the correct tense fil mujarrad (naked or stripped verb).
All the students gave the correct response. This may be attributed to the fact that they are cognizant of
the naked verb dafaa 'to push' or jadda to be active'.

Part 28: Fill each gap with a suitable verb fil mujarrad (naked or stripped verbs)

Lexical error/form: The students' responses show that they could not use the suitable verb. They use
deviant form which is unacceptable in Arabic because the meaning of the verb they used makes the
sentence contextually ungrammatical. This mistake happens perhaps, because the learner lacks the
necessary vocabulary.

Part 29: Fill in the blank with a suitable verb fil mazd 'trilaterals verb'

Lexical error/form & meaning: The responses above show that the learners use trilateral verbs, thus
indicating lack of knowledge of certain lexicon in the TL. The verbs inkasara , akhraja , are
lexically unacceptable in TL. The appropriate verb for the above structure is aghlaqa to close'.
It is similar in the items (94, 95), where the learners' responses indicate a lack of knowledge of certain
lexicon in the TL. The verbs istaqbala ; ijtamau , qubbala , and akhraja , are
trilateral verbs. These verbs cannot be used in item (94) where the appropriate verb for the above items
is sayajtamiu .

Part 30: Put the verb in brackets in the correct tense fil l mazd triliteral verb'.

Lexical error/form & meaning: The learners' responses show that they could not use the prefixes in
the Arabic verb according to the context. They used the deviant structures like anhaytu , intih
, and nahaytu . They have to put the letters 'i',t in first and third place in the word. The verb
intaha to finish', is the correct one. According to the responses, the learners lack knowledge of
Arabic verbs. Similar mistakes in items (97, 98) are found.

Part 31: Fill in the blank with the suitable clause fil al-sharti (if clause).

Grammatical error/wrong choice of verb:The learners' responses show that the students failed to
recognize fil al-shar 'if clause verb'. This is because in Malay, the item (99) can be
translated as following:
99. a. In ... (Jussive) aliun ghadan 'ukrimka (Jussive)
/ .... / /

/
In Malay

b. Jika Ali datang esok, saya akan meraikan dia.
It is clear from sentence (b) above that the 'if' clause in Malay is a nominal sentence. The learners use
the nouns Allah , al-muslim because he was influenced by his mother language and he could not
apply the rule of the conditional sentences in Arabic.
Another response shows that the students have a lack of knowledge in the TL. The learners used the
verb tushhid to see' kna to be. They could not use the suitable verb lexically, or they did
not understand the context of the sentence which requires the Imperfective verb (Jussive).

3. Summary of finding
The lexical error/meaning has the highest percentage of lexical error of 86% (ranked first). The
lexical error/form 14% (ranked second). This means the learners have a problem the meaning in
context. For instance, the learners may not know how to use a particular lexical item, yet by chance,
he/she may also produce sentence which are well formed but when considered in context, may not be
plausibly interpretable at all. Thus, such sentences are clearly erroneous. The recognition of errors
depended upon the researcher making a correct interpretation of the learner's intended meaning in the
context. This means the learners have a problem in the meaning in context. The subject-verb
agreement category ranks second, with 45% which means more than two out of every four
respondents are likely to commit this kind of error. Since the category on subject-verb agreement in
person and number is one of the most difficult to observe and apply, the data merely confirms the
presence of such errors. Under "Grammatical errors' the learners produce deviant sentences involving
the subject agreement, etc., as well as ambiguous errors whose deviancy is characterized by clusters
of ideas expressed in a combination of unrelated grammatical structures, thus contributing to the
illogical relationship of words. Almost all the linguistic forms utilized in the sentences containing this
category of error were deviant and needed complete recasting of the grammatical structures of the
sentences to make the meaning clear. The learners seemed to be so preoccupied with their
communicative intentions that they paid less attention to or were merely not fully aware of the
unacceptability of their linguistic forms, as could be seen in the following structures: * al-ummahtu
tuiddna al-ama . 'Mothers prepare the food', * al-mudaristu
taqussuna baaa al-qasasi ala al-tilmidhti , 'The lady teachers are
telling their students some stories' to a certain extent, the learners follow norms concern the
relationship of the elements of a sentence: a subject, a verb, and predicate (object). However, in their
efforts to put the meaning across, they failed to appropriately apply the operational components of the
particular rule involved. It is the incomplete application of the operating TL rule as well as the
ignorance of rule restriction which caused them to commit errors of subject-verb agreement in person
and number. Many items of the test are designed to look further into the elements of the Arabic verbal
system which Malay learners seem to have difficulty regarding their usage. Some items are more of a
verbal type, that is, the learners were simply asked to fill in the blanks with the appropriate verbal
forms in Arabic. In order for the learners to get the right answer for every item of the verbal forms
mentioned in the test, he/she needs to consider the following suggestions or guidelines:
a) Knowledge of lexical items of the target language,
b) Awareness of the syntactic rule on the agreement between the subject and the verb in person
and number,
c) Familiarity with the distinctiveness of verbs, especially in common idiomatic expressions, and
d) Mastery of the conjugations of the verb and the tenses involved.

The students may have devised ways and means to get to their own answers, but all of the above
suggestions certainly will help facilitate the learner's ease in coming up with the appropriate
responses.

The learners have to look for the subject (either a noun or a pronoun) and analyze this in terms of
person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular or plural). Certainly, at this stage, the learner should be
familiar with the position of 'subjects' in the sentence (Subject + verb + object). For declarative; there
are twenty three (23) items for these parts, the test is presented with the appropriate answers, with the
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students' incorrect response in brackets, followed by an analysis. For the (23) items were answered
incorrectly by majority of students. Item 5, 6, 7 involve the use of 'hamzated verb' in this particular
structure, the verb used in the expression yamur 'commanded' khadha took, takul to
eat', following this answer for the rest of the items, the learner did not get the right answer as in items
(8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20), although they knew what verb to use. This may be attributed to their
ability to identify the weak verbs. There are (29) items for these parts, the test is presented with the
appropriate answers, with the students' incorrect response followed by an analysis. For declarative, in
items (27, 28, 29) the majority of the students did not get the right answer. Their errors '* tyuym
* taquunna , * shakka were caused by their failure to recognize the right verb in person
and number, thinking that the verbs tuiddu , taquunna , shakka as shown in their
responses. Certainly, tuiddu, taquunna, shakka cannot be verbs which must follow the subject
which is substantive (Noun-plural-female or male). This linguistic error due to incomplete application
of rules. In this case, it is not sufficient that the learners know the uses of the subject or what subject to
use, but they also need to consider other concepts, like the syntactic rule on the subject-verb agreement,
in order to come up with the appropriate answers. Falling under the same category of linguistic error
committed by the learners as in item 27, are structures in items 28 and 29 which involve the learners'
failure to recognize and analyze the subject, in order to get the right verbal form. The analysis of the
subjects (person and number) with the corresponding required verb to conform to the syntactic rule on
subject-verb agreement. It is interesting to further analyze items 29 has al-mudarristu for the subject.
The learner's answer * taquunna may be attributed to his having considered al-mudarristu
(3rd pl.) as subject, ignoring that fact that this subject (3rd pl.fem.) requires a verb in 3rd person plural:
taquunna. This holds true for item 27, 28 where the learner considered al-mudarristu (3rd.fem.) as
the subject, which requires a 3rd pl. verb taqsunna instead of * taquuuna , item 3 has a
subject Amad w asan (2nd pl.) which requires a 2nd person pl. verb yamn
instead of * yaum . While difficulty was encountered by the learners in applying the syntactic
rule on agreement between the subject and the verb in person and number, the initial problem,
however, and one which is very basic, is their inability to identify the correct verb to be used. Indeed,
they may be able to get the right conjugation of any given verb, but prior to this, there is a need to be
able to single out the verb to use in a given particular structure. This is seen for items 13, 14, 16, 17,
18, 19 and 20.
In all the above sentences the learner can use any choice of assimilated verb which its initial character
is 'waw' or 'ya' or the hollow verb which is one having a glide for its second radical or defective
verb for instance, the word akhalat 'to eat' akhadhat 'to take' (13) ja 'come' (17)
waala 'arrived'.

At this point, the learner needs to analyze the structure further by way of looking into the other lexical
items that world help him make the right choice of verb. The subject-verb agreement is required in the
process for some items. Following the process of agreement will be of great help to the learners.
Failure to consider the above suggested guidelines will create difficulties and problems on the part of
the learner, considering the fact that his answers will be dependent of his knowledge and ability to
apply these rules to this particular exercise or test. In the test question, what is crucial for Malay
learners of Arabic is the ability to recognize the right verb and subsequently the use of the appropriate
verbal form which agrees with the subject in number and person. Below are the results of the subject-
verb agreement as summarized. Recognition of errors was based on whether the lexical items were
correct and appropriate. Words which were structurally deviant were considered erroneous
immediately. These were called covert errors. Covert errors on the other hand were structurally well-
formed but did not convey the meaning the learner intended. These were considered erroneous
because they were not used in the appropriate context. Description of errors was based on whether the
words were overtly or covertly erroneous.In general, errors were divided into 2 board categories using
the source of errorsas the basis for classification. "These two board categories are interlingual errors
may be said to occur as a result of negative transfer from the mother tongue. On the other hand,
intralingual errors appear to occur as a result of the difficulties found within the target language itself".
(Tan, Po Li. 1994:101)

It is noticeable that the errors due to MT influence are translation errors. In this case, the subjects
resorted to their mother tongue to translate word-for-word to Malay. Translation is used because
many subjects when they response they did not think in Arabic. They faced difficulty expressing
themselves in Arabic, they response according to their mother tongue (Malay) and try to come up
with equivalent words or phrases.
They would then translate the Malay words to Arabic, thus producing 'non-Arabic' form or deviant
forms. Examples of such literal translation are shown in the following: a)* al-mudaribna
lan sayauru b.* al-mudaribna lan sayaurna .
b.* al-usratu lan satakhruju . Al-usratu lan satakhruj c.* al-iflatni

lan satanmu

. * Al-iflatni

lan satanm

.
In examples (a, b, c) the literal translation strategy appear to be very comfortable employed by the
Malay learners of Arabic. This may be to the lack of a close relationship between Arabic and
Malay.A.Intralingual Errors. Wrong selection of a word or phrase: The selection of inappropriate
words or phrase for a particular context may lead to deviant lexical words or phrase. This category of
errors account for (19) per cent of all the errors identified.

3.1 Over Use of Subordinate Terms

The use of subordinate terms is one of the lexical simplification strategies used by the second
language learners. "As the second language learners do not have enough active vocabulary stored in
the mental lexicon (Palmbery, 1990) they tend to use subordinate terms rather than appropriate
hyponyms. Hyponymy is defined by Crystal (1985:150) as "the relationship which obtains between
specific and general lexical items, such that the former is included in the latter (i.e. is the hyponym of'
the latter". For example 'cat' is a hyponym of 'animals'; 'flute' of 'instrument'; 'chair' of 'furniture' and
so on. In this case, 'animal', 'instrument', and 'furniture' are supordinate terms, or sometimes called
hypernyms with reference to which the subordinate term can be defined as is the usual practice in
dictionary definitions ('a cat is a type of animal').
The percentage of errors approximately (13) per cent. It is interesting to note that many of the
supordinate terms used by the subject appear to be deviant verbs. This may be related to the fact that
many learners use other strategies such as paraphrasing or coining new words when they face
difficulties in using naked verb or assimilated verb, the learners might opt for the simplification
strategy and come up with supordinate terms which they are already familiar with.
Error produced as a result of 'wrong selection of words' or 'overuse of subordinate terms may be
explained in terms of over generalization'. Over generalization is evident when the learner learns a
word and applies it in context which is inappropriate, for example: the verb nazalat which is
hyponym of al-amru 'rains', the verb istayqaat 'woke up' which is a hyponym of
the word mubakiran

early and the verb takulu to eat' which is a hyponym of

'the
table'.
The above examples show that the learners has learned the verbs nazala 'fall down', istayqaa

'to woke up' and takulu 'to eat' but has extended its use to an inappropriate context.

3. 2 Overlaporation
About '22' per cent of the total number of errors is made up of this type of errors. These may be
classified as covert errors as they are usually syntactically well-formed but inappropriate in the
context. For example,
a.* ghalaqa jarasa

al-bbi

fadhahaba

lifatih .
b.* da al-muslimna li amlihim al-amati .
c.* qaraa slimu

al-fuqara

mimma ahu allhu .

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The learners did not realize that the verbs chosen and uses inappropriate in context, inspite they are
well-formed.

2.5.3 Semantic confusion.
The errors recorded in this category represented about (31) per cent of the total number of errors.
Semantic confusion may reflect the confusion between and among lexical items in the second language
itself. As Arabic is a complex language, it is inevitable that second language learners of Arabic
produce erroneous forms as a result of subtable differences found between words in Arabic, for
example,
a.ala al-muslimi

an yad bilmarfi . b. ala al-muslimi

an
yamura bilmarfi . c.adkhala allhu qalbahu ila al-iimni

.
d.had allhu qalbahu ila al-iimni

. The errors in example (a,c) is common in

the data. It indicates confusion over the Arabic word adkhala 'to convert' had 'to convert'.
Even though they are semantically related, subtable differences exist between them. Second language
learners who are not able to differentiate between these words might produce deviant forms
On the contrary, MT influence could also account for the errors in example (c). In Malay the word
masuk 'to convert' can be used to mean adkhala 'to enter', 'to convert'. Because the multifaceted
use of the word (c), it is not surprising that Malay learners of Arabic face difficulty in differentiate
between words like 'hada' , 'adkhala' in example (c,d), could also be traced to mother
tongue influence, in Malay the word masuk is used to mean 'yadkhul, yahd' is used 'to
convert'. Error analysis and interlanguage analysis emerged as a reaction to the view of second
language learning proposed by the contrastive analysis theory, which deemed language transfer as a
central process involved in second-and foreign language learning. Error of incorrect conjugation may
cause developmentally or by morphological under differentiation of the mother tongue, as in item (40)
* shu sadan He lives a happy life and item (39) * aanan biawtin
lin

He cried in a loud voice[.

4. Conclustion
It is noticed that the source-language may operate as a psychological force to reinforce the learners
tendency to reduce complexity of TL code to a simpler one, hence resulting in errors, as mentioned by
M.Shmitz (1991) accordingly.The result of (EA) shows that there are noticeable patterns in the
occurrence of errors. The main problems of the language learner in this chapter was wrong choice of
tense, it was observed that the students could not meaningfully operate the concepts of the verbs in
past, and present within the verb structure. Redundancy errors were most significant in concord.
While students could see number in the subject, they could not introduce the correct verb forms to
reflect agreement in the verb structure. This problem was accentuated by the difficulty in using the
correct. It was also found that the learners had difficulty internalising the verb structure forms. This
difficulty was especially evident when they used the subject-verb agreement in person and number, the
use of the correct determiner before the noun. If learners could learn the formal nature of the verb
structures many of the errors could be reduced. In terms of the categories of errors that were inditified,
the most problematic areas are: Wrong choice of tense; subject-verb agreement; Conditional sentence;
Imperfective jussive; Imperative; the passive form and Imperative negative. Under tenses, the most
difficult are correct tense fil nqis ; the perfective verb when joined with pronoun; the
conjucation of the verb when it is placed after the subject, imperfective jussive, the imperative and verb
in the conditional tense. The differences between the Malay and Arabic verbal systems identify
problem areas for language learners or translators. Interference from the source language "can be
viewed as resulting from the conflict set up between the mental organisational demands of the L2".
(James. 1980:179).

Citation:
Cook, V.J. "The Comparison of language Development in Native Children and Foreign Adults", IRAL,
Vol.II, No (1), (1973).
Coorder, Pit, S. (1973). Introduction Applied Linguistics. Middlesex, England: Penguin Education.
Corder, Pit, S. (1967). The significance of Learners' Errors. International Review of Applied
Linguistics.
Crystal, D. (1985). Dictionary of Language and Languages. Penguin Books Ltd. Cambridge
University.
Hanamnnia, E. and H.L. Gradman. "Acquisition of English Structures: A Case study of and Adult
Native speaker of Arabic in English speaking Environment", Language Learning, Vol.27, No (7),
(1977).
Hj Omar, Asmah & Ramah.(1985). Introduction to Malay Grammar. Dewan Bahasa and Pustaka,
Kuala Lumpur.
James, Carl. (1980). Contrastive Analysis. Longman. London.
Liaw, Yock Fang. (1996). Standard Malay Made Simple. Times Editions Pte. Ltd.
Palmbery, Rolf. (1990). Improving Foreign Language Learners. Vocabullary Skills, RELC Journal,
Vol (21), No (1-9).
Richards & Jack C. "A Non-Contrastive approach to Error Analysis". ELT, Vol (25), (1971).
Richards & Jack C. (1974). The language Teaching Matrix. Cambridge University Press.
Schmitz, Michael Johannes. (1991). Problems of Source Language Interference With Malay Learners
of German. Kuala Lumpur : University of Malaya (Unpublished Ph.D dissertation), Kuala Lumpur.
Tan, Po Li. (1994). A Study of Lexical Errors Produced by Malay. ESL Learners of English Master's
thesis, University Malaya.
Taylor, B. "The Use of Overgeneralization and Transfer Learning Strategies by Elementary
and Intermediate Students in ESL". Language Learning, Vol. 25, No (1), (1975).



















ILCC 2013
44



ARABIC BROADCASTING AS A POTENTIAL TOOL OF NATIONAL INTEGRATION:
NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE

Tajudeen Adebayo, PhD
Assistant Chief Producer
Voice of Nigeria, Lagos
Abstract

Essence of effective Communication in a given country cannot be over-emphasized. It plays a great
role in orientating the populace and engendering peace and security in a nation. Language is a
veritable tool of communication as it occupies a crucial position in information dissemination
especially through the media. Nations choose to broadcast in a particular language, especially in its
external broadcast outfits, for various reasons. However, choice of broadcast language in local
languages depends largely on availability of audience within that country. This paper attempts to
trace the history of Arabic in Nigeria with a view to highlighting its importance in Nigerian
broadcast industry. Even though, Nigeria is seen from the surface as an Anglophone country, its
contact with Arabic is as old as the emergence of Islam in the region. Arabic was very relevant in
the pre-colonial, colonial and post colonial eras. The language has rendered unparallel service to
the preservation of Nigerian history in particular and the West African history as a whole. It has
great influences on its local languages such as Hausa, Fulfulde, Kanuri and Yoruba. In addition to
that, the existence of Shuwa Arabs in Borno State of Nigeria is enough reason to categorize Arabic
as an indigenous language in Nigeria. The language was introduced to Nigerian external
broadcasting on Voice of Nigeria as early as 1963 initially to provide correct and adequate
information to the Arab world, but later became so relevant even in internal broadcasting. The
paper concludes that the Arabic language in Nigeria has unexploited potentials for the promotion
and fostering of national integration.

Introduction

Nigeria is recognized as the most populous country in Africa. The country is known for having a
high proportion of languages in comparison to other African countries. The names of the three
main tribal groups in Nigeria (the Hausa, the Igbo (or Ibo), and the Yoruba) correspond to the
languages spoken by those peoples. The national government has been active in broadcasting since
1957, when a chain of radio stations was established. In 1976 the Federal government established
control over all television stations, placing them under the Nigerian Television Authority.
However, the privatization policy of the Federal Government of Nigeria in the 90s led to issuance
of several licenses to private radio and television operators in the country. Radio and television
programmes are broadcast in English and the major Nigerian languages.
1



1.1- Status of the Arabic language in Nigeria
1.1.1-In the pre-colonial era

Before the advent of Islam in Africa, there had been trade relations between the Arabs and the
Africans. Trading, as we know, requires conversation between the seller and buyer. The Arabic
language, which was more advanced than local languages, was adopted for the purpose. It was this
trade relation that sowed the seed of Arabic in Africa, though its scope was limited to commercial
centers and names of items that were not known to Africans.
2


The main factor responsible for the spread of Arabic to areas outside the Arabian Peninsula was
Islam. Being the language of the Qur'an and Islamic branches of knowledge, Arabic has inevitably
been interwoven with Islam.
3
In all the communities that have embraced Islam, the history of
Arabic is traceable to the advent of Islam in such communities.
4
Nigeria is not an exception. This is
because Muslim must learn and commit some chapters of the Qur'an to memory for observing their
daily Salat and other religious duties and the fact that Islam encourages learning. While describing
this, Ogunbiyi I.A. says:

In response to this religious inclination, one finds all over the country, especially in the
Northern and South-western parts, traditional Qur'anic schools known as Ile-Kewu in the
Yoruba-speaking areas of Nigeria, in virtually every quarter of urban centres, in villages
and hamlets where there is a large concentration of Muslims for the propagation of the
knowledge of Arabic among the young and the old.
5


With the advent of the popular Sokoto Jihad, the Arabic language became the lingua franca of the
state. It was often the only means of communication between the communities of Tuareg, Kanuri,
Hausa, Fulani, Nupe or Yoruba.
6
. It played a vital role in politics, economy, social and judicial
sectors. This was evident in the numerous works left by the Sokoto scholars before the invasion of
the colonialists.

1.1.2 -In the colonial era.

Despite the hatred harboured by the colonialists for Islam and its language they, nonetheless,
benefited immensely from its civilization. They met an organized administrative structure in
Northern Nigeria that prompted them to introduce indirect rule. In addition to that, literacy in
Arabic has been deep-rooted among the Nigerian Muslims before the advent of the Western
education. They used to document events in their local languages using Arabic Scripts. This was
known as Ajami and it was the only form of literacy available to them. Thus, Arabic helped in the
preservation of African heritage for the upcoming researchers. This was because the scholars and
traders who were the disseminators of Islamic religion became not only teachers but were also in
good standing with local chiefs and rulers for whom they sometimes acted as scribes.
7
Hodgkin has
this to say: for the Hausa past before 1500 we are wholly dependent upon local chronicles
composed in Arabic and relatively late in date even though based upon earlier records of which the
Kano Chronicle is much the fullest and most informative.
8

Furthermore, in an attempt to develop a standard Yoruba orthography, Arabic scripts was part of
the options considered by the missionaries as reported by Samuel Johnson:

The earliest attempt to reduce this language into writing was in the early forties of the last
century, when the Church Missionary Society organized a mission to the Yoruba
country After several fruitless efforts had been made either to invent new characters, or
adapt the Arabic, which was already known to Moslem Yorubas, the Roman character was
naturally adopted.
9


The impacts of the Arabic language are still evident on the Nigerian currencies that bear Hausa
languages written with Arabic inscriptions. In later days, this historic legacy came under criticism.
Stephen Irinyemi said in an article titled: "Arabic Inscriptions on the Naira:

For several years now, the Nigerian naira notes of N5, N10, N20, N50, N100, N200 and the
newest of them- N500, have been carrying Arabic inscriptions, which cannot be read or
interpreted by most Nigerians. It is my opinion that, the silence over this is not healthy for
ILCC 2013
46

us as a federation or secular state Today, in Nigeria, English Language is the official
communication medium amongst all NigeriansArabic on the other hand is not our
national communication medium; therefore, it should not appear on what concerns the
entire nationI think this is wrong and should be corrected immediately if there is truly no
hidden material fact tied to the Arabic writing on these notes, which has been the case for a
long while now
10
.

In a rejoinder to that article, Dr. Robert Sanda wrote:
Stephen, the words with the Arabic alphabets on the Naira are, in fact, in Hausa language
and not Arabic at all. The use of Arabic letters in other languages is not new. Farsi, Pashtun,
Urdu are among languages that use Arabic letters but are themselves quite unintelligible to
an Arab unless he or she is educated in the said languages. Similarly, your article and mine
written in Latin based letters do not qualify for Latin. The words in Arabic letters you find
so offensive on the naira, in transliteration, read; naira biyar (five naira), naira goma (ten
naira), naira ishirin (twenty naira), etc
11
.


The colonial masters also recognized the importance of the Arabic language in Nigeria as a
medium to reach the masses. In order to carry along Nigerians in northern part of the country, the
subsequent Government inscribes Hausa languages using Arabic scripts (ajami) on our currency.
Hence you find on Five Naira ( ) and Ten Naira ( ) and this cut across all the currencies
for a long period. However, the currency notes released to circulation by the Olusegun Obasanjo
regime (1999 2007) now bear the three major languages in Nigeria; Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba
excluding the Arabic script. This leads us to examine the status of Arabic language after the
independence of Nigeria.

1.1.3- In the post-Independent era

Despite the efforts of the colonialists to substitute all Arabic traces with Western ideologies during
their era, Arabic started to regain its status shortly before Nigeria attained its independence in 1960.
As soon as Nigeria became a sovereign state, Arab countries started opening their Consular offices
and Embassies in Lagos, the then Nigerian Capital. As a sovereign nation, Nigeria also reciprocated
the kind gesture by opening her embassies in such Arab countries. Relationship of Nigeria with
most of the nations in the North and North East of Africa at levels of diplomacy, education,
commerce and culture cannot be over emphasized. This includes Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, Libya,
Egypt and Sudan. Nigeria maintains diplomatic relationship with those countries in the Middle East
such as: Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar and Syria which all have Arabic as their lingua franca.
The membership of Nigeria to International Organizations such as U.N, African Union, OPEC and
UNESCO makes it imperative for Nigerian Government to train its core citizens in other languages
beside English and French. It was in recognition of this fact that General Yakubu Gowon (1966-
1975) sent a delegate to Egypt to learn professional Arabic translation
12
. As a corollary to that,
Nigeria established an external broadcasting service to make its views known, as a sovereign
nation, to the international community especially the Arabs. Thus Arabic became also relevant in
broadcasting.

Up till the present moment, experience shows that the Arabic language is widely used as a medium
of communication in the Northern States of Nigeria more than English. In other words, a man who
is only literate in English becomes illiterate most of the time in the North. To buttress this point,
Ayo Bamgbose remarks thus:

The case for English has always been overstated. It is true that English in Nigeria is a
common language, but only for educated elites. Perhaps as many as 90 per cent of our
people in both urban and rural areas are untouched by its alleged communicative role.
13


In the South west of nowadays, many Muslims parents prefer their wards to be learned in Arabic
as well as English. Many of these Nigerians attended numerous Arabic schools in Nigeria. Some
travel to Arab world to further their Arabic studies while others acquired their degrees in Nigerian
Institutions. In addition to that is the existence of an ethnic group called "Shuwa Arabs in Borno
State of Nigeria whose mother tongue is Arabic. R.D. Abubakre, who conducted a field research to
the area, revealed that Shuwa Arabic, which is the language of Dikwa, Gwanboru, Ngala, Ran and
Gajibo of Borno State, is close to the Standard Arabic unlike the dialect of the Tripolitarian Arab
settlers in Kano and elsewhere.
14
The Arabic language has rendered an unprecedented service to
the preservation of the African History. This a known fact that even non Muslim Historians such as
late K.O. Dike, a former Vice-Chancellor of the University of Ibadan attested to
15
. Therefore,
Arabic Scholars argued that Arabic is more or less a Nigerian language. In the epilogue of his
inaugural lecture titled: "Of Non-Muslim cultivators and propagators of the Arabic Language,
Professor Isaac A. Ogunbiyi submits as follows:

That of all the non-Nigerian languages; none has more claims to our attention and
recognition than Arabic language. That the Arabic language is unparalleled by any other
language in its role as a written medium in which much of the Nigerian, nay, the African
past is recorded. That the past thus preserved in this written medium is a national,
common heritage, not a sectoral one. That the Arabic language has influenced and
permeated into much of the everyday language of communication of Muslim and non-
Muslim Nigerians, especially those from the Hausa and Yoruba-speaking areas and other
Nigerian languages related to, or influenced by, these two languages. That consequent
upon the foregoing submissions, the Arabic language in Nigeria has an unexploited
potential for the promotion and fostering of national integration.
16


Reference to Arabic as one of the non-Nigerian languages, in the above submission, might not be
unconnected with the fact that the existence of the Shuwa Arabs, whose mother tongue is Arabic,
as Nigerian citizens in Borno State, had not been established when the lecture was written. The
influence of Arabic on various other languages would be examined below.

1.2. Influence of Arabic on some other languages.

Arabic language has great influence on languages of the Muslims all over the world. In Asia,
Persian, Turkish, Urdu and Malay are amongst the languages that have been tremendously
influenced by Arabic.
17
Even English language had earlier benefited from the generosity of the
Arabic language considering the information made available on line and is quoted below:

Arabic has contributed many words to the English language, many of them beginning with
the Arabic definite article al-. These include algebra, alcohol, alchemy, alkali, alcove,
alfalfa, and albatross. Others are mosque, minaret, sultan, elixir, harem, giraffe, gazelle,
cotton, amber, sofa, mattress, tariff, magazine, arsenal, syrup, sherbet, and artichoke.
Coffee is also an Arabic word, which entered English by way of Turkish and Italian. The
word assassin comes from a similar Arabic word meaning "hashish addicts."
18


In Africa too, Somali, Swahili, Madinka, Wolof, Hausa, Fulfulde, Kanuri and Yoruba have
acquired loans from Arabic words and expressions
19
. Thus Arabic has enriched these languages
with thousands of religious, political, legal and commercial words and expressions
20
. Scholars
have written so much about the Arabic loan words in Hausa, Fulfulde, Yoruba, Swahili and other
ILCC 2013
48

languages. In an article entitled "Arabic loan words in Hausa; Goerner, Salman and Armitage,
Ogunbiyi wrote:

Many of the words in the Hausa language have Arabic origins. If any one doubts the
importance of these words, he would find it interesting to venture into a Hausa speaking
Community with an Arabic speaker. Using only Arabic, such a speaker has been found to
establish a far degree of communication with the people. Some would attribute this
understanding of Arabic to the omnipresence of the Koranic Schools. However, experience
has shown that a Hausa speaker untrained in Koranic Arabic understands conversational
Arabic as well as the average Koranic Student. They recognize the Arabic loan words without
knowing their derivation and grasp the meaning expressed.
21


Abubakar cited about 1,500 frequently used words of Arabic origin in Hausa language
22
. He also
identified other aspects of borrowing besides the lexical/semantic level such as pronominal suffixes
for first and second persons for both masculine and feminie
23
. Ogunbiyi, on the other hand,
identified eight subject matters in which the Yoruba language has borrowed words and expressions
from the Arabic language
24
. Malik further cited examples of Arabic loan words to Swahili, Hausa
and Yoruba languages
25
.

In his article titled "The Impact of Arabic on the linguistic and cultural
life of Yoruba People" he also provides a list of common Arabic loan words that have come into
Yoruba usage. The said list has formed the basis of examples given in this work while the
researcher found their equivalence in Swahili, Hausa, and Fulfulde languages with some additional
examples. It is interesting to note that some of these Arabic words have common meaning in many
African languages. That is an indication that the Arabic language can serve as a unifying factor in
Africa. At times the equivalence of such Arabic words had sometimes become unknown in the
borrowing languages. Below is a list of common Arabic loan words to Swahili, Hausa, Fulfulde
and Yoruba:



Arabic Source Meaning Swahili Hausa Fulfulde Yoruba
1. (ad-du') Prayer Adua Addu'a Do'a dura/dua
2. (al-Ahd) Sunday ladi
3. (al-'fiyah) Good health Afya lafiya laafia
4. (al-Khamis) Thursday Alhamisi Alhamis Alhamisa lamisi
5. (al-'amr) matter amara al'amari Umri (v) lamori
6. (Al-'arbi'a) Wednesday laraba Alarba laruba
8. (al-Khabar) news Habari labarai Habaru Labaari
9. (al-waqt) Time Wakati Wakkati Wakati
10. (al-jinn) jinn/spirit Jini jinnu ginnaaji lujonnu
11. (al-barakah) blessing Baraka albarka Barka lubarika
12. (al-basal) Onion albasa lubosa
13. (ani-niyyah) intention Ania (v) niyya niyan
14. (al-aql) intelligence Hakali Hankali Hakkilo ankali/laakaye
15.

(ar-rizq) provision Riziki Arziqi Risku risiki

16.

(as-sirr) Secret Siri Siri Sirii siri

17. (al-ithnain) Monday litinin Altine tinii
18. (al-Thulatha) Tuesday talata salaasa talaata
19. (al-haj) male pilgrim Alhaji Alhaji laaji
20. (al-haajah) female pilgrim hajiya Hajia laaja
21. (al-'asr) Afternoon Alasiri la'asar assiri laasare
22. (al-fajr) Daybreak Alfajiri alf'ijir fijir lufajari
23. (al-jannah) Paradise Aljanna Aljanna lujonna
24. (an-nabiyy) Prophet Nabii annabi nabi
25. (balagha) to be of age Balehe balaga balaga
26. (Iblis) devil/SataN ibilisi Ibilishi Ibliisu biliisi
27. (dabbara) to plan dabira
28. (dun'ya) this world Duniya Duniyaaru duniyan
29. (al-fahsaha) vile deed alfasha alufansa
30. (fakhr) pride alfahari faari
31. (fitnah) worry/trouble fitina fitina fitina fitina
32. (ghafara) to forgive gafarta yaafuao
26
gaafara
33. (halaka) to destroy Hiliki Halaka Halaka Halaka
34. (haram) forbidden Haramu Haram Harmi Haramu
35. (jama'ah) Congregation taronjamaah Ummatoon
27
Jonmoo
36. (jum'ah) Friday Juma'a Jumbaare Jimoo
37. (Qadar) Destiny Kadiri Kaddara Hoddirori Kadara
38. (Qalam) Pen alkalami Kalamu
39. (Kafir). Unbeliever Kafiri Kafiri Keefeero Keferi
40. (Daruri) Necessity Larura Laluri
41. (makruh) dishonest act Makuruhi Makaruhi Makaruru
42. (musibah) misfortune Masifa Masiibo Musiiba
43. (mala'ika) angel malaika malaika malaaikajo maleeka
44.

(mua'llim) Teacher Mwalimu Malam Mallumjo Malimu

45. (riba) Usury Riba Riba Riba Riba
46. (Sa'ah) hour/time Saa Sa'a Saa'a Saa
47. (Sabab) Cause/reason Sababu Dalili
28
Sababu Sababi
48 . (Zaman) Era Zamani Zamani Zamanu Samaani
49. (Sama') Sky, heaven Samawati (pl) Sama Asama Sanma
50. (Shari'ah) Islamic Law Sheria Sharia Shea Seria
51. (Surah) Picture/form Sura Sura Suura
52. (Sunnah) Tradition Suna Sunna Sunna Suna
53. (Zina) Adultery Zina Zina Sina
54. (Tabah) to repent Tubu Tuba Tubuki Tuuba
55. (Wa'z) Sermon waadhi wa'azi Waaju Waasu
56. (Wali) Saint Walii Wali Waloojo Wolii
57. (Ibadah) act of worship Ibada Ibada Ibaada
57. (Sadaqah) alms Sadaka Sadaka Saara
58. ) ilm) Knowledge Elimu Ilimi Imo
59. (Janaba) Impurity Janaba Janaba Jannaba
60. (Abadan) Never/ever Abadan Har Abadan faabada
61. (An niyyah) Intention Ania (v) Niyya niyan
62. (Khalifah) Caliph Kalifa leefa
63. (Al-a'sr) afternoon Alasiri La'asar Assiri laasare
64. (Al-fajr) daybreak alfajiri alf'ijir fijiri lufajari
65. (Al-misk) Musk alamsiki Almiski limisiki
66. (Khasara) damage/loss Hasara asara saara
67. (Khut'bah) sermon Hutuba Huduba Hud'ba Utuba
68. (Halal) Lawful Halali Halal laali
69. (Muadhin) Announcer Mwadhini Ladan Ladan Ladaan
Of hour of
Prayer
70. (Mu'min) Believer Mumiani Mumini Mumini
ILCC 2013
50

71. (Al-Qadi) Judge Kadhi Alkali Alkaali
31
likaali
72. (Haqiqah) Reality Hakika
29
Hakika
30
kiika
32


If Arabic should have such wide influence on many African languages, it is not surprising to have it
as language used by the media in many countries of the continent. Even, if the Arabic language is
not fully understood by all, some Africans can still pick one or two words, which are already
borrowed in their native languages. Hence, Arabic is a qualified language of mass communication.

1.3. Arabic as a language of mass communication
Students of Communication do not agree on how to define what it is they study
33
the reason for this
is that it is usually quite difficult to formulate a satisfactory definition of any term which is used to
name an enormously complex set of ideas
34
. Mass communication, according to DeFleur and
Dennis, is defined as a device for moving messages across distance or time to accomplish mass
communication
35
. If this definition is anything to go by, a language that is widely spoken is
inevitable to accomplish this mission. The following quotation will give us an insight into areas
where Arabic is used across the globe.

Arabic is one of the world major languages. It is spoken in a broad belt extending from the
Arabian Peninsula across the Fertile Crescent and on to the Atlantic Ocean. It is the official
language of Saudi Arabia, Yemen, United Arab Emirate, Oman, Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar
to mention but few. It is also the lingua franca in North African countries such as Egypt,
Sudan, Libya, Algeria and Morocco. This has made Arabic the mother tongue of about two
hundred and fifteen million people.
36

In addition to that, Arabic is being used on daily basis by many millions of Muslims in other
countries in their devotional activities. It is also used as a medium of instruction in Islamic Schools
in the Muslim world. In sub-Sahara Africa, Arabic is a medium of expression in Government Radio
broadcast in Chad, Cameroon, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Guinea-Conakry, Malagasy, Mauritania, Niger,
Nigeria and Sudan.
37
In 1974, Arabic was made the sixth official language of the United Nation.


Arabic has two characteristics that distinguish it from other languages. It is a language of
international civilization and religion. It plays a significant role in science, history, philosophy and
politics up till the present moment
38
. Considering the above assertions, Arabic is a veritable
language of mass communication. Realizing this fact, Nigerian Government added it to languages
of broadcast on its radio.

1.4. Introduction of Arabic to Nigerian broadcasting
Broadcasting came to Nigeria in 1932 with the help of a British Empire service from Daventry in
England. In 1936, the first radio distribution service (rediffussion) came into Lagos as a means of
distributing programmes that originated from BBC in London.

On April 1, 1951, the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation was formally established
39
.

It was in
April 1957 that an independent Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation was established to provide
information internally to Nigerians. In 1961, Voice of Nigeria (VON) came into existence as the
external service of the Nigerian broadcasting Corporation (NBC) that later became Federal Radio
Corporation on Nigeria (FRCN). It started with 10KW HF transmitters, which broadcast
programmes for two hours a day in English and French to West Africa.

In 1963, Arabic was
introduced to Nigerian broadcasting
40.
This was in recognition of the importance the language in
dissemination of information to the international community. Ever since its inception, the Arabic
service has contributed immensely to the transmission of Nigerian culture, value, ideas, norms and
knowledge to members of the society, the international community and the Nigerians in the
Diaspora.

At inception, Late Ustadh Rufai Yahya was the 1
st
Senior Announcer in the Arabic Service up till
1970 when Ustadh Ibrahim Magaji from Kano State took over the leadership of the section for just
six months. Then, Ustadh Najmdeen Adegbite Binuyo, from whom the researcher got some of this
information, became the 3
rd
Head of the Arabic unit. He joined the Arabic service of the then
External Service of Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC) in 1967 when he left Sudan where
he was working as a translator in the Nigerian embassy in Sudan. Ustadh Binuyo revealed that
there was a scarcity of qualified Nigerians whose Arabic skills could be used in broadcasting. At
that point in time, the Radio employed the service of some Sudanese, Lebanese and Egyptians
among them was Yacoub El-tom Yacoub, a Sudanese. However some Nigerians later joined the
Arabic service among then were: Uthman Ibrahim who became the 4
th
Head of the Unit, Hussein
Muhammad, Hanafi, Professor A.F Ahmad currently of National Open University of Nigeria and
Professor Murtada Bidmos, currently of the University of Lagos, Akoka
41
.

Perhaps the most consistent Arabic broadcasting in Nigeria is that of Voice of Nigeria. In addition
to daily Nigerian, African and World news, it broadcasts weekly Arabic programmes on Nigerian
politics, Economy, socio-culture among others. Its broadcast had lasted for two hours daily but not
less down 30 minute at any given time. It has participated and won International medals with some
of its programmes and the members of the Service have benefitted in trainings both home and
abroad. At the inception, most of its staff strength are majorly Nigerian who studied in the Arab
world, but recently, the composition is made up of a mixture of Nigerian graduates and foreign as
well.

In addition to the external Arabic broadcasting, there exists local Arabic broadcasting in some
Nigerian States. Freedom Radio, a privately owned Radio station in Kano has two weekly Arabic
programmes. The first one is titled: Mukoyilarabci. The Programme is meant for teaching the
basics of the Arabic language to beginners. It comes up every Wednesday between the hours of
9.00 - 9.30 am. It is done in such a way that a topic is chosen and is taught in Arabic with a lot of
illustrations. Sometimes some sentences are constructed in Hausa language to be translated to
Arabic. The then producer of the programme, Mallam Kabir Abdullah Umar revealed that the
programme has attracted wide audience that the listeners have been asking for extension of its
duration. The 2
nd
Arabic programme on Freedom Radio titled: Mazika is purely entertainment
where listeners participate by telephone. The programme, which was being anchored by Hajiyah
Aisha, is aired every Sunday between 3.00 and 4.00pm. It plays host to Arab poets who would be
interviewed by the Presenter who also entertain listeners questions. The programme, at times,
takes a request format
42.


Between the year 1998 and 2001, a segment of a T.V. programme on Muri International Television,
Lagos (MITV) titled "Way of Life" was dedicated to Arabic broadcasting whereby contemporary
issues were discussed. An interview conducted with the then anchor of the Programme Ahmad
Saheed Ar-Rufai revealed that the programme had to stop, not because of unavailability of
listeners, but mainly because he was not available at a point in time and the new anchor was not
learned in Arabic
43.


Furthermore, Ahmad Murtada Busair who was a presenter of Arabic Programmes during his NYSC
service year on Yobe State broadcasting Corporation revealed that the Arabic language was also
used for broadcast on the Station.
44.
On Nigerian Television Authority Network (NTA) Ilorin,
Kwara State Capital, Arabic was one the languages being used to relay Sport news every Sundays
8.30am between May 2004 and May 2005. The presenter of the Arabic section of the programme
titled: Sport Pro Show Nurain Isa Sufi, revealed that the major reason for scraping the
ILCC 2013
52

programme was the extension of AM Express, an early morning daily general magazine Network
Programme, to cover weekends
45.


CONCLUSION
From the foregoing, this paper has established the importance of Arabic as a language in Nigeria in
view of its lasting influence on indigenous languages in the country. Considering the fact that
effective communication and understanding can go a long way in fostering unity in a given
country, the Arabic language is qualified to provide a platform for inter-cultural and inter-tribal
communication not only in Nigeria, but in Africa as a whole. As the Arabic language had rendered
unparallel service to the preservation of Nigerian and African history in the past, its potentials
could still be tapped to solve the security challenges that bedeviled the country and the West
African region as a whole. The utilization of Arabic as a language of broadcasting locally and
internationally could help in providing correct and adequate information to the Arab world and the
world at large. If properly utilized, Arabic broadcasting could be used to re-orientate a large
number of people especially in Northern Nigeria. Summarily, the Arabic language in Nigeria has
unexploited potentials for the promotion and fostering of national integration.


Notes & References

1- Microsoft Encarta. (2006)
2- See S.A.S. Galadanchi. (1993). Harakat al-Lugat al-Arabiyyah Wa Adabiha fi Naijiriyah.
2
nd
ed. Riyadh. 17

3- S.H.A. Malik. (1999). Arabic, The Muslim Prayers and beyond. Inaugural lecture. Dept. of
Arabic & Islamic Studies. University of Ibadan. Ibadan University Press. 3

4- [----------] 10

5- I.A. Ogunbiyi. (1987). Of Non-Muslim Cultivators and Propagators of Arabic Language.
Inaugural lecture. Foreign Languages Department. Lagos State University. 9-10

6- S.H.A. Malik. (1999). Arabic, The Muslim. op.cit. 19. Quoting D.O. Shittu. 1977. The
Nigerian Draft Constitution and Shariah Controversy. NATAIS. No 1.114.

7- I.A. Ogunbiyi. (1987). Of Non-Muslim. op. cit. 10

8- [----------] 10. Quoting T. Hodgkin. (1960). Nigerian Perspective An historical Anthology.
OUP.

9- S.H.A. Malik. (1999). Arabic, The Muslim. op. cit. 11. Quoting Samuel Johnson. Undated.
The History of the Yorubas from the earliest Times to the Beginning of the British
Protectorate. Lagos. 23

10- S. Irinyemi. February 11, (2005). Arabic Inscriptions on the Naira. Arewa Journal
Retrieved April 12, 2005.from www.arewa-online.com.

11- R. Sanda. February 12, (2005). Where Ignorant is bliss it is wise to educate. Arewa Journal.
Retrieved April 12, 2005.from www.arewa-online.com.

12- M.A. Bidmos. (1996). Mustaqbal al-Lugah al-Arabiyyah fi Naijiriyyah. Lagos: Islamic
Publications Bureau. 10

13- S.H.A. Malik. (1999). Arabic, The Muslim. op cit. 20. Quoting A. Bamgbose. Language and
Nation Building. Review of English and Literary Studies. Vol. 2. No 2. 97.

14- Abubakre, R.D. (2004), The interplay of Arabic and Yoruba cultures in South-Western
Nigeria. Iwo, Nigeria. 12.

15- See Malik, op cit. Quoting J.O. Hunwick. (1965). Report on a Seminar on the Teaching of
Arabic in Nigeria. Ibadan and Kano 3

16- I.A. Ogunbiyi, (1987). Of Non-Muslim. op. cit. 23

17- S.H.A. Malik, (1999). Arabic, The Muslim. op. cit. 23

18- Arabic Language. Retrieved March 18, (2005) from www.worldlanguage.com/Arabic.htm

19- S.H.A. Malik. (1999). Arabic, The Muslim. op.cit. 23

20- [----------]. 23

21- I.A. Ogunbiyi. (1987). Of Non-Muslim. op. cit. 12. Quoting M. Goerner, Y. Salman, & P.
Armitage, Two essays on Arabic Loan Words in Hausa. Occasional paper. No 7.
Department of English. Ahmadu Bello University. Zaria.

22- [----------]. 12

23- [----------]. 13

24- S.H.A. Malik. (1999). Arabic, The Muslim. op.cit. Making reference to Ogunbiyi, I.A.
Arabic loan Words the Yoruba Language. Arab Journal of language Studies. 3. 1.161-180

25- See Malik. (1999). Arabic, The Muslim. 24-31
ILCC 2013
54


26- Yaafuao is borrowed from the Arabic word which means to pardon.

27- Ummatoon is borrowed from the Arabic word which means a nation or a group.

28- Dalili is borrowed from the Arabic word which means indication or proof.

29- A Standard Swahili-English Dictionary. (1939). Dar Salam: Nairobi-Oxford University
Press.

30- Dictionary of the Hausa Language. (1962). Ed. R.C. Abraham. 2nd Ed. Great Britain:
University of London Press Limited.

31- An English-Fulfulde Dictionary. (1986). Ed. F.W. Taylor.

32- A Dictionary of the Yoruba Language. (2002). Ibadan: University Press Plc.

33- C.S. Mudd & M.O. Sillars. (1975). Speech: Content and Communication. 3
rd
Ed. New
York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company. 3

34- [----------]. 4

35- O. Adidi Uyo. (1987). Mass Communication Media: Classification & Characteristics. New
York: Civilities International quoting L. Melvin, L.& Everette, E. D. 1981. Understanding
Mass Communication. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.148

36- See. Arabic Language. Retrieved March 18, (2005) from
www.worldlanguage.com/Arabic.htm

37- See. African Language. Retrieved March 18, (2005) from
www.isp.msu.edu/Afrlang/languages.htm

38- See. S.A.S. Galadanci, (1983). Harakatu. Op.cit. 187
39- O. Onabajo. 2000. International & Foreign Broadcasting. Lagos: Gabi Concept Ltd. 14
See also: http://www.nbc.org/radio.asp. Retrieved August 23,(2004)

40- See Voice of Nigeria General Information. (1988). Nigeria: Randara Ventures Ltd.

41- Interview conducted with Ustadh Najmudeen Adegbite Binuyo, the 3
rd
Head of the Arabic
Service of Voice of Nigeria. Age: 75+.

42- Interview conducted with Mallam Kabir Abdullah Umar, the Head, Producer of Religious
Programme on Freedom Radio, Kano. Nigeria. The interview was conducted on August 26
th

2005 at the premises of the Radio Station between 3.40 - 430 pm. Age: 44+

43- Interview conducted with the presenter of the defunct Arabic programme on Muri
International Television (MITV) Ahmad Saeed Rufai.

44- Interview conducted with Ahmad Murtada Busair who was a presenter of Arabic
programmes on Yobe State Broadcasting Corporation during his NYSC service year (2001).

45- Interview conducted with Nurain Isa Sufi who was the Presenter of the Sport News in
Arabic. Other Languages include English, French, Hausa, Ibo and Yoruba. Nurain is
currently the VON Arabic correspondent at Ilorin, Kwara State.




















ILCC 2013
56

GENDER ISSUES IN AL-HILALI AND KHANS ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF THE QUR
AN: AN INVESTIGATION



PROF. DR. ZAKARIYAU I. OSENI, Ph. D. (Ibadan), FASN, FAR
(The Chief Imam and Waziri of Auchi)
Department of Arabic,
University of Ilorin,
Ilorin, Nigeria
wazzioseni@gmail.com/wazzioseni@unilorin.edu.ng


Abstract

Undoubtedly, the translation of the Quran into English by Muhammad al-Hilali and Muham
mad Khan stands out as one of the most detailed and famous English rendering of the message of Al
lah contained therein all over the world today. That special position has been facilitated by the boun
dless generosity of the government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia which prints and distributes cop
ies of the work worldwide free of charge. In the English-reading world, the translation has had trem
endous impact in helping people to understand the Quran.
Whatever be the case of human endeavour, there is room for improvement. Hence the need
for this study which investigates gender issues in the translation. In the world today, writers are gen
der sensitive, using terms which adequately give due recognition to males females without necessari
ly overstretching the point to the extreme. Preference is given to: using terms that are all inclusive l
ike humankind or humanity instead of mankind or man (in a generic form).
This paper aims at studying selected verses whose translation would require a reconsideratio
n for a better understanding of the Quran without women (who constitute more than half of the wor
ld Muslim population) feeling alienated or unrecognised. In carrying out this assignment, I rely on
selected original works on Quranic Exegesis in Arabic and compare the gender issues so translated
with two other English translations, those of A. Y. Ali and A. J. Arberry. In the end, I am optimistic t
hat there would be a clearer , gender-balanced translation which the two honourable translators and
the publishers would be justifiably proud of.



1.0 Introduction

This paper aims at making a point that the monumental translation of the Glorious Quran ca
rried out by Al-Hilali and Khan needs some improvement as regards gender issues. The thrust of th
e study is the need to use all-inclusive gender terms instead of adopting male terms whether generic
or not.
The content of the paper includes this introduction, translation and gender, examples of gender issue
s well translated, those that require some improvement and conclusion.

2.0 Translation and Gender

Translation is a very vital subject in academic pursuit. Without it knowledge would not have spread
worldwide as it has been. It is the replacement of textual material in one language (S.L.) by equiva
lent textual material in another language (Catford, 1980, 20).
Translation can be classified into three types. These are literal translation, literary translatio
n and meaning-oriented translation. Literal translation means word-for-word translation which may
not give a comprehensible meaning in the target language. (Catford, 1980, 25-26). Nevertheless, to
me, it helps a mature reader to grasp the meaning of the words put together and helps him to fathom
the thinking of the milieu of the source language.
Literary translation refers to the type of translation which is suitable for literature material li
ke poetry, novel, short story and drama. The rich language used in writing these works would be los
t, to some extent, if any other type of translation is used (Catford, 1980, 35).
On the other hand, meaning-oriented translation which concentrates on extracting comprehe
nsible meaning from the source language is the most common one. It is the one used in translating t
echnical materials in the sciences, medicine, engineering, law agriculture, economics, etc. (Catford,
1980, 35-42).
In the case of the Quran, meaning-oriented translation is often used. A. J. Arberry, an orient
alist, attempted to use the literary type in translating the Quran (Arberry, 1964).
On gender, I did not delve into the polemics of gender issues of supremacy and competitions
. My simple approach in this study is to draw attention to the accepted usage in the modern era.

3.0 Gender Issues Correctly Translated

I have to begin with gender issues which in my opinion, were well translated by Al-Hilali an
d Khan in their monumental work on the Glorious Quran. These are the words Ibn, Ibnat/banat Ba
nu/Banin, Imru, Imraah, Abun, Rijal. The details are given below with examples from the translat
ed Quran.

3.1 Ibn:
In Arabic it basically means a son. When attached to another noun as the first part of a construct p
hrase (al-idafah), it means son of . The use of ibn in the Quran is in three ways. One is where
it is used in the literal sense and this is in reference to Isa ibn Maryam (Jesus son of Mary). Exampl
es of such are found in Quran 2:87; 3:45; 4:157 and 171; 5:17, 46, 72, 75, 78, 110, 112, 114 and 11
6; 9:30 and 31; 19:34; 23:50; 33: 7; 43:57; 57:27; 61:6 and 14.
The second use of Ibn is ya ibn umma (O son of my mother) by which the Prophet Harun ad
dressed his brother, the Prophet Musa when the latter was crossed with him. This is found in two pla
ces in the Quran, i.e. Quran 7:150 and 20:94.
The third one is where ibn is attached to al-sabil (the way), that is ibn al-sabil (the wayfarer,
a traveller), i.e. a miserable and helpless traveller who should be pitied and taken care of. (See Qur
an 2:177 and 215; 4:36; 8:41; 9:60; 17:26; 30:38 and 59:7).
3.2 I bnat/Banat: Ibnat means a daughter. When attached to another noun, it means daughter
of An example is Maryam ibnat Imran (Mary, the daughter of Imran) found in Quran
66:12.
Banat is the plural of Ibnat or bint. It means daughters and is used in many places in the Q
uran. Examples are Quran 4:23; 6:100; and 35:153.
3.3 Banun/Banin: This term means sons when used in a restricted sense. It also means child
ren of when used as the first member of a construct phrase (idafah). When used in idafah, th
en the n would be omitted, .g. Banu Israil (Children of Israel). Israel here is in reference t
o the progenitor of the Israelis, i.e. the Prophet Yaqub (Jacob). In Arabic usage, banun/ban
u is in the nominative while banin/bani is in the accusative/genitive. Examples of such use a
re found in Quran 10:90; 18:46; 2:40; 3:14; and 68:14.
3.4 Imru: This term means a person, It was used in the Quran more in legal matters in refere
nce to male and female especially in connection with inheritance. Examples are in Quran 4:
176; 24:11; 52:21; 70:38; 74:52; and 80:37).
3.5 Imraah: This means a woman or a wife. Examples of the use of this word are found in Qur
an 7:83, 12:21, 51:29, 3:40 and 111:4.
ILCC 2013
58

3.6 Abun: This word means a father and is in the nominative. The accusative form is Aban w
hile the genitive form is Abin. The n is omitted when the word is the first noun in a constr
uct phrase (idafah) and is then elongated. The plural is aba (fathers, progenitors and ancesto
rs). Examples of these are in Quran 12:78; 33:40; 6:74; 43:26; 2:170; and 21:44.
3.7 Rijal: This term means men, the plural of rajul (a man). It is used in a straight-forward an
d unambiguous manner in the Quran. Examples are Quran 2:228 and 282; 33:40; 21:7; 7:
9; 25:8; 16:76; and 16:79.
3.8 Nisa: The term is the plural of imraah (a woman) and therefore means women. Another
form of the word is (niswah women). It is also used in the Quran to mean wives especial
ly when attached to male pronouns like nisau-kum (your wives). Examples of the use of nis
a in the Quran are Quran 2:222 and 231; 3:14 and 42; and 4:1, 7, 14, 19, 32, 34 and 128.
In point of fact, Chapter Four of the Quran is entitled Surat al-Nisa- (Chapter on Women).
3.9 Zawj: This word means a wife, a husband, a spouse, a pair and a group. The plural is azwa
j. In the Quran, these are the clear meaning assigned to the word. Examples are Quran 75:3
9; 3:15; 33:52; 4:1; 6:139; 2:240; 30:21; and 42:11.
In all the gender-related words, the translation of al-Hilali and
Khan did well. There is hardly any serious lapse in the English rendering of the original Arabic origi
nal. I will now turn to the crust of this paper, namely, an examination of the gender issues not prope
rly translated into English.
4.0 Translations that Require Improvement
In this section, a number of words related to gender which were not satisfactorily translated
are examined. These include bunayya, hafadah, al-insan and al-nas.
The details are as follows:
4.1 Bunayya: This word is the diminutive of ibn (son or child). It appears in Quran 11:42; 12:5
; 31:13; 16, and 17; and 37:102. In the six place, the word bunayya was translated by al-Hila
li and Khan as my son For example Quran 11:42 was translated as follows: and Nuh
(Noah) called out to his son, who had separated himself (apart). O my son! Embark with u
s and be not with the disbelievers. (Al-Hilali and Khan, 1997, 320).
The words translated O my son are ya-bunayya which does not adequately convey the me
aning. The diminutive form in Arabic morphology conveys different meanings such as smallness, co
ntempt, endearment and even magnification. (Wright, 1967, 166; Daral-Mashriq, 2000, 50; Ibn Aqi
l, 2, 1392 A. H./1972, 477-478 and the best translation should be O my dear son. In this case, it is
used for endearment. A. Y. Ali and Arberry made the same mistake of translating it like Al-Hilali an
d Khan (Ali, 1968, 524 and Arberry, 1964, 216).
4.2 Hafadah: This word is the broken plural of hafid (a grandson). It appeared once in the Qur
an i.e. Quran 16:72. Al-Hilali and Khan translated it as grandsons which is wrong within
the context in which it was used. The correct translation is grandchildren which includes b
oth males and females. Al-Hilali and Khan, 1997, 388). In fact banina wa hafadah containe
d in the verse should be better translated as children and grandchildren. After all the two g
enders are in reality what is meant and not just males. Alis translation is correct (p. 675) w
hile Arberry (p. 266) got it wrong.
4.3 Al-I nsan: This is a word from ins (human kind). It means man in generic form, and a hum
an being. The word appears in 65 places in the Quran. It has been translated in the work un
der study as man(male) in most cases. Below are a few examples.
*and man was created weak (cannot be patient to leave sexual intercourse with woman)
. (Quran 4:28).
Both Ali (p. ) and Arberry (p. 77) translated al-insan man like the work under study.
*And when harm touches man, he involves Us, lying on his side, or sitting or standing. (Qu
ran 10:12).
The word was translated by Arberry (p. 197) as a man. Similarly, Ali (p. 486) translated it
as a man I posit that a person would be a better word here.
*verily, Shaitan (Satan) is to man an open enemy (Quran 12:5).
*And man invokes (Allah) for evil as he involves (Allah) for good and man is ever hasty (
Quran 17:11).
Ali (p. 696) and Arberry translated the word man.
*Man is created of haste. I will show you My Ayat. (Quran 21:37).
Both Ali (p. 830) and Arberry (p. 326) translated the word man.
In the examples given above, man has been used as a generic term which is correct.
However, in line with modern trends of using all-inclusive terms in gender matters, it is my
candid opinion that the terms human being, person or human may be better alternatives.
4.4 Al-Nas: This is the plural of al-insan discussed above. It means people, human beings, hu
mans and humanity Al-nas appears in the Quran in 242 places. His should not surprise any
ones as the Divine message in the Quran is for the guidance of humanity in general. A few
examples of the translation of al-nas in the Quran in the work under study are as follows.
*And of mankind there are some (hypocrites) who say: We believe in
Allah and the Last Day which in fact they believe not. (Quran 2:8).
This translation is correct but mankind could be changed to the people, humanity. This would mak
e it clearly more comprehensive. Ali translated it the people (p. 18) while Arberry translated it m
en, (p. 2). Alis translation is better.
*These are the verses of the book (the Quran), and that which has been revealed unto you (M
uhammen) believe not (Quran 13:1).
Arberry (p. 239) and Ali (p. 602) translated it as most men. Most people would be a better transla
tion.
My contention is that, though these translations are correct, they could be improved upon by
being extremely gender-sensitive. Doing so enriches the translation and creates more consciousnes
s in the female gender as Allahs special creature and excellent partner and mate of the masculine ge
nder.
5.0 Conclusion
In the foregoing it has been observed that, in spite of the profound benefits of the English tra
nslation of the Quran carried out by Al-Hilali and Khan, there is a need for improvement, especiall
y in respect of gender issues. I have given some examples of the good and the not-so-good translatio
n of selected verses from their work.
It is hoped that more objective research is done to identify more area which require a re-cons
ideration in order to continually improve on the translatin of the Quran carried out by the two famo
us scholars.
ILCC 2013
60


REFERENCES
Arabic Sources
Abd at-Rahman ibn Nasir al-Sadi (1433/2012), Taysir al-Karim al-Rahman fi Tafsir Kalam
al-Mannan 2
nd
Ed. Beirut: Muassasat al-Risalah al-Nashirun.
Abu Tahir ibn Yaqub al-Fayruzabadi (1428/2006), Tanwir al-Miqyas min Tafsir Ibn Abbas.
Cairo: Sharikat ol-Quds.
Bahaul-Din Abdullah ibn Aqil al-Aqili al-Hamdani al-Misri (1392/1972). Sharh Ibn Aqi
l 15
th
Ed. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr.
Ismail ibn Kathir al-Dimashqi (1388/1969), Tafsir al-Quran al-Azim 1&2 Beirut: Dar-al-
Marifah.
Muhammad Fuad Abdul-Baqi (1422)/2001). Al-Mujam al-Mufahras Alfaz al-Quran al-K
arim. Cairo: Dar al-Hadith.
Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Muhammad al-Shawkani (1383/1964), Fath ol-Qadir al-Jami bay
na Fannay al-Riwayah wal-Dirayah. Vol. 1-3 Cairo: Mustafa al-Babi al-Halabi wa Awladuhu.
English Sources
Ali, A. Y. (1968). The Holy Quran: Text, Translation and Commentary. Beirut: Dar al Arabi
a.
Arberry, A. J. (1964). The Koran Interpreted. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Al-Hilali, and Khan M. M. (Translators 1997) Interpretation of the Meanings of the Noble Q
uran in the English Language 17
th
R. Ed. Riyadh: Darussalm.
Catford, J. C. (1980) A Linguistics Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wright, W. (1967) A Grammar of the Arabic Language. 3
rd
Ed. London: Cambridge Univers
ity Press.

























The English Block of Words as an Innovative Approach in Teaching English
Grammar

Arief Eko Priyo Atmojo 1, Mutiara Andrianti Sutarno 2, and Rohandi Latif 3
1 Sebelas Maret University
2 Sebelas Maret University
3 Sebelas Maret University

Corresponding Author: Arief Eko Priyo, Atmojo, Sebelas Maret University, arivincible@yahoo.co.i
d
________________________________________________________________________________
_______
Abstract. As English has become an international language nowadays, the demand of English cours
e for non-native learners is quite high. It is supported by some reasons for academic importance wh
en people want to study in college which the prerequisite includes TOEFL, IBT, even GMAT test. T
his condition forces people to learn English academically, for example English grammar, writing, sp
eaking, listening, and reading. Though, some people experience difficulty in learning English gram
mar as its fundamental basis to be excellent in English. It is due to the need of good grammar under
standing in academic English. How can a person be excellent in academic English without masterin
g well its grammar? So, this paper will provide an approach of making English grammar to its simpl
est form to make learners become easier in understanding it. The approach would show the diagram
containing the block of words which is in form of distinguishing "auxiliary" and "variation". Moreo
ver, the block of words would simplify the rule of grammar to influence people to be easy in remem
bering it. To test the hypothesis of the effectiveness of this approach, the author conducted an experi
mental research. So, there were two classes which were experimental class and normal class. The da
ta analysis showed that there was significant difference of result between experimental and normal c
lass. This research has proven that "The English Block of Words Approach" is effective.
Keywords: English grammar teaching, learning approach, teaching English as foreign language, the
English block of words
1. Introduction
As English has become a lingua franca in international environment, the demand of English
course for non-native learners also rises. It is supported by some reasons for academic importance w
hen people want to study in college which the prerequisite includes TOEFL, IBT, even GMAT test.
This condition forces people to learn English academically, for example English grammar, writing, s
peaking, listening, and reading. Though, some people experience difficulty in learning English gram
mar as its fundamental basis to be excellent in English. It is due to the need of good grammar under
standing in academic English. How can a person be excellent in academic English without masterin
g well its grammar?
Grammar itself is a very important aspect in language. It is considered as the fundamental ru
les which support a speaker to speak meaningfully in the spoken language. Moreover, grammar kno
wledge is closely related to communicative competence. Is it possible for a speaker who has no gra
mmar knowledge to speak meaningfully in the target language being learned? Of course, it is a diffi
cult job.
In all languages, grammar always plays an important role even communicative competence i
s considered as the main objectives of nowadays language teaching method. But, as the author has
explained in the preceding paragraph, the emphasis on communicative competence only is not enou
gh. It is because learners will be very difficult to express meaningfully utterances in the target langu
age being learned due to lack mastery of grammar. Thus, communicative competence and grammar
should be combined as well as possible to make language learners easier to speak meaningfully in t
he target language being learned.
In addition, there are many methods of language teaching which has been emerging that pay
attention on communicative competence. But, those methods only pay less attention to grammar kn
ILCC 2013
62

owledge which must also be mastered by learners. So, it makes learners become a bit frustrated bec
ause they have not found the approach to study grammar easily. Usually, learners only know that gr
ammar could be learned from classical grammar book. Moreover, the classical grammar book is in h
undreds pages. This becomes a terrible problem for non-native learners because they are usually not
habituated to understand grammar rules from English textbook.
In spite of their difficulty to understand grammar rules from English textbook, another probl
em is that not all people are diligent. There are some people who are lazy to read book. They only w
ant to be informed by their teacher. So, this job to explain and to teach grammar to learners is the re
sponsibility of the teacher. Thus, the teacher plays an important role to teach grammar using an appr
oach which can make learners learn grammar easier.
Another problem related to learners ability has also emerged. The problem is that some learn
ers are not able to remember well lots of rules of grammar. So, there must be a solution that should
be found immediately to solve these problems. Moreover, the author proposed that the possible solu
tion is an approach which can simplify the rules of grammar to be easily remembered by learners.
The solution is considered as an approach because it will describe the grammar in different
way. The author proposed that the most important points in grammar are tenses and modality. Thus,
the English grammar will be simplified according to these two points. Moreover, the proposed appr
oach will make some blocks of words (a word or some words) which will be grouped and colored.
Related to the grouping and the coloring of words, there will be two distinguishing terminologies to
name the block of words which are auxiliary and variation.

1. Literature Review

2.1. Grammar
There are lots of definition and description related to what is meant by the word grammar.
Some experts and linguists especially have described grammar in so many terms. But, the most ess
ential meaning of grammar is the pattern of a language. It is supported by the literal definition taken
from Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary 3rd ed. (2008) which described grammar as (the
study or use of) the rules about how words change their form and combine with other words to mak
e sentences. This makes sense that when people are talking about grammar they will be talking abo
ut what are the rules to make sentences in certain language.
In addition, some definition of grammar proposed by experts will be presented to cover and
reveal some expanding meaning of grammar. The first quoted definition is presented by Kaplan (19
95) as he argued that grammar is the rules governing how a language is supposed to be used (p. 1)
. Moreover, this definition is explained furthermore by Kaplan (1995) by his statement that is gram
mar is viewed as a set of rigid prescriptions focusing on error correction (p. xi).
Another definition of grammar is taken from Radford (2004) as he stated that grammar can
be divided into its traditional subdivisions which are morphology (the study of how words are form
ed out of smaller units called morphemes) and syntax (the study of the way in which phrases and se
ntences are structured out of words). It seems that Radford (2004) agreed with Kaplan (1995) when
he stated that the teaching of syntax in the traditional sense is described in terms of taxonomy (i.e.,
classificatory lists) of the range of different types of syntactic structures found in the language (p.
1). According to this perspective of grammar, Radford (2004) argued that each syntactic unit in a se
ntence belongs to a grammatical category and has a specific grammatical function. Thus, the role of
learner as well as the teacher is to identify each of the constituents in the sentence, and (for each co
nstituent) to say what category it belongs to and what function it serves (p. 1). The traditional appr
oach to grammar as Radford (2004) said, it would only describe the specific grammatical categories
to which words/phrases/clauses are assigned to and not explain why certain constituents behave or
mean the way they do given a different context. Moreover, Radford (2004) had the same idea with
Kaplan (1995) as he saw the inadequacy of this approach in learning a language for it failed to provi
de an explanation why a sentence is grammatical or ungrammatical.
Ismail (2010) also argued about the importance of grammar in a language as he stated that
Grammar is viewed as an essential element for communication to take place because it shows how l
anguage is used (p. 143). This definition is then reflected in term of how to teach grammar itself. I
n fact, the process of grammar teaching is more successful when it deals with grammatical points th
at can be used for communication (Nunan, 1991; Zhongganggao, 2001).

2.2. Approach

To describe what is approach actually, Anthony (1963) distinguished it with other two terms
in field of approach and method. Anthony (1963) identified three levels of conceptualization and or
ganization which were termed as approach, method, and technique. He said that the arrangement is
hierarchical. Moreover, he added that the organizational key of the relationship between these three
terms is that techniques carry out a method which is consistent with an approach. Thus, the definitio
n of each term will be presented here to make clear what is meant by approach.
An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and le
arning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught. Meanwh
ile, method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which con
tradicts, and all of which is based upon the selected approach. An approach is axiomatic, a method i
s procedural. So, there can be many methods within one approach. Then, a technique is implementat
ional which actually takes place in a classroom. It is a particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance use
d to accomplish an immediate objective. Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefor
e in harmony with an approach as well (Anthony, 1963, p. 63-67).

2. Research Methods

This research is conducted under the umbrella term of quantitative research. Especially, this
research is conducted in the design of experimental research. Experimental research is a branch of q
uantitative research which concerns to test the effectiveness of the proposed solution by comparing i
t to one or more existed solution. Moreover, there is a settled design in field of educational research.
The design is that the researcher will test the effectiveness of his proposed solution by comparing it
to a normal (no treatment) class. So, the proposed solution will be used in experimental class. Then
, the results of the two classes will be compared and decided to conclude which is more effective. T
hus, the problem statement of this research is that Is the English block of words effective to be use
d to teach English grammar?.

3.1. Data

The data were taken using the same pre-test and post-test for both normal and experimental
class. The pre-test and the post-test (as the instrument of the research) were tested for its validity an
d reliability using discrete number statistics. Thus, the data are in form of the number of score of ea
ch participants pre-test and post-test. Moreover, the data were classified into two classes as explain
ed before into normal and experimental class.
3.2. Participants
The participants of this researcher are 5 persons for normal class and 5 persons for experime
ntal class. Totally, there were 10 persons who were selected randomly. All of the ten participants are
the member of college organization of Sebelas Maret University which is named as SIM (Studi Ilm
iah Mahasiswa). While the research was being conducted between May 1, and May 6, 2013, the acti
ve members of SIM were about 70 persons. So, the percentage of the participants is 14.29% of the t
otal population. But, the aim of this research is not to sample or represent the whole class of the pop
ulation. Moreover, this research focused on testing the effectiveness of the proposed solution by con
cluding from the improvement between pre-test and post-test.
ILCC 2013
64

3.3. Procedure

The research was started by dividing ten participants into two classes randomly. Then, the pa
rticipants were invited to attend their class (whether it was normal or experimental class) as schedul
ed by the researcher. The schedule for experimental class was May 1, 2013 at 04.30 p.m. until 05.40
p.m. in building Porsima, Sebelas Maret University. Meanwhile, the schedule for normal class was
May 6, 2013 at 04.30 p.m. until 05.40 p.m. in building Porsima, Sebelas Maret University. Each cla
ss (both of normal and experimental class) had 20 minutes for pre-test, 30 minutes for presentation
of material and discussion, and 20 minutes for post-test. After the two classes activities had been do
ne (it means that data collection has been done also), the researcher did the data analysis and then w
rote the research report.

3. Result and Discussion

This research was conducted in two classes which were normal and experimental class. The
used equipment in the teaching and learning process were notebook, LCD projector, and print-out m
aterial. The teaching and learning process of both of the classes were lecturing and discussion. In ad
dition, the general structure of how to make affirmative, negative, and question sentence was taught
using the same approach at the beginning of material and discussion session. But, there was signific
ant difference in the used approach after the general structure of how to make affirmative, negative,
and question sentence was taught in both of the classes. The used approach had impact on the used
material.
In the experimental class, the researcher explained and taught English grammar using no spe
cial treatment. So, the researcher only used a figure containing tenses pattern as the lesson material
as follows:


Fig. 1: Tenses Chart (http://debsquickpicks.com/english-tenses/).

Moreover, the researcher also explained orally about modality (will/would, shall/should, ma
y/might, and can/could) which all of the modals will be usually followed by V1. The presented mate
rial was explained orally and expanded with the questions from learners.
Differently, the researcher used special treatment for experimental class. The researcher used
his proposed approach as proposed solution. The proposed approach describes English grammar as
6 general patterns. The six general patterns were then distinguished by using the term auxiliary an
d variation. The auxiliary and the variation formed the block of words which was colored in c
ertain color by the researcher. Thus, the researchers proposed approach was written in form of lesso
n material which could be presented as follows:

Fig. 2: Arief Eko Priyo Atmojo Block of Words (Arief Eko Priyo Atmojo).

From the teaching and learning process, the researcher has got the score of pre-test and post-
test of each class participant. The score therefore became the data of this research. Moreover, the da
ta were analyzed using simple statistics which were sum, average/mean, and difference. Thus, the d
ata analysis could be presented as follows:



Fig. 3: Data Analysis.

Figure 3 clearly shows that experimental class has better improvement than normal class. It
proves that the proposed approach (the block of words) is more effective than normal treatment. It i
s clearly shown in the mean of improvement column. The mean of improvement of experimental cla
ss is 16.004. Meanwhile, the mean of improvement of normal class is 0.668. Whereas, the mean of t
he pre-test of both of the classes are almost the same which are 51.998 for experimental class and 5
2.00 for normal class. But, after each class was given different treatment (normal class=no treatmen
t; experimental class=the block of words approach), the experimental class got better score than nor
mal class in post-test. Thus, it can be concluded that the block of words approach is effective.
5. Conclusion
The problem statement of this research was finally answered. The English block of words w
as tested in an experimental research. The data analysis of this research shows that the English bloc
k of words is effective to be used to teach grammar. Thus, it becomes one of the important findings i
n field of English Language Teaching (ELT). It is because grammar is a very important aspect whic
h could not be separated from language and language teaching and learning.
6. Acknowledgements
I thank to Allah Swt the Only One God of all creatures and all worlds- for the blessing and
the mercy that are always given to us. I thank to my mother (Sri Pudyastuti, S.Pd. and my father Drs
. Muh. Agus Suseno) who always take care of me patiently from baby until now. I thank to all my c
olleagues in English Education Department of Sebelas Maret University, Studi Ilmiah Mahasiswa (S
IM), Lingkar Studi Pendidikan (LSP), and all of my beloved friends. Thank you for all your support
. You are all great.




1. References

(2008). Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Pre
ss.
Anthony, E. M. (1963). Approach, Method, and Technique, English Language Teaching, 17, 63-67.

http://debsquickpicks.com/english-tenses/.
Ismail, S. A. H. (2010). ESP Students Views of ESL Grammar Learning, GEMA Online Journal
of Language Studies, 10 (3), 143-155.
Kaplan, J. P. (1995). English Grammar Principles and Facts (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice
Hall.
Nunan, D. (1991). Language Teaching Methodology. New York: Prentice Hall.
Radford, A. (2004). Minimalist Syntax: Exploring the Structure of English. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Zhongganggao, C. (2001). Second Language Learning and the Teaching of Grammar, Education, 12
2 (2), 326-336.










ILCC 2013
66

STUDY OF LANGUAGE USE OF INDONESIAN
PROCLAMATION SPEECH BY SOEKARNO
(PRAGMATICS AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS)

awu_fan@ymail.com

Abstract

This paper is concerned with study of linguistic analysis of Indonesian proclamation speech
by Soekarno. The objective of the study is to describe all linguistic features in the speech in terms o
f deixis and speech act (pragmatic analysis), and cohesive (discourse analysis). Further, it uses Yule
(1996) and Searles claim (1976) of deixis and speech act and Cuttings claim of cohesive. This stud
y is expected as a beginning study that can be used as an additional source particularly to the
other future researchers who are interested in carrying out a similar investigation. The data
of this study were collected through classifying, and then analyzed by using discourse and pragmati
c analysis. Based on the writer interpretation of this speech, the result of the study shows that (1) the
re are three kinds of deixis found in this speech, namely persona ( saya I, kami/kita we, mereka
they, and saudara-saudara brothers), spatial/place (disini here), and temporal/time deixis (sekar
ang now, zaman Jepan ini this Japan period, and tadi malam last night), (2) lexical cohesive co
nsists of repetition (kita we, sendiri alone, nasib fate, zaman Jepan Japan period kami we,
and Negara country/nation), substitution (gelombang aksi action wave is substituted with perjua
ngan struggle), synonym (kekal eternal and abadi eternal), and general words (saudara-saudar
a brothers, and rakyat society), while grammatical cohesive consists of reference (nya one/its,
mereka they, dan itu that) and conjunction (dan and, tetapi but, maka so, and bahkan even
do) , (3) there are three kinds of speech act, namely locution, illocution, and perlocution speech act
s, but locution act is ignored in this study, (4) illocution speech act found in the sentences of 1, 4, 5,
7, 8, 9, and 15 while perlocution speech act only found in the sentence 9, and (5) other speech act ty
pes found in the speech are declarative (in the proclamation text), representative (sentence 2), direct
ive (sentence 3), and expressive (sentence 18).

Keywords : pragmatics, discourse, lexical, cohesive, and speech act.

I INTRODUCTION
In communication, the role of language is very important. Any information is usually deliver
ed by language. Language as a special communication tool is only used by the human being. In Ind
onesian, the need of communication world toward Indonesian language may the language will unde
rgo the significant development. The language performance is determined by society condition and
social situation where the language used. The language may be used in either formal or informal sit
uation. One of formal language using is in nation speeches.
One of most historical speeches is Soekarnos speech when reading proclamation of Indones
ian. This speech constitutes one of traditional speech delivered by Soekarno as the president and as
revolution great leader. The speech aims at conveying to all Indonesian society and all people in the
world that Indonesian has gotten independent from any colonization and start determining itself as i
ndependent country. It is very important for Indonesian since it as the first time of Indonesian procla
mation.
The speech is conveyed on Friday at 10 oclock, 17
th
of August 1945 in east Pegangsaan pro
clamation building, 56 Jakarta. It is very short but has the great value and message for all Indonesia
n society. Word style and choice used are very simple. Besides, it is the first speech conveyed by the
first president of Indonesian and presented by all Indonesian society. Therefore, the text is very inte
resting to be analyzed especially in pragmatics and discourse analysis.
As discourse form, speech language has certain characteristic and style, particularly for Indo
nesian independent proclamation speech. In the speech, the using of language is very important to r
each the success of messages or purposes wanted. Therefore, the speech is received by any sides tha
t show the Indonesian independent is legal. Moreover, related to pragmatics, it investigates lingual e
xternal structure that observe several language using in concrete situation. This concrete situation m
eans refers to speech acts that have clear lingual and extra lingual contexts. Therefore, the short stud
y uses the combination between pragmatics and discourse analysis. Moreover, the unique speech act
s as the topic in this discourse pragmatics analysis are speech, deixis, implicative, cohesion, polite p
rinciples. Nevertheless, the aspects that will be investigated in this study are only limited to deixis a
nd speech acts for pragmatics analysis and cohesion for discourse analysis.
Based on the background above, the researcher is interested to investigate the language aspe
ct in Indonesian independent proclamation speech at 17
th
of August 1945. In which, the main discus
sion of this short study consists of three subtopics, namely (1) deixis analysis of Indonesian indepen
dent proclamation speech, (2) speech analysis of Indonesian independent proclamation speech, and
(3) cohesion analysis of Indonesian independent proclamation speech.
This study constitutes discourse pragmatic analysis. Therefore, the theories of pragmatic and
discourse are really needed. The theories used in this study are deixis concept, speech act, and cohe
sion as explanation below.
First, deixis comes from Greek; deiktikos means directly showing. A word has deixis char
acteristic if its reference are always moving and changing, depend on the time and place of the word
used (Purwo, 1984: 1-2). Wijana (2010: 81) defines deixis as lingual units that has different referen
ce. Clearly, Nadar (2009: 55) explains that the words called as deixis commonly has function to refe
r something, so the interaction success between speaker and interlocutor usually depend on the deixi
s understanding used by a speaker. Kaswanti Purwo in Nadar (2009: 57) differs exaphora and endap
hora. Besides, Yule (1996: 13-14) divides deixis in three parts, namely persona deixis (kamu you,
anda you), place deixis (di sini here, di sana there), and time deixis (sekarang now, kemudia
n then). Therefore, it can refer to person, place, and time.
Second, the speech act constitutes not only thinking expression but also as saying from worl
d representation. Yule (1996: 83) divides speech act in three parts. First, locutionary speech act cons
titutes speech act base or it creates meaningful linguistics expression. Secondly, illocutionary act me
ans speech that can be used to create something as long as its speech situation considered altogether.
Thirdly, perlocutionary act means an act that has significant effect for the listener or interlocutor. B
esides, Searle (1976) in Cutting (2002: 14) then divides illocutionary act in five kinds, namely decla
rative, representative, commisive, directive, and expressive speech acts.
Third, the theory used to answer the third problem in this study is cohesion as one of theorie
s in discourse analysis study. Tarigan (1987: 27) in Wijana and Muhammad (2009: 67) state that dis
course is the most complete and highest lingual unit with high coherence and cohesion continuously
with having real starting and ending. Cohesion is the harmony balance between one element and ot
her elements in the discourse, while coherence is the unity of discourse to make the communication
has idea (Djajasudarma, 1994: 5). Cutting (2002: 11) divides cohesion in two parts, namely gramma
tical and lexical cohesion. Grammatical cohesion consists of reference, substitution, and ellipsis. W
hile, lexical cohesion consists of repetition, synonym, super ordinate, and general words.
II DISCUSSION
As mention before, this study discusses three main points, namely deixis aspect, speech act,
and cohesion in Indonesian republic independence proclamation speech.

1. Deixis
As additional information, Purwo (1984: 8) give explanation that the word of menunjuk sho
w used as a term outside of speech, and the word of mengacu refer used as a term inside of speec
h. Therefore, this analysis uses the word of menunjuk show if the deixis exits outside of speech, w
hile the word of merujuk refer used if the deixis exits inside of speech. Based on the analysis, in th
ILCC 2013
68

is speech found three kinds of deixis namely persona, time, place deixis as in the illustration below.

2.1.1 Persona Deixis

There are several examples of deixis in the speech. Deixis of saya I in the sentence of (1) S
aya telah minta saudara-saudara hadir disini untuk menyaksikan satu peristiwa maha penting I ha
ve begun my brothers and sisters to present here in attending one most important event refers to pr
oclamator, Soekarno. Deixis of saya I will have different reference if it is spoken by other person (
not Soekarno). So, if A speaks the word saya I, the word of saya I will refer to A. In addition, the
using of saya I is more suitable than the word of aku I since the deixis of saya I usually used i
n formal situation like in the speech, while the deixis of aku I is used in informal situation. Next, t
he deixis of saudara-saudara brothers in the sentence of (1) above refers to all Indonesian citize
n (as interlocutor or listener) for either who present in the place of proclamation reader or not. The r
eason is since proclamation for all Indonesian society.

Deixis of saya I and saudara-saudara brothers above can be categorized as exaphora dei
xis sine bot just focus on lexical meaning, the referred person is in the outside of speech. It means th
at, both persona deixis just refers to lexical meaning, so the persona of saya I may refers to differe
nt people depend on who speak it. Likewise, the persona of saudara-saudara brothers may refers t
o different people depend on who become listener or interlocutor.

Moreover, persona deixis of kita we in all statements in the speech are included exaphora d
eixis since it refers to something in the out of speaking and the deixis of kita we can refers to diff
erent people depend on who the speakers are or who are intended by speaker. Nevertheless, based o
n the context of the speech, we can conclude that the deixis of kita we in all speech texts refers to
all Indonesian society. It is caused of the proclamation as the struggle result of all Indonesian people
and it is the great history and refers to all Indonesia people. Besides, the word of kita we in the m
ost speech texts are suitable with the wanted meaning than the word of kami we. The reason is the
deixis of kita we refers to speaker and interlocutor. It is different to the deixis of kami we that onl
y refers to speaker and its members (see Wibowo, 2000: 60).

Next, the deixis of kami we in the sentence of (10) maka kami, tadi malam telah mengada
kan so we did last night refers to several Indonesian prominent figures that involved in the discuss
ion of proclamation preparation in the night before conveying the proclamation. They come from yo
ung generation group (Sukarni, B.M Diah, Yusuf Kunto, Wikana, Sayuti Melik, Adam Malik, and C
haerul Saleh) and old figurer group (Ir. Soekarno, Drs. Moh. Hatta, Mr. Ahmad Subardjo, Mr. Moh.
Yamin, Dr. Buntaran, Dr. Syamsi and Mr. Iwa Kusumasumantri). Therefore, the deixis of kami we
above can be categorized as exaphora deixis since it refers to something in the out of speaking and t
he deixis of kami we can refer to different people depend on who are intended by speakers.

1. Deixis of Place

There are several deixis of place/spatial in the speech. Deixis of di sini here in the sentence
of (1) Saya telah minta saudara-saudara hadir disini untuk menyaksikan satu persitiwa maha penti
ng dalam sejarah kita I have begun my brothers and sisters to present here in watch one most impo
rtant event refers to a place, where the proclamation text are conveyed, namely Soekarnos house, a
t Jalan East Pegangsaan Number 56 Centre Jakarta. Nevertheless, the place has different name now
become Proclamation Building, Jalan Proklamasi Number 1. Deixis of disini here can be categoriz
ed as exaphora deixis since it refers to something in the out of speaking. Besides, the word of di sini
here can refer to different place (not Proclamation Building more) if it is spoken in other place. T
herefore, the deixis of disini here has different references depend on the place.

2. The Deixis of Time

In the speech, there are several examples of time/temporal deixis. The deixis of ini this in t
he sentence of zaman Jepan ini this Japan period constitute signer of Japan colonization epoch wh
en the speaker talk it. Therefore, the deixis of ini this has different references depend on the time. I
f it is spoken in 1945, deixis of ini this refers to the year, 1945. Nevertheless, if it is spoken today,
the deixis ini this refers to the year of 2013. So, the speech of jaman Jepan ini this Japan period f
or Indonesian is only spoken at the time of proclamation text reading or Japan colonization period a
nd it can not be spoken today. Besides, the deixis is categorized as exaphora deixis since it refers to
something in the out of speaking. It is different, if jaman Jepan ini this Japan period changed to ja
man ini this period, so jaman ini will be categorized as endaphora deixis since it refers to what me
ntion before is, namely jaman Jepan Japan period.

The deixis of sekarang now in the sentence of (8) Sekarang tibalah saatnya kita benar-be
nar mengambil nasib bangsa dan nasib tanah air kita didalam tangan kita sendiri Now it is the tim
e we really take our nation and land fate by ourselves in our hand alone refers to certain time depen
d on the time of speaking. So, the deixis of sekarang now at the speech refers to at the time of pro
clamation reading, Friday morning at 17
th
of August 1945. Therefore, deixis of sekarang now in th
e sentence (8) is past time or 68 years ago. The time will be always changing depend on the time of
speaking. While, the deixis of tadi malam last night in the sentence of (10) maka kami, tadi mala
mtelah mengadakanso we did last night refers to certain time depend on the time of speaking. I
n which, the deixis refers to at the night before reading proclamation text, at night of 16
th
of August
1945 about 12.00 oclock PM after Ir. Soekarno and Muh. Hatta come back from Rengasdengklok.
Besides, deixis of tadi malam last night just spoken in the morning, noon, or afternoon, or it can n
ot be spoken at night.

Deixis of sekarang now is also repeated in the next speech, at the sentence of (11) bahwa s
ekaranglah datang saatnya untuk menyatakan kemerdekaan kita that now is the time to state that i
ndependent. This deixis also refers to the similar time, just the article of lah in the word of sekaran
glah now has function to give emphasizes. Even, the speaker/Soekarno repeat it as at the sentence
of (15) Kita sekarang telah merdeka! We are free now that refers to at the same time, 17
th
of Augu
st 1945. However, the deixis of sekarang now in the sentence of (15) has rather different with the
deixis sekarang now before. Deixis of sekarang now in the sentence of (15) more is more focuse
d to the time after reading proclamation text, while the deixis of sekarang now spoken before refer
s to the time before reading text proclamation. It means that deixis is something that has different re
ferences depend on the time of speaking. Next, deixis of saat ini this time in the sentence of (17)
Mulai saat ini kita menyusun Negara kita starting this time, we organize our country refers to the
time after reading proclamation text. The deixis of saat ini this time is determined based on speak
er. If the speaker talk it nowadays, the deixis of saat ini this time refers to day, moon, or year nowa
days, but it has different references if it is spoken at the different time.

2.2 Speech Act
2.2.1 The Types of Speech Act
In this speech, it is seldom found the important speech act types in pragmatics analysis. It is
caused of the speech is very formal as nation speech that determine Indonesian independent. Theref
ore, it is arranged regularly and carefully with ideas that come from several main and educational pr
ominent figures of Indonesian strugglers. So, all statements in the speech are categorized as direct s
peech.
2.2.1.1 Locutionary Speech Act

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70

Based on pragmatics view, locutionary act is less important to understand the speech act (Pa
rker, 1986: 15). Therefore, this short study does not analyze the locutionary speech act.

2.2.1.2 Illocutionary Speech Act

Illocutionary speech act is speech act that function not only to inform something but also to
do it. If we analyze carefully, we will find out much illocutionary speech act in the proclamation tex
t. Clearly, it can be looked at the illustration below. First, the sentence of (1) Saya telah minta saud
ara-saudara hadir disini untuk menyaksikan satu persitiwa maha penting dalam sejarah kita I hav
e begun my brothers and sisters to present here in watching/attending one most important event, no
t only giving information but also doing something, that is conveying greeting to all interlocutors w
ho attend the proclamation text reading. Second, the sentence of (4) Gelombang aksi kita untuk men
capai kemerdekaan kita itu ada naiknya dan ada turunnya, tetapi jiwa kita tetap menuju kearah cita
-cita the struggle of our action wave in reching the independent sometime get rising and lowering,
but our soul still consistent with one idea, also has illocutionary meaning in which the speaker wan
t to remember that the struggle to reach the independent is really long. Therefore, Indonesian mush
be commitment and consistent of the same idea, independent. Third, other illocutionary speech act
is found in the sentence of (5) Juga dalam zaman Jepan, usaha kita untuk mencapai kemerdekaan n
asional tidak berhenti-berhenti it also in this Japan period, our effort to reach the national independ
ent never stopping. This sentence constitutes admire form or proud expression conveyed by procla
mator to all Indonesian society for their struggle without stopping to reach independent. Fourth, the
sentence of (7) Tetapi pada hakikatnya, tetap kita menyusun tenaga kita sendiri, tetap kita percaya
pada kekuatan kita sendiri but actually, we still organize ourselves power alone, we still believe on
ourselves power also has illocutionary meaning. In this case, the speaker want to give advice to all
Indonesia society in order they just stand on their selves power and not on Japans power as mentio
ned in the sentence (6) before. Fifth, sentence of (8) Sekarang tibalah saatnya kita benar-benar me
ngambil nasib bangsa dan nasib tanah air kita didalam tangan kita sendiri Now it is the time we r
eally take our nation and land fate by ourselves in our hand too has invitation meaning to all Indone
sian society to escape their selves from any colonization. Sixth, sentence (9) Hanya bangsa yang be
rani mengambil nasib dalam tangan sendiri, akan dapat berdiri dengan kuatnya just brave country
that take independent or fate by their selves, it will be stand strongly, the speaker not only informi
ng something but also giving advice to all Indonesian society to be brave strugglers in reaching the
nation since it can give the prosperity and freedom or independent. Seventh, sentence of (15) Kita s
ekarang telah merdeka! We are free now! not only inform independent but also as invitation to all
Indonesian society to thank and greet the independent.



2.2.1.3 Perlucutionary Speech Act

Perlocutionary speech act is a speech act that has effect for listeners. Perlocutionary speec ac
t is also found in the speech. The sentence of (9) Hanya bangsa yang berani mengambil nasib dala
m tangan sendiri, akan dapat berdiri dengan kuatnya just brave country that take independent/fate
by their selves, it will be stand strongly has big effect for listeners (Indonesian). It likes doctrine tha
t enforce all Indonesian society to be brave in struggling the independent. The sentence also has me
aning that if we want to live safely, strongly, and well, we must be brave to maintain our nation and
out all colonization in our country, Indonesian.
Sentence (9) above also can be analyzed by metaphor aspect. The word of tangan hand is
not denotative meaning that refers to human hand physic but refers to connotative meaning, struggle
or power. It can be known clearly by learning the history notes about the debate between young and
old groups in determining the time of proclamation text reading. Soekarno suggests all people who
attend the meeting to sign of proclamation text as Wakil-wakil Bangsa Indonesia (representatives
of Indonesian country). However, it is not received by young group since most people who attend th
e meeting are PPKI (Indonesian Independent Preparation Group) members, while PPKI is supposed
as institution formed by Japan. Next, Sukarni suggests that Soekarno Hatta who sign on the procla
mation text as the representative of Indonesian. Sukarnis suggestion is received. Soekarno, Muh. H
atta, and other figures suppose that Indonesian independent is not Japans giving but as the result of
Indonesian alone.

Moreover, the dividing of speech act based on Searles view (1976) is also found in the spee
ch. However, the speech acts found in the speech only consist of representative, declarative, directiv
e, and expressive. The example of representative found in the sentence (2) Berpuluh-puluh tahun kit
a bangsa Indonesia telah berjuang, untuk kemerdekaan tanah air kita we are Indonesian has done
struggle for some years, for the independent of our country and sentence (11) Permusyawaratan itu
seia-sekata berpendapat the meeting gets one agreement. The speaker in the sentence (2) convey
the fact concerning the Indonesian struggle in reaching the independent, as sentence (11) in which t
he speaker want to tell the truth concerning the agreement of Indonesian prominent figures to state t
he Indonesian independent.

Declarative speech act found in proclamation text: Kami bangsa Indonesia dengan ini meny
atakan kemerdekaan Indonesia we are Indonesian, by this proclamation state the Indonesian indepe
ndent. Starting at the time, after mentioned the statement, Indonesian is changed from colonialized
country become independent country. Next, directive speech act found in sentence (13) Dengarkanl
ah proklamasi kami listen our proclamation that has function as invitation, not only listening it but
also understanding, looking at seriously and full attention.

Moreover, expressive speech act found in the end of speech, namely in the sentence (18) Ins
yahAlloh, Tuhan memberkati kemerdekaan kita itu May Allah bless our independent. This sentence
constitutes speakers expression as praying hoping that the independent is eternal and gets bless fro
m Allah forever.

2.3.2 The Aspects of Speech Acts
Wijana and Muhammad (2009: 14) mention five aspects of speech act, namely speaker, inter
locutor, context, purposes, speech as act form, and speech as verbal product. Related to the dividing,
the speech is only suitable conveyed by main figures of Indonesian, namely Soekarno as the head o
f PPKI (Indonesian Independent Preparation Group) at the time. If it is conveyed by children or you
ng people, it may ignore by people in the world, especially fro Japan government.
Related to interlocutor, the speech should be conveyed to public, especially to Indonesian pe
ople. It is caused by the speech constitutes independent speech not only for Indonesian people but al
so for people in the world. Since the independent constitutes one of law aspects and must be agreed
by world. So, if the speech is only conveyed in the house or in the front of several prominent figures
, it will not get agreement by others.

The context of proclamation text reading is vey formal. Besides, either proclamator or interl
ocutor has similar background knowledge and experience during colonization period. So, the purpos
es of the speech can be understood well by all Indonesian people. The purpose of the speech is to pr
oclamation the Indonesian independent. Related to the fourth and fifth aspects, the speech is represe
ntative of Indonesian people acts to reach independent and organize the nation by their selves witho
ut pressure and colonization from any sides.
2.3 Cohesion

Related to discourse analysis, the short study just investigate cohesion without coherence alt
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hough both are included as two important parts in discourse analysis. It is caused by the space to wr
ite both are very limited and cohesive discourse must be coherence too but not in vice versa. In this
speech found two kinds of cohesion, namely lexical and grammatical cohesion. For more clearly, it
can be looked in the illustration below.

2.3.1 Lexical Cohesion

There are three kinds of lexical cohesion found in this speech, namely repetition, synonym,
and general word.

2.3.1.1 Repetition

The words that have much repetition in the speech is kita we. It is caused by the pronoun o
f either speaker or interlocutor uses kita we. In which, the proclamation refers to all Indonesian pe
ople belong to Soekarno as the proclamator. Besides, independent proclamation constitutes the resul
t of struggle form all Indonesian people. It comes from several statements like in the sentence (2) Be
rpuluh-puluh tahun kita bangsa Indonesia telah berjuang, untuk kemerdekaan tanah air kita we ar
e Indonesian has done struggle for some years, for the independent of our country. From all speech
es, the word of kita we undergoes repetition in the amount of 21 times.

The word zaman Japan Japan period also gets repetition like in the sentence (5) Juga dala
m zaman J epan, usaha kita untuk mencapai kemerdekaan nasional tidak berhenti-berhenti It also i
n Japan period, our effort to reach the national independent is never stopping. Then, it is repetitied
in sentence (6) Didalam zaman J epan ini in Japan period. From all speeches, the word zaman Jap
an Japan Period only twice gets repetition. The word of sendiri alone also gets repetition like in t
he sentence (7) Tetapi pada hakikatnya, tetap kita menyusun tenaga kita sendiri, tetap kita percaya
pada kekuatan kita sendiri but actually, we still organize ourselves alone power, we still believe on
ourselves power alone. From all speeches, the word of sendiri alone gets repetition in the amoun
t of 4 times.

Next, the word of nasib fate gets repetition like in the sentence (8) Sekarang tibalah saatny
a kita benar-benar mengambil nasib bangsa dan nasib tanah air kita didalam tangan kita sendiri
Now it is the time we really take our nation and land fate by ourselves in our hand alone. It gets rep
etition in sentence (9) Hanya bangsa yang berani mengambil nasib dalam tangan sendiri, akan dap
at berdiri dengan kuatnya just brave country that take fate/independent by their selves alone, it will
be stand strongly. From all speeches, the word of nasib fate gets repetition in the amount of 3 tim
es.
The word of negara country gets repetition like in the sentence (17) Mulai saat ini kita me
nyusun Negara kita! Negara Merdeka, Negara Republik Indonesia-merdeka kekal dan abadi start
at the time, we organize our country, independent country, Indonesian republic country, independe
nt with eternal. From all speeches, the word of negara country gets repetition in the amount of 3.
The word of kami we gets repetition like in the sentence (12) Dengan ini kami menyatakan kebul
atan tekad itu by proclamation we state our strong agreement, it then repeated in the sentence, kam
i bangsa Indonesia dengan ini menyatakanwe as Indonesian people state. From all speeche
s, the word of kami we gets repetition in the amount of 3 times. The repetition phenomenon that is
different from the speech is in the sentence (16) Tidak ada satu ikatan lagi yang mengikat tanah air
kita dan bangsa kita there is not any dependent or bond that fasten our country and nation. The
verbal of mengikat fasten is included as repetition from its nominal ikatan bond.
2.3.1.2 Antonym dan Sinonym

In this speech found several antonym words like the word naik rise has antonym turun lo
w as in the sentence (4). ada naiknya dan ada turunnya one rise and one low. Other example is t
he word merdeka independent has antonym ikatan dependent/bond as in the sentence in (15) and
(16). Besides, it is found contradictory phrase, namely self dependent that has antonym of use ou
rselves power as in the sentence (6) and (7). While, the synonym examples in the speech like betw
een seia-sekata one agreement (sentence 11) and kebulatan strong agreement (sentence 12). On s
entence (16) and (17) found synonym phenomena that looked rather different, the word of tanah air
land has synonym with bangsa nation and negara country. Besides, in the end of speech, it is
found the synonym word like the word of kekal eternal and abadi eternal. Two words have simil
ar meaning that is meaning selama-lamanya forever. The two words found in the sentence (17).
merdeka kekal dan abadi eternal independent constitutes the believing and soul expression of spe
aker that Indonesian will live forever. As we know that Soekarno is mystic one. It is seen when he is
forced by young group to fasten proclamation text reading, he refuse it and just say: I am a man w
ho believe the mystic and at 17
th
is good day to read the proclamation text. Obviously, what he says
is true.

2.3.1.3 General Words

In the speech found the general words like saudara-saudara brothers and rakyat society t
hat has meaning all Indonesian people either children, parents, teenagers, adult, high group, low gro
up, or men and women.
It concludes that the sentences in the speech can be signed by repetition, antonym, synonym,
and general words.

2.3.2 Grammatical Cohesion

There are four kinds of grammatical cohesion found in the speech, namely reference, conjun
ction, substitution, and ellipsis, and those also help the unity of the sentences.

2.3.2.1 Reference

Reference found in the speech consist of endophora dan exophora. Endaphora may consist o
f anaphora and cataphora. It can be seen from the examples below. First, the pronoun of nya one/its
in the sentence (4) Gelombang aksi kita untuk mencapai kemerdekaan kita itu ada naiknya dan ad
a turunnya the struggle of our action wave in reaching the independent sometime get rising and lo
wering refers to gelombang aksi kita the struggle of our action. In other words, the phrase of gelo
mbang aksi kita acts as anteseden for the pronoun nya one/its. Second, the pronoun mereka them/
they in the sentence (6) Didalam zaman Jepan ini, tampaknya saja kita menyandarkan diri kepada
mereka in this Japan period, we are looked just base ourselves on them refers to Japan governmen
t. It is caused by the previous speech talks about Japan that colonize Indonesian. Third, the word of
itu that in sentence (12) Dengan ini kami menyatakan kebulatan tekad itu by this we state that str
ong agreement refers to what mentioned before, what to be agreement of independent statement. Fo
urth, the word of ini this in the sentence (12) Dengan ini kami menyatakan kebulatan tekad itu by
this we state that strong agreement refers to what mentioned after it, the proclamation text content
. It is caused by the statement of wanted independent will be proved by proclamation text reading.
While, the word of itu that in the sentence of (12) above refers to what mentioned before, namely t
he agreement with one word and voice. Next, the word of itu that in the sentence (18) InsyahAlloh,
Tuhan memberkati kemerdekaan kita itu May Alloh blesses our independent refers to the sequenc
es of proclamation text reading as the evidence that Indonesian has gotten the independent. It can be
also categorized as textual deixis (see Cutting, 2002: 146).
What is different, besides as conjunction, the word of demikian like that in the sentence (14
) Demikianlah, saudara-saudara! Thus, brothers! also as anaphora signer that refers to the content
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or meaning or proclamation text (see Purwo, 1984: 125 and Wijana: 83). The synonym of demikian
lah Thus may be itulah like that or inilah like that.
Next, in the speech found exaphora reference that show what out side from the speech like t
he statement in the end of proclamation text, Jakarta that show the Jakarta town as the place of proc
lamation text reading and Soekarno-Hatta that show on the first president and vice president of Indo
nesian. The word of Jakarta above and phrase of phrase rakyat Indonesia Indonesian people on se
ntence (10) can be categorized as unique reference since it always refers to the object in whenever a
nd wherever it is mentioned (see Wijana, 2010: 73).

1. Conjunction

There are several types of conjunction found in the speech, namely additional conjunction, c
ontrast conjunction, causalities conjunction, time conjunction, instrument conjunction, and intensita
s conjunction. First, the example of additional conjunction found in the speech are dan (and) and (b
egitu) juga likeweise. Conjunction of dan and in the speech only appears three times as phrase c
onjunction and word conjunction. As phrase conjunction can be seen in the sentence (8) Sekarang ti
balah saatnya kita benar-benar mengambil nasib bangsa dan nasib tanah air kita didalam tangan k
ita sendiri Now it is the time we really take our nation and land fate by ourselves in our hand alone
, and in the proclamation text content, namely Hal-hal yang mengenai pemindahan kekuasaan dan
lain-lain,matters that related to authority changing, etc While, conjunction of dan and that fun
ction as word conjunction can be seen in the sentence (17) merdeka kekal dan abadi eternal and ete
rnal independent. Moreover, the conjunction of juga also may function as conjunction like in the
sentence (5) J uga dalam zaman Jepan also in Japan period since it connects the sentence (4) and (
5). Actually, the word juga also is written begitu juga likewise completely, but the speaker shorte
n it dengan juga also.

Next, contrast conjunction tetapi but in the speech only appears twice and function as claus
e or sentence conjunction. While, subordinate conjunction, tetapi but function as clause connectio
n in one sentence like in the sentence (4) Gelombang aksi kita untuk mencapai kemerdekaan kita itu
ada naiknya dan ada turunnya, tetapi jiwa kita tetap menuju kearah cita-cita the struggle of our ac
tion wave in reaching the independent sometime get rising and lowering, but our soul still consisten
t with the idea. While, subordinate conjunction, tetapi that function as connecting of two sentences
can be seen in the sentence (7) Tetapi pada hakikatnya, tetap kita menyusun tenaga kita sendiri but
actually, we still organize ourselves power alone.

Other conjunction found in the speech is causalitas conjunction, maka so like in the senten
ce (10) Maka kami, tadi malam telah mengadakan musyawarah so we did meeting last night. This
conjunction used to give causalities meaning, namely the causes of meeting done as the previous sta
tement of willingness to take out from any colonization.

Next, in the speech found the time conjunction, demikianlah thus. Conjunction of demikia
nlah thus can be seen in the sentence (14) Demikianlah, saudara-saudara! Thus, brothers! that f
unction to give conclusion about the meaning or purposes of proclamation text reading. Besides, in t
he speech found the instrument conjunction, dengan ini by this like in the sentence (12) Dengan i
ni kami menyatakan kebulatan tekad itu by this, we state that agreement. Conjunction of dengan i
ni by this has function to connect the statement (11) and (12). Particularly, the conjunction has fun
ction as media to state the independent. Last conjunction found in the speech is intensitas conjunctio
n like the word of bahkan even do on the sentence (3) Bahkan telah beratus-ratus tahun even do
for thousands years. Conjunction of bahkan even do has function to connect the sentence (2) and
(3). Particularly, the conjunction has function as intensities to show how long Indonesian country w
as colonized.

2.3.2.3 Ellipsis and Substitution

The combination of two grammatical cohesion models in the discussion since it is found not
much of both. Sentence (3) Bahkan telah beratus-ratus tahun even do for thousands years is only
one sentence that undergoes ellipsis in the speech. In which, the deleted part is kita berjuang untuk
kemerdekaan tanah air kita we have struggle fou our nation independent. So, if it is written compl
etely of sentence (3), it will become bahkan telah beratus-ratus tahun kita berjuang untuk kemerdek
aan tanah air kita even do for thousands years, we had struggle for our nation independent. The p
art is deleted since the meaning is clear without the statement as mentioned before. Then, the examp
le of substitution are jiwa soul and cita-cita idea that substitute for each the word of perjuangan
struggle and kemerdekaan independent like in the sentence (4) tetapi jiwa kita tetap menuju kear
ah cita-cita but our soul still go to idea. It is caused by the word of perjuangan struggle and kem
erdekaan independent have been mentioned before. On sentence (17) Mulai saat ini kita menyusu
n Negara kita! Negara Merdeka, Negara Republik I ndonesia starting at the time, we organize our
country! Independent country, Indonesian republic country also found the substitution, the word of
Negara kita our country is substituted by Negara Republik Indonesia Indonesian republic countr
y.

CONCLUSION
Based on the illustration above, we can take several conclusions of pragmatics and discourse
analysis of Indonesian independent proclamation speech. First, in the speech found three types of d
eixis, namely persona deixis (saya I, kami we, kita we, mereka they, and saudara-saudara br
others), place deixis (disini here), and time deiksis (sekarang now, zaman Jepan ini this Japan
period, and tadi malam last night). Second, in the speech found two forms of cohesion, namely le
xical and grammatical cohesion. Lexical cohesion consists of repetition (kita we, sendiri alone, n
asib fate, zaman Jepan Japan period kami we, and Negara country), subtitution (gelombang
aksi action wave is substituted by perjuangan struggle), synonym (kekal eternal and abadi eter
nal), and general words (saudara-saudara brothers, and rakyat society). While, grammatical co
hesion consists of reference (nya its/one, mereka they, and itu that), and conjunction (dan and
, tetapi but, maka so, demikianlah thus, dengan ini by this, and bahkan even do). Third, in t
he speech found three types of speech acts, namely locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary sp
eech acts. Illocutionary and perlocutionary speech acts that is analyzed in the speech. Illocutionary s
peech act in the speech found in the sentences (1), (4), (5), (7), (8), (9), and (15). While, perlocution
ary speech act only found in the sentence (9). Fourth, based on the dividing of speech act from Sear
le (1976) found several types of speech acts in the speech. Representative speech act found in the se
ntence (2), declarative speech act found in proclamation text, directive speech act found in the sente
nce (3), and expressive speech act found in the sentence (18). Fifth, the speech act in this speech als
o can be analyzed based on the aspects of speech act, namely speaker (Soekarno as Indonesian pro
minent figure and the head of PPKI) and interlocutor (all Indonesian people), context (very formal),
purposes (to praclamate the Indonesian independent), speech as act, and speech as verbal act produ
cts, the implementation in the acts after reading the proclamation text or speech.

REFERENCES
Abdulgani, Roeslan. 1963. Dari Proklamasi sampai Gesuri. Jakata: Yayasan Prapanca.
Austin. 1978. How to Do Things with Words. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Cutting, Joan. 2002. Pragmatics and Discourse. New York: Rouledge
Djajasudarma, Fatimah. 1994. Wacana: Pemahaman dan Hubungan Antarunsur. Bandung: Eresco.
Nadar, F.X. 2009. Pragmatik dan Penelitian Pragmatik. Yogyakarta: Graha Ilmu
Parker, Frank. 1986. Linguistics for Non-Linguistics. London: Roudledge dan Kegan Paul.
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76

Purwo, Bambang Kaswanti. 1984. Deiksis dalam Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.
Yule, George. 1996. Pragmatics. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.
Wibowo, Ridha Mashudi. 2000. Laporan Penelitian: Beberapa Masalah Sintaksis dalam Kalimat B
ahasa Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Fakultas Sastra Universitas Gadjah Mada.
Wijana, I Dewa Putu dan Muhammad Rohmadi. 2009. Analisis Wacana Pragmatik: Kajian Teori da
n Analisis. Surakarta: Yuma Pustaka.

ADDITIONAL SOURCES
http://www.topix.com/forum/world/malaysia/T7ON1UH1UM90MCLBG
http://www.crayonpedia.org/mw/BAB11._PERISTIWA_SEKITAR_PROKLAMASI_DAN_PEMB
ENTUKAN_NEGARA_KESATUAN_REPUBLIK_INDONESIA




























Common grammatical structures and their role in achieving linguistic oral communication

DR. KHALID OSMAN YOUSIF
DR. ABDUL ELAZIZ M. HAROUN
MARYAM ABDUL RAHMAN

Introduction

The principle of capacity to daily oral communication with human beings, is the cornerstone of t
he first that should be acquired by the learner language from native speakers and non-native speaker
s, during the process of learning the language. Oral and audio direction is the best to achieve oral co
mmunication skills in everyday life, and this trend is not just listen only to the learning material by t
he learner, it is to listen, then repeat, then read, then talk. We had to speak first skill here, does not m
ean our negligence writing skill, but we have seen that learning a skill to speak first boot means to l
earn the skill of writing, Some educators have pointed to the importance of this delay by us. Which
prompted us to write this research, not for us, through our teaching Arabic language in the Internatio
nal Islamic University Malaysia for the students of the first level, their inability to oral expression w
hen using Syntax grammatical, particularly with regard by addition and described, and that is seen t
o provide first aid exercises Maybe it had to level on teachers in other exercises designed to other st
ructures in the same manner Our training method to been benefit by their students in learning the st
r u c t u r e s o f o r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s k i l l s .
And generally dealt with in this research the importance of auditory oral entrance, the method of
teaching vocabulary and expressive oral compositions, and exercises to learn oral communication in
with regard by and genitive, adjective and described, then dealt conclusion.

Problem Statement
Stem the problem of this research that the lack of great interest syntax common grammatical spo
ken since the start of the students' learning involved any students of the International Islamic Univer
sity Malaysia's first book, and this has a big role in their disability to acquire the skill of communica
tion in the future, and also this problem can be extended to delay the gaining skill writing well for th
e student who we means in this research.


Research Questions
What's the foundations that underpin the common grammatical structures acquisition assistance to a
cquire oral communication skills for students interested in Arabic?
- Is interest in listening students involved included texts for common grammatical structures to help
them acquire oral communication skill in Arabic?
- Is the skill of repeating the common grammatical structures through simplified texts by students in
volved in helping them to acquire the skill contact delicacy in Arabic?
- Is the skill of reading common grammatical structures through simplified texts help students to gai
n the gain oral communication skills in Arabic?
- Do the allowing for students to speak freely as they heard, repeat and read helps them to acquire th
e skill of verbal communication in Arabic?
- Is the design of training for the performance of the students involved leads to acquire oral commu
nication skill in Arabic?



The importance of auditory verbal entrance to acquire oral communication skills:
Remember Rankin 1926 study, the first of its kind in the field of listening - to support the view -
that listening is the most common methods of communication and use, the person can be heard thre
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78

e times what he reads. In addition to listening in the school program is a vital part; Most of the stude
nts in the classroom quotas allocated for oral work. We here at the International Islamic University i
n Malaysia need to train first-level students on the use of oral language fluently, and linguistic struct
ures where the soft sound stress and toning, which paves the way to the written expression in the ne
ar future. In this area indicates Shehata said: "On the other hand, has led the role of listening in the c
ommunication process to the conclusion that teaching is essential etc. ... Although the attack, which
drew him by some educators.
And some recent studies suggest that some of the children deprived of anything more vulnerable
to failure in the skill to speak because of not listening to the names of things escort to their age, so E
ducating listen necessity when the learning process. He notes that listening includes several basics y
ou should pay attention to it until it is able to achieve its objectives, including the following:
- Listening is President's demand to hear the message and interpretation, and thinking necessary to p
lace the process of giving meaning to what is heard.
- Delete the dispersion factors, exemplified by showing emotion sadness or pleasure for the listener
in the positions do not require it.
- The student must acquire the ability to distinguish the main idea about the details.
- Variable to listen effectively lead to the acquisition of the amount of information beyond what can
be gained than just writing spelling without prior hearing.
- The meaning of the words must be recognized immediately by express guessing, since the use of t
he dictionary is impossible during the hearing process.
It should be noted that just to listen to the foundations, he may also has several activities daily ac
tivities, like; radio, conversation and face-to-face, greetings, and administrative requirements, phone
, and listen to the TV or a movie, listen to recordings of concerts.
It is noted that educators not satisfied the above for entrance to the importance of oral auditory in
gaining skill contact, but also added to other aspects such as the following:
- A commitment to sound speech in Arabic because altruism Mandarin in teaching prepares pupils g
ood pictures of the simulation be delivered their. Words
- To leave for pupils starting freedom of expression and dragging to say do not boycott during whic
h the reform, but the guidance and direction after the end of his term student.
- The teacher can use the questions in the way of addressing the subject verbally.
Perhaps what goes in a circle entrance oral hearing as well as reading aloud, which is the best wa
y to master the pronunciation, performance and proficiency meaning representation, especially in th
e early grades, it is also a way to detect errors in pronunciation pupils which makes it easier to treat.

Method of teaching vocabulary and expressive oral composition
First:
the method of teaching vocabulary
Perhaps the most important means by which the learner to communicate in a foreign language, p
ossession of a good number of key vocabulary, and then figure out how to use it to build simple stru
ctures being able to express their communicative goals and living conditions, and other language lea
rning objectives have been achieved. The issue of vocabulary contained in books designed for non-l
anguage children a central and pivotal issue if it build on this vocabulary knowledge of foreign lan
guage and her world and the culture of its people. So what's the criteria for selecting these words? A
nswered this question Abdul Hamid Abdullah and dear Nasser: that these principles are as follows:
- Common: the most common use of words and the most widely used studies based on lists of com
mon words in the Arabic language on these different lists.
- Inclusiveness: one individual to include multiple meanings so that sings about a large number of le
arning vocabulary, like the word substitute for fruit orange, apple and banana.
- Proliferation: Any individual selection which has many ties with other vocabulary, and word (buy)
they are associated with a large number of vocabulary, about: (buy the book), or (buy a house), or (
rarely buy), etc.. ..
- Proximity and adjacent: it is intended to be words that frequently they are received on the student,
such as: occupation, age and nationality, and tools used, etc. ...
- Sign-up: the use of common vocabulary between mother and target languages, such as the use of s
ome Arabic words that have entered into Malay.
- Provide real metaphor: for example: (I saw students in the classroom) instead of (see satellites in t
he chapter).
- Eloquence word of where their voice and structure and distance from the vernacular.
- Ease of pronunciation and writing.
- Gradient, diversity and redundancy. The gradient is start by wide style in the common Listings, an
d the diversity is intended diversification in the types of words in terms of the process called profess
ionalism in a balanced manner. The repetition means repetition of new vocabulary so that including
the learner has stabilized.
- Indication of the word: that is, the word meaning clear to the student.
- giving attention to principle Arab-Islamic cultural choice of words.


Second: the way education compositions
Took care of educators and Linguistics, and the authors decisions by syntax the language that sho
uld be included in the teaching of Arabic books for their children and for Speakers of Other Langua
ges, show criteria for the selection of these compositions, and methods of submission, and their suit
ability for achieving adequacy of linguistic and communicative occasion. But Mohammed Amayreh
pointed into three analytical studies of structures Arab from a comparative perspective, the focus w
as on the dimension of the statistical launched from these studies, up to the compositions Arab com
mon that we find in the books Arabic now, and how to invest the results of these studies to guide de
cisions and classification. The servant David has developed a number of principles that should be fo
llowed in the selection of compositions presented in the book of Arabic to non-native speakers, incl
uding the following:
- Choose your popular compositions. Such as: (a long pen.), Or noun + verb, such as: (a student wro
te.), Or do + name such as: (sat pupil), or do + name, such as: (Fatima-painted image), or the name
+ do + name, such as: (WordPad bought the boy, or a question character + do + name, such as: (a lik
e oranges?), or conscience + reaction + + name, such as: (I love grilled fish), or the name + Associat
ion + reaction coupled with a clear conscience, such as: (who taught me came), or so from what is k
nown images of structures common in the Arab language books grammatical, or Arabic language te
aching books, or which referred to the Arab linguists
- To be a limited number of compositions.
- The use of new compositions of the vocabulary is not new.
- Any commitment to the principle of repetition of selected compositions.
- Interesting nucleus to install before installation enlarged.
- To know what we know of the rules and structures of language? How do we teach?
To choose the content of Arabic language learners must determine the following:
- Objectives of the course.
- The time available to teach the course.
- The general level of education.
- The type of school, it must be influential in the selection of the content.
- The characteristics of the learner any the heterogeneity of the man.
Then choose the content you should know how we include Article grammatical in the decision, t
here calibrator longitudinally like to take debutante and study it intensively studied, there are includ
ed periodically or rings, that language is not a single but a system synaptic, for example, take a debu
tante or news integral part and then take the other , then go back and take something from him and s
o on, and there are career progression, given that the language function, and there are situational gra
dient, for example, in the airport or in a restaurant or at home .. And so on. But now prevails is that t
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he career education for example, knows how to thank learner, whether at the airport or at home or in
situations that require it.


Learn oral communication exercises
Foreword:
We in these exercises we foxed on the training capacity and described and added the genitive, - a
s already noted in the Introduction Search - For students who are studying at the first level in the Int
ernational Islamic University in Malaysia, and these exercises are only examples of uses by teachers
in the preparation of training Other structures of the other constitute difficulties for students in oral
communication, and despite the fact that these exercises are designed for students who are studying
at the level concerned, but they can offer any schools last find difficulties in oral communication in
the compositions concerned that we have mentioned, and our brand for students here came out of th
e majority of the other students by our observation theory, there are various efforts have been made
in the treatment of oral expression for Malay speakers at the level of structure and meaning, sounds
and drainage. They can contribute to solving the dilemma of oral expression if invented them verbal
communication training.
It should be noted that these exercises that we will design does not depart from the criteria for sel
ecting Arabic language structures, and words that we have mentioned in the last thread, but here wil
l suffice by syntax the following in the process of acquiring the skill of communication and expressi
on had to say:
1 - tool question mark + reaction, such as: What do you eat?
2 - an act described + recipe, such as: eat meat roast.
3 - a question character + did + described the recipe, such as: Would you like cold tea?
4 - positive character, or robbed + act + described the recipe, such as: Yes, I like cold tea, or do not l
ike cold tea.
5 - tool question mark + reference evocative name + character appeal + name, such as: What is this,
O Joseph?
6 - name signal evocative + added + laced with ID, such as: the student's notebook.
7 - tool question mark + Name signal feminine + Name feminine such as: What is this, O Mary?
8 - signal feminine name + added + laced with evil, like, this basket of lemons.
Instructions for the teacher:
- The objective of these exercises give the student the Malay or non-Malay in the first level the abili
ty to oral communication.
- These exercises bother to address the oral performance errors, added in the genitive, adjective and
described.
- Should not exceed the number of students fifteen students in the classroom.
- Taking into account the division of students into small groups, each group consisting of five stude
nts during the training process.
- The teacher can use any audio-visual device such as a computer, or closed-circuit TV. use fixed or
pictures animated.
- Should be adhered to when providing training by making student to listen obeying the students we
ll, and attention, and sound readings, and to correct if mistaken.
There are other factors in the learning process mentioned Richard can take advantage of them acces
sed.

Verbal exercises models:
You can see the example of this drill in the paper which it written in Arabic.



Conclusion
This Conclusion consisted of the results, and suggestions and recommendations are as follows:

A - Search Results
- We found through our study in the books of linguists that listening is the most common methods o
f communication used, because the person can be heard three times what he reads, and this refers to
the priority learn oral communication skill when you start learning.
- We have found that most educators point out that lots of students in the classroom, specialty of ora
l communication and this strengthens the process of acquiring the skill to speak, and prepares the le
arner to acquire the skill of writing.
- We found through our study that activities oral communication, namely: radio, conversation and fa
ce-to-face, greetings, and administrative requirements, phone, and listen to the TV or a movie, listen
to musical recordings, and add to this the Internet.
- The most important means by which the learner to communicate in a foreign language possess a g
ood number of key vocabulary.
- The use of the learner's ability to vocabulary building simple oral formulations, being able to expr
ess their communicative goals and living and other language learning objectives have been achieved
.
- The issue of vocabulary contained in books designed for language is the sons of a central and pivo
tal issue, if founded this vocabulary knowledge of foreign language and her world and the culture of
its people.
- Of the criteria for the selection of the common vocabulary and proliferation and thoroughness, elo
quence and borrowing and provide real and metaphorical gradient, diversity and redundancy.
- The choice of words animate Arab Islamic cultural content requirements for teaching Arabic langu
age books.
- Choose your popular compositions of the principles and foundations that contribute to the success
of the oral expression.
- You can get a grammatical structures common for a novice to learn Arabic books of first and secon
d level to teach Arabic to non- the Arab speakers, such as the Arab Nation, and a series of pen, and a
series of teaching Arabic to non Arab speakers, and the basis of Mecca and key Arab.
- Some researchers pointed out that more errors students, during oral or written expression, be at the
appointment, when you use (the) addition or epithet or letters, or numbers.
- Wholesale style may be the cause of falling into error when the process of oral or written commun
ication among non-native speakers arguing that this method does not exist in their own languages.
- Research has found inside and outside the Islamic University touched to students problems during
the process of communication oral or written in a manner different from way which we spoke about
It.

Proposals and recommendations:
- The teacher who would like to use this research training, patience and strictly implement them on l
earners in order to ensure its success if you saw it.
- Listing is President's demand to hear the message and interpretation, and thinking necessary to pla
ce the process of giving meaning to what is heard.
- Delete the dispersion factors, exemplified by showing emotion sadness or pleasure.
- The process of reading the text for the learner voice clear, effective and important factor in the teac
hing-learning process, because it helps the learner in the talking stage.
- Repeat the text to be taught to students for listening times, has an essential role in creating learner
speech skill.
- Repeat the learner to the text while reading teacher, from the basics fluent tongue and prepare to ta
lk to, preferably to make the repetition several time.
- To provide an opportunity for the learner for reading after hearing the text and repeating as it shoul
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82

d be, an important factor to acquire the skill of communication.
- Calendar sense when you read the text of the student learning a positive assessment of this enhanc
es the learning process, and helps to build self-confidence when you practice to connect with others,
because the learner master the words and structures that used during the process of communicating
with others.
- A commitment to speak Arabic sound is very important, because altruism in teaching Mandarin pr
epares for pupils good pictures of the simulation be delivered their during the oral expression words
.
- That the leaves starting to know the freedom of expression and dragging to say, do not boycott dur
ing which the reform, but the guidance and direction after the end of his term student.
- The teacher can use the questions in the way of addressing the subject verbally.



References:

First: Arabic references
1 - Ibrahim Abdul Alim, vector artwork for the Arabic language school, i 3: 1962, Knowledge Hous
e, Egypt.
2 - Jawdat stirrup, methods of teaching Arabic language, i 2: 1986, Contemporary Thought House,
Beirut, Lebanon.
3 - Hassan Shehata, Arabic language teaching between theory and practice, bigger revised edition, 1
/4, / 2004, Egyptian-Lebanese house.
4 - Hamada Abraham, contemporary trends in the teaching of Arabic language and other living lang
uages to non-native speakers, 1978, Dar Cairo Arab thought.
5 - David Abdo, from the Arabic language issues, i 1: 2005, Carmel House, Amman.
6 - toxicity Ahmed Fahmi, an experimental study to compare the effect of, writing, spelling and liste
ning in toning, 1957
Journal of Modern Education, the fourth issue.
7 - Suyooti, Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr, happy sighting, explain Suyooti on Olvih named Balfred
h in grammar, and discharge line, University House, Alexandria.
8 - Abdul Hamid Abdullah and dear Nasser, Basis of preparation textbooks for non-Arabic speakers,
Dar sit, Cairo.
9 - Mohamed Akram Saad religion, pen, fluent Arab Speakers of Other Languages and the first level
, the first primary book, International Islamic University, Malaysia.
10 - Mohammed Amayreh, Research in Education and Language, i 1: 2002, Dar Wael for Publishin
g and Distribution, Amman.
11 - Mohamed Eid, as liquidator, i 1: 1971, youth library, Cairo.
21 - Qamar-uz-Zaman Abdul Ghani, Arabic and Malay Language down the Alsdhutah and morphol
ogical study descriptive , Master Thesis, 1998, Cairo University, Faculty of Science, Egypt.
13 - Wan Ahmad Rahiman, linguistic errors in oral expression among scholars Almlaaoyen (Master)
, 1994, International Islamic University, Malaysia.
Second :English References

1. Brown, J. The Construction of Diagnostic Test of Listening Comprehension, An Abstract of
Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Colordo.
2. Kimble, Greory A. and Gramezy , Norman. 1963. Principles of General Psychology. Second
Edition. New York: Thr Ronald Press Company.
3. Richards, Jack C. and Rodgers , Theodore S. 1986. APPRACHES AND Methods in
Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.


















































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84

The Study of Language Styles Used by The Members of Tonymacx86 Online Forum: How Peo
ple Engage Themselves through Language

Alfian Cahyo Budiardi ,
Baity Anggraeni
Faculty of Teacher Training and Education,
University of Muhammadiyah Malang
alfian.cahyo@gmail.com

Abstract.

Technology nowadays has become an important partner for human life. It provides many things to h
elp people in their daily lives. It reaches many aspects of lives such as education, health, and social.
As a part of society, people communicate each other by using a language. In this transformative era,
the communication is not only limited to a certain area but also to the broader place around the wor
ld. Through Internet especially in an online forum, they are able to interact each other and discuss w
hat they want to share without any barrier among them. Because they communicate across the count
ries and races, they need to use English as an international language for their communication means
. Internet World Stats (2012) shows that there are about 2.4 billion people are using Internet on 30 J
une 2012. They come from different background of life like age, relationship, stereotype, and race.
Derives from those recent circumstances, it is important to observe and investigate about the langua
ge using in an online forum like Tonymacx86 which discuss about Macintosh as a sample. What kin
ds of register styles do they use? Which one is the dominant style used by them? Those are some of
the proposed questions for this study to be answered of this study. Moreover, this study uses a descri
ptive qualitative method. As a result, it will be described the kinds of language styles used in that fo
rum and also how they use that kinds of style. Furthermore, it also provides some knowledge and in
formation related to the development of language on its applied in the society. Consequently, people
can create an effective communication for daily lives.

Keywords: language style, tonymacx86, register, sociolinguistic


1. Introduction
1.1 Background
Internet is one of many products of technology that is mostly used by people in their daily lives. Th
ey use it for many reasons such as entertainment, academic, business, etc. For those who get bored,
they can use it to find anything that may entertain them such as gossip, news even online game. Inte
rnet also helps students to do their responsibilities in learning. It may provide many references that t
he students need so the student will be easier in understanding materials or doing their homework. I
n addition, it can also be a very good media to promote a certain product because almost most of pr
ofessionals and students access internet every day. Thus, the opportunity to have a transaction for th
eir business is very big.


Because there are many people want to share about a certain topic in what they interested, people ar
e inspired to create a medium which can facilitate them to having a sharing about their knowledge r
elated to their interest. It leads people to make a website in internet that is usually called as an onlin
e forum then. The forum is categorized based on a certain topic such as automotive, education, healt
h, and also politic. The rapid development of internet and also the increasing number of internet use
rs lead to a situation where sharing in internet has become a regular activity for people. Consequentl
y, the number of online forum is continuously increasing day by day.
In Indonesia, based on Alexa chart (2013) reported by http://tonymacx86.com.outerstats.com/, Tony
macx86 Forum gets five stars from Google page rank that makes it become the most accessed onlin
e forum in Indonesia that talks about Hackintosh1. It is rated with 9 score with 10.552 sites are linki
ng in that online forum. It shows how people are interested in that forum and also visit it frequently
every day. It shows also that this site is visited by 49344 visitors per day. It is really a fantastic num
ber of visitors for a site that emphasizes how popular this site is.


Fig. 1: Graphic of tonymacx86 visitors by Alexa (2013)

Moreover, the visitors in Tonymacx86 are not only teenagers or young professionals but also adult p
rofessionals who have their interest in Hackintosh. Surprisingly, the men are not the dominant users
but it has also women users although men are still little bit leading. They are involved in a discussio
n about their topic. In addition, they may come from different ethnic or race because internet has ma
de the distance is not a big problem to have a communication. As a result, wherever people come fr
om, they are still able to join the forum as long as they are connected to internet.


Basically, human is a social creature that builds their relationship with others from their interaction.
One of the ways to do the interaction is by holding a communication. In doing it, people need a tool,
which is known as language. Language bridges the human needs in sharing ideas and feelings by tr
ansferring the information from the speaker to the interlocutor in form of series of word which is sy
ntactically correct and pragmatically understandable.

In addition, language is one of the important things for human life. By receiving and sending messa
ge through language, people can fulfill their needs to survive. Language is primarily spoken, althou
gh it can be transferred to another way, such as written. It also makes people easier share informatio
n and to express their ideas or feelings.

Generally, languages are continuously changing as far as culture develops. It creates many variation
s in using language. The use of language variation itself is influenced by many factors, such as lingu
istic environment, social background, non-linguistic factor, etc. Every language has different variati
on since its characteristics are commonly different one to another. Style, as a part of language variat
ion, is a different variation of a language used by a person in different situation and need. We can re
cognize the speakers background and the reason of using a variety of language from the style that h
e/she used (Trudgill, 2002:2).

Moreover, language cannot be apart in peoples lives every day. They always use it to communicate
and interact each other. They also use it in their sharing in the online forum. They do their communi
cation by using their style whether formal, informal or other styles.

Due to that reasons, the researcher is interested in observing that case and presenting it as a paper st
udy about sociolinguistic studies that aims to identify the way of people communicating and involvi
ng themselves into society then we can placed ourselves in a right way while communicating. The s
tudy will also be accompanied with some questions as the problems would like to be answered. Tho
se are 1) What language style(s) do the members of Tonymacx86 online forum use?, 2) What is the
dominant style used by the members of Tonymacx86 online forum?


In order to make the study concise and focus, the researcher choose Native Ivy Bridge CPU and G
PU Power Management thread2 as the scope of this study. Since there are many pages in that threa
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d, researcher also limit the study only from page one to six of the thread.

1.2 Theoritical Framework

In a daily interaction, people must use language as their communication mean to others. The social
context or the circumstance of the communicators takes an important part to the variation of their la
nguage.

sociolinguistics is an attempt to explain the relationship between language and society.... (Holme
s 1992:1)
As claimed by Holmes above, it can be understood that sociolinguistic is part of linguistic studies w
hich brings a study in investigating the relationship between language and society. Further, he also s
uggests its scope that falls into some areas such as why we speak differently in different social conte
xts, and how language is used to convey social meaning such as relationships, situation, topic, and s
o on.

However, they may have different style in their communication. The may have a tendency to consid
er the circumstance where the communication happens. Mostly, people are very aware about it that
make them understand about the social context that they have in their communication. For instance,
language style used in a conversation between children and parents at home will be different from a
couple of teenagers who have close relationship.

In addition, language is not only always in the same form but also there are several variations of it.
Characteristically, the language users often cause the language become very various based on its co
ntext. Language is characteristically various due to the person who use that language and the contex
t. Holmes suggests (1992:2) that people choose their words carefully according to whom they are tal
king. That opinion is also strengthened By Gleason as follow:

As we listen to a person speaking our native language, we hear not only what is said, but also certa
in thing about the speaker, if he is an acquaintance, we recognize him, if not we identify him as mal
e or female and perhaps obtain some ideas of his age, his Education and his social background (Gl
eason, 1980 in Adhalina:2011).

Based on Gleason and Holmess statements above, it can be said that in our conversation, the use of
language can be adjusted based on the target of the speaker or to whom the people we speak. It is be
cause from the language presented by the speakers, we can get a clue about their age, their educatio
n, or even their social status of the speakers language. Simply, people will understand and know ab
out the speakers background because of the style and also characteristic of the language used by th
e speaker. The differences in using the language cause many variations in language.

Therefore, those differences in language usage may happen in various circumstances around the soc
iety that might be mainly determined by the characteristic of the people who lives in that society an
d also its culture. In line with the major circumstances, Joos (1972) claims five types of language st
yle that might be used by people in their communication that consider either the spoken and writing
skills. The classification seems more easy to be accepted because it tends perceive the language bas
ed on the degree of formality that the language have. The classification is given as follow:

Frozen: It is the most formal style that usually used in a very respectful situation or formal c
eremony. It is also called oratorical style which characterized by the very careful, has fixed form, an
d has symbolic or historical nature. In some regions such as in most regions in Indonesia, it mostly
used in a spiritual ceremony and cultural events of its local wisdom.

Formal: this level of language is the language using standard sentence syntax and word choi
ce of work and school. It has complete sentences and specific word choice. The academicians frequ
ently use this kind of style when they are involved in an academic context. The language meets the r
equirement of a good language whether its structural grammar or its diction.

Consultative: It is such kind like formal register when used in a conversation. Discourse patt
ern is not quite as direct as formal register. Sometimes, people consider this style is mostly appropri
ate to be used in a communication between someone and older interlocutors and the other way arou
nd. It is common to be used in a group discussion.

Casual: It is often used in the conversation between friends or family. It is usually applied in
daily conversation. In this classification, it can be considered as the informal style. Consequently, so
me condition might show a sentence that does not meet the syntactical rules but the language is still
possible to be understood by the interlocutors. Meaning takes a big role in this style because the lan
guage could be far away from the syntactical rules but as long as it has an understandable meaning,
it is acceptable in a communication.

Intimate: This style is a language which is used by married people or twins, and language of
sexual harassment. The language in this style might be very flowery. However, metaphore and other
figurative language are sometimes used in this style.

In a social context, the circumstance is not the only one factor influencing the language style that pe
ople are using but there are some other factors that is adhered at someone consciously or unconscio
usly. According to Trudgill (1974:103), he argues that language in other words varies not only accor
ding to the social characteristic of the speaker -such as social class, ethnic group, age, and sex- but a
lso according to the social contexts in which we find himself. The same speaker uses different lingui
stic varieties in different situation and for different purposes. From his opinions, it is clear that there
are some social context that come from the speaker itself. Its social context -places, purposes, subje
cts, and time- however can influence someones characteristic such as the social class that the some
ones has. But, the social characteristics cannot be seen as minor factors because it goes in a long ti
me in a speakers personality and rarely changes it in a significant way to them. In addition, Wardha
ugh (2006) points out that people can speak very formally or very informally, our choice being gove
rned by circumstance. Besdies, Holmes (1992) also stands in the same position and asserts that style
s are analyzed along a scale of formality.
2. Method and Discussion
2.1. Method and Design
In conducting this research, the researcher uses the combination of descriptive qualitative because q
ualitative research is usually used for describing and analyzing what actually happen to colloquial a
ctivities without dealing with the analysis of statistical data. The researcher also uses the descriptive
approach in order to ease the readers in understanding the actual circumstances. Furthermore, it is
matched to Ary (based on Sholicha 2003:19, in Masudah: 32) that descriptive research is used to obt
ain information about existing conditions and have been widely used in educational research. Moreo
ver, the given statement of problems will be flexibly answered through this method. Also, the interp
reted data will be systematically described based on related theory.
In this research, the researcher uses the research subject as the participants. They are the members o
f Tonymacx86. They are people who post some message related to topic they want to share. Specific
ally, the subjects of this research are people who are the members of Tonymacx86 posting on Native
Ivy Bridge CPU and GPU Power Management thread for the first six pages.

Moreover, instruments take an important role in a research because it help researcher to collect the d
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ata of the research to achieve the research objectives. Since that importance thing, it is very vital for
the researcher to determine its instruments properly. Consequently, document, conversational analy
sis, and interview are supposed as the best instruments to be used for this research because this rese
arch deals with data of people conversation.

Researcher then collects the data by accessing the website of the forum, http://www.tonymacx86.co
m. The data of this research are collected through the process as follows:

First, researcher finds out the conversation from page one to six. Next, researcher also reads the wh
ole post from page one to six then makes a list of the members posting in those pages.
Furthermore, the interview is started based on the lists made before. The interview is done through t
he message of the forum so only the researcher and the contributor will exclusively know it. To give
the evidence that it the data truly obtained from them, the researcher will use the print screen facilit
ies from a computer to make screenshots of it. The same way is also used to make documentation fo
r the conversation from the pages. Furthermore, those data can be printed and analyze later. At the e
nd, researcher arranges it systematically based on the date of the posting or based on the page order
in the website.

After collecting the data with help of some instruments, researcher needs to analyze it in order to ge
t the answers for the given statement of problems. In analyzing the data, researcher begins with iden
tifying the written conversation got from the online forum. It is identified based on the person posti
ng it so the data will be in group of conversation of each member. The researcher then adds the infor
mation for each member got from the interview to it. The next step is classifying the data based on t
he language style classification given by Joos (1972) and also find about the dominant style used in
their conversation. From the additional data obtained from the interview, researcher also analyzes th
e possible factors influencing the use of language styles by the members and also the reason why do
minant style could happen in their conversation. At the end, researcher makes a conclusion from the
analysis.

2.2. Findings

After doing all the methods has been designed as given in a previous subtopic, the researcher gets s
ome data as the data findings. The data is given in a table showing the writer of the post, some samp
les of their message. The shortlisted data in table below consist of all the members of Tonymacx86
online forum who post in a Native Ivy Bridge CPU and GPU Power Management thread from pa
ge one to six and also some choosen message of them as a representative of the evidences.
Fig. 2 Table of findings for classification of the posts examples of Tonymacx86 Online Forum in N
ative Ivy Bridge CPU and GPU Power Management Thread
No Nickname Messages / Posts

1. StarbucksSteve Sorry - if I said 2630QM somewhere ... it is a 3630QM, and using the
MBP10,1 didn't help UNTIL I corrected my error. I was trying to make the table match the Dell gen
erated steps ... you must 1) not change the steps generated by the formula and 2) set the APSN (min
e is 0x0B) and APLF (0x02) values to match what you need/want. Power management conquered!
On to the next!

And again, thank you for all of your hard work - and my solution does include my modification to t
he SSDT to correct the PState table load failures.
Understood. I think I got a PState stepper error with the MBP before but I'll try it again as we are fu
rther down the road. The Dell N7720 is a H77 chipset although it has that nasty mobile designation
HM77 ...
2. Alexramone Hi Toleda! Thanks for all your hard work to Hackintosh community! I'm conf
used about X86PlatformPlugin. I've set my Hack to iMac13,1 and I'm using the Core i7 Turbo and
O/C (8 threads) SSDT.
Can you help me to set the correspondent values to my system?
3. PikeRAlpha This will add four data properties with the actual table data that Method GCA
P will load with help of function Load() Make sure to check/replace the values in SSDT. For experts
only, of course.
I don't know what people here use to extract ACPI tables, but I use my own tools. Doesn't really mat
ter, but you should extract them from a running system, because only then are certain ACPI objects i
s initialised. Extracting them from firmware might not work. Also keep in mind that the info might
change with a new BIOS upgrade. Meaning that using other peoples data may fail as well.
4. SpinCycle ....... Sorry if a lot of these questions seem basic. Im fairly new at all this an
d trying to understand the process.
1. Can I find a basic ssdt.aml that is corrected for a non-overcloacked i7 3770k or do I need to
make a custom one? The one in this thread says O.C. to 4.2ghz.
2. MSR Dumper is used to verify speed step is functioning? Need to google that.
3. Installation of the ssdt.aml seems fairly easy!
4. Where do I get an edited AppleGraphicsPowerManagment.kext or do I need to create a cust
om one?
5. Should I change the sysdef to MacMini 6,1 or 6,2 before or after creating the extra folder an
d placing the ssdt.aml in there?
6. After changing sysdef and adding the edited ssdt.aml will I need to edit graphics power man
agement? Or is this an optional step?
For optional discrete graphics (iMac13), the discrete graphics card device_id is used for graphics po
wer management. The Ivy Bridge graphics power management is significantly easier to implement.
For Macs without discrete graphics (Mini), simply adding the device_id power profile to the approp
riate board-id adds graphics power management (i.e., Vendor10deDevice1086) How do I add the d
evice id? Im totally lost on this step. How do I add it? What do I edit?

Thanks Rehab Man! Appreciate it mate.
5. Ozbrit72 I'm still locked at x8 with revised Name (APSN, 0x09). However, I have gen
erated an SSDT using MacIASL Beta which does give me P-States 16,17,18,19,20,21,43 so far on
MSRDumper, without X86PlatformPlugin and without IB native power management.

I'll wait until 10.8.3 is released and try again. Thanks again for helping and for your great guides wh
ich are a wonderful contribution to the Hackintosh community on tonymac.
On second thoughts I'll try the DSDT edit to activate X86Platform with the above SSDT.
- Done! The X86Platform is loaded, confirmed in IOReg. Still no success with IB power manageme
nt and P-States.
Thank
6. Toleda (moderator) .......
How do I add the device id? Im totally lost on this step. How do I add it? What do I edit?
1. The i7 SSDT works fine for non OC.
2. See How To Test for SpeedStep on Sandy Bridge CPUs Using MSRDump
3. Where are edits to AppleGraphicsPowerManagment.kext mentioned? (none are required)
4. You already have an Extra folder. Copy SSDT.aml to Extra.
5. It needs to be done before you restart use macmini6,2.
6. Timing is optional but is required for optimal graphics performance. Post #1 tells you where the
Board-ID.plist is located. plist editor is available in Xcode or search for plist editor apps.
.....
Your ssdt.aml is presumably working for you giving the PStates quoted in the last section (C.). For
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90

me, it is not. Could you please have a look at my IOReg for me?
You have installed a different version of 10.8.2, I've only tested 10.8.2/12C60
Try an edit: ssdt-i5oc_v1/Name from (APSN, 0x08) to Name (APSN, 0x09)
7. Going Bald (moderator) If your Ivy Bridge system already has native power manageme
nt is there any advantage to going this route?
I no longer have the P8Z77-I build or I would test it on there.
OK, updated to 10.8.2 with a side step to delete a certain OEMSMBIOS kext.
but it seems to have little effect as I get this from MSRDumper:
In any case, here is a new ioreg...
8. Jonesssl Toleda, could you please help me...
When you say "use SandyBridge sysdefs", do you simply mean (in my case, where I have a 7 series
MB with a 2nd gen i5-2450 processor) that I should use a MacBook Pro 8 for the smbios.plist file,
or something more than that?
Also, when you say "ignore Console", what does that mean, please?
Hope you [or someone else] don't mind answering these questions for a newbie.
Thanks
9. The Real Deal As toleda suggested, Mac mini 6,2 works great ; more P-States than iMac 13
: msrdumper - 16 23 29 31 42 45
Boosted Mac mini @ 4,5GHz geekbench score is 17625 : http://browser.primatelabs.com/geekbenc
h2/1610085
FYI : SMC version to match Apple product : 2.8f0
FakeSMC REV : AggPAAAA
smc-compatible : i don't know if there is a better choice (huronriver, napa, etc,.)
ok i will try. What is the smc-compatible value for a Mac mini 6,2 late 2012 in FakeSMC ?
10. Kanochen Hey toleda, my cpu is 3570k oc to 4.2Ghz, mb is p8z77n-i deluxe, boot loade
r is chameleon 2168.
I already edit DSDT injected cpu code like you said, it fix the unknown cpu warning and x86platfor
mpluign were loaded.But if I put the i5 oc 4.2g ssdt in /Extra, will panic.If do not use any one ssdt.a
ml only get two P-States 16 42 .
I don't know why,someone use the same cpu and ssdt just work perfect,can you help me?
I do not use an edited DSDT.aml. I can not comment on ASUS boards as I do not use one.
So did you get the unknown cpu warning in log without edit DSDT? just place the i5 oc 4.2 ssdt.am
l in /Extra ? No CPU errors in logs at all. Thats all I did.....
11 Hackintoshx86 I edited the AppleGraphicsPowerManagment.kext/Contents/Info.plist
to provide AGPM controller info for the GT640 on the Macmmini6,2. Copy the info from iMac13,2
and changing the device ID works great.
To get Speed-Stepping working I just changed SMBIOS to Macmini6,2 and placed toleda's i5 OC S
SDT.aml in Extra.
I do not use an edited DSDT.aml. I can not comment on ASUS boards as I do not use one.
HackMac Pro: GA-Z77X-UD5H - i5 3570K - GeForce GT 640
HackMac: GA-Z68X-UD4-B3 - i3 2100 - Radeon HD 5770
Rename i5 oc 4.2 ssdt.aml to SSDT.aml
macmini6,2: msrdumper - 12 16 22 29 35 39 42
All the data given in the table above are taken from the forum website but those are not mentioned e
ntirely. It is given only one post showing a message that indicates the members in giving informatio
n or problem they would like to share with and also the message showing the members response to
others problems or suggestions. Each member in page one to six posts more than once, therefore th
e data above are taken randomly. It aims at showing the examples of the language styles that the me
mbers of Tonymacx86 online forum are using as a representative of the whole messages in the threa
d. It is important to be known that there is no certain purpose to differentiate the format of typing in
the table than only to ease the readers in distinguishing between the iniative posts and responsive po
st. The reguler format is used to indicate a message which is posted by the members as an initiative
post while the italic format is used to indicate the responsive posts.
2.3. Discussion
Referring to all data findings which have been obtained before, the analysis of the data is important
to do to get a conclusion for this research and also to answer all the research questions proposed at t
he beginning of this research. In this phase of study, the scale of formality of the languages that the
members are using are determined by analysing some aspects related to the given theory.
Fig. 3 Table of Classification of Scale of Formality of The Languages Used by The Members of Ton
ymacx86 Online Forum in Native Ivy Bridge CPU and GPU Power Management Thread
No Nickname Scale of Formality by Joos
Initiative Post Responsive Post
1. Toleda (moderator) Formal Formal
2. Going Bald (moderator) Formal Formal
3. Hackintoshx86 Formal Consultative
4. Kanochen Consultative Consultative
5. The Real Deal Consultative Consultative
6. Jonesssl Consultative Casual
7. StarbucksSteve Formal Consultative
8. Ozbrit72 Consultative Casual
9. SpinCycle Formal Casual
10. PikeRAlpha Consultative Consultative
11. Alexramone Consultative Consultative
From the table above, it can be identified that there are eleven members who post at page one to six
of Native Ivy Bridge CPU and GPU Power Management thread. In addition, there are six members
who use consultative language style in their communication for giving initiative post and the rest fiv
e members language tend to be classified into formal language. While for the language that is used
for responding a post, there are six members use consultative language, three members use casual la
nguage and only two members use formal language. In short, the dominant style which is used by th
e members is consultative. It is in accordance with the theory that says consultative style is often us
ed in a group discussion. In this forum which is online forum and has various background of the me
mbers, it is still relevant. Most of the members use it in both initiative and responsive posts. But, it i
s also interesting that the phenomena shows that there are also some members who use formal style.
Despite the number of members who use consultative style, formal style is in the second position fo
r initiative post and two for responsive post. If we look at the kind of the media used by them in hav
ing communication, it is a reasonable result because an online forum which is also called as comput
er mediated communication (CMC) or virtual communication is different from face to face commun
ication. In CMC, people do not know the expression, the physical performance, and the gestures of t
he interlocutors so they will not get any clues such as the race, ethnic, age, about the interlocutors p
rofile except from the language which is used. It might be the factors that make people tend to take
a low risk communication by using formal language in the first communication they have. It can
be a better way to avoid miscommunication between them. However, they may change their style af
ter knowing the profile or the characteristic about their interlocutors. That is why people have a tend
ency to start their communication in a good way by using formal language or at least consultative la
nguage. They expect that by that kind of language, their interlocutors will have a good feeling and c
omfortable to respond their message. That is also the reason why in an initiative post there is no one
who use casual style. In the findings, it can be known that casual style is only used by those who ha
ve had a communication before with their interlocutors in discussing their interest. In other words, t
he casual style is used by those who have had felt a chemistry between them so they feel that they h
ave been a friend.
3. Conclusion
In conclusion, language which is a communication mean takes an important role for human life. Its
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various style makes people have to take more attention to use it in their daily communication to avo
id misunderstanding between them. The social contexts of someone do not significantly influence th
em when they are having a virtual communication because they do not know each other about the cl
ues about the speaker and the interlocutors characteristics. In social sites like an online forum, peop
le are communicating each other based on a certain topic in what they are interested. They discuss it
frequently in a room called as a thread and share some issues or problems that they are facing on it.
In using language, they tend to avoid the risk by using a language that can be considered as a unive
rsal syntactically correct and semantically understandable- that is by Joos called as formal languag
e and also consultative which is mostly used in a group discussion. By using that kind of style, peop
le will easily understand the main point of the message and it is relatively changing after they get so
me clues about the interlocutors characteristic. This research suggests also an evidence which is dif
ferent from what Nguyen and Rose (2011) claim who argue that they find community norms of long
time participants that are characterized by forum specific jargon and a style that is highly informal
and shows familiarity with specific other participants and high emotional involvement in the discuss
ion. From this research, it is also known the way of people engaging themselves into society in this
very transformative era. The information transformation occurs anytime without any time limitation
and it is connected every part in this world globally. In short, this research can describe how people
break the barrier in communication and also how the use language to engage themselves into social
interaction.

4. References

Adhalina, Nurul. 2011. The Different Language Style and Language Function Between Stud
ents and Teachers in Updating Their Status in Facebook Webpage. Semarang: Published The
sis
http://tonymacx86.com.outerstats.com/ (accessed on May, 2013)

Holmes, Janet. 1992. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. London and New York: Longman

Masudah, Sulis. 2008. Language Style Used in Titanic Film. Malang: published thesis.

Nguyen, Dong and Rose, Caroline P. 2011. Language Use as A Reflection of Socialization in Online
Communities. Proceedings of the Workshop on Language in Social Media (LSM 2011), pag
e 76-85

Wardhaugh, Ronald. 1986. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. UK: Basil Blackwell.















Motivation and E-learning: the Experience of Blended Learning

Kristina Mullamaa, PhD
Language Centre, University of Tartu, Estonia
kristina.mullamaa@ut.ee

Abstract.

The article discusses motivation in e-learning. It briefly reviews relevant aspects of motivation and i
ndividualisation theories. The main aspects we focus on are motivation, individualisation and the dy
namic learner and teacher roles. The possibilities of applying blended learning in university level la
nguage teaching will be analysed. We approach the topic through the prism of examining the possib
ilities for supporting and encouraging student-centred learning and increasing student responsibility
in their learning process.

Key words: e-learning, blended learning, language learning/teaching, student centred learning, stu
dent responsibility, motivation

1. Introduction

The dynamic and highly technological world around us is strongly affecting the ways in whi
ch we live our lives, learn and teach. It also has an effect on what is considered to be good teaching.
Novel motivational strategies, methods and approaches to students learning styles develop. Just as
their students, the teaching staff is expected to be more and more tech-savvy.
Many universities offer the teaching staff courses on e-design and e-learning. But in addition
to the technical skills, one needs a solid background in recent learning theories and best practice. M
otivation and individualisation are some of the main driving forces behind a successful modern lear
ning process. Also, observation of the learning process, feedback collection and analyses are essenti
al.
In our article we analyse the effects of blended learning (i.e. combined on-line + in-class l
earning) on student motivation and capacity to grow into independent and self-sufficient learners.
2. Student Motivation and Dynamic Learner/Teacher Roles
2.1. Motivation
Web-based learning necessarily implies a great amount of student responsibility. This in its t
urn requires motivation, which is essential for a learning process to take place.
What is motivation? In general, definitions of motivation in education emphasise the eagern
ess, willingness and readiness of people to try, achieve or acquire something. As Rob Dean (2010) p
oints out, for motivation to occur, for the students there needs to be:
an interest in the topic
the will to understand and do more
the feeling that one can understand and can do more
In theories of motivation, motivation is often divided into extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Theoba
ld (2006:1) points out that for some students it is essential to resort to extrinsic tools to increase thei
r motivation. This tends to be the factor behind most of the justification behind teacher-centred teac
hing. Intrinsic motivation, on the other hand, has been seen as the ultimate goal of educators for th
eir students (ibid.). Intrinsic motivation goes hand in hand with student centred learning. When we
speak about student-centred teaching, we in fact imply that students should have the wish and skills
to be independent learners and to take responsibility for their learning process. How can we make st
udents reach this? Intrinsic motivation is often attributed to finding a value in what students do. The
obald (2006:1) holds:

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Helping students find value in learning through the implementation of various instructional strategi
es and multiple alternative and authentic forms of assessments, while maintaining high standards of
student performance in an environment which encourages students to do their best work by effectiv
e, nurturing teachers, will help increase the motivational levels of all students.

Drnyei and Otto (1998:65) give us a definition of motivationin L2 (second/foreign language) learn
ing:

In a general sense, motivation can be defined as the dynamically changing cumulative arousal in a
person that initiates, directs, coordinates, amplifies, terminates, and evaluates the cognitive and mot
or processes whereby initial wishes and desires are selected, prioritised, operationalised and (succes
sfully or unsuccessfully) acted out.

Judy Copage (2013) stresses the importance of motivation through learner autonomy. Some of the
main criteria, according to her, are the conditions in which our students can choose, be independent
and sense and develop responsibility.
Hasanbegovic (2005) has reviewed a study on the impact of intrinsic motivation on e-learning in aut
hentic computer tasks by Martens et al. 2004. The study allows her to conclude:

In line with the motivation theory of Ryan and Deci it is predicted and evidenced that intrinsically
motivated students do more in a fixed time period as a result of their higher effort and persistence a
nd will do different things in computer environments that allow for this liberty of choice (Hasanbeg
ovic 2005).

A well-balanced e-learning environment enables students to feel intrinsic motivation and to stay mo
tivated throughout the learning process. It also enables one to view and analyse the progress and set
new realistic goals. E-learning can be harnessed in the interest of developing modern principles of l
earning and language acquisition concerning motivation. The criteria mentioned above can be met i
n e-tasks that are programmed to automatically increase the level of difficulty, to adapt to the studen
ts language level or to repeat areas where the student has made mistakes during previous visits to th
e electronic environment. In the description above, also the needs for individualisation are met. And
obviously, a high-quality e-learning environment meets the needs for a certain amount of playfulne
ss and interaction.
Thus, some of the most important aspects of learning Individualisation, interaction and stu
dent motivation often considered paramount in modern education theories, are necessarily a part a
nd a parcel of a successful e-learning support.
2.2. Increasing Learner Responsibility
In addition to finding joy and pride in learning through intrinsic motivation, the learning process is
more efficient when adequately conceptualised and reflected upon. A modern student, especially at t
he university level, must be able to envision and pursue their goals, i.e. know why and what s/he ne
eds to study, and to be able to design and stick to their personal study plan. An important assumptio
n is that students can take responsibility for their study process, if provided with necessary know-ho
w. Teachers can be of considerable support here. Drnyei (2001a:37) points out:

Sharing responsibility with students, offering them options and choices, letting them have a say in
establishing priorities, and involving them in the decision-making process enhance student self-dete
rmination and intrinsic motivation /.../.

Wilson (1981:61) points out that student development through the university years can be seen as fo
llows:
One view is that student growth occurs through an invariant sequence of stages or levels in which
progress from stage to stage implies a restructuring and reorganisation of what went before. Higher
stages are qualitatively different from lower stages in terms of the way the individual thinks, feel
s or acts. Another influential view is that student development is to be seen in terms of mastery of a
series of developmental tasks which involve the individuals maturation in the different aspects of
intellect, emotions and social relationships.

Katrin Sachs (2012) stresses the importance of unconscious learners becoming conscious learner
s. She concludes:

// developing students self-directing learning skills is not the easiest task, and the teachers pers
onal experience may not always be enough. However, going through the procedure with students ste
p-by-step, starting with asking questions about the learners goals and needs, proceeding with choos
ing suitable tools and methods and ending with looking at best ways of evaluating the process and r
eflecting on its progress will lead to a more conscious awareness of the learning process. Furthermo
re, having a central role in the decision-making process increases the learners sense of responsibilit
y and their willingness to take control over their learning process.
2.3. Modern discourse in professional roles: Changing Teachers Roles
Modern education theories also emphasise the importance of neglecting the former rigid models of s
eeing the students minds as an empty space to be filled with information. Rather, students interes
t for learning, and their creativity should be developed with the help of encouraging and creative tea
chers. Today, the role of the teacher is that of an advisor, an expert in the field whose task is to supp
ort the students development (cf. Mullamaa 2009). This is much more creative and much more chal
lenging than the more traditional design and control the study process concepts.
Drnyei (2001:35) points out:

// teachers are powerful motivational socialisers. Being the officially designated leaders within t
he classroom, they embody group conscience, symbolise the groups unity and identity, and serve as
a model or a reference/ standard. They also function as an emotional amplifier of the group whose
appeals and examples are critical for mobilising the group //. Simply speaking, to lead means to
direct and energise, that is, to motivate.

In education, as elsewhere, increased cooperation and neglecting the earlier rigid borderlines, is bec
oming more and more common practice. Day and Sachs (2004:7) indicate: The core democratic pr
ofessionalism is an emphasis on collaborative, cooperative action between teachers and other educat
ional stakeholders.
Kiggins and Cambourne (2007:368-379) emphasise the importance of a triadic partnership
(ibid. 374) from the very beginning of training of young teachers. Kiggins and Cambourne (ibid.) st
ress:

// trust becomes a required element in the knowledge building process, and if friendship and tru
st are not present among the student cohort, this process is unlikely to occur.

It definitely takes some courage from the teacher to give free rein to a group of teenagers. You have
to accept a certain amount of insecurity, as there is no way to predict how each group of students ap
proaches their course and the e-learning environment. However, in our experience, supporting stude
nt autonomy shows that there is a trust for the teacher, and an increased responsibility for the learni
ng process. Students are innovative and creative, and accepting, and making them explicitly share re
sponsibility for the process and outcome motivates them to come forward with fascinating and usef
ul ideas.
Karm and Remmik (2010) stress the importance of university teachers routes of developme
nt. They (ibid.) note that only if a teacher has understood the underlying importance of her teaching
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viz-a-viz the teaching skills, the development of ones field of specialisation, and personal develop
ment of students, does the need for further education occur. And we believe, it is often in the course
of further education and mentoring that further processes of self-monitoring, improving ones teachi
ng and conceptualising ones role occur.
Thus, the challenges teachers are facing today are significantly more serious and demanding.
The amount of responsibilities that today go along with the teaching profession per se has increased
significantly. As Day and Sachs (2004:7) point out:

It suggests that the teacher has a wider responsibility than the single classroom and includes contri
buting to the school, the system, other students, the wider community and collective responsibilities
of teachers themselves as a group and the broader profession //.

In many countries, the codes of ethics for teachers have been developed (in 2004 in Estonia). Furthe
r education training programmes are carried out. However, traditional, teacher-centred teaching styl
es are regrettably still favoured by some representatives of the teaching staff as well as parents. The
formulation of the code of ethics for university teachers is currently in progress. Discussions in the
media on the issue are strongly encouraged. Further education programmes for university teachers h
ave been worked out and they are attended by an increasing number of teaching staff. There are also
different mentoring projects taking place. In all these endeavours the issues of ethics, the role boun
daries, as well as the contribution to society, are clearly present. On the positive side, we see an acti
ve discussion on the core issues in the media, and an active appeal for modern and child- and studen
t-centred approaches in training and teachers learning communities.
3. The Possibilities for e-learning: Individualisation, Activating the Students, and Learning Co
ncepts in Situated Meanings
As Normak (2010) points out, the environment in which learners develop is crucial for success. Nor
mak (ibid.) analyses sources of research on early child development and the development of logical
thinking, reaching the conclusion that a safe learning environment from the very early years on, and
a certain playfulness are essential for developing thinking and becoming successful learners and me
mbers of society. E-learning has plentiful possibilities for catering for such needs also in the later st
ages of learning. As pointed out above, the possibilities for e-learning include individualisation (thr
ough motivation and dynamic educational roles) and activating the students.
Also, the principle of learning concepts in situated meanings is an important aspect to consid
er. Gee (2009:15) points out that students need to acquire and try out the contents of concepts in situ
ations that teach and test their real meaning. Only then does true learning take place. Without that, st
udents may be able to complete seemingly perfect pen and paper tests. However, at closer testing,
they prove not to be able to solve real problems (cf. Gardner 1991, in Gee 2009:15).
We suggest that web-based learning solutions offer the learners the possibilities for making t
he learning process more interesting and challenging. Some of the capacities here are attractive and
enthusing, in this being similar to what has, for example, been pointed out as the educational reserv
e of video games. J P Gee (2009:15-22) suggests that the principles these follow often relate to the p
rinciples of encouraging active learning. Out of the capacities that Gee relates to positive learning te
chniques in video-games (Gee 2009:22), we associate with professionally designed e-learning the fo
llowing: interactivity, adaptability, a gradual build-up of the level of difficulty, and following the pri
nciple of the cycle of expertise. Also, the modernity of the medium and its parallels to the develop
ments in virtually all other spheres of human life, where the digital revolution reaches from citizen j
ournalism to museum pedagogy (cf. Gottlieb 2009:26-37), help to make it attractive.
A SRI International for the Department of Education in Estonia (http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/
eval/tech/evidence-based-practices/finalreport.pdf) demonstrates that the learning results that have b
een reached by using ICT solutions are more profound than the learning results achieved through us
ing traditional learning methods:

On average, students in online learning conditions performed better than those receiving face-to-fa
ce instruction. Over the 12-year span, the report found 99 studies in which there were quantitative c
omparisons of online and classroom performance for the same courses. The analysis for the Depart
ment of Education found that, on average, students doing some or all of the course online would ran
k in the 59th percentile in tested performance, compared with the average classroom student scoring
in the 50th percentile.

As pointed out above, research has also shown that the focus in training future capable members of
society should be on not only forwarding information and accumulating knowledge, but also on trai
ning working in groups, adaptation to changes, and applying technological change.
Blended learning offers splendid opportunities for this. Individualisation, activating the stud
ents and learning concepts in situated meanings develop students skills in managing independent se
lf-directed learning and at the same time building up trust.

4. The Experience of Using Blended Learning in Language Teaching
In our experience, e-learning has proved to be a fruitful environment for teaching general language
courses, as well as for teaching/ learning terminology and ESP (English for Specific Purposes). E-c
ourses or courses with e-support can be organised differently. For example, they can be conducted a
s complementary to ordinary classroom teaching, i.e. the web-based courses run parallel to the face-
to-face seminars. Their primary goal is to support what has been learned in the classroom and thus t
hey mainly include exercises on texts/ grammar covered in the classroom.
Blended learning can also be organised as consisting of different live and on-line modules.
This experience has recently proved to be most fertile, as students often need to combine their work
and academic life. Also, the on-line module fosters their need and capacity for independent goal-set
ting, time-planning and achieving (cf. above).
In addition to learning and acquiring new vocabulary in a new language, the courses aim at
helping students to form their personal opinion and being able to express it on issues topical in one
s field of specialisation, as well as topics of general interest (e.g. through links to topical articles and
hot debates both in their home-country and abroad, web-links, multimedia resources).
Exercises designed as an extension to activities carried out in the classroom support the acqu
isition of vocabulary, forming ones personal opinion, and being able to express it on topical issues.
It enables students to understand their area of specialisation and many other important issues in a wi
der context and to put it into a perspective that stretches beyond their university, country, and contin
ent.
As students actively load up materials themselves, the e-course environment becomes a shar
ed resource for the group and teacher, where both on-line activity and classroom face-to-face sessio
ns complement the learning process. Allowing students to be co-creators of the learning materials is,
as we know, an important factor in student-centred teaching.
To sum up, e-learning as a support for ordinary class-room teaching, as a part of it, or as a se
parate module has the obvious benefits of easy access whenever and wherever you wish it, demateri
alisation (less paper more trees), enabling us to use modern methodologies, individualisation, poss
ibilities to develop contacts across the world (broadening the horizons; real English (or other fo
reign language)).
Students have an overview of topical issues, their context and background, easy access for q
uickly finding inspiration for (continuing) the conversation, developing the skills for finding the rig
ht information, analyse, present and discuss it, developing the skills for using the e-environment and
new technologies, developing responsibility for the learning process, forming ones own opinion an
d learning to (dare to!) express it.
5. Conclusion
As demonstrated in the article above, values and ethics may guide teachers through choosing their
medium, procedures and communication patterns with communicating with their students. Behind
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many of the seemingly practical choices there is a worldview based on active research and recent th
eoretical approaches. Many years of teaching practice and as a teacher in different learning groups
participant observation also helps to analyse and shape the processes. E-learning in language lear
ning is possible and can be stimulating. Hopefully, anchorage in deeper theories, principles and ethi
cs can support students in making meaningful choices.
With the development of e-learning and blended learning endless opportunities for novelties,
development and change are created. Students are becoming more and more engaged, the communi
cation and learning are less and less teacher-centred. In these developments the role of teachers, stu
dents, and learning itself are continuously changing to offer exiting possibilities for further develop
ment. Many of these developments are to be discovered in the work process together with the stude
nts and colleagues from all over the world. Hopefully, a student-centred approach based on individu
alisation, increasing the student motivation, and responsibility, as well as accepting the new and dyn
amic learner/teacher roles can be of support on this way. Blended learning can successfully be one o
f the possible paths to take in order to pursue these goals.
6. References:
Copage, J. (2013). The power of choice: motivation through learner autonomy. Lecture given at the
further education training of English teachers in Estonia on March 5, 2013. Organised by Pearson a
nd AS Dialoog, hotel London, Tartu.
Day, C., & Sachs, J. (2004). Professionalism, performativity and empowerment: discourses in the p
olitics, policies and purposes of continuing professional development. In: Day, C, Sachs, J. (Eds.), I
nternational Handbook on the Continuing Professional Development of Teachers. Open University
Press. UK, Bell& Brain Ltd, Glasgow. 3-33.
Dean, R. (2010). On the Road to Success. Seminar organized by Pearson/Longman and AS Dialoog.
Tartu, Estonia, in April 2010.
Drnyei, Z. (2001a). Teaching and Researching Motivation. Pearson Education Limited, Malaysia,
LSP.
Drnyei, Z. (2001b). Motivational Strategies in the Language Classroom. Cambridge University Pre
ss, UK.
Drnyei, Z, Otto, I. (1998). Motivation in action: A process model of L2 motivation. Working Paper
s in Applied Linguistics (London: Thames Valley University), 4: 43-69.
Gardner, H. (1991). The unschooled mind. How children think and how schools should teach. New
York: Basic Books.
Gee, J. P. (2008). r videospel bra vid inlrning?/Are videogames good for knowledge acquisition?,
Kulturens Studia Generalia, Svenska kulturfonden, Oy Nord Print, 8-23.
Gottlieb, H. (2008). Digitala pedagogiska artefakter nya verktyg fr pedagoger och intendenter./D
igital artefacts new tools for teachers and museum personnell/. Kulturens Studia Generalia, Svens
ka kulturfonden, Oy Nord Print, 25-38.
Hasanbegovic, J. (2005). Review of Martens, R. L et al (2004). The impact of intrinsic motivation o
n e-learning in authentic computer tasks. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, Vol. 20, pp. 3683
76 (Electronic version). Retrieved October, 2009, from http://www.elearning-reviews.org/topics/ped
agogy/readiness/2004-martens-et-al-impact-intrinsic-motivation-elearning-authentic-computer-tasks
/
Karm, M., & Remmik, M. (2010). Academics professional development as teachers. In press.
Kiggins, J., Cambourne, B. (2007). The knowledge building community program. In: T. Townsend,
R. Bates (Eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education. Globalization, Standards and Professionalism in T
imes of Change. Springer, printed in the Netherlands. 365-381.
Mullmaa, K. (2009). Ethics in Teaching: Should We Do More? Humanising Language Teaching, Ye
ar 11, Issue 3, (Electronic version). Retrieved April 2010, from http://www.hltmag.co.uk/jun09/sart0
1.htm
Normak, P. (2010). Mida juhtida ehk kuidas juhtida juhtimatut?/What to lead or how to lead what ca
nnot be lead?/ Lecture presented at the e-learning conference E-learning a serious game in Tallinn,
Estonia, in April 2010.
Sachs, K. (2012). Developing self-directed learning. Voices. The bi-monthly newsletter of the Intern
ational Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (iatefl), May-June 2012, Issue 22
6: 4-5.
SRI International for the Department of Education in Estonia. Retrieved October 2009, from http://
www.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/tech/evidence-based-practices/finalreport.pdf
Theobald, M. (2006). Increasing Student Motivation. Strategies for Middle and High School Teache
rs. Corwin Press. A SAGE Publications Company, Thousand Oaks, California.
Wilson, J. D. (1981). Student Learning in Higher Education. Croom Helm London. New York Tor
onto.

Kristina Mullamaa (PhD) is a lecturer of English and Swedish at the University of Tartu, Estonia. K
ristina Mullamaa majored in English Philology (BA cum laude in 1996, MA cum laude in 2000, Ph
D 2006) and in European Studies at Tartu University (MA in 2004). She has also studied Swedish at
Uppsala and Stockholm universities in Sweden (1996, 1998, 2001), the International Doctorate Pro
gramme in Translation and Intercultural Studies at Universitat Rovira i Virgili in Tarragona, Spain (
DEA, 2005). In 2010-2011 she carried out post-doc research as a guest researcher at Stockholm Uni
versity in Sweden. From 2011 she is heading the Estonian Science Foundation research group on int
erpreting research.
Her current research interests focus on student-centred learning, the professional development of un
iversity teachers, personal and professional roles, motivation and ethics.
Kristina Mullamaa is a member of the International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign
Language (IATEFL), the Estonian Association of Teachers of English (EATE), the Estonian Associ
ation of Teachers of Swedish (ERKOS), member of the Teacher Training Seminars Organisers and
Language Teaching work-groups, and Language Tests work group at the Language Centre of the Un
iversity of Tartu.

























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Structured Learning Technique:
Effort in Promoting Malay Language to International Students


Dr. Mardian Shah Omar
Sidra Naim Taraq Naemzia
University Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN)
Dian@uniten.edu.my

Abstract


The interest of International students to learn Malay Language (BM) would definitely be fulfilled if
we are successful in attracting them by using the easiest way to understand the language. This in tur
n will increase the number of foreign speakers who are able to converse in BM. In order to achieve t
his, we have to come up with a teaching technique and a better and efficient method. An analysis ha
s to be done to find a method that is systematic, easy to understand, fast and at the same time, effici
ent to apply on these International students. This research aims to find out the teaching technique ch
osen, which is the structured method, which can be applied in the teaching of Malay language, henc
eforth improve the language proficiency of International students. This research found out that the s
tructured teaching culture does not only increase and hasten the International students understandin
g and speaking ability, it also increases the interest of them to learn it. Interestingly, in the course of
this research it was also found out that this method is more efficient for those who are of novice cha
racteristic.


Key Words: Malay language, structured, foreign speakers, increase



Introduction

Various initiatives and strategies can be implemented to attract the interest of the world to learn Mal
ay language (BM) and culture. If this is possible, so is the internationalization of Malay language to
the world. However, sometimes the interest of international students to learn Malay language decrea
ses when they feel that the language is hard to learn, an effect of the teaching technique or methodol
ogy used which are boring and ineffective. Hence, the best approach or method has to be thought u
p to ensure these foreign students can understand easily, quickly, and effectively. Obviously the teac
hing methodology which is used to teach a second language to non native speakers is very importan
t and has to be emphasized to ensure a more interesting and effective teaching and learning environ
ment.

2.0 Research Problem
Various publications have highlighted the second language teaching methods and approach as discu
ssed by Mora (2008) in two of his publications, which are: Second-Language Teaching Methods: P
rinciples and Procedures and Major Components of The Study of Syntax and Grammar. The sam
e goes to a few local writers who also discussed the issues of teaching Malay language to foreign sp
eakers as in the publication of Mohd Afif (2004), Media Sandra (2004), Uthaya Sankar (2004), Zait
ul Azma (2008) etc. Their publications highlight their experience in teaching the Malay language to
foreign speakers and are very relevant and helpful to teachers who are just beginning to explore this
area. However, this shows that the methods implemented from one teacher to another is different.

According to Mohd Afif (2004: 42), based on his teachings in National University of Malaysia (UK
M), his opinion is that it is difficult to determine the approach, objective, method and technique whi
ch is more effective and relevant to be implemented in teaching. However, in the teaching of Malay
language to foreign speakers, the teaching methodology depends on the wisdom and creativity of th
e lecturer who is teaching to gain students whole attention and interest towards the knowledge whic
h is being imparted (Uthaya 2004:14).

The same goes with Zaitul Azma (2008: 23) who gives opinion of her experience in teaching second
language. According to her, the teaching of Malay language can be done through a communicative
and semi-pragmatic approach. This shows that the method and approach used in the teaching of Mal
ay language to foreign speakers depends on the technique and method of choice which is felt as mos
t appropriate to the instructor or language teacher. Among the approaches which are used in the teac
hing of Malay language to foreign speakers is grammar-translation, direct approach, reading, audio-
lingual and the silent way. However, the teaching technique and method can change and grow from
time to time (Mohd Afif 2004: 44). Because of the fact that the teaching method depends on the wis
dom and creativity of the lecturer who teaches, hence a lot of the instructors advice and emphasize o
n their own teaching methods to be shared together. Not only that, in fact, the method choosen is al
so dependent to the objective which is to be achieved by the particular course.

This is research is based on McNeils (1970) point of view, who suggests that the scope of a structur
e can determine the sequence of ones syntax acquisition. Schlesinger (1971, 1974) also suggests th
at there is a grammar structure relationship in speaking. Syntax acquisition researchers believe that
syntax acquisition will only begin when someone starts to combine two or more words. This is also
agreed by E. Clark (1977), Greenfield & Smith (1976) and Barman (1979). Beginning from these re
searchers opinions, the structured method approach was chosen to be tested on foreign speaking stu
dents who have not yet any knowledge about Malay language. Hence, a staged learning process bas
ed on said acquisition development, which is in accordance with the development of the so-called s
yntactic or structural methods can be used as a yardstick to identify good and effective method in te
aching Malay language for foreign speakers.

3.0 Research Objective
To summarize, the objectives of this research can be listed as following:
3.1. To identify whether the chosen approach, which is the structured approach, is suitable to
be used for foreign students who are novice in speaking the Malay language.
3.2. Identify whether this structured approach can provide a positive impact thus improving
students' ability to speak Malay.
3.3. Identify whether this structured approach can increase the interest of foreign students to
learn Malay.
In conclusion, this study aims to see how far the students can enhance their learning in the adoption
of this structure. Therefore, this study will certainly be able to identify whether the approach is the b
est method that can be applied to teaching Malay language for foreign speakers.



4.0 Malay Language Program for Foreign Students

Like many other universities, now UNITEN or institutions of higher learning in this country has bee
n blessed by the attendance of the students, especially those who come from Africa, Saudi Arabia, E
gypt, Yemen, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Bahrain, Lebanon, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and others
. The same goes for those coming from Myanmar, Vietnam, Indonesia and other neighboring countri
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es. Malay language teaching for foreigners in UNITEN or subject code MALB 103, is offered every
semester, which is to meet the mandatory requirements, specific to foreign students pursuing any d
egree in UNITEN. A total of 3 hours a week and the whole 42 hours of teaching and learning shoul
d be utilized by the students to meet the course requirements. They are required to take only once d
uring their study session and are required to pass the subject. In UNITEN, this course is given a cert
ain grade which is calculated when graduating.

In UNITEN, BM courses for international students outlines some specific targets and among them i
s to produce students who are creative in building and shaping the verse thus able to communicate
more effectively. Furthermore, by the end of this course, the program is targeting so that the student
s can master a daily vocabulary Malay. The program is gaining momentum in every coming semeste
r. If before this, in the last two semesters, the Malay language classes for foreign speakers was only
for a capacity of 30 people, but now, starting with the second semester of the academic session 2007
/08, this programs capacity has been increased to 60 as the number of students who register for this
course is increasing, which now stands at nearly 100 students in the first semester of the academic s
ession 2013/14.

With the rate of increase of capacity from semester to semester, an appropriate teaching method sho
uld be provided to handle the foreign language classroom. Therefore, this study is a display of the a
pplication of the structured teaching methods that have been applied in the teaching of Malay langu
age to foreign students in UNITEN. This method could also be adopted and applied by any of the in
structors from any institution in their teaching of second language.

5.0 Research Methodology

First of all, teaching module implementing a structured approach should be developed to be applied
and tested on Malay language teaching to foreign students which are the subject of this study. The d
ata for this study were collected through observation and experience of the researcher while in the cl
assroom. The study also distributes questionnaires to students to get a more significant data. Resear
cher uses several methods deemed appropriate, because according to Burgess (1984: 53-55) in the st
udy of Social Science research method selection is not limited to any particular method but it can in
volve several methods and more importantly, it can follow the target objectives of the study to assist
in the research hypotheses. Thus, besides interviewing the teachers on duty, the data for this study a
lso involves analysis of written documents such as the syllabus being taught in the classroom, teach
er lesson plans, teaching materials, exam papers, teaching sessions held and so on. A total of 70 que
stionnaires were distributed to the foreign students.

6.0 Findings

As mentioned in the previous section, of this study took into account a number of internal aspects su
ch as teachers, syllabus, class activities and the teaching rooms. The study found that more students
give priority to the teaching syllabus in the classroom than other internal aspects as mentioned abov
e. In of this case 71% of informants strongly agreed that the teaching of this class had attracted the
m to learn BM whereas only 26% only agreed. Based on this teaching syllabus factor enhance under
standing, it was found that (A) 79% of students strongly agreed that the teaching structure used for t
his MALB103 course easy to understand, (B) 80% of students strongly agreed that the teaching met
hods used by lecturers to help their understanding and (C) 63% of the students strongly agreed that l
earning BM is not something that is difficult when using structured methods. These percentages can
be seen through the following chart:


Chart 1: Improvement in understanding

Based on the factors of interest in BM, the results of this study found that (D) 51% of students stron
gly agreed that they are only interested in learning BM after entering MALB103 class, (E) 71% of s
tudents strongly agreed that the teaching methods used in the class had attracted them to learn BM a
nd (F) 60% of the total number of students strongly agree that learning how to use this structured m
ethod successfully increased their interest to learn BM at a higher level. These percentages can be se
en through the following chart:


Chart 2: Interest in Bahasa Melayu
Based on information from the chart above we can conclude that the learning Malay as a foreign lan
guage is not easy and moreover interesting when it becomes compulsory and basic course in a unive
rsity. However, interest and a sense of is ease to learn BM can be nurtured if teaching methods is abl
e to apply the teaching structure. This increased interest is not just in learning the Malay language at
a basic level in universities, but also to learn at a higher level.

Next, under the command of the language factor, the study found that (G) 70% of students strongly
agreed that the teaching methods used are capable of achieving the objectives of the MALB103 cou
rse that are taught, (H) 56% of students strongly agreed that the teaching methods used enable them
to communicate better and (I) 67% of the total number of students strongly agreed that the activities
carried out in class to help them master the Malay language more easily. These percentages can be
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seen through the following chart:


Chart 3: Mastery of Language

Based on the above can it be seen that the activity and active student participation in class will help
them communicate better in using the BM. This ability meets the targeted objectives within the fra
mework of the course, which allows students to be more creative in building BM sentences thus can
converse and communicate better.

For the factor of lecturers teaching techniques in teaching syllabus, it was found that (J) 69% of the
students strongly agreed that the techniques used by the lecturers teaching compatible with their nee
ds and (K) 60% of the students strongly agreed that the techniques used in the appropriate class is al
so suitable to be used to learn other foreign languages. However, the pattern was found to vary whe
n students are asked the question 'Do you agree with the use of some techniques, you can learn the
Malay language itself without the help of a lecturer?'. Only (L) 29% of students strongly agreed wit
h this question, 23% disagreed and the rest answering 'not sure'. This percentage can be seen throug
h the following chart:


Chart 4: Lecturer Teaching Techniques

A total of 23% of the total students stated that they disagreed with the statement that they can learn t
heir own BM without any help and guidance from the lecturers. This explains the teaching assistanc
e of lecturers is still a need to complement the structured teaching methods used. Structured teachin
g method is indeed suitable for use in teaching strategies and learning foreign languages. The resear
cher says that because 60% of the students agreed that the techniques used in the appropriate class i
s also suitable to be used to learn other foreign languages.

Finally, in terms of teaching syllabus, factors of benefits and advantages of the techniques used sho
wed that (M) 39% of the students strongly agreed that the technique used is only suitable for small c
lass sizes (less than 30 students) and (N) the time to learn to use techniques and methods readily ava
ilable in the classroom was adequate. (O)74% of the total students strongly agreed that the techniqu
es used should be disseminated and used by other universities in Malaysia. This percentage can be s
een through the following chart:


Chart 5: The Benefits and Advantages of the Technique Used

Based on the feedback received, the teaching and learning techniques using structured methods wou
ld be more effective if they are used in small-sized classes. MALB103 courses for example, is carrie
d out in the classroom capacity of 30 people. The small class size will result in the process of teachi
ng and learning to be more focused and more emphasis on in-class activities will be optimal.

In addition to the size or capacity of the class, students also suggested that the study time period can
be extended. According to them, duration of 14 weeks of lectures with three (3) hour meetings a we
ek was enough for them to master basic Malay languages. However, these students found that struct
ured teaching method is very interesting that will make them think having a basic course is extende
d to middle and higher level. Students also suggested that courses with structured learning methods
should be propagated and applied at other universities. According to them, most of the universities t
hat houses compatriots do not teach Malay languages courses like they have got now. This causes a
gap between those compatriots with lower achievement and mastery of the Malay language after on
e semester of study.

Discussion
Structured teaching method applied in teaching syllabus BM in UNITEN is closely related to the sel
ection and arrangement of title of subjects taught. For example, the teaching module is based on the
sequence of the topics that will help and strengthen the teaching and learning methods. Therefore, t
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hese topics should be contiguous and continuous help students understand and master the use of the
language. In UNITEN foreign students will be taught in advance of Malay pronouns (KGN), nouns
(KN) and family nouns (KNK) including fathers, father, mother, aunt, brother, sister, grandfather, gr
andmother and so on. Then they are taught about the system of Malay numbers. When both of these
vocabularies are dominated by students, teachers will also focus on the question words.

For the writer, Malay WH Questions (Kata Tanya) are very important to foreigners who do not kno
w the culture and procedures of the local community. Hence, they certainly would have a lot of ques
tions or inquiries to ask. For this purpose, in UNITEN the teaching aspect of WH Questions involve
several weeks or hours of instruction. This is to ensure that students understand the shape or structu
re Malay WH Questions and how to answer correctly. In this case the teacher can relate this WH Qu
estions with the use of words KGN and number systems that have been taught before.

Example: Siapa nama datuk awak? What is the name of your grandfather?
Berapa umur abang awak? How old is your brother?
Di mana awak tinggal? Where do you live?
Bila awak dilahirkan? When were you born?

This directly allows the students earlier introduce themselves or explain about their family matters.
Then the process of communication with the students is infused with the Malay greetings. Due to th
e fact that greetings are closely related and interconnected to each other, then it must be taught by te
aching consecutively with WH Questions. It can strengthen and enrich the communication process f
or the said students. At this stage the normal activities done in the classroom is getting acquainted a
ctivities, the students were asked to build a number of WH Questions and then use them to get infor
mation from colleagues based on the question words. In the process of obtaining such information st
udents should use question words and greetings that have been taught to strengthen their communic
ation process. Finally, the students are required to disclose the information they received to be prese
nted orally to the class. It can also enhance students' understanding and mastery of the question and
answer form of sentences. If it is a large class, the teacher can do it in small groups and if the studen
ts are less than ten people, then it will make it easier for teachers to pay attention to the students.

Next, the teaching module at UNITEN will involve certain stages, namely involving the teaching as
pect of verbs such as prefix, adjectives, prepositions, and adverbs. The development stages of this st
ructured approach can be shown as follows below;

Level 1: [KGN] + meN- KD + [KN]
Example: 1. Ibu memasak bubur
2. Kami memancing ikan
Level 2: [KGN] + meN- KD + [KN] + [KA]
3. Ibu memasak bubur panas
4. Kami memancing ikan besar
Level 3: [KGN] + meN- KD + [KN] + [KA] + [KSN]
5. Ibu memasak bubur panas di dapur
6. Kami memancing ikan besar di sungai
Atau tanpa [KA]
Example: 7. Ibu memasak bubur di dapur
Kami memancing ikan di sungai
Level 4: [KGN] + meN- KD + [KN] + [KA] + [KS] + [KW]
9. Ibu memasak bubur panas di dapur petang semalam
10. Kami memancing ikan besar di sungai hujung minggu lepas
The stages above may indicate a continuity in foreign language teaching to speakers. Asmah says, t
his aspect of continuity in teaching a second language is important because it would strengthen stru
ctural reuse, expressions and the use of certain words (Nor Hashimah et. Al. 2007: x). Various activi
ties can be done to strengthen this rule. Most of the activities carried out in UNITEN teaching is bas
ed on the communicative approach. According to Zaitul Azma (2008: 23), this communicative appr
oach spans the entire function of language, which includes components of meaning and linguistic. H
ence by applying the communicative approach, teachers can focus on students' ability to communic
ate with knowledge and ability of language use. Structured teaching method usage is not limited onl
y as indicated but a lot of things in the teaching of Malay language to foreign speakers it can be appl
ied to. For example, when the teacher has given and teaches the use of a list or a group of nouns (K
N) and adjectives (KA), teachers can also introduce the use of the word 'more', 'of' and 'but' to the st
udents. For example;

[KN] + [KGN / KN] + lebih + KA + daripada + KN
11. Rumah saya lebih besar daripada rumah awak
12. Beg Ahmad lebih kecil daripada beg saya
[KN] + [KGN / KN] + KA + tetapi + [KN] + [KGN] + KA
Kelas kami bersih tetapi kelas awak kotor

For example (13) and (14), the students will indirectly learn antonyms words in the Malay language
learning. Teachers can also indirectly encourage the students to use the word antonym by conductin
g writing activities of the verses in question, namely the verses that compare their classmates. But te
achers need to be careful because in the Malay culture the use of antonyms is not the same as the wa
y of use of the foreign students who have a background of differing cultures and languages. This str
ucture (13) may be facilitated further by aborting [KGN / KN] and the consequent [KN]. This can b
e shown as an example below;

KN + KA + tetapi + KN + KA
14. Mahmud tinggi tetapi Yasir rendah

The objective here is so that the students are able to compare something and at once can clarify thin
gs such as country of origin, their friends, their homes and the like. Here, too, the teacher can ask st
udents to apply this method with the use of a vocabulary list that was given and apply it by asking t
he students to do strengthening activities, such as describing two of their friends in class and compa
re with each other. The structured method used is sensible among foreign speakers because it can be
applied to the use of the concept of strengthening vocabulary and methods that have been taught to
them. The availability of such teaching methods and selected interactive activities contributes to spe
aking proficiency, listening, writing, reading and at the same time in terms of grammar skills.

Actually, there a lot of the kinds of structures that was created in Malay language instruction for for
eign speakers here in UNITEN, especially in the introduction of classifications and fixations. For ex
ample, in teaching the of word amplifier (KP) such as sungguh (really) and sangat (very), the tea
cher may use a structure that has been taught as an examples given below. At the same time, this ca
n again strengthen the KA mastery of students. It can be shown as the following example;

KN + KA + KGNT + [KP] + KA
Example: Rumah besar itu sungguh indah
Kereta mahal ini sangat cantik
Payung hijau itu sungguh besar
Kek sedap ini sangat mahal

So, in this case there are many things that can be attributed to the teacher or instructors with the stru
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ctured method. In this way the students will feel convenient in learning the Malay language. Howev
er, these methods need to be topped with creative activities so that the strengthening process occurs
continuously and effectively.

Many more things were correlated while teaching this MALB 103 subjects at UNITEN. In short, th
e goal at the end of this course is that the student should have competence and capability to construc
t sentences that contain aspects such as pronouns (KGN), nouns (KN), verbs (KK) and adjectives (
KA) apart from the ability to build simple daily conversations based on Malay culture. At the end of
the program, students should also be able to clarify things that are easy and simple. These targets ar
e compatible with the new foreign students learning a second language at a basic level.

8.0 Conclusion

Internal aspects that apply the structured teaching syllabus is important and useful because it provid
es an overview of grammatical structures in sentence structure to the learning process of foreign stu
dents. In the process of foreign language learning, grammar needs to be a priority so that students d
o not get carried away with the grammatical form of their native languages (Ong Shyi Nian 2008:26
).

So with this structured teaching scope, it can provide an effective and convenient teaching design fo
r teachers or instructors to deliver to the students who are required to take compulsory courses such
as this. Teaching classes like this only needs about 30 to 40 minutes in theoretical descriptions and f
ocus of the remaining time can be given on strengthening activities such as conversation, storytellin
g, delivering orders and lots of other forms of language games which can be conducted to attract mo
re interest of the students to learn BM so that BM continues to grow and gain a place at the global le
vel.


Bibliography:

Hadley A. O. (2001) Teaching Language in Context 3rd Edition. United States: Heinle & Heinle
Thomson Learning.
Mc Neill D. (1966) Development Psycholinguistics in Smith F and Miller G. The Genesis of
Language: Psycholinguistics Approach Cambridge: Mass Press.
Media Sandra Kasih (2004) Dewan Bahasa Julai 2004 Bahasa Melayu di Mata Penutur Asing,
Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Mohd Afif Abidin (2004) Dewan Bahasa Julai 2004 Pengajaran Bahasa Melayu Laras Ilmiah
Kepada Pelajar Asing, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Mora J. K. (2008) Major Components of The Study of Syntax and Grammar: Teaching Grammar
in Context. San Diego State University.
Mora J. K. (2008) Second-Language Teaching Methods: Principles & Procedures. San Diego
State University.
Nor Hashimah et. al (2007) Bahasa Melayu Untuk Penutur Asing: Peringkat Asas Buku 1. Kuala
Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Ong Shyi Nian (2008) Dewan Bahasa Januari 2008 Analisis Kesilapan Pembelajaran Bahasa
Melayu oleh Pelajar Jepun, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Uthaya Sankar SB (2004) Dewan Bahasa Julai 2004 Pengajaran Bahasa Kebangsaan Kepada
Pelajar Luar Negara, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Zaitul Azma Zainon Hamzah (2008) Dewan Bahasa Januari 2008 Mengantarabangsakan Bahasa
Melayu, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Comprehension and Ability to Use Word Order by International
Students in Aspects of Writing Malay Language

Sidra Naim Taraq Naemzia
Mardian Shah Omar (PhD)
Dian@uniten.edu.my

Abstract

The influence of the mother tongue will affect the learning process while learning the Malay langua
ge (BM) as a second language. It is observed that the aspect which strongly influences the learning
process of international students in learning BM is the grammatical aspect. Therefore, this study ai
med to examine the comprehension and ability to apply the rules of word order to international stud
ents in terms of their Malay writing. The study takes into account the learning process that lasts for
one semester at one stage only, namely, Level One (Basic Level). The data was taken twice, during t
he middle and end of the semester through the middle and end of semester tests. This research also s
hows the comparison in terms of ability or achievement of students in their understanding of the use
of this grammar aspect. The study found that over 60% of students are able to apply word order in t
heir writing and at the same time, more than 45% of students are able to use it accurately and entirel
y correct.

Keywords: International Students, word order, writing, ability, mastery

Introduction

In the process of learning a second language, students are often influenced by the existing system in
their native language. For students who are learning English as their second language, they will als
o be easily influenced by the grammatical structure in the English language when learning a third la
nguage, for example learning Malay. In using Malay, foreign students will easily utter phrases like "
name my (my name)", "lecturer good (good lecturer)", "house beautiful (beautiful house)" and the l
ike in writing or during communication. This is because in the existing dictionary in their thinking i
nfluences the way they interpret the Malay (BM) phrase. It is agreed by Nian Shyi Ong (2008:26) w
ho says that grammar aspect is important to be taught in advance so that foreign students will not be
distracted by the grammatical system of their native language.
In teaching the concept of structured methods, McNeil (1970) argues that the acquisition of syntax o
f a sequence can be determined by the scope of a syntactic structure that have been learned. Schlesi
nger (1971, 1974) also emphasizes that there is a close relationship between a person's oral commun
ication and grammatical structures learned. Accordingly, this study tries to look at the relationship b
etween grammatical structures taught in the students' ability to apply and also see how the ability to
apply this method provides a positive impact on the achievement of foreign students in learning the
Malay language.

Objectives of the Study

2.1 Identify the percentage of foreign students applying the structured method through the use of W
ord Order in their writing.
2.2 Categorizing students applying structured methods based on their achievement.
2.3 Making a comparison of the percentage of student achievement based on two different teaching
periods (two different exams).
2.4 Identify whether a structured teaching method is capable of positively affecting the Malay langu
age teaching to foreign students.

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3.0 Literature Review
A study was conducted to research on the word order in the Malay language. It found that the shift f
rom a dominant VS to a dominant SV word order is attributed to the change from an oral to a writte
n tradition. This study closely related styles of Malay at the turn century points out the need to study
discourse structures of distinct styles and genres separately. The assumption that a language will e
mploy similar patterns of organization even in such fundamental areas as word order cannot he assu
med. The structure of a language is too closely tied to its social functions and context to allow simil
arities across genre and style to be taken for granted. (Rafferty, 1987)

Of the languages which follows the word order SVO, only English abides strictly by that descriptio
n. German and Dutch are either n mixed V0/OV (at the more conservative literary standard) or almo
st completely SOV at the colloquial level. And Italian displays a exible, pragmatically-sensitive w
ord-order, at least in so far as the relative position of the subject is concerned. Of the two supposed
SOV languages, Hungarian has a exible word-order. One must, nally, be reminded that Greenber
g (1966) classied the pragmatically- exible (Biblical) Hebrew as VSO, the equally-exible Italian
and Malay as SVO, and was, on the whole, altogether silent on the existence of word- order exibil
ity, or degree of word-order rigidity in general. (Givon.T, 1988)
The fact that word order is very important in acquiring Malay language is highlighted by yet anothe
r researcher. He says that mistakes of sociocultural grammar/sociolinguistic grammar, are not readil
y tolerated by Malays. Malays as a rule never tell the offender directly that s/he has committed a bre
ach of etiquette. They consider it most impolite to tell off" anyone, even a child, let alone adults. It
is most likely that the offender will be shunned if s/he continues to commit breaches, will be consid
ered to be a very nice person, and probably will not receive or be given any more attention.
It is not uncommon for a non-Malay (local or foreign) whose command of Malay is imperfect to be
commended by a Malay for being competent in using appropriate forms of address, pronouns and le
xical choices, some of the affective characteristics of Malay. Malays react warmly toward non-Mala
ys/speakers of Malay as a second language who show a little genteelness in their speech. (Kok, 200
1)
From all of the previous literature, it is clear to see the importance of Word Order in learning Malay
language and to be accepted as a proficient speaker.

Research Methodology

Data for this study was taken from the 36 sample test papers midterm and final exam that students t
aking MALB 103 courses, which is the Bahasa Melayu for International Students during the last spe
cial semester (March to May 2013). Student samples taken for this study are the students taking the
courses at a basic level. In this special semester, only one class was offered. In this course, students
must undergo 42 hours of instruction, 6 hours of instruction per week for 7 weeks in total. This instr
uctional program emphasizes the concept of structured teaching, the students are taught according t
o the Malay Word Order structure. In this Word Order, students are explained that the adjective com
es after the noun, wherein the adjective would describe nouns used earlier in a sentence.
Both tests are given to students, in the middle and end of the semester involved aspects of writing. S
tudents were asked to write a short essay related to specific topics. Mid-semester examinations were
made after students go through 21 hours teaching, while the final examination was made after stude
nt finish 42 hours of teaching.
Percentage taken by counting the number of students who apply use structured methods through the
use word order. Through the Data of students application of Word Order, the researcher then gets a
percentage taken by calculating the number of students who get all right in the use of word order, st
udents who only get one mistake and finally students who got more than one mistake. The data is th
en plotted in a bar graph for comparison of student performance at mid-semester test with the final e
xamination.

Research Findings

5.1 Applying Structured Method Through Word Order
The study found that at mid-semester examination, a total of 85% of students have applied the struct
ured method through the use of Word order in the writing of Malay language. While 15% failed to a
pply this method in their writing test. However, the results showed a decrease in the percentage of t
he final examination. A total of 72% of the students were able to apply this word order in their final
exams while 28% have failed to apply this method. Comparison of this percentage can be shown as
a bar chart below.

Figure 1: Chart shows the percentage of students who apply the Word Order method in their writing
s in two different exams.
The researcher thinks that this difference in percentage occurs due to the fact during mid-semester
exams students were just taught noun and adjectives. So exposure and knowledge they have were sti
ll new. Compared with the final exam, the students were filled with a variety of different topics and
because of this students may become confused or less skilled to apply this method.

5.2 Student Achievement in the Category of Applying Word Order

In the category of students who apply the rules of word order, the researchers divided the students w
ho made no mistakes, students who have one mistake and students who have two or more mistakes.
Here the data showed that in mid-semester examination a total of 46% of the students who got all th
e right or no wrong. While 36% of students have at least one error and a total of 18% of them havin
g more than one mistake even though they have applied this method.
Compared with the percentage shown in the final examination, a total of 52% of the students have d
emonstrated their ability to get entirely correct without any errors in the use of word order. This sho
ws an increase in the number of students who are proficient or know how to use this method even if
the percentage of students who applied this method dropped. This also proves that more and more n
umber of students who are proficient in applying these methods when they have been in the course f
or a longer period of time. This percentage is shown in the bar chart below.

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Figure 2: Chart shows the percentage of students in the category of applying the rules of word order
in two different examinations.

5.3 Performance of International Students in Aspects of Malay Language Writing

As a whole, this study found 52% number of students increased their achievement in the writing asp
ect of the Malay language. This percentage is based on the number of students who got all correct in
applying the word order. While the number of 18% shows an even tabulation, namely with the achi
evement which showed no increase or decrease in their writing examination. There were only 30%
of students who decreased their achievements in the writing aspect. This demonstrated that the use o
f teaching techniques using this structure can give a positive impression in improving student under
standing and achievement in the Malay language. This percentage is shown in the bar chart below.


Figure 3: Chart showing increase of student achievement percentage in the writing aspect of the Ma
lay language in the final examination

Findings

In UNITEN, teaching of Malay language to international students is according to the concept of stru
ctured grammar rules, the teaching done in stages according to the grammatical structure of the sent
ence construction. Thus, the restructuring of teaching syllabus is also important so that it meets the
above structure and facilitates the students to understand the development of existing syntax. For ex
ample, structured teaching can be shown as follows;
Kata Nama Keluarga + Pronoun + ada + Noun + Adjective
So the teacher will teach the class and list some form of family names such as father, mother, sister,
brother and so on. Then the students are taught about pronouns such as I, you, he, we, us, them and t
he like. In developing the ability to build sentences, the teacher introduces the words like "is", "like"
and "love" to be associated with previously taught nouns. Next the international students are taught
about adjectives before mid-semester examinations. This sentence structure is shown as follows;
Ayah saya ada kereta besar (My father has a big car)
Emak kami ada cincin mahal (Our mother has an expensive ring)
Kakak saya suka kek manis (My sister loves sweet cakes)
Abang awak mahu jam tangan baru (Your brother wants a new watch)

However, the study also found that some international students are easily influenced by the structure
of the existing grammar in their native language. Similarly, if the international students learn Englis
h as a second language or learn English to understand the Malay language, the students inevitably w
ill certainly be influenced by the structure of English and their native language. There are a number
of structural errors made by students in UNITEN based on the data obtained, which is;
Saya nama (Name my)
Saya umur (Age my)
hitam rambut (hair black)
cantik perempuan (girl beautiful)
Nevertheless, the researchers found that with the structured grammar rules such as word order, stud
ents' learning is more focused and organized. Hence this study found that the percentage of students
who understand the grammar structure is higher in the final exam (56%) than mid-semester examin
ation (46%) although the number of students who applied this method is higher during the mid-sem
ester test, a total of 85% compared to end of the semester, which is only a total of 72% who apply th
is method.
So, the findings of this study demonstrate that the structured teaching method is suitable for use in t
eaching Malay language to international students since this method can improve the understanding
and ability of students to learn Malay and improve their performance in the examination. This meth
od can also be applied and adopted by any institution in the teaching of Malay language to internati
onal students. However, this kind of teaching effectiveness also depends on the strengthening of acti
vities done in the classroom as well as teachers creativity. Effectiveness also depends on the order o
f a planned syllabus throughout the instructional program, in any given semester.

Conclusion

Through this structured teaching, it could draw international students to continue to learn and under
stand the use of the Malay language. Interest of the students also increase due the fact that it is also
easy to understand what is being taught through structured methods. Government's desire to internat
ionalize and to uphold the Malay language can be achieved if the teaching programs of the Malay la
nguage is able to attract more students or foreigners coming to Malaysia to study and learn at the sa
me time appreciating the Malay language existing Malay culture.




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114

References

Givon T. (1988). The pragmatics of word order: predictability, importance and attention. Studies in
Syntactic Typology. John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Greenberg, Joseph H. (editor). 1966.Universals of language. 2nd edition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Pre
ss.
Kok S.T (2001). The Acquisition of Malay as a Second Language: A case of essentiality of language
learning. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
McNeill, D. (1970). The acquisition of language: the study of developmental psycholinguistics. Ne
w York: Harper & Row.
Ong Shyi Nian. (2008). Analisis Kesilapan Pembelajaran Bahasa Malaysia Oleh Pelajar Jepun: Satu
Kajian Kes. Dewan Bahasa Januari 2008: 26 - 28

Rafferty. E. (1987) Word Order in Intransitive Clauses in High and Low Malay of the Nineteenth Ce
ntury. Coherence and Grounding in Discourse: Outcome of a Symposium, Eugene, Oregon

Schlesinger, I.M. (1971). Learning grammar: From pivot to realization rule. In R. Huxley & E. Ingr
am (Eds.), Language acquisirion: Models and methods. London: Academic Press.

Schlesinger, I.M. (1974). Cognitive and linguistic structures: The case of the instrumental. Journal o
f Linguistics, IS, 307-324.





















Language Planning and Terminology: An Insight of the Mak Yong Terminology

Asoc. Prof. Dr. Puteri Roslina Abdul Wahid
Department of Malay Language
Academy of Malay Studies, University of Malaya
puteri61@um.edu.my

Abstract.

Language planning is a deliberate effort to influence the function, structure, or acquisition of langua
ges or language variety within a speech community (Kaplan, 1997). Terminology is an important as
pect of the language planning in particular the area dealing with corpus planning and lexical expansi
on. This paper discusses the terminology in Mak Yong, a Malay dance drama that combines dance,
drama, opera and comedy. It is a unique theater in Malay performing arts. It is believed to be origin
ated from Kelantan as a popular court entertainment. Not much research had been done about the te
rminology in Mak Yong. This paper explores the native terms used by the practitioners in Mak Yong
. This study will (i) identify the terminology used in the Mak Yong, and (ii) build concepts system a
nd concept relationships in Mak Yong. The writer intends to enlighten the native formation in Mak
Yong terminology such as buka panggung, berjamu, pecah cerita, bertabuh, and sembah guru which
designates concepts in Malay performing arts. The emergence of globalization and development of
modern information had its impact on multilingual communication. Thus, the role of terminology h
ad become an interest as a service provider for language planning institutes as well as a tool for kno
wledge transfer. The terminology does not only involve linguistics but as also had been regarded as
a central element of communication and knowledge transfer processes.

Keywords: terminology, Mak Yong, language planning, concepts, Malay
1. Introduction
Language planning is a deliberate effort to influence the function, structure, or acquisition of langua
ges or language variety within a speech community (Kaplan, 1997). Terminology is an important as
pect of the language planning in particular the area dealing with corpus planning and lexical expansi
on. This involves the assimilation of native words in Malay terminology and standardization of ter
ms. The terminology does not only involve linguistics but as also had been regarded as a central ele
ment of communication and knowledge transfer processes. The research focuses on Mak Yong, a tr
aditional performing art of dance which combines elements of dance, music, songs, stories and acts
. In 2005, Mak Yong was declared by UNESCO as an item Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible
Heritage of Humanity. However, in Kelantan the art form was banned in 1991 until today. This stu
dy aims to examine the terminology found in Mak Yong, the conceptual systems and concept relati
ons as a basic apparatus for terminological analysis.
Welcome to The 2013 International Language and Communication Conference (ILCC 2013). The C
onference is a primary international forum for academician and researchers working on topics relati
ng to Language and Communication. It will provide an excellent environment for participants to me
et fellow academic professionals, to enhance communication, exchange and cooperation of most rec
ent research, education and application on relevant fields. It will bring you new like-minded researc
hers, fresh idea. It also provides a friendly platform for academic and application professionals from
crossing fields to communication together.


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2. Mak Yong In The Malay World
There are no early records confirming the origins of Mak Yong in the Malay world. Historian such
as David K. Wyatt (1970) stated that Mak Yong had also spread in the state of Kedah, Perlis and Ria
u Islands, Indonesia. According to the Hikayat Patani (Ahmad al-Fathy al-Fatani, 1994), Mak Yong
began in the Patani Malay palace about 400 years ago and then spread to the West, particularly in th
e Eastern states of Kelantan and Terengganu. Mak Yong is said to derive from the word in the ritual
worship of spirits of Mak Hiang or semangat padi (padi spirit). Among the famous figures of
Mak Yong is the late Khatijah binti Awang who was born on August 13, 1941 at Kg Lubuk Kawah,
Pasir Mas, Kelantan. She is a Siamese-Malay descent and born in the family who are also active in
Mak Yong. She is known as the prima donna of Mak Yong in Malaysia and was the leader of the Ser
i Temenggung group.
Mubin Sheppard had studied Mak Yong in his article, 'Ma Yong : The Malay Dance Drama'. He ga
ve a brief overview of Mak Yong historically, roles, clothing, equipment, music, performance, and r
itual elements found in the arts of Mak Yong. He also recorded the song in two stories of Mak Yong,
Raja Gondang and Dewa Muda (Mubin Sheppard, 1969, 39-75). He also stated that the beginnings
of Mak Yong in the palaces of Langkasuka and Patani. According to him, Mak Yong is the favourit
e entertainment of generations of rulers of Langkasuka, Ligor, Patani and finally Kelantan. Howe
ver, Mubin Sheppard failed to provide any evidence that shows the connections of Mak Yong with
Langkasuka. In addition, apart from its name, nothing is known about that kingdom, not to mention
the identities of its rulers. Mohamad Afandi Ismail (1973) also studied Mak Yong in his research e
ntitled 'Mak Yong A Survey from the Point View of Presentation'. He had divided his study into f
our chapters, first, the history of Mak Yong, second, the preparation stage, third, the conventions in
Mak Yong presentation, and fourth, a brief survey of various aspects of performance. He had collec
ted information about Mak Yong purporting to prove the origin of Mak Yong from Setiu, a place ne
ar the border of Kelantan and Terengganu. It seems that much of the information similar to what ha
d been done independently by Ghulam-Sarwar Yousof (1976). It could be said that this is the first a
ttempt made to give an account of how Mak Yong is from the point view of performance.
Mak Yong also has been reviewed by Ghulam-Sarwar Yousof (1976) in his PhD thesis entitled 'The
Kelantan Mak Yong Dance Theatre : A Performance Study of Structure' who studied the Mak Yong
performances in terms of structure. He had divided his study into two parts, the history of Mak Yon
g and cultural influence of religion in society and secondly, the elements of dance in the show itself.
He concluded that due to incomplete information, the possibilities of early history of Mak Yong are
as follows: out of an early shamanistic and folk style, Mak Yong developed two strands; the folk a
nd the court. He stressed that this happened when Mak Yong found a place in the court Ghulam-Sar
war Yousof (1976). However, there are still more other aspects to develop in terms of research in
Mak Yong. He listed glossary of words in Mak Yong but it was just a mere explanation of the mea
ning of the words and did not based on the concept system in a Mak Yong performance. A study by
Habshah Mohd Noordin (1999) titled "Mak Yong Kelantan: A Study of Aesthetic Arts" reviewed the
aesthetics of art in Kelantan Mak Yong performance. He had analyzed the data based on the theory
that emphasizes the aesthetics of beauty aspects (entertainment) and means (benefit). His research f
ocuses on aspects of presentation, form (appearance Mak Yong) and substance (soul Mak Yong). Th
is study highlights the aspects of the beauty and meaning of life are the manifestation of artistic prac
tice. This study also analyses the aesthetic aspects found in Mak Yong performance by taking exam
ples from the story Raja Tangkai Hati presented in 1999. Although his research is quite enlightenin
g but it does not reflect the terminology of a Mak Yong within a terminology framework.
Rosdeen Suboh (2005) in his study titled 'Role of Actors and Characters in Mak Yong' focuses on t
he role and character that played the Mak Yong performance. He also explained about the aesthetic
character which used to be played by female actors, then later also played by the male actor. Some o
f the characters found in Mak Yong are Pak Yong, Mak Yong, Peran, Inang, Tok Wak, Dewa etc. Th
e data provided in this research are helpful for a terminologist to gather more information specificall
y the characteristics needed for coining a term. The art of Mak Yong has been reviewed by Solehah
Ishak (2010), entitled The Art and Culture of Kelantan. In her research, she had studied and describ
ed the diversity of art in the state of Kelantan such as Mak Yong, Wayang Kulit, Dikir Barat and so
on. However, studies that has been done of a general nature and do not focus on the Mak Yong.
To conclude, there is not much research had been done about the terminology in Mak Yong. This pa
per explores the native terms used by the practitioners in Mak Yong. The emergence of globalizatio
n and development of modern information had its impact on multilingual communication. Mak Yon
g is less well received by the community even more forgotten by the younger generation today. The
new generation is less expose to Mak Yong. Therefore, every effort should be made to preserve the
Malay heritage by collecting terminology and vocabulary associated with these performance arts. In
addition, there is still no documentation done for each term in Mak Yong. Therefore, this study will
look into the terminological framework of Mak Yong.
3. Research Focus
The researcher is looking at native terms and the formation of concept system and concept relations
in Mak Yong. The study involved the preparation of concept mapping and definition of the term in
Mak Yong. Therefore, this study will (i) identify the terminology used in the Mak Yong, and (ii) buil
d system concepts and concept relationships in Mak Yong.
4. Theory And Methodology
The relationship between concept and terminology can be seen in the Wusters term model (Felber:
1984) in Figure 1. The concept is the meaning of an object which is represented by a symbol or ter
m, and the interrelated relationship between the three is as shown below in Figure 1.

Fig. 1.: Wusters Term Model

(Translation by H. Felber 1980; in brackets terms used by Ogden 1923)

The above triangle was first introduced by Gomprez (1980). Later on, this model was modified by
several other scholars like Dittrich (1913), Ogden (1923) and Knobloch (1959). Wster (1984) later
altered the model by incorporating Ferdinand de Saussures theory and produced a terminology mod
el which includes symbol, meaning and object. Based on such approach, Wuster explained that any t
erminological work begins with a concept. The purpose of which is to limit the concept itself. In su
mmary, traditional approach in the field of terminology correlates with the relationship of concept a
nd term. Terminological work begins from concept and due attention is given to the current structur
e of concepts and its representation.
In this framework, concept plays a very important role. The concept is the cornerstone of the GTT (
General Theory of Terminology) and it is the starting point of any work on terminology. A concept i
s defined as an element of thinking, which consists of an aggregate of characteristics which themsel
ves are concepts (Felber 1984:102). In order to support this argument, Felber named three important
aspects in terminology. First, terminology is a deliberate creation. In general language, the standar
d refers to the usage of language, while in terminology; any arbitrary use of language will result in c
onfusion. Second, standardization of a terminology requires solid translinguistic guidelines. Third, t
erminology places more importance to the written form rather than the phonics form. The research f
ield we are talking about is a practical application of the traditional approach in coining terms in the
Malay terminology, which also implies using native creations in the process.
The researcher also used the General Guidelines for the Formation of Terms in Malay (1992: 4-6)
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as a guideline for collecting the terms. There are three sources available for the formation of terms, t
he first are from the vocabulary of the common Malay word that is any common word in Malay (inc
luding words from dialects or archive languages) could be made terms on condition that the particul
ar word gives the exact meaning, concept, process, situation or characteristics intended. The second
source is from the vocabulary of words in the Malay language family. The third source is from a vo
cabulary of words in foreign languages. However, in this research it seems that the first and the seco
nd are more appropriate. Collection of these terms began with library research and followed by field
work.
5. Data Analysis
An analysis of terminology begins with the concept system and concept relations discussed in a spe
cific field. The concept system is linked to the concept of logical or ontological relationship. Logica
l relationship is a relationship based on equality (similarity) of intention in a concept. This relations
hip is also known as generic relationship. Logical relationship can be divided into four types namely
subordinate, intersection, coordinate and diagonal which consists of a vertical and horizontal serie
s. However, the association of ontology is an indirect relationship between concepts. This relationsh
ip exists between the concepts discussed. This relationship is characterized by correlation in space a
nd time. The main ontology relationship falls into partitive, succession, and material-productive rela
tionship. Based on the corpus collected, the researcher found that the generic relationship is more d
ominant compare to the ontological relationship which can be found in the concept system of Mak
Yongs instruments.
Native formation can be divided into two, namely the formation of hybrid and derivative. Native hy
brids are used to form a Malay term in a specific field. In addition, native derivatives used the entire
term and rules in Malay. Terms and concepts in the field of terminology interlinked with each other
. The corpus of this research is the collection of terms used in Mak Yong performance. Data represe
nted in this paper are limited to concept system in process, characterization, and dance in Mak Yong
.
Concept System for Process in Mak Yong

Fig:2 Concept System for Process in Mak Yong Peformance

Terms and Definition for the Concept Process in Mak Yong
Proses persembahan (performance process)
Proses persembahan merupakan urutan atau susunan tindakan dalam sesebuah persembahan.
The process of performing an action sequence or order in a presentation.
proses awal (initial process)
Proses permulaan dalam persembahan Mak Yong.
The beginning process in Mak Yong performances.
buka panggung
Proses awal apabila para pelakon masuk ke pentas atau panggung bagi upacara permulaan.
The initial process in which the actors enter the stage or 'panggung' for initiation ceremonies.
sembah guru
Upacara awal yang dilakukan dalam buka panggung yang merupakan lambang kewujudan konse
p menuntut ilmu yang menghubungkan guru dengan murid.
Early rituals performed in the 'buka panggung' are a symbol of the existence of the concept of studyi
ng that link teachers and students.
berjamu
Upacara awal dalam buka panggung yang menggunakan pulut kunyit, bertih, beras kunyit yang dile
takkan di bawah pentas.
The first event in the buka panggung using pulut kunyit (sticky rice), bertih, saffron rice placed und
er the stage.
bertabuh
Pelakon akan mengadap rebab dan muzik atau lagu bertabuh dimainkan..
Actors will be facing the rebab and music or 'song bertabuh' played.
mengadap rebab
Proses apabila pelakon akan duduk berhadapan dengan rebab sambil menyanyi dan menari mengiku
t irama gesekan rebab.
The process when the actor will sit opposite rebab while singing and dancing to the rhythm of rebab
virtuoso.
proses pertengahan
Proses apabila cerita akan diperkembangkan bagi memberi pemahaman kepada penonton.
The process when the story will be developed to provide an understanding of the audience.
memperkenalkan diri
Proses yang melibatkan watak utama atau Pak Yong akan memperkenalkan dirinya,negeri, asal-usul
dan istananya melalui lagu ela.
The process involving the main character or Pak Yong will introduce himself, state, and origin of th
e palace through 'lagu ela'.
pecah cerita
Proses perkembangan cerita apabila jalan cerita Mak Yong akan berubah mengikut kisah yang diper
sembahkan.
The process when the development of the Mak Yongs storyline changes according to the story pres
ented.
tutup panggung
Proses penutup dalam sesebuah persembahan Mak Yong.
Proses simbolik, iaitu ucapan terima kasih kepada kuasa ghaib kerana tidak menganggu perjalanan
persembahan Mak Yong.
The closing process in a Mak Yong performance. It is a symbolic process, which thanks to supernat
ural for not disrupting the flow of Mak Yong performance.
In the example, concept of Malay terms buka panggung, berjamu, pecah cerita, bertabuh, and semba
h guru, is clearly contextualized into the field of Mak Yong. The object identified has the concept o
f process performance. In the process of conceptualization, the nature of the object (in this case is th
e abstract form) forms a set, which is abstracted into characteristics based on the process in the perf
ormance of Mak Yong. The characteristics of each object are then analyzed to describe its concept,
which subsequently forms a concept system and summarizes an appropriate definition to assist in fo
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rming designation either in the form of a letter or a symbol. These native terms represent a specific
concept in Mak Yong and could not be replaced by another term in English which might convey a
different concept. These terms can be standardized at the international level by having a technical c
ommittee handling the terms in performing arts. This shows that concept systems play an important
role in coining terms. The professionals in the creative industry such as Mak Yong needs a conceptu
al apparatus in developing , standardizing, and naming concepts. Antia (1994) stresses that concept
systems constitute in many respects a particularly interesting object of research.
Concept System for Character in Mak Yong


Fig:2 Concept System for Character in Mak Yong

Terms and Definition for the Concept Characterin Mak Yong
watak
Pelaku dalam sesebuah karya sastera atau karya seni.
Character in a literary or artistic work.

watak utama (main character)
Watak yang dominan dalam sesebuah karya. Watak ini terlibat secara aktif dan berterusan serta men
jadi struktur utama dalam perkembangan plot.
The dominant character in a work. This character actively and continuously and become the main st
ructure in the development of the plot.
Pak Yong
Watak utama yang berperanan sebagai raja atau pemerintah dan menjadi tulang belakang dalam ceri
ta Mak Yong.
The main character role as king or ruler and become the backbone of the story Mak Yong.
Mak Yong
Watak utama yang berperanan sebagai permaisuri dalam persembahan Mak Yong dan boleh memeg
ang banyak watak seperti puteri raja.
The main character role as queen of the Mak Yong performance and can hold a lot of characters suc
h as a princess.
Puteri Mak Yong
Watak utama yang berperanan sebagai heroin dalam cerita Mak Yong.
The main character in the story serves as a heroine Mak Yong.
peran
Pemain sandiwara atau pelawak dalam persembahan Mak Yong. Pelakon yang melakonkan watak lu
cu dan berperanan sebagai pengawal dan pelindung raja. Peran terdiri daripada dua orang pelakon, i
aitu peran tua dan peran muda. Dalam dialek Kelantan dikenali sebagai awe pengasuh atau dalam b
ahasa standard dikenali sebagai awang pengasuh.
sin. Awe pengasuh, awang pengasuh
awe pengasuh lih. peran
awang pengasuh lih. peran
Performer or comedian in Mak Yong performance. The actor who plays jokes and serves as a guard
and protector of the king. Peran consists of two actors, peran tua and peran muda.
watak sampingan
Watak pembantu atau peranannya lebih kecil daripada watak utama dalam sesuatu karya.
Assistant character or role is smaller than the main character in a work.
dayang-dayang
Watak sampingan yang berperanan sebagai penari atau pengasuh mak yong. Pelakon ini juga berfun
gsi sebagai jong dondang.
Assistant character as a dancer or nanny in Mak Yong.This character also serves as jong dondang.
jong dondang
Suara korus atau suara ramai.
Chorus voice.
tok wak
Watak sampingan yang berperanan sebagai Tok Wak Nujum, Tok Wak Tukang dan sebagainya
Side characters that serve as Tok Wak Nujum, Tok Wak Tukang and others.
dewa
Watak sampingan yang berperanan sebagai watak yang mengembalikan keharmonian dalam cerita
Mak Yong.
Side character role who that restores harmony in Mak Yong.
jin/ gergasi
Watak sampingan yang berperanan sebagai watak jahat serta menimbulkan konflik dalam persemba
han Mak Yong.
A side character who plays the evil character and create conflicts in Mak Yong performance.

In the system of concepts and concept relationships, the main character and side character is the spe
cies, while character is the genus. The graphical representation of the concept system helps a termin
ologist to define the term by analyzing the characteristics of each concept. The native terms such a
s dayang-dayang, peran, jong dondang, awe pengasuh (dialect from Kelantan) cannot be replaced b
y any terms in other languages unless there is a similar concept in the culture which support the sam
e concept relations in this field. The practical applications need not be the same for every country, s
ubject filed or user group. However, it can be noted that the General Theory of Terminology (GTT)
inspired by Wuster is also result of practical terminology. The terms Pak Yong, Mak Yong, and Pu
teri Mak Yong are co-ordinates in concept relations to the genus watak utama (main character). The
terms constitute the same characteristics which are watak utama but there is added characteristic th
at differs from one term to another. In the compilation and collection of terms in a specialized field
, this is not the only one or the most reliable approach.
Concept System for Dance/Tarian in Mak Yong

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Fig:3 Concept System for Dance/Tarian in Mak Yong
Terms and Definition for the Concept Dance in Mak Yong
tarian
Tarian merupakan gerakan badan yang diringi dengan nyanyian yang sesuai dengan makna dan tuju
an tarian itu. Gerakan tangan dan badan dalam tarian mengadap rebab yang mempunyai dua unsur p
enting, iaitu gerak dan irama. Gerak merupakan satu bentuk spontan daripada kehendak yang terdap
at dalam jiwa,manakala irama merupakan bunyi teratur yang mengiringi gerak tersebut.
Dance is body movements that accompanied by an appropriate song with meaning and purpose of t
he dance. Hands and body movements in mengadap rabbit have two important elements of moveme
nt and rhythm. Movement is a spontaneous form of requirements contained in the soul, while the rh
ythm is irregular sounds that accompany the motion.
tarian mengadap rebab
Tarian sambil menyanyi yang diketuai oleh seorang Pak Yong dan diikuti dengan korus-korus atau p
enari-penari seramai 15 orang. Tarian ini haruslah mengikut rentak paluan gong manakala pergerak
an dalam bulatan pula haruslah bergerak mengikut arah jam dan lawan jam. Tarian ini sangat halus
dan ditarikan dengan penuh kesopanan dan lemah gemalai. Satu pendekatan yang digunakan untuk
bercerita perihal tingkah laku atau perbuatan seorang Raja sebagai pengenalan cerita melalui tarian i
ni.
A dance while singing led by a Pak Yong and followed by choruses or of 15 dancers.
This dance should follow the gongs and the rhythmic movement of the hand circle should move clo
ckwise and counterclockwise. This a very delicate dance and should be danced with great modesty a
nd grace. The approach used to describe the behavior or act of the King serves as an introduction of
a story through dance.
tangan susun sirih
Gerakan tangan dalam tarian mengadap rebab yang dilakukan dengan tapak tangan kanan mengada
p ke kiri dan jari menunjuk ke hadapan. Tangan kiri diletakkan di bawah siku tangan kanan, ketika
melakukan pergerakan ini, badan dicondongkan ke kiri dan ke kanan sebanyak empat kali kemudian
tangan dihayun ke sisi sebanyak empat kali.
Hands movement in mengadap rebab with your palms facing to the left and right fingers pointing fo
rward. The left hand is placed under the right elbow, while performing this movement, body tilted to
the left and to the right hand four times, then swung to the side four times.

Photo 1 : Demonstration of tangan susun sirih
gajah lambung belalai
Gerakan tangan dalam tarian mengadap rebab yang dilakukan semasa penari duduk dalam keadaan
bertimpuh. Badan dicondongkan ke hadapan dengan kedua-dua tangan di atas lantai. Kemudian tan
gan diangkat ke atas paras kepala sama ada sedikit ke kiri dan ke kanan, sambil badan dicondongka
n bertentangan arah tangan. Jika tangan dinaikkan di sebelah kanan, badan dicondongkan ke arah ki
ri pula. Tangan dari atas dibukakan terjuntai ke bawah.
Hands movement in mengadap rebab while dancers sit in bertimpuh. Body tilted forward with both
hands on the floor. Then the hands lifted above the head either slightly to the left and to the right, w
hile the body tilted towards the opposite hand. If the right hand raised, body tilted toward the left. A
rms open hanging from the top-down.
Photo 2 : Demonstration of gajah lambung belalai
sawa mengorak lingkaran
Gerakan tangan dalam tarian mengadap rebab yang dilakukan dengan kedua-dua belah tangan dihay
unkan ke kiri dan kanan sebanyak empat kali sambil badan bergerak ke kanan secara perlahan-lahan
, kemudian berada dalam keadaan duduk bertimpuh, penari akan menghayunkan tangan ke kiri dan
kanan sebanyak empat kali dan akan melakukan pergerakan mati tari.
Hands movement in mengadap rebab with both hands to the left and right swung four times while th
e body moves to the right slowly, then be in a sitting bertimpuh, dancers will sway left and right han
ds four times and do the 'mati tari'.

Photo 3 : Demonstration of sawa mengorak lingkaran lambung belalai
seludang menolak mayang
Gerakan tangan dalam tarian mengadap rebab yang dilakukan semasa duduk. Kedua-dua tangan ber
ada di tepi bersudut 45 darjah, kemudian kedua-dua tangan dinaikkan ke paras bahu dan tangan mel
akukan pusingan ke hadapan. Ketinggian tangan Pak Yong haruslah bertentangan dengan mata hita
m, manakala ketinggian tangan Mak Yong berada pada kedudukan tangan di paras bahu.
Hands movement in the mengadap rebab while seated. Both hands are on the edge angle of 45 degre
es, then raised both arms to shoulder level and the arms turn round the head. Pak Yongs hand shoul
d be at the same level as the black eye, while Mak Yongs hand should be at the shoulder level,
Photo 4 : Demonstration of seludang menolak mayang mengorak lingkaran
tangan liuk kiri longlai ke kanan
Gerakan tangan dalam tarian mengadap rebab yang dilakukan dalam keadaan duduk bertimpuh bias
a. Kedua-dua tangan diangkat ke hadapan. Sambil mencondongkan badan ke kiri, tangan kiri digera
kkan ke tepinya, menyokong badan yang condong, bergerak ke kiri sebanyak lima kali sebelum ke
kedudukan asal. Setelah itu, tangan kiri diluruskan sambil badan ditegakkan. Tangan kanan pula me
lakukan pergerakan yang sama, dengan tangan kanan menyokong badan yang condong.
Hands movement in mengadap rebab made in the ordinary bertimpuh seat. Both hands lifted forwar
d. While tilting the body to the left, the left hand moved to his side, supporting the body tilted, mov
ed to the left as much as five times prior to the original position. After that, the left hand while the b
ody straightened upheld. The right hand will do the same movement, with the right hand supporting
the tilted body.
Photo 5 : Demonstration of seludang menolak mayang
ikan seluang beranak
Gerakan tangan dalam tarian mengadap rebab yang dilakukan semasa duduk. Tangan dihanyun ke k
iri dengan melakukan pergerakan bulatan kecil sebanyak empat kali. Setelah itu, tangan mengadap h
adapan serta melakukan pergerakan mati tari iaitu dengan membuat putaran tangan ke hadapan. K
edua-dua tapak tangan mengadap hadapan pada akhir pergerakan ini.
Hands movement in mengadap rebab while seated. The left hands swing to the left by circulating s
mall circular motions four times. After that, faced the hand forward and do the 'mati tari' which is th
e rotation of the arms to the front. Both palms facing forward at the end of this movement.
Photo 6 : Demonstration of ikan seluang beranak
sirih layah dijunjung
Gerakan tangan dalam tarian mengadap rebab yang dilakukan semasa duduk. Semasa duduk, tangan
kanan berada di tepi. Penari kemudiannya berpusing mengadap ke belakang pentas dengan mengge
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rakkan kaki kiri ke sebelah kaki kanan. Pada ketika yang sama, tangan kanan dihanyunkan ke hadap
an sementara yang tangan kiri disendatkan ke belakang badan, dengan tapak tangan mengadap ke lu
ar. (pusing 1 bulatan menghadap hadapan dengan pergerakan sulur memain angin). Sin : sirih layah
dijunjung/ sirih layoh dijunjung
Hands movement in mengadap rebab while seated. During the sitting, the right hand at side. The da
ncers then turn the back to the stage by moving the left leg to right leg. At the same time, the right h
and is swayed forward while the left hand held to the back, with palms facing outward. (Turn 1 circl
e facing forward with the movement of the pergerakan sulur memain angin).
Photo 7 : Demonstration of sirih layah dijunjung
berdiri tapak tiga dan mengadap timur jaga
Gerakan tangan dan badan dalam tarian mengadap rebab, iaitu perantaraan antara keadaan duduk at
au bertinggung dengan keadaan berdiri. Dalam keadaan bertinggung, tangan dihanyunkan berganti-
ganti ke hadapan dan ke belakang (disebut sebagai limba). Limba dilakukan sebanyak empat kali, k
emudian bangun dengan pergerakan susun sirih, kirat penghabisan dan diakhiri dengan pergerakan s
ulur memain angin. Pergerakan ini merupakan penghabisan kepada tarian mengadap rebab.
Hands and body movement in mengadap rebab, the intermediate between a sitting or squatting to st
anding. In the event of squatting, hands are swung alternately forward and backward (called limba).
Do the limba four times, then followed by susun sirih, kirat penghabisan and finishes with pergerak
an sulur memain angin. This is the final movement of mengadap rebab.
Photo 8 : Demonstration of berdiri tapak tiga dan mengadap
timur jaga
duduk atas tumit
Gerakan tangan dalam tarian mengadap rebab yang dilakukan dalam kedudukan punggung duduk at
as tumit, bermula dengan pergerakan pecah tari iaitu kedua-dua tangan diturunkan ke lutut sebelu
m digerakkan ke tepi, lalu digerakkan masuk dan diturunkan. Semasa menurunkan tangan, tapak tan
gan dicampak dengan jari menunjuk ke bawah. Kemudian berdiri sambil kedua-dua belah tangan m
engadap sembah ke penonton, menandakan selesai persembahan Mak Yong.
Hands movement in mengadap rebab by sitting in heel dorsal position, started by 'pecah tari' with
both hands moved down to its knees before the edge, then moved in and lowered. While lowering th
e hands, palms moved forward with the fingers pointing down. Then stood with both hands facing t
he audience, marks the completion of Mak Yong.
Photo 8 : Demonstration of duduk atas tumit
kirat penghabisan
Gerakan tangan dan badan dalam tarian mengadap rebab, iaitu berdiri tapak tiga mengadap timur ja
ga. Penari melangkah ke kanan dengan kaki kanan dan pada masa yang sama menghayunkan tangan
kiri ke kanan. Penari kemudian berpusing mengadap hadapan pentas dengan kaki kanan sambil me
nggerakkan tangan kiri ke hadapan dan menyendatkan tangan kanan merentas bahagian belakang ba
dan. Kaki kiri kemudian melangkah ke hadapan dan berhenti di sisi kaki kanan. Keseluruhan perger
akan ini dilakukan di sebelah kiri.
Hands and body movement in mengadap rebab which is berdiri tapak tiga mengadap timur jaga. Th
e dancers move to the right with your right foot and at the same time swinging left to right hand. Th
e dancers then turned to face the front of the stage with the right foot while moving the left hand for
ward and tighten the right hand across the back of the body. Step the left foot forward and stop at th
e side of the right leg. This whole movement is done on the left.
Photo 8 : Demonstration of kirat penghabisan
Communication uses the terminological units representing the specialized knowledge and transferri
ng of knowledge. From the above concept system and definitions, it can bee seen that terminologica
l units are widely used for communication. Cabr (1994:35-37) states that from a social perspective
, the communicative role of terminology seems to have the same importance as the representational
role. What is more important is the acceptability of the society of the terms. This can be illustrated i
n the concept of dance in Mak Yong. The terms used in demonstrating the movements basically are
native words which represent the concepts in Mak Yong. The Mak Yong performance begins with a
n opening ceremony called the buka panggung (opening of the stage) with prayers, offerings of food
and the consecration of the musical instruments and other items (Patricia, 2004). Antia (1994) agre
ed that terminology does not belong to artificial language but it shares the basic of a general langua
ge. This shows that terminology occurs in natural communication. Thus, the understanding of conce
ptual system and concept relations is an important aspect of any terminology work.
6. Conclusion
Mak Yong as traditional performing arts has the potential growth in Malaysia. Malay traditional per
formers should be given opportunities to perform at international level. In addition, Mak Yong sho
uld be looked upon as a national heritage that must be studied as a science in its own field. This will
bring one of Malaysias worlds heritages to the world stage. The documentation of Mak Yongs ter
ms as a field of knowledge can help the development of Mak Yong as an important subject in the ac
ademic world. This formation of terms using native words and its rules will help to enrich the Mala
y vocabulary. In this age of globalization, transferring knowledge need a tool as a knowledge provi
der especially if we are interested to bring Mark Yong to the highest level and to the world stage. Th
us, terminology plays an important in language and communication and hopefully this research cont
ribute for the purpose.
7. Acknowledgement
The researcher would like to thank the University of Malaya for providing funding for this research,
under the provisions RG396-12HNE UMRG. Also to research assistants Fameza Nor Ismail, Siti Fa
tini Mat Yusof, Rozita Siti Kassim Mohamad and Suziana and Puan Fatimah Abdullah (Mak Yong p
ractitioner) for this study.
8. References
Ahmad Fathy al-Fatani (1994) Pengantar Sejarah Patani. Alor Setar: Pustaka Darussalam,
Felber, H. 1984 Terminology Manual: First Edition, Vienna: International Information Centre for T
erminology.
General Guideline for the Formation of Terms in Malay, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka: Kuala Lumpu
r, (1992)
Ghulam Sarwar (Ghulam Sarwar Yousof) (1976) The Kelantan Mak Yong Dance Theatre : A Study
of Performance Structure. Thesis (pH. D.) --University of Hawaii at Manoa.
Habshah Mohd Noordin (1999) Mak Yong Kelantan : Satu Kajian Estetika Seni. Akademi Pengajia
n Melayu: Universiti Malaya.
Kaplan, R. And Ricahard B. Bauldauf Jr. (1997) Language Planning from Practice to Theory (Multi
lingual Matters Series , No 108) [Paperback] Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Mohamad Afandi Ismail (1973) Mak Yong A Survey from the Point View of Presentation. Unpu
blished. Academic Exercise. University of Malaya.
Mohamad Afandi Ismail. 1975. Perkembangan Mak Yong sebagai satu seni teater tradisional Dew
an Bahasa Vol. 9 No. 6. Pg. 363-366.
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126

Mubin Sheppard, (1969)Ma Yong: The Malay Dance Drama Tenggara, Vol. 5. pg. 107-113.
Mubin Sheppard, 1969.The text of the Sung Portion of Dewa Muda and a Further Notes on Ma
Yong Stories Federation Museum Journal. Pg. 39-75.
Rosdeen Suboh( 2005) Peran Mak Yong: Pelakon dan Watak. MA dissertation. University of Malay
a.
Solehah Ishak (2010) Seni dan Budaya Kelantan. Kuala Lumpur : Persatuan Muzium Malaysia.
Teeuw & D.K. Wyatt 1970. Hikayat Patani: The Story of Patani. Bibliotheca Indonesica, 5. The Hag
ue: Martinus Nijhoff.















English Song as an Asset to Improve Middle-aged EL Learners Listening Skill
Masoome Noori, Alireza Jamshidi
Jahad Daneshgahi University

Abstract.

The simple objective of this study is to help adults(older than 40) to improve their English language
listening skill through English language songs. To this aim, two groups of about thirty homogenous
adult male language learners aged from 41 to 56 were selected. The members of the control group r
eceived 14 fill- in- the- blank narrative listening homeworks to do , while the members of the exper
imental group received 14 fill- in- the- blank song listening homeworks to do.

After two weeks, both groups were given the post test and the results, submitted to a t-test, approve
d that the experimental group did better on the post test.
This study takes the view that the song listening homework is a more powerful asset in teachin
g to the language learners, than narrative listening homework.
Keywords: input , receptive skill , song
Introduction
However it has been long supposed that after puberty , as the suitable age of language learning, it
would be impossible for adults to learn a second language, but today it has been proved that , out of
some special aspects of language , every adult person can start learning a second language as a mea
ns of communication.
Needless to say, enabling students to use English as a means of communication should be the ultima
te aim of teaching it. Based on the " input hypothesis"of Krashen ( 1985), listening comprehension,
is considered to be one of the most crucial skills without which, as a receptive skill, it would be near
ly impossible, to learn such productive skills as, speaking.
Vandergrift (1997) believes that listening in a foreign language is a task at a high level of difficulty i
n cognitive terms and therefore demands full attention.
Listening as Sanchez (2007) defines it, is "a more generalized understanding of the word characteriz
ed by the ability to categorize a word, understand its use in a sentence, and understand similar and d
issimilar words and their relationships ".(p.17)provides a friendly platform for academic and applica
tion professionals from crossing fields to communication together.

Review of literature
Adults and ELT
For a long time scientists thought only kids could achieve high proficiency in a foreign language. E
ven today, there is evidence that some aspects of second language acquisition get harder as we age.
But a research led by Michael Ullmann and Kara Morgan made a comparison between two groups o
f adults learning an artificial language, the one learning through explicit training, similar to standard
classroom methods, and the other through implicit training, similar to immersion . After 6 months, t
he two groups performed equally on proficiency tests. But brain scans revealed something surprisin
g: The group that learned through immersion like training showed brain activity similar to native s
peakers, while the group stuck translating didn't. These results mean. that the immersion group mig
ht be able to use the language better in stressful situations and retain the language better than the ex
plicitly-learned group
Authenticity and Adult ELT
ILCC 2013
128

All Much space has been devoted in language teaching literature to debating desirability of using au
thentic materials in language teaching classrooms and, indeed, to defining exactly what constitutes
genuine versus simulated texts (Hedge, 2000) . It is the author's view that it is imperative for second
language learners to be regularly exposed in the classroom to really unscripted language-to passage
s that have not been produced specifically for language learning purposes. As Nunan (1998) points
out, "texts written specifically for the classroom generally distort the language in some way" (p.6).
When the aim in authenticity in terms of the texts presented to learners is discussed, a common tend
ency is to immediately think of written materials such as newspapers and magazines. But, materials
designers should also aim for authentic spoken texts. That's really important for the learners to hear
the way native speakers do naturally. As Harmer (1998) clearly asserts that these authentic spoken t
exts should also be attractive. Then, songs can be one good choice.
Song and human language

Music, language and communication are all universals of the cultures of this planet. Before the writt
en word, stories of war and odes of praise were passed along from tribe to tribe by songs. According
to Larrick (1991), wandering minstrels brought literature to the crowds of people in the village squ
are. The messenger first sang the content of the message, so he would not forget any of it. Those wh
o came to listen were soon singing or chanting repeated lines and sometimes adding new stanzas on
the old pattern. (p.3)

According to Wilcox (1996), work songs were the answer to group efforts: "work songs comprise a
vast literature of music as each country has songs that have been handed down by generations to ad
d rhythm and pacing to group work efforts. Some of these are rowing songs, marching songs, and h
arvest songs".(p.9).

Livingstone (1973) provided anthropological evidence that homo sapiens sang (non-linguistic vocal
izations) before speaking. Infants' crib language resembles singing more than speech, and adults nat
urally adjust to infants and small children with musical motherese features.
Howle(1989) said that lullabies are more than simple nursery songs, serving to set musical patterns t
o words the child hears but does not yet comprehend .

Richman(1993) noted that many researchers categorize human vocalization into two opposed syste
ms, expressing sounds (e.g. sighing, crying, laughing) and speech. He believes that a third type of v
ocalization lies between these two systems-singing.
Listening Skill and ELT

Randaya and Farrell (2010) explain some aspects that differentiate listening from other skills. They
state that listening is fast, variable, with blurry word boundaries and has to be processed in real time
.
All these characteristics make this skill challenging to students. If we compare listening to reading
we find that although they are both receptive skills, listening is challenging in different ways. For in
stance, when students have reading materials and face problems understanding a sentence, they can
always go back and read the sentence again. This is not possible if they have listening material whic
h is fast and has to be processed in real time.
It is also important to analyze that blurry word boundaries are very common in many languages and
English is not an exception. Students may lack comprehension because words sound connected in s
peech. They can also sometimes sound as one word when they are actually two.
Halter and Song(2009) did an experiment with two groups. The experimental group followed a com
prehension based program and the second a typical language learning program. They state: Students
in the experimental group received a great deal more input from listening than students in the regul
ar program. This input helped sustain the pronunciation ability of the experimental group , for at lea
st one year, in the virtual absence of any speaking practice and exposure to English outside the class
room.

Method
Participants
From among 82 employees of four classes in PRC Company in which I was teaching, 60 homogene
ous adult students were selected based on a teacher-made listening cloze pre-test, whose results didn
't show a meaningful difference. The sixty students were divided into two groups randomly. The exp
erimental group and the control group. The age of language learners ranged from fourty one to fifty
six and they all were males.
Materials
A pre/post teacher-made test including four cloze listening texts with random deletions made, select
ed from Intermediate Select Readings (Lee and Gunderson) was given to the adult language learners
, in an interval of two weeks, and 10 cloze quizzes selected from the songs of Chris de Burg, were g
iven to the 60 homogenenious adult language learners to listen and fill in the random blanks made b
y the teacher in this two- week interval. The experimental group received 10 quizzes as songs and th
e control group received them as normal speech narrated . The two groups did their quizzes once pe
r day.
Procedure
To reveal the homogeneity of the two groups, the pre-test was given to the students and then the res
ults were submitted to a t-test. It didn't show a meaningful difference. The two homogenous groups
were given 10 quizzes. The control group received the randomly-deleted passages (cloze test) as qu
iz, to fill in , while listening to the passages narrated , and the experimental group received the same
texts to fill in, while listening to the passages in the form of songs . The post-test was given to both
groups in an interval of two weeks. Again the results were submitted to a t-test and revealed a meani
ngful difference.

Results
The results of t-test of the pretest scores of the two groups



Paired Differences t df
Sig. (2-t
ailed)
Mea
n
Std. Devi
ation
Std. Error
Mean
95% Confidence I
nterval of the Diff
erence
Lower Upper
Pre tests .400
0
1.13259 .20678 -.0229 .8229
1.93
4
29 .063
Fig. 1
ILCC 2013
130

It can be seen that the amount of t-observed isn't statistically significant (t-observed =1.934, p = .o6
3) which means that the two groups of participants were homogenous at the beginning of the experi
ment.
The results of the t-test of the posttest scores of the two groups




Paired Differences t df
Sig. (2-t
ailed)
Mea
n
Std. Devi
ation
Std. Error
Mean
95% Confidence I
nterval of the Diff
erence
Lower Upper
posttests 6.83
3
3.1303 .57151 5.6645 8.0022 11.957 29 .000
Fig. 2
Calculation of the t-test at the confidence level 95% indicated a statistically significant difference be
tween two group's posttests (t= 11.957, p= .000 ).
The mean scores showed that the experimental group, who had received cloze tests while listening t
o songs did better than control group who had received cloze tests while listening to narrations.

References
Harmer, J. (1998) How To Teach English. Harlow: Longman
Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and learning in the language classroom, Oxford University Press.

Howle, M. J. (1989). Twinkle, twinkle little star: Its more than just a nursery song. Children Today,
18 (4), 18-22.

Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis: issues and implications. New York: Laredo Publishing
Company

Larrick, N. (1991). Lets do a poem! New York: Delacorte Press.

Lee, L., & Gundersen, E. ( 2001). Intermediate Select Readings.

Livingstone, F. B. (1973). Did the Australopithecines sing? Current Anthropology, 14 (25-29), 1-2

Morgan-Short, K., & Ullman, M. T. (2011). The neurocognition of second language. In S. M. Gass
& A. Mackey (Eds.), The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. New York: Routledge.

Nunan, D. (1998). Approaches to Teaching Listening in the Language Classroom.Paper presented at
the Korea TESOL Conference, Seoul.

Renandya. W. & Farrell. T. (in press). Teacher, the tape is too fast! Extensive listening in ELT. ELT
journal, 64(2). doi:10.1093/elt/ccq015.

Richman, B. (1993). On the evolution of speech: Singing as the middle term. Current Anthropology,
34, 721-722.

Sanchez, SJ.M. (2007). From Caterpillars to Patriotic Butterflies: Empowering &Teaching English
Literacy to Adult Learners with an EL Civics Curriculum.University of Texas at Austin.
Unpublished manuscript.
Vandergrift, L. (1997). The comprehension strategies of second language (French) Listeners:
A descriptive study. Foreign Language Annals, 30 (3), 387-409.

Wilcox, D.A. (1996). Differentiating climatic and successional influences on long-term
development of a marsh. Ecology 77:1765-1778.











































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Exploration of Cohesive Devices of English to streamline Arabic Communication Skills


Dr. Yahya Toyin MURITALA
Kulliyyah of Languages and Management KLM,
International Islamic University Malaysia IIUM,
yahtomur@iium.edu.my
yahtomur@iium.edu.my


Abstract:
The aim of this paper is to highlight the cohesive tools discussed by the Scholars of English Langua
ge with the effort of putting them into use in the modern Arabic Language. The study which relies o
n the descriptive and analytical methods will answer some questions on the possibility of borrowing
the linguistic ideas from one language to another in spite of different origins. Although, Arabic has
some distinct features, as a Semitic Language, which are not available in most European Languages
including English, it can still be benefitted through the application of cohesive devices studied in E
nglish for the purpose of effective global communication. The paper also suggests instances in whic
h such devices may be applied in Arabic. Furthermore, it concludes with references to the cohesive
usages in the Arabic Classical Texts like Quran, prophetic traditions and in the literary works of the
early Arab Scholars, as it also affirms that exploration and exploitation of the English cohesive devi
ces should not be the factor for the annihilation of the principles of the standard Arabic when it com
es to the real communication skills and analysis.

Keywords: Cohesive devices, Textual Linguistics, English, Standard Arabic and Global Communic
ation.


INTRODUCTION
The Article introduces the cohesive devices used in English texts to the learners of the modern stand
ard Arabic in terms of communicative skills and in line with the global needs to achieve effective co
mmunication on specific purposes. Although, there might be references in the works of the early Ar
ab Scholars in that regard, the demand for the developing such devices becomes more imperative as
the world today is tending towards advancement in discourse analysis with general understanding a
nd comprehensive interaction in various human aspects of life.
The focus of the study is on the ways in which the devices can be successfully applied in the use of
common standard Arabic. The application exploits comparison of English texts with Arabic sentenc
es as composed in the classical and modern works on communication skills.


Language and Communication:
Language learning is strongly connected with the purpose rendered by human communication irresp
ective of the geographical locations, economic situations, social backgrounds, cultural and religious
dogmas of different communities of mankind in terms of reasons, skills and segments. Learning for
travels to various nations is one of the most common reasons to learn an international language. Ma
ny people learn such language to connect with certain category of people while many others learn it
for business. Likewise, the purpose to learn a certain language may arise from the religious affiliatio
ns and social interactions with other people.
The reasons for students to learn languages especially international languages like English, French,
and Arabic etc are many and not restricted to the purpose of graduation or getting certain educationa
l degrees from citadels of learning. Learning an international language is not limited to its traditiona
l grammatical concepts, vocabularies and different sounds, but rather it goes beyond such methods i
n this contemporary age when human beings are in 21
st
Global Village as it should give insights into
other cultures, create a more positive attitudes toward people who are culturally different and give u
s a better understanding of what it is like to be an immigrant. If this could be accomplished, there wi
ll be increased prestige in the learners, cultures and markedly increased status in other cultures. Mea
nwhile, it is a good skill to strive to become a World Citizen as the knowledge of other languages gi
ves us a better understanding of our own languages and our own cultures.

Therefore, the role of Arabic language in this regard is very much significant because it is a living
international language connected with religious doctrines, commercial transactions with many count
ries of the globe, diplomatic relations, tourism and educational influences. Not only that, it is a majo
r language of two continents of the world as it is widely spoken in the North and the middle east of
Asia. Although, there are many linguistic areas in which Arabic language is required to streamline it
s roles to play to contribute to the effective global communication of the modern period, the focus o
f this paper is to enhance the understanding of the Arabic Language learners on the exploitation of t
he textual standards with concentration on the cohesive devices as specimen during the textual struc
turing.

Learning how to produce a continuous text is an essential part of learning a language. To describe
what makes a text hang together, the term 'cohesion' is typically used. In order to equip and educate
learners with this textual standard among others, textbooks often provide lists of cohesive devices th
at can be grouped into grammatical and lexical devices. Like in Arabic Language, Halliday and Has
an identify five main cohesive devices in English: reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and l
exical cohesion. But as it well known, Arabic and English belong to different language families, and
it is natural that they may pose great difficulties and challenges for the dealers of the markets of the
global communications. The formal and serious teaching of cohesion might, to a great extent, enhan
ce the students' consciousness in interacting successfully between the two languages.



Arabic Language: Between traditional grammatical rules and textual standards:

Glimpse on the Traditional Grammatical Structuring:
According to the New Encyclopedia Britannica, Arabic language is Southern-Central Semitic langu
age spoken in a large area including North Africa, most of the Arabian Peninsula, and other parts of
the Middle East. It is the language of the Qur'an and is the religious language of all Muslims. Litera
ry Arabic, usually called Classical Arabic, is essentially the form of the language found in the Qur'a
n, with some modifications necessary for its use in modern times; it is uniform throughout the Arab
world
1
.
Arabic, which is a good example of the Semitic languages, has some distinct rules in its syntactical
principles
1
. These rules are the tools and articles for the removal of ambiguity in language structurin
g. They traditionally include:
1- Al-Irab (Inflection/ parsing): This means the transformation of the vowels that adhere to the e
nds of words due to the occurring of certain factors. This transformation aids the comprehension of
the functions of such words and leads to its intended meanings. For example:
Qara'tu Kitaaba 'Akhii Al-Kabiiri= I read the book of my senior brother
Qara'tu Kitaaba 'Akhii Al-Kabiira= I read the voluminous book of my brother.
So, as the first Al-Kabiiri which qualifies the brother is inflected with 'jarr' (genitive case) in confor
mity with the grammatical position of 'Akhii (my brother), the second Al-Kabiira that qualifies the b
ook has 'nasb' (accusative case) in conformity with the grammatical situation of Kitaaba (book) whi
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ch is the object in that sentence.
This inflective implication can be traced to the Quranic verse where Almighty Allah said: {I nnama
a Yakhshaa Allaaha min 'I baadihi Al-'Ulamaa'u}
1
. Meaning: "It is only those who have knowledg
e among His slaves that fear Allah"
1
. Unlike European languages, the arrangement order in that Q
uranic portion is not considered but the inflectional indication; if not, the intended meaning would h
ave been twisted out and distorted. Therefore, it is the objective position with accusative case of the
word "Allah" and the subjective position with nominative case of the word Al-'Ulamaa'u (i.e. thos
e who have knowledge) that saves the receivers of the message from spoilt and adulterated meaning
of the verse as well as it consequently affirms the accurate intended meaning and removes the ambi
guity.

2- Ar-Rutbah or At-Tarkeeb (Order in structural arrangement): This means the arrangement of t
he segments of a sentence orderly. In classical Arabic, this is of two types: the preserved order and t
he unpreserved order:
i- The preserved order is the order in which the Arabs were known to have been applying in their sp
eeches invariably. This order includes; Production of verb before the subject in the verbal sentences
(except in the Kufan school of Arabic Grammar), Al-Mudaaf (the possessed) before Al-Mudaaf ilay
hi (the possessed) in the possessive case, Fi'lush Shart (conditional verb) before Jawaabush Shart (
apodosis) and Sifat (adjective) after Al-Mawsuuf (the qualified noun).
ii- The unpreserved order which is the type of order in which the Arabs were known to have been ap
plying in their speeches interchangeably. For example, the subject comes naturally before the object
but sometimes the object may precede the subject. This is apparent in the verse discussed under the
inflection where Allah says: {I nnamaa Yakhshaa Allaaha min 'I baadihi Al-'Ulamaa'u}
1
. Meaning
: "It is only those who have knowledge among His slaves that fear Allah"
1
. However, the producti
on of subject before object will be inevitable when the confusion and doubt are being feared like in t
he following sentence: 'Allama Musaa 'I saa (i.e. Musa taught Isa) because the ending vowels of th
e two names as underlined above sound identically and there is no distinguishing inflective device t
o separate the indicative positions of the two. Therefore, the word Musa that precedes the word Isa i
n the sentence is the subject while Isa is the object. Likewise, the precession of object before subject
may be unavoidable in some cases like where a pronoun that refers to the object is attached or joine
d with the subject e.g. Allah says: {'I dh btalaa I braahiima Rabbuhu bikalmaatin}. Meaning: "And
(remember) when the Lord of Ibrahim tried him with (certain) commands"
1
. He also says :{'I dh
naadaahu Rabbuhu Bi Al-Waadi Al-Muqaddas Tuwaa}. Meaning: "When his Lord called him in t
he sacred valley of Tuwaa"
1
.

3- Al-'Adaat (Particle): Sometimes two or more sentences may only be distinguished through the p
articles of exception, conjunction, definite and indefinite etc. For example, what distinguishes betwe
en the meanings of the following two sentences is the presence of exception "'llaa" in the latter:
i- Maa Zaydun rajulan (Zayd is not a man)
ii- Maa Zaydun 'illaa Rajulun (Zayd is nothing except a man).
Unlike the first sentence, the word 'illaa in the second sentence annihilates the function of maa whi
ch is a tool of negation. It also has reference in the Quran where Allah says: {Wa maa Muhammad
un 'illaa rasuulun}. Meaning: "Muhammad is no more than an Apostle"
1
.

4- As-Siighat As-Sarfiyyah (Morphological Form): The morphological form has its role to play in
the discovery of the inflectional meaning when the differential value of the vowels disappears betwe
en Al-Haal (i.e. circumstantial expression) and At-Tamyiiz (i.e. specification). The two can then be s
eparated through the ability to identify Ishtiqaaq (derivation) and Jumuud (inertness).It is well kno
wn that Al-'Ishtiqaaq is the source of Al-Haal while Al-Jumuud is the source of At-Tamyiiz, so also i
s the case between As-Sifah (Adjective) and 'Atful Bayaan (explicative apposition). Likewise, it is th
e form or shape of verb that can morphologically separate between Al-Faa'il (the subject) and Naa'i
b Al-Faa'il (subject of the passive) as in the changing of 'kataba' to 'kutiba' or of 'yaktubu' to 'yuktab
u'.

5- At-Tataabuq (Conformity): Conformity is a tool for the removal of confusion in the sentences of
Arabic Language. It covers the grammatical issues like subject in terms of connection with its verb i
n verbal sentence, subject and its predicate in nominal sentence, tawaabi'u (appositions), Inna and h
er sisters and Kaana and her sisters. The domains of conformity of such sentences include:
i- Number i.e. singular, dual and plural.
ii- Gender i.e. masculine and feminine.
iii- Inflective vowels.
iv- Definite and indefinite articles etc.


Ma'aayiir Nassiyyah (Textual Standards):
Although grammatical studying in terms of the discourse analysis is not apparently spelt out in the c
lassical Arabic sciences but there were some inferences to it from the works of some early scholars
of Arabic Knowledge. Arabic syntax is generally known as Nahw Al-J umlah (i.e. Syntax of Senten
ce) as it studies the functioning of the segments of sentence in line with the effective roles they play
in any given sentence not in connection with the previous and succeeding portions in the text as a w
hole. But as for the general characteristics of languages, there are some criteria which are expected i
n any given text whether verbal or written to qualify such text to be a means of human communicati
ve device. Despite the fact that Arabic Grammar is classically treating the texts produced in Arabic
on the level of the sentence analysis, there are still references to the look onto the standards that a te
xt must be characterized with in its semantic knowledge as developed by some scholars like Abdul
Qaahir Al-Jurjaani and others.
These textual standards are seven as follow: Cohesion known as As-Sabk or At-Tadaamm in Arabic,
Coherence known as Al-Habk or At-Tamaasuk Ad-Dalaali, Intentionality known as Al-Maqsuudiy
yah, Acceptability known as Al-Maqbuuliyyah, Informativity known as Al-'Ikhbaariyyah or Al-'I'il
amiyyah, Situationality known as Al-Maqaamiyyah and Intertextuality known as At-Tanaass.
However, according to the focus and limitation of this paper the study will be restricted to the first s
tandard which is cohesion in terms of its devices in the accurate text of communication to the globe.

Cohesion: According to Baker, "[cohesion] is the network of lexical, grammatical, and other relat
ions which provide links between various parts of a text. These relations or ties organize and, to so
me extent create a text, for instance by requiring the reader to interpret words and expressions by ref
erence to other words and expressions in the surrounding sentences and paragraphs. Cohesion is a s
urface relation; it connects together the actual words or expression that we can see or hear". - (Bake
r, 1992:180). This standard is indirectly known in Arabic as At-Tadaamm, As-Sabk or Ar-Rabt An-N
ahwi which is divided into two types:
- At-Tadaamm Al-Mu'jami (Lexical Cohesion) which is the arrangement of the lexical
vocabularies into groups for the purpose of conformity of the elements of the speech as stated by
the rhetorical scientists in the principles of Arabic rhetoric. For example, it is cohesively incorrect to
say: "Inkasara Al-Khayt" (i.e. the thread is broken) because the thread is not among the group of the
things that can be broken
1
. So, even if the sentence is well grammatically structured, there is no
cohesion between the verb Inkasara (i.e. broken) and the subject Al-Khayt (the thread).
At-Tadaamm An-Nahwi (Grammatical Cohesion):
This implies the connection that develops between two elements within the grammatical structure, o
r in other word, it is the demand of either of the two grammatical analytical elements for another ele
ment and such referred to as 'At-Talaazum' (correlation)
1
.
Hence in the improvement of the global communication among humanity, there should be an unders
tanding that each language has its own patterns to convey the interrelationships of person and event
ILCC 2013
136

s; in no language may these patterns be ignored, if the communicated message is to be understood b
y its readers. The topic of cohesion has always appeared to be the most useful constituent of discour
se analysis or text linguistics applicable to effective communication throughout the world.
The theoretical terms for the linguistics resources which link one part of a text with another are wha
t Halliday and Hasan regard as; reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion
(Halliday and Hasan, 1985:48). These are the semantic relations that enable one part of the text to f
unction as the context for another
1
.

1- Reference which means Al-'I haalah in Arabic modern linguistics according to them, is that what
ever the type of the elements referred is, it cannot suffice on itself in terms of interpretation until it r
efers to what it is making an indication to for the purpose of its interpretation. Naturally, all languag
es including Arabic are enriched with the elements that own the features of Al-'Ihaalah (reference)
which are:
a) - Ad-Damaa'ir (Pronouns): The pronouns serve as means of consistency and harmony among t
he elements of Arabic texts. Therefore, the knowledge of the two main types of personal pronouns i
n Arabic; overt known as Damiir Baariz and covert also known as implied Damiir Mustatir is com
pulsory on the language learners for the purpose of global communication. They should also know t
hat "overt pronouns are either attached (suffixes) (i.e. muttasil) or independent (Damiir Munfasil)"
1
.
The function of pronouns in language shows that: " A pronoun can point backwards (backward-poin
ting is called "anaphora"), to an earlier sentence that included the noun it refers to, as well as forwar
ds (this is called "Cataphora") in a text. Pronouns can also point to something outside the text ("exo
phora")
1
.
b) Asmaa'u Al-'I shaarah (Demonstratives): These pronouns are used to indicate specific people
, animals, objects and concepts. The most commonly used pronouns are distinguished by proximity,
gender, case and number
1
. Demonstratives also help in joining the cataphora and anaphora to contri
bute in the uniformity of the text
1
.
c) 'Adawaat Al-Muqaaranah (Comparative items): According to Muhammad Khataabi, compa
ratives are divided into general in terms of At-Tataabuq (conformity) through the exploitation of th
e word 'same', At-Tashaabuhu (similarity) through the use of the word 'similar' and Al-'Ikhtilaaf (var
iation) through the use of words like 'other and otherwise etc". And into special one in terms of Ka
mmiyyah (quantity) as in the use of the words such as 'Akthar (i.e. more than) and in terms of Kayfiy
yah (quality) like when it is said: Zaydun 'Asra'u min 'akhiihi (Zayd is faster than his brother). Like
pronouns and demonstratives, comparatives also have referencing functions in the text
1
.

2- Substitution which is referred to in Arabic as Al-'I stibdaal: A second kind of cohesive tie can b
e the use of words or phrases that substitute in the same grammatical slot for material elsewhere in t
he text
1
.
Example: Hal tarjuu an takuuna laka sayyaaratun jadiidah? Do you wish having a
new car?
Na'am 'arjuu dhaalika. Yes, I wish so.
The word dhaalika 'so' substitutes here for a phrase an takuuna laka sayyaaratun jadiidah (havin
g a new car). It ties the two sentences together by making the interpretation of the second one depe
nds on the first one. Other Arabic words and phrases that can create cohesive ties through substituti
on include the words like: kadhaalika (like that), Laa (no or not) kallaa (Never, certainly not) etc.

3- Ellipsis which means Al-Hadhf in Arabic term. Closely related to substitution is ellipsis which c
reates cohesive ties via omission, as interpreters have to go elsewhere in the text, or in the context o
f the discourse, to fill in the blanks
1
. The example of this device is as follows:
'Ayyu kitaabin sataqra'u? Haadhaa huwa Al-'Ahsan. Which book will you read?
This is the best.
This type is common even in the Quranic text. So it is for the competent reader that is reading on th
e level of the understanding of the writer to discover the omitted word, phrase or clause of the sente
nce.

4- Conjunction or Al-Wasl as in Arabic form. Conjunction is the use of any one of a variety of strat
egies to show how sentences are related in meaning to other sentences.
According to Muhammad Khataabi, conjunction can be classified into
1
:
a) - Al-Wasl Al-'I daafi (Additive Conjunction): through the use of "wa" and "aw"
(and & or)
b) - Al-Wasl Al-'Aksi (Contrastive Conjunction): Contrastive conjunction signals differences or a
lternatives between two pieces of information. Examples include:
Min naahiyatin 'ukhraa or jaanibin 'aakhar (i.e. on the other hand).
Wa bi Al-'Aksi (i.e. in contrast).
Baynamaa (i.e. whereas)
Bayda anna (nevertheless, but, yet, however, still).
c) Al-Wasl As-Sababi (Result Conjunction): It demonstrates to readers that the following textual
element is the result or consequence of the previous information. A few examples of the result conju
nction or consequential conjunctions are:
Consequently 'Idhan or wahakadhaa.
Thus- Hakadhaa or 'Ilaa Haadhaa.
As a result- Natiijatan min.
Hence- Minal 'aana, or 'idhan or min thamma or li haadha as-Sabab.
So- Hakadhaa.
Therefore- Lidhaalika.

- Al-Wasl Az-Zamani (Time Conjunction): It is a connection between two angles of two
consecutive sentences in terms of time occurrence. The simplest expression from this connection is
the use of the word 'then' which 'Thumma' is in Arabic usage
1
.

5- Lexical Cohesion which is interpreted into Al-'I ttisaaq Al-Mu'jami in its Arabic term. Lexical c
ohesion means using the same words repeatedly, or using words that point to one another in various
ways, such as by having similar or antonymous (opposite) meanings or by being meronyms (one ref
erring to a whole and one to a part of it: tree-limb) or hyponyms (one word refers to a class and the
other to an item in the class: beef-meat)
1
.
According to Muhammad Khataabi, lexical cohesion may be divided into two types; which are
1
:
At-Takriir or At-Takraar (i.e. reiteration)
At-Tadaamm (collocation).
In view of the above, it should be inculcated in the language learners that for the effective global co
mmunication in the Arab world and other countries that may exploit Arabic as a medium of commu
nication to the world in general sense, the combination of the two aspects of learning Arabic gramm
ar is essentially inevitable. This is so, as it is the nature of any language that it must keep on with its
root, heritage, source and origin as well as it must not reject the principles that will link it to other w
orld languages in order to receive, share and give ideology, ideas, culture and modern knowledge.
Therefore, as the application of the classical Arabic grammar helps a lot in the development of the l
anguage competency of learners, if such learners can also add the knowledge on how to identify the
standards through which verbal or written texts can be accepted through the method of applying the
cohesive devices among other textual standards, their accuracy in language application will be more
commendable.


Effective communication with Arabic as a specific goal
The role playable by Arabic Language in both past and present has made it necessary that it must be
ILCC 2013
138

in effective global communication to the world. According to Kees Versteegh, "At a rough guess, ap
proximately 150 million people use a variety of Arabic as their mother tongue. But the domain of Ar
abic does not stop at the boundaries of the Arabophone area. Throughout history, speakers of Arabic
have frequently come into contact with speakers of other languages and affected their language, in it
s vocabulary or even in its morphosyntactic structure"
1
.
Arabic is widely spoken as it has the feature of an intercontinental language because of its spread in
the two world continents; Asia (especially in the Middle East) and the North Africa. In all Islamic c
ountries, the influence of Arabic is pervasive because of the highly language-specific nature of Isla
m. However, if the effective communication with Arabic medium should be contemporarily internat
ionalized, it should adhere to the general accepted textual standards together with the commitment t
o the principles of its grammatical heritage. This should be in terms of:
Cohesion: It is that textual criteria which was, in this paper, previously mentioned and treated. In us
ing the term "cohesion" ("sticking together"), we wish to emphasize the function of syntax in comm
unication
1
. This has reference in the works of some early Arab Scholars like Abdul Qahir Al-J urja
ani who said in his book; Dalaail Al-I'jaaz, "The purpose of sentences composition is not the seque
ncing of its vocabularies in speech, but rather the organization of their connotations and sticking of t
heir meanings together in the way it is sensitively required"
1
.
Coherence: A text "makes sense" because there is a CONTINUITY OF SENSES among the knowl
edge activated by the expressions of the text..we would define this continuity of sense as the foun
dation of COHERENCE, being the mutual access and relevance within a configuration of CONCEP
TS and RELATIONS
1
. Among other classical scholars of Arabic language, Al-J aahiz had used the t
erm closed to At-Taqaarun (Coherence) in its concept and denotation and named it Al-Qiraan
1
.
Intentionality and acceptability: A language configuration must be intended to be text and accept
ed as such in order to be utilized in communicative interaction
1
. The notion of INTENTIONALITY
is introduced to subsume the intentions of text producers. In the most immediate sense of the term, t
he producer INTENDS the language configuration under production to be a cohesive and coherent t
ext. Some situations may place such limits on time and processing resources that this intention is no
t fully realized by the presentation
1
. In a wider sense of the term, intentionality designates all the wa
ys in which text producers utilize texts to pursue and fulfill their intentions
1
.
Informativity: Informativity, being the extent to which presented materials are new or unexpected,
exerts important controls on the selection and arrangement of opinions in texts
1
. The text producers
can create a planned flow of expectations in order to uphold interest and fulfill an intention. So the c
ontrols exerted by informativity must be a vastly important factor in limiting and motivating the use
of particular options in all sorts of contexts.
Situationality: The term SITUATIONALITY is a general designation for the factors which render a
text relevant to a current or recoverable situation of occurrence
1
. This is traceable in the knowledge
of classical Arabic itself as Al-J aahiz used some symbols that inspire the meaning of this principle i
n some of his works and write ups
1
. According to many scholars of classical Arabic like Abdul Qaa
hir Al-J urjaani, I bn Rashiiq, Al-Qaadi Al-J urjaani and I bn Khalduun among many others stated t
hat the principles guiding the Situationality of the texts include the sayings like:
1- Likulli Maqaamin maqaal (i.e. every context has its relevant monologue).
2- Muraa'aat Muqtadaa Al-Haal (i.e. considering proper situation for expression)
1
.
Intertextuality: It is to subsume the ways in which the production and reception of a given text dep
ends upon the participants' knowledge of other texts. This knowledge can be applied by a process de
scribable in terms of MEDIATION (the extent to which one feeds one's current beliefs and goals int
o the model of the communicative situation. The greater the expanse of time and of processing activ
ities between the use of the current text and the use of previously encountered texts, the greater the
mediation. Extensive mediation is illustrated by the development and use of TEXT TYPES, being cl
asses of texts expected to have certain traits for certain purposes. Mediation is much smaller when p
eople quote from or refer to specific well-known texts, e.g. famous speeches or works of literature.
Mediation is extremely slight in activities such as replying, refuting, reporting, summarizing, or eva
luating other texts, as we find them especially in conversation
1
.

CONCLUSION:
Arabic is recognized internationally as it has gone across the major world continents and been sprea
d through the advent of the religion of Islam which is meant for the whole humanity irrespective of t
ribe, colours, nationality and diversion of ethnicity and languages. The religious influence has assist
ed the language a lot to be a language used for different purposes throughout the world. Today, Arab
ic is widely spoken in many communicative channels inside and outside Arab nations. Even it is a m
edium of communicating to the world by BBC, CNN etc.
Although the language has its traditional grammar from the onset that guides its methods and princi
ples of accurate language delivery to the receivers as whole, it also needs to exploit some standards
used in this contemporary age to communicate to the world effectively. Though the focus on the coh
esive devices was made here in this study, the issue of giving good consideration into all textual sta
ndards whether traceable into the classical Arabic grammar or not, should be greatly taken into cogn
izance.
Therefore the brief study of this paper has highlighted some areas of focus in the syntactical analysi
s of the classical approach pointing to the roles playable by the inflection/ parsing, order in struct
ural arrangement, particles, morphological form and conformity, in an attempt for the improve
ment of the educational reform in line with the traditional principles. Likewise, it has suggested the
possibility of using the textual standards of the modern linguistics when the syntactical analysis of t
exts is being made. These cohesive devices and the principles of some other textual standards were
also exposed to the works of early Arab scholars like Abdul Qaahir Al-J urjaani, Al-J aahiz and oth
ers who had made mentioning of similar terms in their writings to give more substantiations on the
need to combine the two areas of grammar in the educational reform of the Arabic textual analysis.


REFERENCES:
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Nass. Cairo: Al-Hay'at Al-Misriyyah Al-'Aammah li Al-Kitaab,
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Cairo: Matba'at Lajnat Al- Ta'liif wa At-Tarjamah wa An-Nashr,
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Al-Jurjaani, Abdul Qaahir. (1422 AH/ 2001). Dalaa'il Al-'I'jaaz fi 'Ilmi Al-Ma'aani.
Beirut: Dar Al-Kutub Al-'Ilmiyyah, 1
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Cambridge University Press.
Beaugrande, Robert-Alain de & Dressler, Wolfgang Ulrich. (1981). Introduction to
Text Linguistics. Essex, UK: Longman Group Limited.
Halliday, M.A.K. & Hasan, Ruqaiya. (1990). Language Context and Text: Aspect of
Language in a Social- Semiotic Perspective. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2
nd
Ed.
Hassaan, Tammaam. (1413 AH/ 1993). Al-Bayaan fii Rawaa'i'i Al-Qur'an. Cairo:
'Aalam Al-Kutub, 1
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Hassaan, Tammaam. (1421 AH/ 2001). Al-Lughat Al-'Arabiyyah: Ma'naahaa wa
Mabnaahaa. Beirut: Dar Ath-Thaqaafah.
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Khan, M.M & Al-Hilali, M.T. (1996). The Noble Qur'an In The English Language.
Riyadh: Darussalam.
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Versteegh, Kees. (1997). The Arabic Language. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Arabiya
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_hurra
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_manar

http://www.alarabiya.net/

http://www.alhurra.com/sub.aspx?id=266

http://www.almanar.com.ib/newsSite/New.aspx?language=en





























Multi Traditional Cultural Exposure Approach in EFLClassroom;
Engaging Good Appreciation and Communication in Diversity Written

By: Dian Karyani Astuti
Department of Engish Education,
Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers Training
State Islamic Jakarta University, Indonesia
Diankaryaniastuti@yahoo.com

Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the implication of making a huge English exposure based
on multi traditional cultural material approach in English as a Foreign Language classroom. In this s
tudy, the writer studied Indonesian university students. The instrument used in this study is an obser
vation. The samples of the study are 38 students on the 6th semester in English Education Departme
nt who are learning Cross Culture Understanding (CCU) as a subject in EFL classroom. The study i
s conducted by giving the students assignment to make a huge presentation about their own traditio
nal culture (Javanese, Sundanese, Betawinese, Jambinese, etc) one by one in front of the classroom
orally. The exposure consists of the province, traditional language, value, characteristic, habit, tradit
ional dance, and traditional ceremony which are presented orally using English. Uniquely, the stude
nts are asked to bring the traditional food to the class too when this study was conducted, they can e
at nicely the various traditional food from different cultures. The important result of the study is that
each student gives very positive impression toward the cultures exposure performed. All the student
s freely express their English speaking content to their friends. Then, the message is presented com
municatively; of course, all students are happy, they smile and enjoy every performance. They give
opinion how traditional cultures work in intercultural communication and how avoid prejudice and
stereotype. Hopefully, this study will be useful for English teachers to pay attention that cultural div
ersity in EFL classroom becomes uniqueness. Moreover, good understanding of traditional cultural
diversity can bring the students to engage good appreciation and language communication.

Key words: Culture, CCU (Cross Cultural Understanding), diversity, EFL, prejudice, stereotype, int
ercultural, speaking, communication.
1. Introduction
This one world exists with so enormous culture with the uniqueness of each. Those should be a very
beautiful phenomenon in this world that shows us diversity. However, to reach one voice about the
equality is not always easy. The diversity of culture build believe, value, behavior and identity that i
t sometimes makes misunderstanding in communication.
In fact, it is still happen the disintegration of certain race or intolerance behavior to other cultur
es with the minority and the traditionalism. That is a very tragic reality that becomes all people resp
onsibility to care and to reach the equality and justice.
The knowledge of intercultural communication and cross cultural understanding have been l
ong time exist in teaching and socialized widely around the world. How it is very importance to giv
e understanding and comprehension about the importance of engaging good appreciation in order to
create a good communication among the people with the difference of culture, race and traditional c
ulture.
The effort must be done to all level of people to truly have honor and give honor to others. B
esides by socialization to people in the world, the most importance is by educating the people especi
ally the young generation to stand the voice of tolerance and respect. By the urgent of the theme, the
writer propose the multi traditional cultural exposure approach in educational system in order to eng
age the understanding of appreciation and good communication through diversity for the peace of th
e world in this time and future.

2. Theoretical Review
ILCC 2013
142

1. Culture& Identity
Culture is complicated term to define. Culture rules become way of life in human being for individu
al or society. Lustig and Koester (1999) defined culture as a learned set of shared interpretations ab
out beliefs, values, and norms which affect the behaviors of a relatively large group of people (p. 3
0). Then, Orbe and Harris (2001) said that culture asLearned and shared values, beliefs, and behavi
ors common to a particular group of people; culture forges a groups identity and assists in its surviv
al (Robert. G & Dana.L Powell, 2010, p. 54). Another conceptualization of culture that: the deposi
t of knowledge, experiences, social hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relationships,
concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the
course of generations through individual or group striving. (Samovar, Porter and Stefani, 2000, p. 7)
. It is interesting that culture is what people must know in order to act as they do, make the things t
hey make, and interpret their experience in the distinctive way they do (Quinn and Holland, 1987,
p. 4).
It is believed that culture is learned. Someone learns his cultured well from his family members, bo
oks, story or experiences. Culture is transmitted intergenerationally, it represents our link to the past
and, through future generation, hope for the future. Culture is symbolic too; it includes word, gestur
e, and image for conveying message and meaning. These symbols facilitate the communication bet
ween one to another. Culture is also dynamic; it is never static that ideas, invention, and exposure ca
n make change. Culture is ethnocentric. The strong sense of identity produced by culture can lead to
ethnocentrism, the tendency that a certain culture is better, superior or best than others. Ethnocentris
m can cause an individual have lack of contact with others (Samovar, Porter & McDaniel, 2012, p.
12-13).
Robert & Dana. L Powell noted (2010) that the connection to a cultures values is accomplished thr
ough the performance of cultural identity (p. 57). Cultural identity denotes the ways individuals vie
w themselves and the ways they wish to be viewed by others. Lustig and Koester (2000) noted that
cultural identity involves learning about and accepting the traditions, heritage, language, religion, an
cestry, aesthetics, thinking patterns, and social structures of a culture (p. 3). Goffmans (1959, 1963)
dramaturgical perspective is an excellent framework for viewing the cultural identities of students.
He claimed that whenever people participate in social interaction, they are engaged in a type of perf
ormance.
While culture value create identity, it strengthen the individual character and performance because t
he shape of believe. Moreover, individual with certain identity and culture will inclime to other who
has the sameness of culture. While identity can be positively creates the strong sense of belonging,
however, it also has some dark sides. Stereotype can be the first dark side of identity. Stereotype is S
tereotyping is a complex form of categorization that mentally organizes your experiences with, and
guides your behavior toward, a particular group of people. It becomes a means of organizing your i
mages into fixed and simple categories that you use to represent an entire collection of people (H. V.
Richards, A. F. Brown, and T. B. Forde, 19 (3), 65). Samovar, Porter & McDaniel (2010) mentioned
;

Stereotypes can be positive or negative. Stereotypes that refer to a large group of people as lazy, co
arse, vicious, or moronic are obviously negative. There are, of course, positive stereotypes, such as t
he assumption that Asian students are hardworking, well mannered, and intelligent. However, becau
se stereotypes (as the word is currently defined) narrow our perceptions, they usually jeopardize int
ercultural communication and take on a negative tone. This is because stereotypes tend to over gene
ralize the characteristics of a group of people. For example, we know that not all Asian students are
hardworking and intelligent, and that there is no large group of people in which everyone is lazy. (
p. 170).

Stereotype can be learned hereditary from family or society judgment. The most obvious, and perha
ps most important, agent of stereotypes is the socialization process (Samovar, Porter & McDaniel, 2
010, p. 170). Stereotype can happen to a large of group or race only where in different continent, but
it also can happen to the traditional culture in a country. Adler notes about the harmfulness of stereo
type that is rewritten by Samovar, Porter & McDaniel (2010) that;

Stereotypes become counterproductive when we place people in the wrong groups, when we incorre
ctly describe the group norm, when we evaluate the group rather than simply describing it, when we
confuse the stereotype with the description of a particular individual, and when we fail to modify th
e stereotype based on our actual observations and experience. (p. 171)


The second dark side of identity is prejudice;it held negative feelings to particular group. As was the
case with stereotypes, beliefs linked to prejudices have certain characteristics. First, they are directe
d at a social group and its members. Often those groups are marked by race, ethnicity, gender, age, a
nd the like (Samovar, Porter & McDaniel, 2010, p. 173).
In Communication between Culture book written by Samovar, Porter & McDaniel stated that ethno
centrism can be positive, negative or extremely negatives. It is said as positive if it is the belief that
, at least for you, your culture is preferred over all others. This is natural, and inherently there is not
hing wrong with it because you draw much of your personal identity and many of your beliefs from
your native culture, p. 180. However, when you think that your culture is the centre of everything,
the best of the best and other cultures must be measured and rated by your culture standard, it will b
e said as negative. While you have said and thought that your culture is most powerful and other cul
ture should adopt your culture, it is as a very extremely negative ethnocentrism.

1. Traditional Culture, Diversity in Indonesia
Traditional culture is part of whole cultures, while culture is wider term, and traditional is specified
to traditional ideas and narrower area. For example, the western culture will be different to the Japa
nese culture where the discussion contained two different countries or continents. However, as exa
mple of traditional culture, it can be said that Javanese traditional culture will be different with Sun
danese or Betawinese traditional culture, even they exists in one country, Indonesia.
It can be said that Indonesia is one of very unique countries in the world. As a country that exists wi
th the archipelago, it has 33 provinces and 300 ethnic groups. More than seventeen thousands island
and 746 traditional languages exist in Indonesia.



Some famous traditional cultures and ethnics in Indonesia;
1. Java Island: Javanese &Sundanese (Include Tengger, Sundanese, Badui, Banten, Cirebon, B
etawi, etc)
2. Madura: Madura
3. Sumatra: Melayu, Batak, Minangkabau, Aceh, Lampung, Kubu, etc)
4. Kalimantan (Borneo): Dayak (includes 268 ethnics), Banjar, Kutai, Berau, Bajau, etc)
5. Sulawesi: Makassar, Bugis, Mandar, Tolaki, Minahasa (consists of 8 ethnics), Gorontalo, To
raja, etc.
6. Sunda kecil arciphelago: Baliness, Sasak, etc.
7. Maluku: Ambon, Nuaulu, Manusela, Wemale, etc.
8. Papus: Papua (consists of 466 ethnics such as Dani, Bauzi, Asmat, etc).

Diversity in Indonesia can be seen by the enourmous of traditional culture widespreads in 33 provin
ces with the traditional cultures includes the traditional languaged, traditional songs, traditional dan
ces, traditional foods, traditional ceremonies, religions, etc.
With the multi traditional culture and the jargon of Bhineka Tunggal Eka, it needs a very good co
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operation and tolerance that is shown well in communication. When each of traditional culture has i
ts own identity, to avoid the dark side of identity such stereotype, prejudice and ethnocentrism, a kn
owledge of intercultural communication must be taught and implemented well by the people. With t
hose multi traditional culture we can imagine if all the indonesian society can have positive stereoty
pe for examples:


1. Multi Traditional Cultural Exposure in Classroom
Culture is often considered the core concept in intercultural communication. Intercultural communic
ation studies often focus on how cultural groups differ from one another (Gudykunst, 2002). Soler&
Jorda (2007) wrote intercultural relates to taking place or forming a communication between culture
s.
Aknowledge of Intercultural communication, and the ability to use it effectively, can help bridge cul
tural differences, mitigate problems, and assist in achieving more harmonious, productive relations(
Samovar, Porter, McDaniel, 2012, p. 8). Cultural differences includes the multi traditional cultural a
nd the supporting traditional value.
One of the ways to introduce and build well intercultural communication to multi cul
tural of people is teaching the students to respect one another and build a good cross cultural unders
tanding in order to avoid of negative side that can be created by the negative judgment such as stere
otype, prejudice or ethnocentrism that can destroy the unity.
It is needed a good cooperation in society and educational system how the children, s
tudents and young generation can learn about the positivism of diversity and multi culture.


9. Methodology of Study
Instrument
The study uses qualitative design which observation becomes the main instrument. The observation
was conducted in 2012. The observation was done in EED (English Education Department) classroo
m when the students were learning Cross Cultural Understanding (CCU) class.

Sample of the Study
The samples in this study are the students in State Islamic Jakarta University. They are students in E
nglish Education Department students who are in the sixth semester. There are 38 students

The Data collection
These are the steps in collecting data that is done before doing observation.
1. The CCU lecturer made a multi traditional culture exposure class.
2. The lecturer asked the students to divide themselves depends on the province they come fro
m and traditional cultures.
3. The lecturer gave them assignment to do the group presentation and performance to explain
about their own traditional cultures, traditional dances, traditional food, traditional value, and traditi
onal ceremonies in front of class one by one using English.
4. All the students brought traditional food based on the province where they come from.
5. After all presentation and doing traditional culture exposure, question and answer section, al
l the students are hug each other and hold hand together, then they enjoy to eat the traditional food t
ogether.


6. The Finding and Discussion
This is the table shows the names of the students and province they are from and their traditional cul
ture.

No. Name of Students Regional Traditional culture Traditional Language
1. Salamah Fajriah Jakarta Betawinese Betawinese
2. Mansyurah Sadiqah Jakarta Betawinese Betawinese
3. Restu Eka Putra Bekasi Javanese Javanese
4. Dian. K.A. Jambi (Sumatra) Jambinese Jambinese
5. Amalia Putri Bekasi Javanese Javanese
6. Dede Rika Kurnia Central Java Javanese Javanese
7. Wahyu Fitri Medan (North Sumatra) Bataknese Bataknese
8. Siti Rohimah Cilacap Javanese Javanese Cilacap
9. Wulantri Septiningrum Gombong Javanese
10. Ismi Putri Rahmah Bekasi Javanese Javanese
11. Taskiya Hamdah Ciputat Betawinese Betawinese
12. Septiani Wafda Bogor Sundanese Sundanese
13. Mahmud Badaruddin Bogor Sundanese Sundanese
14. Anita Latifah Jakarta Javanese Javanese
15. Annisa Febrinel Hendri Padang (West Sumatra) Minang Minang
16. Siti Ayu Subhiati Jakarta Javanese Javanese
17. Malya Ulfa Jakarta Betawinese Betawinese
18. Siti Ulfa Herdiyani Bogor Sundanese Sundanese
19. M. Noor Abdillah Bogor Sundanese Sundanese
20. Riyana Muntika Jakarta Javanese Javanese
21. Septia Susilowati Solo Javanese Javanese Solo
22. M. Subhan Jakarta Betawinese Betawinese
23. Arini Fitriyanti Jakarta Javanese Javanese
24. Shaumi Fitriyanti Bekasi Sundanese Sundanese
25. Sandi Asmoro Solo Javanese (Solo) Javanese Solo
26. Annisa Faradiba Gresik Javanese (East Java) Javanese
27. Ratna Sari West Java Sundanese Sundanese
28. Allen Subekti Tegal Javanese (Tegal) Javanese Tegal (Ngapak)
29. Wiwin Winingsih Malimping Sundanese Sundanese
30. Yona Erviani Jakarta Sundanese Sundanese
31. Ikrima Nurendah Jakarta Javanese Javanese
32. Novera Helsanita Aceh Aceh Aceh
33. Amalina Shomami Central Java Javanese Javanese
34. Yona Erfiani Bandung Sundanese Sundanese
35. Desi Irianti Jakarta Betawinese Betawinese
36. Nurul Fatmah Bogor Sundanese Sundanese
37. Utari Prabawati Bogor Sundanese Sundanese
38. Areta Wulandari Java Javanese Javanese

Based on observation, there are 38 students as sample. There are 6 students are Betawinese, their cu
ltures are Betawinese and they are from Jakarta, and Bekasi. As we know that Jakarta is the capital c
ity of Indonesia that the original people who live in are Betawinese. Then, there are 18 students are
Javanese. Javanese is the largest traditional culture that many people immigrate or do urbanization i
n almost the provinces of Indonesia. The uniqueness of Javanese is the students can explain that Jav
anese has so many uniqueness from one city in Java to other cities in Java. For example, the Javanes
e in Solo have difference in the softness of language compared to Javanese in Tegal that use ngapak
dialect. The Javanese students are from Tegal, Central Java, Gresik, Solo, Gombong and Cilacap. Fr
om the multi traditional cultural presentation, there is only 1 student are from West Sumatra (Padan
g) and she has Minang traditional culture. From North Sumatra (Batak) there is only 1 student, she i
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s Bataknese. However, Sundanese students are 11 students, they are from Bandung, West Java and
Bogor. From Aceh, there is one student only, and her traditional culture is Aceh. There is one studen
t from Jambi, and her traditional culture is Jambinese.
After the students explain about their traditional culture orally using English, all students enjoy eati
ng all the traditional food they are bringing to the class, each of the students explain the compositio
n and how to make it too, so other friends will learn and know the way to make it and even the histo
ry of the food.

The last session of multi traditional cultural exposure activity is the open opinion for all the student
about the positive judgment of each traditional culture. Some students` opinions are:
1. Javanese are polite people, soft and like helping others.
2. Aceh people is people who have very good obedient of Muslim rules.
3. Minang people are very smart in business management.
4. Bataknese are very discipline with the time.
5. Sundanese are soft and nice neighbor.
All the comment from students about other culture are positive, and they looks very happy, they lau
gh together, and they give comment about the delicious food, and that shows that multi traditional c
ultural exposure approach is successfully applied to engage good appreciation and communication t
hrough diversity.

Reference
Benedict Ruth. (1960).Pattern of Culture. England: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.
Kachru Yamuna And Larry E. Smith. (2008). Cultures, Contex, and World Englishes. New York: Ro
utledge.
Miller Jennifer, Alex Kostogriz and Margaret Gearon. (2009). Culturally and Linguistically Diverse
Classrooms New Dilemmas for Teachers. Great Britain: by the MPG Books Group.
Samovar Larry A. , Richard E. Porter, Edwin R. McDaniel. (2010). Communication Between Cultu
res, Seventh Edition. USA: Wardsword.
Samovar Larry A. , Richard E. Porter, Edwin R. McDaniel. (2012). Intercultural Communication: A
Reader, Thirteenth Edition. USA: Wardsword.




















HUMOR IN CHINESE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM - THE CREAM OF
LANGUAGE TEACHERS SPEECH ACT

Angus AngThiahHuat
Faculty Of Language And Communication
Sultan Idris Education University
thang@fbk.upsi.edu.my / thuatang@gmail.com



Abstract. Humor refer to an ability to perceive and express a sense of the clever or amusing humo
r consists
principallyin the recognition and expression of incongruities or peculiarities present in a conversatio
n context or
character. Humor is the quality of being funny and it is an art of human interaction based on a situati
on or context.
Language teaching and learning involves planning, organizing and practically present in the learnin
g situation that will
raise up the learning ability and interest of learners. As the additional to the language teaching skill,
the relationship of
teacherand learners in the classroom is the main factor to create a good language learning in the clas
sroom.Austin
(1962), theorized that language use is the sum total of utterances in speech in specific contexts. This
utterance of speech is called speech act. Human is using the utterance to do something and affecting
someone throughout the conversation.
In the context of the language classroom, a language teacher in order to assure the learners learning
with fun and
interesting, teachers utterance will definitely be motivated to learners. Humor is describe as the cr
eam of teachers
speech act.Since humor is describe as the quality of being funny and an art of human interaction bas
ed on a context.
This paper is presenting the facts that shows the humoristic in Chinese language learning classroom
will optimize the
learnerslearning interest.

Keywords:humor ,utterance,context,speech act

Introduction
Humor is part of virtually most social encounters.The use of humor and wit is intimately related to h
uman nature. Humorous statements are speech acts that have different functions in spoken and writt
en discourse; some involve social satire, a play on words, while others have as their target, criticism
of either men or women or a particular group, nation or race (Long and Graesser,1988). Humor in th
e classroom is an act performed through linguistic or nonlinguistic means by teacher).Confucius stat
ed that speech without text and artistic,it will not impress people. Teachers utterance will bring a su
btle influence on students.Their language is directly related to the merits of the quality of classroom
teaching,which restricts the teaching level of efficiency.Linsky(1963)stated that teachers language l
iteracy to a large extent determines the students mental efficiency in the classroom.Language teach
ers utterances should be accurate and concise in the sense of humor. Humor has the potential of cre
ating a more relaxed classroom atmosphere which in turn could cause students to experience lower
anxiety and to be more motivated (Wagner and Urios-Aparisi).
Austin(1962)in his speech act stated that the speaker has his motive to say out things to listener so t
hat the listener will react according to the utterance of the speaker.Language teachers speech act ne
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eds to contains humor as the important element to motivate students.Loomax and Moosavi(1998) su
ggest that the use of humor in the classroom reduces tense, improves classroom learning atmospher
e and therefore, humor will increases the enjoyment of learning. Schmitz(2002)point that the use of
humor in language courses, in addition to making classes more enjoyable, it can contribute to impro
ving students proficiency. The use of humor in language teaching is describeas the cream of teacher
s utterances in the language classroom.It will motivate students learning interest and also to strengt
hen the relationship of teacher and students.Nowadays,the students must be learn and know how
to learn. Moreover, the teacher need to make students happy to learn because they hate the borin
g exam orientated teaching and learning methods.They hope to be able to learn from the full of sens
e of humor teacher in the language learning classroom.In my supervision of my practical students in
secondary school,Iheard and received complaint from my practical teaching students that the studen
ts seems had lost their interest in studying Chinese language in school.Secondary school students ar
e under psychology independent period. Students need teachers to understand their needs of learnin
g and be able to communicate with them easily.Teacher who can integrate humor in teaching is alwa
ys beable to fulfill the students learning needs and demands.Laughter is generally subdued during c
onversation. Speech will dominate and laughter serves as a phrase break creating a punctuation effe
ct in language. It can allow the shy or timid student in the classroom to participate with group.This i
s a new teaching situation in Chinese language classroom.

The Importance of Research
Humor is a kind of wisdom,self-cultivation,creativity and ability.Language is the basic of knowledg
e.
Learning a language will need motivation and interest.Teacher need to use the humors to stimulate s
tudent in language classroom.If the student has shows the learning interest during the language lear
ning period, the teaching will become easy. Moreover, humor can make the learning process becom
e easy.The student will havethe interest to searchand create new knowledge.This will lead the stude
nt develop their study and learn the new knowledge. Students hope that teachers will integrate humo
r in teaching so that they can learn in a situation that full of fun and joy.The learning environment in
the classroom like this will optimized the learning process and therefore will guide the student to lea
rn and apply the knowledge in their actual daily life.
The objectives of this research are:
1. To explore the using of humorous language teaching in Chinese language classroom,the changes
of students learning interest.
2. To explore the feasibility of using humor in the Chinese teaching and learning classroom.
3. To explore after applying humor into the teaching classroom,the changes of teacher and student r
elationship.

This research is using the Sagors action research methodology.Sagor saction research method
(2008) is through the determination of focus of research action,confirmation of developing the actio
n,
development of teaching and learning research strategy,action to be taken to the process of teaching
and
learning, and also the students learning achievement. Then it will following with solving the actual
problems that found in the process of language teaching and learning and to be match with the rese
arch objectives.

Researcher doing the field observations in the classroom has to record the relevant information.The
n,
analysis to information which are obtained from the observation during teaching and learning in the
classroom.Observation research methods in the language classroom is based on several cycle observ
ation
study.Questionnaires has given to the students as the feedback method in the study of teacher using
humor
in teaching Chinese language. In order for the students to answer the questions in the questionnaires
, the
contentsof the questionnaire must be designed as simple as possible. In addition, researcher asked st
udents
questions that to gather the research objective and to show the unbiased factual information, especia
lly in thestudy of more complex issues to the different types of people is needed to understand the di
fferent types of materials.On-line interview is based on interviews with the respondents by using lan
guage and non-verbal communication method of investigation. It is not only face to face exchanges,
but interviewer using the internetto collect information from respondents. Interview with the Interne
t can reduce time and increases theefficiency of interviews process.Nowadays,students are fond of u
singFacebook.Therefore, interviews byusing internet will be easy and attractive to students.


The Application of Humor as a Method of Chinese Language Teaching

Humor in Chinese language teaching in different styles, from different angles, can be drawn a numb
er of categories. Teachers are often based on content and context and also the students character. Tea
chers carefully set up a humorous, in order to achieve the expected benefits. Innovation of humorou
s teaching style to
explore teaching materials and techniques.

Explore in Chinese textbooks, covered with a rich sense of humor material. This type of humor
material can always made students laugh.The laughter at the same time can let the students apprecia
te the
learning material. Humor in such materials can give the excavation, reappearing to students .Theref
ore, it
willenhance the sense of humor of teacher. For example,as the teacher teaching about the miserly of
a
greedy master, nature, teacher can select the interesting plot of the teaching material.When teacher
enter into theclassroom ,his eyes are stared at the chalk box and shouted I had rob the gold box! ".
This teachers humorous teaching method let the students surprise and laugh but thought deeply.

Discovering in humorous teaching materials, which is also in conjunction with innovation in specifi
c
teaching content or situational humor skills of teaching. This innovative humor, both designed in ad
vance
and spontaneously. For example: at one point, Chinese language teachers asked one girl stand up for
endorsements. She was looking at books while giving the answers.Then, some students reported her
cheating to Chinese language teacher. The Chinese language teacher was not accountable to her bac
k, but
very funny, said, "you probably don't know it, to peek is a very important capability, I'd want people
to
develop this capacity. ' The students laughed, but looked at him with doubt. He went on to say: ' pe
eking iswith eyes in the lightning speed from the pages you had passed through.The useof the faste
st speed
captured your need access to the information like this is called scan-speed reading. This is a very im
portant reading skills, that wouldnt you just use a little time to cultivate of it? Of course, during th
e examination,
you should not develop this ability you have.
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The teacher explanation caused gales of laughter from students. This spontaneous spark of humor th
at give the creation of an atmosphere of a friendly moderate. It did not undermine students ' enthusi
asm, but it gave the students are a well-intentioned advice and criticism. Flexible teaching like this c
an be full of excitement and meaningful art. This requires teachers to have a long practice. The guid
elines for teacher to integrate the humor in the language classroom:

1. Don't try too hard
Let humor arise naturally, encourage it, don't force it. Don't be discouraged if the first time it doesn't
meet your expectations. As Provine (2000) states, your reaction to their non-reaction (to a cartoon
for example) may be the most amusing part. Like all things, proper preparation is needed for prop
er delivery.
2. Do what fits your personality
A good language teacher as a good humor user in the language classroom will never force himself t
o use humor hardly during language class. Language teacher can easily try a different genre or ca
rtoon in the teaching because the class is made up of individuals with different tastes.
3. Don't use private humor or humor that leaves people out
The goal is not to become a comedian. The humor described here is through cartoons. It doesn't ma
ke fun of any particular group, nationality, etc ... Private humor, if teacher use it, should be for an af
fective reasons as wellused it carefully, never demeaning or sarcastic because it will hurt the student
s feeling.
4. Make humor an integral part of your class, rather then something special.
Humor works best as a natural on-going part of classroom learning. Teachers has to be very careful
so that they will not over use it. It could loose its value and effect. With practice you will develop
a style and comfort zone with humor.The use of humor will depend on the teaching content that a te
acher is teaching and theavailability of appropriate material. Language teachers should have a specif
ic goals or objectives in mind. Teacher who is using humor in teaching has to be well prepared. Wh
en humor is planned as part of the teaching strategy, a caring environment is established, there is an
attitude of flexibility, and an open style ofcommunication between student and teacher is always ha
ppens in the classroom.The tone is set allowing for human error with freedom to explore alternative
s in the learning situation. This reduces the authoritarian position of the teacher, allowing the teache
r to be a facilitator of the learning process. Fear and anxiety, only natural in a new and unknown situ
ation, becomes less of a threat, as a partnership between student and teacher is developed.

Humorous Style of Teaching in the Chinese Language Classroom

Modern teaching will not only require students to learn and to discover knowledge by themselves b
ut
italso to make the students study happily. Therefore, to achieve this purpose, humor is an important
way of
teaching language. Humor is one of the interesting and efficient ways of stimulating students learni
ng interest. Humorous teaching in the Chinese language classroom will be given the following bene
fits to the teacher and students:

A. Classroom as an Active Learning Environment

Classroom is an important part of teaching and learning location. Laughter will create a positive lear
ning environment in the classroom. It will bring teaching and learning easy, and effectively. In th
e active learning classroom, students can participate actively in the teaching and learning process. It
will help students learn by creatively and without tense. Humors will be the art of teaching. It will
motivate the students to learn happily.
B. The Lubricants of Teacher and Students Relationship

Humorous brings laughter and create a peaceful learning situation. This can avoid psychological dis
tance between teachers and students.Therefore, it will create a good teaching and learning environm
ent in the classroom. When teachers who are lack of a sense of humor is often behave simple and ru
de, the will bring the emotional confrontation between teachers and students. For example: a male
student in the Chinese language class often fond of talking nonsense in the classroom. In this situati
on, teacher can give him an advice without angry but with a smile, speaking of nonsense is to
consume a certain amount ofenergy, you're not trying to lose weight, right? '' This student will stop t
he nonsense and be silent. The others will not only be giving a happy smile but respect to the teache
r.

C.To stimulate students ' learning interest

One of the basic characteristics of humorous teaching is fun. It is closely related to the students ' lea
rning interest. The humor that integrated in language learning could lead to students ' emotional reso
nance, to stimulate students ' learning interest, to cause curiosity in learning and make dull into a spi
ritual enjoyment of learning. In short, humor can stimulate students desire to search for knowledge,
passion and power.

D. To improve students ' creative ability

Humorous in teaching is a sign of wisdom. Congress has a sense of humor. It can stimulus and deve
lop the creativity of the students. Humor helps the students to think and to reason because humor m
akes students feel comfortable without any stress. Therefore, students can develop innovative ideas
in a pleasant learning atmosphere. Students dare to envisage and creatively to receive new knowled
ge. This will be forming a positive learning attitude in the classroom since the students are more wil
ling to express themselves.

E.Consolidation of knowledge and memory

Humor can help students understand what they have learned. It can also deepen students ' memory.
From the psychological point of view, while students in the learning process, their brain will be fati
gue. If there is an appropriate use of humor in teaching, the laughter will gives a good relaxing mom
ent to students from time to time, so that it can reduce fatigue and to stimulate the brain. Therefore,
humor is to enhance the learning interest by creating a relaxing learning situation.


The Three principle Of Humorous Teaching In The Chinese Classroom
Humor as a means in teaching. It plays an important role by giving teachers pleasant and effi
cient completion of the task of teaching. Humor is used as the teaching tool, basically is not just con
tained the sense of humor to the general characteristics, but also has its educational functions. There
fore, in the teaching process, the use of humor in some of the principles has to be followed.

A. The Unity Of Solemn And Harmonic
Basically, the use of humor in teaching is a beautiful teaching art form, but it must use in th
e appropriate ways. The appropriate ways will reflected in the aspects of quantity and quality. If a la
nguage classroom although the humor is used constantly, the laughing is still with bitterly exists. Th
is will not only affect the learning content and objectives, it would lead to student boredom. For exa
mple, if a teacher saw some students dozing, he was publicly ridiculed, Do you know what it is pi
g's hobby?. This sarcastic style of humor though had amused everyone, its hurt the student's self-e
steem, The quality of using humor in teaching must not be vulgar humor, not simply as amusing an
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d humorous, not too much to joke, but has a high aesthetic value and educational value.

B. Humorous Teaching Is To Serve The Needs Of Teaching
Humor as a form of teaching teaching art, and its use is for the teaching towards success. Th
at sense of humor is not an end, but a means to achieve the teaching objectives. Therefore, the frequ
ency of use of humor and is determined by the needs of the teaching content of the decision. Humor
is often use to inspire teaching. Students will only learn through positive thinking and inquiry to k
now, appreciation and acceptance, andit takes the laughter had deep thinking or imagination, so that
teacher can motivate theirstudents to learn about the flexibility of thinking and creative imagination.
Humor for the purpose of motivate the students in a relaxed classroom atmosphere to acquir
e knowledge .If the teacher is using humor in teaching without any purposes and content of teaching
expense, it will be a waste of learning in the classroom.

C. To Fulfill The Actual Needs Of The Students
In teaching, the teacher is the embodiment of humor initiative, students are humorous percep
tion of the subject. If the humor in teaching is out of the students' needs, it is difficult to resonate, hu
mor may deform stale. The main target of using humor in teaching in the classroom is targeted at th
e students. Teaching which integrated with humor should be considered students understanding and
acceptance consistently. There are differences in the ability of thinking of the upper form secondary
school students and the lower form students. The ability of the thinking is depends on the perceptual
experience in the daily life .The lower form students mainly needs on direct experience in learning,
and the upper form students has gradually entered the situation of abstract thinking type because th
ey are in the rapid development of dialectical thinking stage. The upper form students are able to un
derstand the deeper meaning of the language thus humor should be different levels of use. If the lan
guage teacher do not consider the student lifeexperience, cultural background knowledge gaps caus
ed by both teachers and students, the students will not be appreciate the humor. Therefore, the conte
nt of teaching and the level of humor principally should consider the level of students understandin
g and acceptance. So that teachers and students will enjoy the refreshing sense of humor in the lang
uage classroom.

Conclusion

Humor in Chinese language classroom can increase students learning interest. Students disli
ke Chinese language class because teachers using lecture type of teaching. There is no any attractive
learning environment in the classroom. Humorous in teaching Chinese language can increase studen
ts learning interest. In addition, it will strengthen the teacher and students relationship in the classro
om. This will reduce the disciplinary problem in the Chinese language classroom. Since hum
or is the cream of teacher s speech act, it will make students easily accept teachers criticism and
instruction in the classroom. Thelearning environment will full of joy and inspiration.


References

Aboudan,R.(2009).Laugh and learn: Humor and learning a second language,International of Arts a
nd Sciences,3(3),1-4.

Avner,Z.(1988).Teaching and learning with humor: Experiment and replication,The Journal of
Experimental,57(1),1988,5-15.

Chiasson,P.E.(2002).Using humor in the second language classroom,The Internet TESL Journal,
7(3).Retrieved June 2nd 2013 from http://www.iteslj.org/Techniques/Chiasson_Humour.html

Doni,T.(2003).Laugh and learn.NewYork:Amacom Books.

Douglas,W.(2010).A humor competence curriculum,Tesol Quartely,4491),155-157.

Gilbert,H.(1989).The art of teaching.NewYork:Vintage Book.

Jane,B.R.(2008).Use of humor as a pedagogical tool.Educational Leadership,12(1),83-107.

Joan,G.,andDiane,M.C.(1990).The relationship of teacher use of humor in the classroom to
immediacy and student learning,Communication Education.39(1),46-62.

Johanna,S.D.S.(1992).Learning to communicate in the classroom,Studies in Second Language
Acquisition,1391),1-23.

John,R.S.(2002).Humor as a pedagogical tool in foreign language and translation courses,InternalJo
urnal of Humor Research,1591),89-113.

Mary,K.M.(2008).Using humor to maximize learning.Lanham:Rowman& Littlefield Publishing
Group,Inc.

Nancy,D.B.(2009).Learning about and through humor in the second language classroom,LanguageT
eaching Research,13(3),241-258.

Neelam,K.(1999).Using humor in the college classroom to enhance teaching effectiveness in dread
courses,College Student Journal,33(3),400-406.

Peter,M.(2002).Laughing matters.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

Ron,D.(2000).The use of humor as a teaching tool in the college classroom,NACTA Journal,1(1),
20-27.

Ronald,A.B.(2002).Humor as an instructional defibrillator.Virginia:Stylus Publishing.

SiewLian,C.(2009).Associations between Chinese language classroom environments and students
motivation to learn the language,Journal of Educational Developmental Psychology,9(1),
53-64.

Wanzer,M.B.(2006).Appropriate and inappropriate uses of humor by teachers,CommunicationEduc
ation,55(2),178-196.

Xiao,Y.(2006).Heritage learners in the Chinese language classroom,Heritage Language Journal,
4(1),47-56.

Ziv,A.(1988).Teaching and learning with humor:Experiment and replication,Journal of Experimenta
lEducation,57(1),5-15.





ILCC 2013
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Culture and Language Use

Author: Yuko Hoshino,
Okayama Prefectural University, Japan
hyuko80@hotmail.com

Abstract
We use languages to communicate every day. Not only our mother tongues, but we also try to learn
and speak foreign languages. It is exciting when we realize that we can understand people from diff
erent countries and cultures. It is exalting to be understood by them, as well. This is almost everybo
dys dream to be fluent in foreign languages. However, we have realized that it is not easy.

This study attempts to analyze why this is true using the cultures we were born into and grew up wit
h, and how we can improve the situation. It is hoped that the analysis can be applicable to other sim
ilar situations elsewhere. The subjects of the study are Japanese speakers who are trying to learn En
glish in universities. They usually have had 6 years of English education before coming to universit
y. Nevertheless, most of them complain that they cannot do anything with it. It is contradictory to t
he fact that they had to pass university entrance examinations, including English, and had studied fo
r them.

The author discusses typical problems Japanese speakers have when using English. These are:1) un
derstanding and selecting vocabulary, 2) flow of logic, 3) connection / cohesion, 4) cultural notion,
5) singular / plural nouns, 6) expressions, 7) attitude toward classroom participation, 8) attitude tow
ard learning, and 9) feeling for expressing oneself.Remedies are proposed for educators to apply to t
heir teaching.

Introduction
Cultures influence language usage. We have seen culturally specific expressions in various languag
es, such as rain cats and dogs in English and to listen to fragrance in Chinese. They can be misi
nterpreted or may not be used by people in different cultures. In learning foreign languages, one ca
nnot focus solely on grammatical rules or on simple vocabulary memorization. Knowledge and und
erstanding of background culture are also required for appropriate and accurate use of the language.
Through the analysis of learner mistakes and misuses of English by Japanese learners, the author att
empts to illustrate linguistic and cultural influence from the learners own. The mistakes and misus
es dealt in this paper are categorized into nine areas below.

Analysis of the problems
1. Understanding and selecting vocabulary
Typical students in Japan take at least 6 years of English courses in junior high and high schools. R
ecently, English program for grade school students has been introduced with the hope of improving
students proficiency in the future. After these courses, they usually take unified college entrance ex
aminations for various subjects including English. In order to attain good scores for the English exa
mination, students need to acquire a large amount of vocabulary in short time. There are numerous
books to helpthem prepare for the purpose. Most of the books are lists of English words with one or
two translated words in Japanese and also one or two sample sentences. By using these books, stud
ents tend to think that one Japanese word has only one equivalent in English and vice versa. Howev
er, as Suzuki (1973) pointed out that one English word might cover a different range of meanings in
Japanese. One such example is paper. In English, it can be a sheet of paper, a term paper, a manu
script, or a thesis. It may not occur to beginning level learners that they have to write papers.

2. Flow of logic
Probably the most striking difference for flow of logic between English and Japanese is the structur
e to write a formal piece of writing. Japanese learners of English often start writing about trivial thi
ngs in their lives, gradually develop them, and they turn around, and finally come to a rather unexpe
ctedconclusions. This is the typical course of writing in Japanese culture called Ki (starting) - Sho
(developing) Ten (Turing) - Ketsu (Ending, Conclusion). (Hoshino and Sanders, 2010) Japanese
children get exposed to this type of structure at the early age and continue to read and write this way
. Therefore, it is extremely difficult for them to write conclusions first and supply the supporting fa
cts and data later. Even in some academic papers by Japanese writers, conclusions are not found in
the abstracts. The author has been teaching relatively formal writing in English for Japanese colleg
e students, but almost 95 % of them do not initially follow the typical structure of Introduction (co
nclusions included) Body Conclusion even when the specific instruction was given before the
writing.

3. Connection / cohesion
It is an interesting coincidence that English adverb and conjunctionso means almost the same in J
apanese so. However, their usage can be different. In Japanese writing, so appears quite often.
Thus, Japanese learners tend to use so too many times to make their writings sound redundant. At
the same time, they feel confident that word so will connect two sentences tightly. As a result, the
y may not pay enough attention to consider the cohesion of the sentences and end up connecting tw
o rather separate ones.

4. Cultural notion
The author has been helping engineering students to write scientific papers for international confere
nces. We would think that science is universal and scientists write the universal way to communicat
e with each other. However, one can unintentionally explain facts with culturally specific notions as
if they are universal. The example is that a Japanese engineering researcher tried to explain that sol
ar energy was efficient and could benefit companies by offering to recharge their workers electric v
ehicles instead of paying commuting allowance. The additional payment for commuting between h
omes and offices is common in Japan, but that is not the case in most other countries. The writer w
as not aware of that and used this example to explain the advantage.

5. Singular /plural nouns
The problem with singular and plural nouns is not specific to Japanese. Chinese learners of English
also have similar problems. In these languages, apparently singular nouns can be plural in meaning,
and seemingly plural nouns can be singular, e.g. Tomo (friend)-dachi (plural suffix)should mean f
riends but can be a friend. Another example is Sensee (teacher)-gata (plural suffix) which can mea
n several teachers or teachers and some others (non-teachers). Due to this ambiguity in Japanese, Ja
panese learners do not pay much attention to the difference between singular and plural nouns and o
ften produce sentences such as I am student. and I have dog. (in fact, the writer may have sever
al dogs).

6.Expressions
There are always particular expressions in every language. In Japanese, shizen (nature) ga ippai (f
ull)is quite common to express the beauty of wilderness. This expression is often translated word t
o word into full of nature in English. Also, it is well-known that Japanese sentences often do not
clearly state their subjects. The subject of the sentence also may shift within a sentence without me
ntioning. This causes Japanese learners to write incomprehensible English sentences, such as New
production decided (The management has decided to manufacture new products) and went out to m
arket (the products went out to market).

7. Attitude toward classroom participation
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156

From grade schools to high schools, Japanese students are expected to listen to teachers, to absorb k
nowledge, and seldom have chances to speak out or ask questions. This general practice in learning
makes it very difficult for students to acquire usable skills in a foreign language. First of all, they d
o not feel that they should initiate conversations. Second, they are not used to asking questions. As
a result, when a teacher asks students to pair up and practice communication, they have trouble getti
ng started and to continue. The significant part of class time is often wasted because of this attitude.

8. Attitude toward learning
Due to the practice stated above, students will become quite passive about their own learning. Kno
wledge and answers are given, so they will wait for a teacher to tell themwhat to learn. They do not
think they should be responsible for their own learning. This situation becomes worse when student
s have to prepare for the college entrance examinations. They focus solely on the contents of the ex
aminations. The process of passing the examinations and getting into colleges will become their lea
rning goals. Thus, the majority of students lose their motivation for learning after coming to college
s. Their comprehension and skills in English naturally fade afterward. Because translation is widel
y available in Japan for foreign books, novels, movies, etc., people do not have problems on a daily
basis. This also contributes to losing motivation to learn English and other foreign languages.

9. Feeling for expressing oneself
Many Japanese students express their uneasiness for discussing their feelings, thoughts and ideas. It
is largely due to the education they have received up to college. Most often, a question has only on
e answer in classrooms. The students are not accustomedto open-ended questions or to talk about th
eir own ideas freely. They think that there should be only one right answer and they have to know it
before they speak out.Teachers tend to criticize the students if they make mistakes rather than encou
rage them to keep trying. These two typical tendencies createone-way classroom interaction only fr
om the teachers to the students, leaving very little space for expressing creative ideas and personal t
houghts. When student have been discouraged to express themselves throughout their school years,
they naturally hesitate to express themselves in foreign language practices. Furthermore, they may
have lost the desires to communicate at all. The author has found such students in every classroom
and had difficulty having interaction with them.

Discussion
We are born into our cultures and learn their symbols, heroes, rituals, practices, and values (Hofsted
e and Hofstede, 2005) from daily life practices, in schools, societies, etc. Students learn to believe t
hat words in their native language should have equivalents in other languages. They also think that
their logic is universal so that everybody in the world understands it. Educators should pay attentio
n to these learner believes and behaviors. They also should be patient to give these learners various
cultural information, practices, and time for them to change their beliefs and behaviors. Languages
are not independent from background cultures. Therefore, language classrooms need to include disc
ussions and practical activities for cultural understanding.

Suggestions for the problems
1. Understanding and selecting accurate and appropriate vocabulary
In order to have students aware of the difference in word meanings between their own language and
a foreign language, discussions on this topic should always be a part of language courses. It is a tim
e consuming process for the learners to change their tendency of one word to one word translation t
hey have been accustomed to during their college entrance examination preparation. The use of elec
tric dictionary has been making this situation worse. Educators need to be patient to monitor the lea
rners mistakes, misuses, and progress. Giving the learners many examples they have made in the p
ast during the discussion helps them becomemore aware of the problem. Handouts or a textbook of
lists of such examples are effective and helpful. In addition, including practices to choose better tra
nslating words is highly recommended.

2. Flow of logic
Providing writing practice sheets which is formatted as Introduction-Body-Conclusion has proven e
ffective. The learners need to write many times to internalize the flow of logic in English, so that th
is writing practice should be simple and short rather than complicated and long. Variation of the pra
ctice is the key to make the learners focused and motivated.

3. Connection / cohesion
This problem is two-fold. First, the learners do not pay enough attention to the connection and cohe
sion of their writing in their native language, Japanese, to begin with. Second, they try to translate
word to word, so that every so in Japanese will be translated into so in English. It is extremely
important to have them practice writing in Japanese first, have them think about the connection bet
ween sentences and paragraphs, then move on to write in English.

4. Cultural notion
Typical mistakes caused by different cultural notions can be discussed in class before writing or spe
aking in English, but covert ones have to be dealt with each time it appears in the learners writings
and speech.

5. Singular /plural nouns
This problem takes repeated practices for it does not exist in the learners native language. Extensiv
e reading in English can help reduce the problem, but the learners have to be reminded to check thei
r own language use. Teachers might have to reduce the grade for this type of mistake if it repeatedl
y occurs in order for the learners to pay more attention.

6. Expressions
Culturally specific expressions in English have to be memorized, but the practice can be made inter
esting. Grouping similar expressions makes it easierfor the learners. Comparing expressions in En
glish and in Japanese is another. The key is to make acquisition process enjoyable and rewarding w
ith encouragement and with good grades for trying to use them.

7. Attitude toward classroom participation
To promote active participation, teachers should create an environment in which the learners feel sa
fe to make mistakes. They should be reminded that trying is important and making mistakes is expe
cted or even encouraged. Once they feel comfortable, they start engaging themselves into classroo
m activities. In addition, they should be given ample amounts of praise and encouragement.

8. Attitude toward learning
When students are very young, their teachers decide what to teach and how. However, as the studen
ts become older, their interests and needs vary. That is the time they need to take responsibility for t
heir own learning. It is more so when they go out to the real world. However, changing from being
passive learners to becoming active learners can be a big step and is difficult. The students need ex
planations why they have to become active learners and need to know how to become so. Various s
trategies for learning such as described by Oxford (1990) should be introduced and be actually pract
iced hands-on with teachers (Hoshino, 2001).

9. Feeling for expressing oneself
This pose a most difficult challenge for Japanese learners and probably for some other Asian learner
s. Speaking ones thoughts, ideas, and feelings has been discouraged for them in classes and even at
home. Moreover, one might become very self-conscious around the age when s/he is in college. S/
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158

he needs to be reminded constantly that communication is for expressing oneself and for being unde
rstood. Teachers should create a welcoming atmosphere in class where the learners can talk about t
hemselves by encouraging, paying attention, and praising.

All in all, learners need encouragement and praise far more than educators can imagine in order to c
ontinue their learning. Because culture is very deeply embedded in us all, we unconsciously think a
nd act on it. Learners foreign language use is influenced by it, and teachers attitudes toward learne
rs is also influenced by it. The teachers should be open to the different values and practices in vario
us cultures and should introduce them in their classrooms.

References
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G.J. (2005). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, New York,
McGraw-Hill.
Hoshino, Y. (2001). Maximizing Class Time: Teaching Short Classes of Chinese, JALT 2001 proce
edings.
Hoshino, Y., Sanders, L.W. (2010). Cultivating Cultural Competencies through Various Classes. Pro
ceedings of International Conference on Engineering Education.
Suzuki, T. (1973). Kotoba to Bunka (Language and Culture), Tokyo, Iwanami Publishing.
Oxford, R. (2011). Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies, Pearson Longman.































The Impact of Indirect Feedback on L2 Learners in Learning English Language

Nazifah Hamidun1, Zaliza Zubir2 and Nur Farhinaa Othman 3
Centre of International Languages,
Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Malaysia



Corresponding Author: NazifahHamidun, ZalizaZubir and NurFarhinaa Othman
Centre of International Languages, Universiti Malaysia Perlis.
nazifahhamidun@unimap.edu.my, zaliza@unimap.edu.my
& nurfarhinaa@unimap.edu.my
________________________________________________________________________________
_______
Abstract.The effectiveness of feedback in language learning is widely acknowledged as it is one of t
he factors that promote noticing of linguistic feature and reduce the learners grammatical errors. Th
is paper presents the findings of a classroom research conducted for undergraduates of engineering s
tudents which to examine the impact of indirect feedback on their writing. Due to students languag
e inaccuracies, they tend to commit lots of grammatical errors in their writing. By trying to overco
me this issue, the instructors have taken the initiative to provide the indirect feedback to the student
s so that they are managed to improve it by identifying the errorswith the instructors guidance. If b
oth parties (instructors and students) are able to complement each other well, the lessons will be mu
ch more effective and successful. Therefore, the study is attempted to discover the impact of indire
ct feedback on L2 learners in learning English language. The researcher had carried out class obser
vations, interviews and analyzed the students writing throughout the semester. The students were p
ermanently arranged into two groups; treatment and control group. They were treated with indirect f
eedbackfor summary writing and extra exercises. The results revealed that indirect feedback had giv
en such a positive impact on undergraduates writing.
Keywords:Indirect Feedback, Writing, Grammatical Error


Introduction (Use "Header 1" Style)
Corrective feedback is a correction of error committed by the learners which plays an essential role
to second language learners in improving their linguistic accuracy and reducing the writing complex
ity. The more feedback received by the students on their writing, the better understanding will be pe
rceived by them in correcting errors in their writing. The issues and controversies on corrective feed
back has become prominent among the scholars in recent years as there are lots of contradictory vie
ws on the effectiveness of incorporating corrective feedback in writing development. Ellis (2009), B
itchener (2008), Guenette (2007) and Ferris (2004) indicated that the argument is due to the findings
of studies which shown to be inconclusive due to inadequate methodology, with the main problem t
hat most studies did not include a proper control group, the failures of students to employ the correc
ted errors in their new pieces of writing and too many errors discovered in the studies. Guenette (20
07) further explained that the different findings which led to conflicting interpretations of former stu
dies can be attributed to several different factors such as research design and methodology flaws an
d external variables uncontrolled by the researchers.
Different studies explore different aspects of feedback and that make the findings turn out to be simi
lar or vice versa. The main concern in this research is on the impact of indirect feedback on errors in
learners writing and the learners response toward the use of indirect feedback. In this perspective, t
he errors are referring to the grammatical errors committed by the L2 learners in written texts. Ashw
ell (2000) revealed that teachers believe that correcting the grammar of student writers work will he
lp them improve the accuracy of subsequent writing. Ferris and Roberts (2001) in their studies also i
ndicated that error correction in L2 writing classes shows that students who receive error feedback f
ILCC 2013
160

rom teachers improve in accuracy over time. In highlighting the grammatical errors on students wri
tten text, the instructors can employ the two major types of written corrective feedback such as dire
ct and indirect feedback. Various numbers of studies have distinguished between direct and indirect
feedback strategies as they facilitate greater accuracy in writing (Bitchener, 2008; Ferris, 2006; Liu,
2003; Lalande, 1982). Bitchener (2008) defined direct feedback is the provision of the correct lingui
stics form or structure above or near the linguistic error while indirect feedback is done by underlini
ng the errors in the students text to indicate that the students has made an error without actually cor
recting it (Ellis, 2009). Drawing from Lees study (2004), he defined direct feedback is when the tea
cher picks out errors and gives the correct forms, whereas indirect correction refers to situation whe
n the teacher marks that errors have been made but does not supply the correct forms. Bitchener (20
08) pointed out that there is distinction of coded and uncoded feedback. He added that coded feedba
ck points to the exact location of an error, and the type of error involved is indicated with a code (fo
r example, PS means an error in the use or form of the past simple tense). Uncoded feedback refers t
o instances when the teacher underlines an error, circles an error, or places an error tally in the marg
in, but, in each case, leaves the student to diagnose and correct the error. The present study is aimed
to contribute the findings to the body of research on corrective feedback in writing English by exam
ining the impact of uncoded indirect feedback to improve the L2s learners written text.

1. Methodology
1. The Participants
The participants involved in this study consist of 50 students majoring in engineering courses from
Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Malaysia who enrolled in this course namely Technical Com
munication. It was their second year at the university and Technical Communication is one of the un
iversity required courses. The major focus of this course is written communication where it covers t
he fundamental of technical writing as well grammatical structures. This study employs the qualitati
ve method by assessing the students summary writing, interviews and classroom observation. The p
articipants were permanently arranged into two groups; treatment and control group. The researcher
s provided the indirect feedback to the treatment group whereas control group received no correctio
n or feedback. The targeted three grammatical errors; Definite article, Simple Present Tense and Infi
nitive were chosen by the researchers since those errors were most identified in the students writing
. The same amount of time was spent teaching the summary writing of two groups.

2. Instructors observation and interview on the indirect feedback
Observations were carried out by the instructors to scrutinize the participants responses from both g
roups; treatment and control group after they obtained back their corrected summary writing from th
e instructors. In addition, interview was also conducted at the end of the treatment to obtain more re
sponses and views from the participants pertaining on the indirect feedback provided. Ten participa
nts from the treatment group were chosen randomly to ask questions on the indirect feedback that h
ad been provided to them.
3. The summary writing tasks
Each participant in both groups was assigned to write a summary for 150 words during 4 weeks peri
od. The researchers facilitated the participants on describing the trend and movement of the data bas
ed on the bar chart or line graph, utilization of appropriate vocabularies and determine the word limi
t for summary writing. The participants needed to summarize by interpreting the data and analyzing
it within 30 minutes. Their writings were assessed with the rubrics determined by the researchers. T
he tasks given to them were similar to their midterm assessment.

2. Data Analysis

2.1 Findings
2.1.1 Grammatical errors decreased in the L2 learners summary writing

The data analysis of students writing revealed that the treatment group receiving instructors indirec
t feedback predominate the non-feedback control group. The instructors indicated in the students wr
iting that errors existed but did not provide any correction. The purpose of did not providing the cor
rection was to offer them to diagnose it in details and did self-correcting on targeted grammatical er
rors. It was discovered that the students were able to scrutinize the mistakes, correct it independentl
y and apply it in the new piece of writing. It was noticed that their achievement in writing was incre
ased and they performed in their fourth week writing compared to the previous writings. Carles (20
06) also proved that students who receive feedback during the writing process have a clearer sense o
f how well they are performing and what they need to improve. Meanwhile, the centre of attention f
rom the control group was merely on the marks provided to them. They did not concern on the gram
matical errors committed in their writing as they were not highlighted by the instructors. In other w
ords, there is no improvement shown by them in terms of grammatical aspects from the first until th
e fourth week.

2.1.2 Instructors Observation and Interview

From the observation conducted in four weeks, it was noticed by the instructors that the students fro
m both group gave a different response when they handed back the summary writing to the students
. The instructors merely underlined their grammatical errors without providing the explicit guidance
to them. It can be seen that the treatment group paid the close attention to the uncoded indirect feed
back provided by the instructors by analyzing and revising the errors in their summary writing. Som
e of them who failed to diagnose the errors on their own made the initiative to consult with the instr
uctors after the class. On the other hand, the control group did not give any response or seek on furt
her explanation from the instructors regarding on grammatical aspects although they committed it in
their writing. The errors were not noticed by them as it was not highlighted by the instructors.
Furthermore, the students response drew from the interview claimed that the indirect feedbacks wer
e very practical and effective for them as they could correct the mistakes being highlighted by the in
structors. Ellis (2009) quoted from (Lalande, 1982) revealed that indirect feedback is indeed more e
ffective in enabling students to correct their errors. Moreover, the students also acknowledged that it
was not really easy for them to identify and diagnose the mistakes on their own but after a few week
s, they managed to correct it on their own by spending more time to study on it as well as obtaining
the guidance from the instructors. They further added that they preferred indirect feedback to be inc
orporated in the learning process frequently as they wanted to improve more in writing.

3. Discussion

Truscott (1996), the main opponent of error correction argued that error correction did not have a si
gnificant effect on improving L2 student writing. He suggested that the corrective feedback should
be abandoned as it is not neither effective nor useful, and even harmful for students learning. Never
theless, the result from this research is totally contradicted with his studies. It proves that incorporat
ing indirect feedback to the students has given such a great impact and fruitful as it contributes to re
duce the grammatical errors gradually in students writing and in the same time improve their gram
matical accuracy. This result is in same line with the other researchers who provided evidence that i
ndirect corrective feedback is to be more effective and helpful in reducing the errors on students es
say (Soori and AbdSamad, 2011; Bitchener, 2008; Ellis, 2009; Chandler, 2003; Ferris, 2000). Beuni
ngenet. al (2008) also supported by stating that students would benefit more from indirect corrective
feedback because they have to engage in more profound form of language processing as they are sel
f-editing their output. Ferris (2003) and Fratzen (2005) also stated that indirect error feedback is mo
re helpful on students long term writing development than direct error feedback. Hence, it is vital f
or the instructors to implement the indirect corrective feedback to the teaching and learning process
ILCC 2013
162

as it provides advantage to the students.
Additionally, it is also discovered in this study that the students in the treatment group demonstrate
d the better understanding on the targeted grammatical aspects being highlighted in their texts after
a couple of weeks. It is interesting to point out that the students are able to implement the three targ
eted grammatical aspects in the new piece of writing accurately. Ellis (2009) makes clear that indire
ct feedback is effective as it caters to guided learning and problem solving as well as encourages stu
dents to reflect about linguistic forms. Moreover, the participants from treatment group were seen m
ore responsible with their learning compared to the control group as they did their self-study on com
mon grammatical errors they committed in the writing. They also have changed their perspective to
be more focused and vigilant when they do the writing exercise in order to avoid from committing t
he grammatical errors.
Moreover, the students responses towards the indirect feedback are also positive as they become m
ore interested and enthusiastic to produce a better second writing. Jodaie and Farrokhi (2012) also i
ndicated that the participants in their studies have positive perceptions of written grammar feedback
after received the indirect feedback. The students also believed that they become more proficient an
d confidence in writing if the researchers provide the feedback adequately and consistently in classr
oom.

4.0 Conclusion
The utilization of indirect feedback in the teaching writing has undoubtedly produced the positive re
sults as it help to reduce grammatical in students writing. They have opportunity to revise their writ
ing products by implementing self-correcting in learning process which is valuable for long term eff
ects. The students also revealed a positive attitude and good response towards the use of indirect fee
dback which make the teaching and learning easy for researchers/instructors. In addition, the studen
ts who received the indirect feedback make a good progress in their English writing and performed
well compared to the students who received none feedback. After all, it is believed that the findings
of the study illustrated that the indirect feedback offers positive impact to the students and self-corre
ction ability is useful for them to be independent in learning the linguistic features. With all the findi
ngs from this study, a further research is recommended in the future in order to gain more insight on
the other facet of indirect feedback such as vocabularies or content to improve students writing in E
nglish language.

1. References

Ashwell, T. (2000). Patterns of teacher response to student writing in a multiple-draft composition c
lassroom: Is content feedback followed by form feedback the best method? Journal of Second Lang
uage Writing,9(3), 227- 257.

Beuningen, C. G. Van., Jong, N. H. De, &Kuiken, F. (2008).The effect of direct and indirect correcti
ve feedback on L2 Learners' written accuracy. Amsterdam Center for Language ad Communication,
279-296Retrieved from dare.uva.nl/document/168926.

Carless, D. (2006).Differing perceptions in the feedback process.Studies in Higher Education,31(2),
219-233.

Chandler, J. (2003). The efficacy of various kinds of error feedback for improvement in the accurac
y and fluency of L2 student writing.Journal of Second Language Writing, 1, 267296.

Ellis, R. (2009). A typology of written corrective feedback types.ELT Journal, 63 (2), 97-107. Retrie
ved from, http://lrc.cornell.edu/events/09docs/ellis.pdf
Guenette, D. (2007). Is feedback pedagogically correct? Research design issues in studies of feedb
ack on writing. Journal of Second Language Writing,16,4053.

Ferris, D. R. and B. Roberts. 2001. Error feedback in L2 writing classes: How explicit does it need
to be?.Journal of Second Language Writing,10,16184.

Ferris, D.R. (2003). Response to student writing :Implications for second language students. Mahwa
h, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Ferris, D.R. (2004). The grammar correctiondebate in L2 writing: Where are we, and where do w
e go from here?Journal of Second Language Writing,13,4962

Jodaie, M. &FarahmanFarrokhi.(2012). An exploration of private language Institute Teachers perce
ptions of written grammar feedback in EFL classes.English Language Teaching,5(2), 58-67. Retriev
ed from doi:10.5539/elt.v5n2p58.

Lee, I. (2004). Error correction in L2 secondary writing classrooms: The case of Hong Kong. .Journ
al of Second Language Writing,13, 285-312

Liu, J. (2003). The effect and affect of peer review in electronic versus traditional modes on L2 writ
ing. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 2, 193-227.

Truscott, J. (1996). The case against grammar correction in L2 writing classes.Language Learning,
46(2), 103-110. Retrieved from, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1996.tb01238.x

Soori, A. &ArshadAbd. Samad. (2011). The efficacy of immediate and delayed corrective feedback
in the correct use of English definite and indefinite article. Journal of American Science,7(4),349-35
4.
Retrieved from, http://academia.edu/3684367/The_Efficacy_of_of_Immediate_and_Delayed_Corre
ctive_Feedback_in_the_Correct_Use_of_English_Definite_and_Indefinite_Articles






















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THE IMPACT OF USING A REPETITIVE QUESTION SYSTEM OF TEACHING
ON COMPREHENSION OF ARABIC SYNTAX IN UNIVERSITIES
(A CASE STUDY OF INSANIAH UNIVERSITY COLLEGE)


(

: )
luqmanaganiy@yahoo.com




ABSTRACT

This research aimed to investigate the impact of using a repetitive question system of teaching on t
he comprehension of Arabic syntax in universities. Towards achieving this goal, the researcher carri
ed out an experimental research on a sample of (60) respondents from students of department of Ara
bic language in Insaniah University College Kedah, Malaysia. The sample was grouped into two eq
ually distributed groups namely: experimental and control groups. The experimental group was tuto
red by using repetitive question system of teaching while the control group was tutored by using the
traditional lecture style. Text based instructional material for both groups were prepared by the resea
rcher from a unit (Al-Asmaaul Al-Mansubah ) in the Arabic syntax text book (Alfiyatu
Ibnu Maliki ). The researcher used two tests (pre-test and post-test) to carry out the study.
The pre-test was used for both groups in order to evaluate both groups level of understanding on the
principles of Arabic syntax. After the pre-test, the researcher tutored both groups extensively for thr
ee weeks on the principle of Arabic syntax. Subsequently a post-test was carried out to measure the
differences in both teaching styles employed. For data analysis the researcher used independent sam
ple t-test to compare statistical means of both groups. The result of this study reveals that there is st
xperimental group which has been tutored using the repetitive question system. (Keywords: Repetiti
ve Question System Of Teaching, Comprehension, Arabic Syntax,)

Introduction
Surely effective teaching is needed to develop students intellectual ability. However, this is incomp
lete except if it is in tandem with current demands. The abundance of teaching technologies, method
s and strategies in the present century creates a lot of potentials for effective teaching.
It is presently observed that teaching Arabic syntax needs to be reinvented; because the students of
Arabic language in the present age are deficient in comprehending the subject. Nothing points to thi
s as the glaring mistakes the students make in speech, writing and reading Arabic language. This ma
kes the students love for the subject to be negatively affected. As a result of this, this researcher dee
med it fit to embark on a study on development of teaching methodology and technology in imparti
ng the knowledge of Arabic syntax. Possibly, this may help in changing the students perception and
motivate them towards the subject.
In response to the aforementioned, educationists have done various quantitative researches that have
resulted in development of different methods and strategies in teaching Arabic syntax.This isto enab
le effective teaching of the lecturers as well as sound intellectual development of the students in Ara
bic syntax. This is so because Arabic syntax is a tool that aids fluency and guide against mistake in
Arabic language. Hence, mastering Arabic syntax aids the students finesse of the languageAssayyid
( () 2991 ). These studies includesZaquut () and Al-Shakhsheer( ( ) 1001 ) which aims to
establish the effectiveness between lecturing method and discussion method in teaching Arabic syn
tax in Islamic university Gaza, the research sample for this study is eighty students and the sample
was distributed to two experimental groups. The result of the study established that there is no distin
ction between the two methods.
Amin () and lina ( () 1002 ) aims to establish the impact of using drama in teaching Arabic synta
x on the achievement of female students in grade 10 in Jordan. The study was carried with 120 stud
ents who were divided into two equal groups namely: control and experimental group. The result of
the study reveals that there is statistical significant difference at (0.05) between the achievements of
the two groups in favour of the experimental group that were tutored with drama.
Al-fifiy ( () 1020 ) aims to study the impact of solving problem method of teaching Arabic syntax
on primary students in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The study was carried with 46 students who were divi
ded into two equal groups namely: control and experimental group. The result of the study revealed
that there is a significant difference at 0.05 less between the two groups with the result favouring th
e experimental group and a significant difference between the two tests favouring the post test.

Research Problem and Research Question
This research was carried out in InsaniahUniversity College, a relatively new university established
by Kedah state Malaysia, in 1994 and opened in 1996 as a state private university. The university ha
s among its faculties four Islamic faculties among which the faculty of Arabic language was chosen
for the purpose of this research.
As a result of the researchers experience in terms of the weakness of students in comprehending th
e principles of Arabic syntax, the constant complaints of students on the difficulty of understanding
the subject, and the fact that in most cases students do find it difficult to ask or answer questions on
the subject in Insaniah University College. The researcher concluded that of all the challenges face
d by the students, inability of the students to participate in the class (ask or answer questions) is the
root cause of the problems. Hence, the researcher thought of a way to encourage the students partic
ipation in the class thereby enabling the tutors to evaluate their level of understanding on the subject
. In view of this, the research aims to answer the following question:
What is the impact of repetitive question system of teaching on teaching Arabic syntax in universiti
es?

Research Objectives
This research aims to achieve the following:
1. Understanding the extent of students weakness in comprehending Arabic syntax in universit
ies.
2. Improving the methodology of teaching the subject through the result of the research.
3. Understanding the impact of repetitive question system of teaching Arabic syntax in Univers
ities.



Research Hypothesis
1. There is statisticalsignificant difference at (0.05) between the mean of the two groups in the
pre and post tests results.
2. There is statistical significant difference at (0.05) between the students achievement in the t
wo groups as a result of the methods applied.
3. It is easy to develop the system of teaching Arabic syntax from the result of the research.

Significance of the Research
The significance of this research lies in aiding the teaching of Arabic syntax in Malaysian Universiti
es with emphasis on Insaniah University College. Also, it aids lecturers in employing a teaching sys
tem that is effective in motivating the Malaysian students and driving them towards scholarly contri
butions in the class; in order to improve the students level of understanding Arabic syntax in parti
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cular.

Limitation of the Research
The research is limited to testing the repetitive question of teaching Arabic syntax.
The population consists of students of Arabic language department of Insaniah UniversityCollege K
edah Malaysia.

Definition of terms
This research is centred on three terms namely: repetitive question systems, Traditional System of le
arning (Lecturing), and Arabic syntax achievements.

1. Repetitive Question System
Repetitive Question System is a task between two people; it is based on interaction between lecturer
and students. The lecturer imparts knowledge on the student from his knowledge of the subject and
stop intermittently to ask questions from the students on the immediate discussion; to evaluate the le
vel of comprehension of the students on the topic till he is assured of their full understanding of the
topic discussed. Therefore, in this system both the lecturers and students are active participants in th
e class. However, it is advisable for lecturers to be moderate in the use of the system, so as not to re
sult in boredom to the student in the classroom.

2. Traditionallecturing System.
Traditionallecturing Method is a task that connects two parts, the first is the lecturer and the second
is a specific group of students. In this system, the lecturer imparts his knowledge of the subject on t
he student while feeling accomplished with the performance of the students in final examination. Th
is system obviously does not identify individual differences among the students. Therefore, in this s
ystem the lecturers are active while the students remain passive in their participation during lectures
in the class.

3. Arabic Syntax Achievements
An Arabic syntax achievement is the evaluation system that is used to measure the performance of t
he students in the two tests (Pre Test and Post Test). These two tests are designed to evaluate the stu
dents understanding of Arabicsyntax and its use in speech, writing, and reading by the students.

Research Design and Methodology
This researcher used experimental method to explain the effectiveness of repetitive question system
of teaching onteaching Arabic syntax

Research Population and Sample
The researcher carried out the experimental research on sixty students of faculty of Arabic language
in Insaniah University College, of which the population is five hundred and sixty three, including b
oth local and international students from both sexes (Male and Female). The sixty students that ma
de the sample were divided into two equal groups namely; experimental and control groups.

Research Instruments
The researcher employed the following three instruments to carry out the research:
1. Lecture: the researcher organised three hours per week sessiontutorial for the students from
each groupfor three consecutive weeks.
2. Pre achievement Test: the researcher prepared forty questions for the pre- achievement test.
3. Post achievement Test: the researcher prepared fifty questions for the post- achievement test
.
Reliability and Validity
This researcher adopted the two questions for both tests from previous studies reviewed after the ne
eded adjustment has been made for this research. The questions were further evaluated by specialist
s in Arabic language and education. The researcher then carried out a pilot test with a sample of 22 s
tudents from the same population to ensure validity and reliability on the 29th day of March 2013.
The pilot test result revealed the suitability of the test for the evaluation of the students. Thus, the te
st can be used for the purpose of the research.
The research carried out pre achievement test to evaluate the level of understanding of both groups
on the subject. The results are shown in the table below:

Table 1. Pre achievement test result.
GROUPS NO. MEAN STANDARD DEVIATION T- TEST
Experimental G. 30 65.07 19.348 .556
Control Group 30 62.20 18.159

It is evident from the table above that there is no statistical significance difference between the two
groups.This shows the equality between the two groups in their level of understanding of the subject
prior to the test.
After the pre achievement test, the experimental group were tutored using repetitive question syste
m of teaching while the control group were tutored with the traditional method. The researcher tutor
ed the students on various topics on the subject. The topics include: The five Arabic objects, phrase
and Specification; these topics were selected from alfiyahibnumalik ( ) and are topics that
are treated in year two Insaniah University College. Then a post test Achievement test was carried o
ut on both groups with the aim of evaluating the achievement of the students after the tutorial on 20t
h day of April 2013.

The statistical method used
The researcher employed the following statistical method for testing the reliability and validity of th
e test, data analysis and the derivation of answers for research questions and hypothesis:
1. Crombach alpha
2. Descriptive statistics
3. Independent sample t-test

Research Results
In answering the research question What is the impact of using of repetitive question system of tea
ching in the teaching of Arabic syntax in universities? And testing the three hypotheses the emplo
yed t-test for comparisons between the two groups and the comparison between the pre achievement
test and post achievement test. Refer to table 2 below:

Table 2 T-test for comparison between the differences between the mean of the two groups
GROUPS NO. MEAN STANDARD DEVIATION T- TEST
Experimental G. 30 59.47 14.911 0.018
Control Group 30 49.93 15.434

It is clear from the table above that there is statistically significant difference between the two group
s with the result in favour of the experimental group at 0.05 significance which shows the effectiven
ess of the method employed over the traditionalmethod (lecture) in teaching Arabic Syntax.


Analysis of findings
From the result of the study, it is evident that There is statistical significant difference at 0.05 betw
een the mean of the two groups in the pre and post tests results which exposes the differences in th
ILCC 2013
168

e methodology. Based on past studies on similar experimental research on teaching methodologies o
f Arabic syntax, this result is identical with; study (2003) and study (2005) which also reports signif
icant difference at 0.05 or less between the two groups in the post achievement test on Arabic synta
x that favours experimental group.
Reasons for the success of the experimental group over the controlled group
1. The effectiveness of repetitive question method for teaching the students of Insaniah Univer
sity College.
2. The use of repetitive question method aided the student in experimental group to have excell
ent understanding of the subject.
3. The use of repetitive question method made the student in experimental group to be attentive
in the class in anticipation of questions thereby aiding excellent comprehension of the lectures.
In conclusion, the researcher discovered that the experimental group are distinct in their performanc
e because they were motivated to participate actively in the class.
Conclusion
1. The significant contribution of present study
2. The quality and the efficiency of repetitive question method are better compared to the tradit
ional method.
3. The excellence of the experimental group over the controlled group in understanding the Ara
bic syntax.
4. There is no statistical significant difference at 0.05 between the students achievement in the
two groups as a result of the methods applied.
5. There is need to ensure the development of appropriate teaching methodology for Arabic lan
guage especially Arabic syntax.


Recommendations
With reference to the result of the present study, the researcher recommends that:
1. There should be more flexibility in employing other reliable methods other than the traditio
nal method.
2. Repetitive method of teaching should made compulsory in delivery of lectures in Arabic syn
tax for Insaniah University college students because of its effectiveness in aiding excellent understa
nding of the subject.
3. Lecturers should be adequately trained on the repetitive method of teaching for it to be prop
erly used in teaching Arabic syntax.
4. The method of teaching Arabic syntax should be re-examined and the necessary method and
strategies be employed to suit current demands.
5. The Arabic syntax curriculum should be re-examined in Insaniah University.

References
.

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21 ( 1 ) 1001 .
(

.
) 2991 .
.
) :( 2342 / 1020 .
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) 1024 .
.

11 3 1020 .


Islamic Principles to enhance Effective Communication in Distant Education

Hasina Banu Shirin,
Institute of Education (INSTED)
International Islamic University (IIUM), Malaysia
Contact # 00600162245953
E-mail: hasinabanushirin@yahoo.com

Mohammad Serazul Islam
School of Business
University Kuala Lumpur (UniKL), Malaysia
Contact # 0060146238339
E-mail seraz_iium@yahoo.com



Abstract. Islamic principles in education refer to the rules of education which are prepared based on
the teaching of the Holy Quran and Sunnah. Accordingly effective communication in distant educa
tion denotes to exchange information between teacher and student. However, in this recent period it
is rare to find the application of Islamic principles in distant education system. Therefore for enhanc
ing Islamic education Islamic principles should be followed during communication in distant educat
ion. The aim of this paper was to create a conceptual framework based on Islamic principles for effe
ctive communication in distant education. The writers have used Moores (1991) transactional dista
nce theory to produce the conceptual framework for the communication of distant education.
Keywords:Effective communication, conceptual framework, Distant education, Islamic principles

1. Introduction
Effective communication refers to that communication process in which the communicators exchan
ge their messages and information among themselves; and their fundamental goals and objectives ar
e achieved positively. Distant education, on the other hand, is a process of delivering teaching and l
earning using various media sources such as radio, television, video tapes, printed materials, cassett
es, satellite and internet as well.
According to Schmidt and Gallegos (2001) distant education is the system of transfiguring a traditio
nal classroom teaching into a course instructed through different media like CD-ROM, internet and
so on. Working people do not have additional time to come any educational institution but are intere
sted to accomplish higher degree and to enhance their knowledge and experiences. They can get the
educational opportunities from distant education system.
Due to their personal occupation distant learners face difficulties to attend the traditional classroom
as regular students.Tesone and Ricci, (2003) argue, Distance education is suited for busy people w
ho wish to increase their knowledge and skills without giving up jobs, leaving home, or losing inco
me. Furthermore, distant learning in an Islamic educational institution must be assimilated with Isl
amic teaching. Through the educational institutions educators can propagate the beautiful moral teac
hing of the holy Quran and Sunnah. Accordingly, educators of an Islamic institution must have to p
repare curriculum which is more relevant to Islamic principles. The central objective of Islamic edu
cation is according to Halstead (2004, p.522) (i) aiding individual development, (ii) increasing und
erstanding of society and its social and moral rules and (iii) transmitting knowledge.

2. History of communication in distant education
Lecturers and the learners are the animated components for effective communication in distant educ
ation. Therefore, to establish this effective communication between teachers and students media pla
y an obligatory role. Frick (1991) says, The history of human communication, all the way through,
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170

develops in technology have powered exemplary modification in education. According to Moore (
1991) distant education depends on the effectiveness of the communication system and also the cont
ent of the dialog between instructor and student.
In the United States, in 1873, correspondence study, at present which is known as distant education,
was introduced to encourage independent study. At the beginning it was arranged for all classes fem
ale in the society. Mail, at that period, was the main communication system for teaching and learnin
g. Printed teaching elements sent through mail (Nasseh 1997). Over forty years this mail was the on
ly one process of communication. After that new technologies become the alternative way to comm
unicate between teacher and student. From 1910-1920 visual teaching, including slides and vivid pi
ctures, was added to the repertory of many extension units for communication, but for the most favo
rable technology to communicate was instructional radio (Nasseh B., 1997).
After the Second World War, television was deliberated as the communication system in distant edu
cation. During that time educators considered television instruction is not a system but an instrumen
t to transmit instruction in different places. According to the report of American National University
Extension Association (NUEA, 1969) in 1968 the name of the correspondence study has been chang
ed into the independent study; and for communication this new study system provided various optio
ns such as programmed instruction, telephone, television, videotape and other multimedia. Accordin
gly, during 1970s and 1080s the name of distant education was introduced instead of independence
study.
Nevertheless, Wright (1991) says, In the late 1970s and 1980s cable and satellite were used as a co
mmunication medium for distant education. According to the catalog of the Mind Extension Unive
rsity (MEU, 1991) in the United States, in the fall of 1991, eighteen educational institutions used th
e Mind Extension Universitys (MEU) educational Network as a means of communication to delive
r video course materials for distant education.
In addition, Neeley, Niemi, &Ehrhard, (1998) found that since 1995 in Northern Illinois University
(NIU), one of the first graduate level course was taught through teleconferencing in human resource
development. To them the distant education of Northern Illinois University (NIU) was success not o
nly for being higher education but also teaching the course continuously via teleconferencing.
In previous age, some individuals were unable to attend educational institutions to achieve higher e
ducation because the time of traditional classroom was diverged with their own work schedules. No
wadays, this scenario has been changed. People can acquire their Baccalaureates and Masters degre
es through distant education system which is instructed in two ways. One is through technology and
another way is teaching in traditional classroom. In this present era numerous number of universitie
s even colleges are offering this distant delivery system of education. The age level of 60% distant l
earners is over 45.

3. Communication in Islamic Perspective
The greatest and holy religion Islam inspires mankind to communicate with each other for establishi
ng a good relationship among the Ummah. This communication must be free from any prejudice b
ased on race, color, language, religion, culture or rationality so as to achieve peace, equality, brother
hood and prosperity in this world and salvation and the pleasure of Allah in the hereafter (AbdurRa
hman O. Olayiwola, 2010). In the Holy Quran Allah says,
Invite (mankind, O Muhammad) to the way of your Lord ( i,e. islam) with wisdom ( i.e. with the di
vine Revelation and the Quran) and fair preaching and argue with them in a way that is better (Sur
ah Al-Nahal; 125).
During Mecca period, Prophet Mohammad (peace be upon him) followed verbal communication sy
stem to disseminate the divine teaching received from Allah (swt). Later on, when he (peace be upo
n him) established Islamic Government he (sas) sent many letters to the chief of different provinces.
Through those letters he invited them to accept Islam as their religion and to learn Islamic knowledg
e. Therefore, these two forms of communication helped Prophet Mohammad (peace be upon him) to
propagate all information of Quranic teaching and messages of Islam. So performing a good deed
enhances any relationship or communication (AbdurRahman O. Olayiwola, 2010).Accordingly, re
garding Islamic communication Sarder (1993) cites,
Communication in Islam is intrinsically related to the fundamental Quranic concept of ilm. Often
translated as knowledge ilm is one of the most frequently occurring terms in the Quran.As a defin
ing concept of the worldview of Islam, its influence permeates all aspects of Muslim individual and
societal behaviour (p. 43).
In addition, the actual relationship between Allah (Creator of this universe) and human being is co
nsidered in terms of rububiyya-'ubudiyya(Lord-servant). Hence Allah (swt) teaches human being thr
ough His commanding speech and similarly we as human being learn by paying attention to His vo
ice through the text of the Qur'an and by submitting to his authority (Cornell, 2005). Quran is the
communication medium for teaching and learning between Allah (swt) and human being.
The Holy Quran introduces its own self as Ummul- Kitab sourcebook (13:39). In medieval A
rabic, the term kitab stood for any type of dictated communication, whether it was written or verbal
(Cornell, 2005). According to Cornell (2005) Quran accomplishes its act as the model of divine c
ommunication and it also acts as a type of teachers guide to divine pedagogy (Cornell, 2005). A
l-Quran is the representative of wisdom teaching. As Allah (swt) says,
Recite in the name of your Lord Who created, created mankind from a blood clot; Recite, for your
Lord is the most Noble, the one Who taught by means of the eternal pen (of revelation); Who taught
mankind what it did not know(96: 1-5).He revealed to you the Book (the Quran) and Hikmah (th
e Sunnah), and He taught you that which you did not know (4:113).
Therefore, from the verses mentioned above, it is obvious that there remain two communications m
edia for Allahs teaching namely written scripture, in the form of the revealed text of the Qur'an, an
d the subtextual Book of Wisdom that complements the written scripture (Cornell, 2005). From I
slamic perspective it can be said that Islam has a strong foundation for teaching learning communic
ation.

4. Barriers of Communication in Distant Education
The lecturers of distant education require to teach their courses live and it may be a studio class or
without a studio class. In this way they interact with the students. Consequently it is quite hard to th
e instructors to perceive whether the instruction is successful or not. Opposite phenomenon is seen i
n a traditional classroom because here the lecturers comprehend the needs of the students. Furtherm
ore, for producing an effective teaching learning environment instructors can observe the body lang
uage of the learners, their verbal response even their eye contact. Teachers are able to provide feedb
ack to the disciples to improve their learning.
On the other hand, in a distant class, teachers are unable to contact directly with the students. Even
instructors in interactive distance learning situations face limited interpersonal contact, and must rea
djust the manner in which they assess the response and understanding of students (Bower B. L., 20
01). Consequently students fail to get feedback directly rather they receive indirect feedback from t
he lecturers in delay. Therefore, it can be said that distant learners are separated geographically and
they are also isolated from their own fellows and teachers. They are bound to motivate towards lear
ning on their own. They can be considered as independent learners.
A lot of studies have been conducted on distant education (Bower B. L., 2001), distance learning pr
ograms for career (Tesone, D.V., & Ricci, P., 2003), Classes going the distance.... (Neeley, L., Niem
i, J.A., &Ehrhard, B.J., 1998), Distance Learning: Issues and Concerns of Distance Learners (Schmi
dt K.E. & Gallegos A., 2001). Notwithstanding, it is rear to get even a single article on the effective
communication system of distant education base on Islamic principles. Therefore, the paramount tar
get of this article is to generate a conceptual framework based on Islamic principles to enhance teac
her-learner communication in distant education.


5. Theoretical Framework
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In distant education system distance is considered geographically. However accroding to Moores
(1991) transactional distance theory, distance is not geographical rather it is pedagogical in nature.
This difference of thinking and comprehending must be overcome by all lecturers and learners who
are involved in any educational transaction (Moore & Kearsley, 1996).


Fig. 1: Michael G. Moores transactional Distance Model

Moores (1991) transactional Distance theory is established based on three variables namely dialogu
e, structure and learner autonomy. Here dialogue is the teacher-student communication transaction.
Teacher, in dialogue, deliver instruction to the students and students reply. Moore (1991) thinks dial
ogue as a significant component which is interconnected with the communication quality but not wi
th the communication frequency.
In addition regarding the three elements of Moores transactional Distance theory some scholars co
mments can be mentioned; because they dedicate their utmost exertions to ratify the theory through
their empirical research study. Therefore Crawford (2009) identifies that dialogue is termed as an int
erchange of arguments, activities and concepts between instructor and students. In dialogue the im
portant factor involved is communication (Crawford 2009). According to Saba (2000) novice learn
ers obtain skills and proficiency so their demand for dialogue become high and at that time transacti
onal distance between teachers and students starts to decrease.
Actually communication interaction of teacher-learner differs in accordance of learners educational
background, their knowledge of the course and their depth of curriculum (Saba, 2000). Again she (2
000) argues that transactional distance may vary constantly because it depends on what learners mu
st do to learn; and similarly what lecturers must accomplish to deliver teaching on every topic in tim
e. Moreover, the interactive communication characteristics of Web-based, distance learning enhanc
e student-instructor interaction (dialog), thereby reducing transactional distance (Burgess, 2006).
Structure, on the other hand, is the level of changing course elements to fulfill the specific demand
of some individual learners. According to Moore (1991) structure is a qualitative aspect not quantita
tive. Moreover, teaching elements are included in structure such as: (a) learning objectives, (b) the
matic content, (c) presentations, (d) case studies, (e) animations, (f) exercises, (g) projects, and (h) e
xams (Burgess., 2006). According to Burgess (2006) the flexibility or rigidity of a courses instruct
ional strategies, assessments and learning outcomes are also reflected in structure. It is obvious that
these instructional elements are sometimes strongly organized by the concern lecturers. And someti
mes course elements are totally free for the students to work independently.
In addition, according to Moore (1993) learner autonomy is the scope by which students instead of t
eachers, create the outlines of a learning program. He (1986) also thinks that teacher-centered teachi
ng approach always inspires pupils to be inactive receivers of teaching materials; and without being
thirsty for knowledge students depend on their teacher to get guideline and direction. Therefore, the
teacher-centered teaching approach was the dominating approach in distant higher-education system
because of the shortage of teaching media (Moore, 1993). Nevertheless, today in student-centered te
aching approach, lecturers are seen as counselors and facilitators as an alternative of directors and te
achers (Diaz, 2000). Nowadays, autonomous learners have been provided flexibility to select their l
earning style and this learner autonomous reduces transactional distance.
So according to Moore it can be considered that transactional distance and dialogue are in opposite
part to each other. If anyone of them increases then another one starts to decrease. Similarly the inc
rease of course structure leads to reduction of dialogue and consequently, transactional distance incr
eases (Giossosy, Koutsoube, Lionarakis ,&Skavantzos , 2013).
6. Conceptual Framework
Moores (1991) transactional distance model is only for secular distant education which is totally Isl
amic value free. His all arguments regarding each variable of the model are Western perspectives. H
owever, in Islam all educational models should be Islamic principles based. Consequently, to disse
minate Islamic teaching throughout the world especially the Muslim world Islamic value-laden educ
ational model can guide us properly.
1. Dialogue
Here Dialogue is the extent to exchange arguments and interact between teacher and student. Throu
gh dialogue teacher can provide Islamic teaching on Tawhid and the importance of Ibadah (worship
) to the distant students. The meaning of Tawhid refers to the oneness of Allah (swt). In this univers
e Allah is the only one Whom people should worship. It would be unforgivable sin if anyone believ
es that Allah has partner. This type of belief is known as shirk.
Tawhidic-value laden individuals including teacher and student must have to believe that without th
e will of Allah (swt) no additional authority in this world is able to do anything. There is nothing o
utside the power of Allah (swt) and in a more esoteric sense, nothing outside His Being, for there ca
n not be two orders of reality (Nasar, 1981, p. 7). In other words, Islam is not only a religion but it
is the complete way to lead our entire lives successfully. In distant education system during interacti
on or dialogue with the learners, lecturers can easily spread the tawhidic knowledge to inspire stude
nt to be tawhidic-value laden person.
According to Al-Ghazali the purpose of education is to nurture man who could follow the religious t
eaching and could be assured of salvation and happiness in the life hereafter. Mohd Kamal (1986) s
ays, The aim of education is to get preparation for the safety of both in this world and the world he
reafter. So it is very obvious that Islamic education, instruction and teaching are acts of worship t
o Allah when it is accomplished within the instructions of Islam and planned to gain Allahs Love (
MohamadJohdiSalleh, 2012). Therefore, teacher-student dialogue in distant education must be base
d on Islamic principles through which students could be able to worship Allah (swt) for the betterme
nt of this world as well as Akhirah.
2. Structure
Structure is the extent of altering course components which includes learning objectives, case studie
s, exercises projects and vice versa. In Western education all these teaching elements are prepared b
ased on Western thoughts. But in Islamic education each teaching element is prepared depending on
ilm, aql, ruh, nafs and qlb.
In order to elaborate Islamic educational communication ilm is considered as the most important ext
ent. Moreover, the paramount source of knowledge is ilm. Accordingly, aql, ruh, nafs and qlb are th
e blessing of Allah (swt). Through aql a man can elevate him to the highest status in the creation hie
rarchy. Ruh is the spirit, soul and qlbare the heart of human being. Purified ruh and qlb should be po
ssessed by every individual. These two are also rigorous to achieve worldly knowledge and reveale
d knowledge. Nafs always allure human being to do both right and wrong. A man needs to purify hi
s own self to be a good man.
By obeying Allahs order, performing five times solah, following all the rules of Islamic Monotheis
m people refine their nafs. In the Holy Quran Allah (swt) says, And indeed he fails who corrupts h
is own self (Ash- Shams, verse-10).Therefore for structuring teaching elements educators of Islami
c countries should follow Islamic teaching principles which includes ilm, aql, ruh, qlb and nafs.
1.3. Learners Autonomy
In learner autonomy students are to select the course outline. Western students create this outline ba
se on their secular knowledge. Contrarily, in an Islamic country distant students need to produce co
urse outline based on Islamic knowledge which includes iman and taqwa. Iman refers to the belief i
n Allah (swt), His Angels, His Books, His Messengers and in the Day of Judgment. Iman, in other w
ords, is an individuals secretive matter which reflects his level of relationship with Allah (swt). It i
s a primary pre-requisite state of belief, on which a comprehensive system of values, attitudes and d
evotional rituals is based (Muhammad I. Ayish, 2003).
Taqwa is the supreme individual, moral and ethical capacity to achieve higher level in iman. It neve
r provokes a person to be more hanker after for this worldly desire. It actually, refers to the fair of
Allah (swt) and it also guides a person against of doing any unethical thing. In every spare of a Mus
lim life taqwa should be considered as a reinforcement constituent. So distant students in Muslim co
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untries should select their course outline based on the Islamic principles which includes Iman and T
awqwa.
7. Recommendation and Conclusion
In distant education system educational authorities should follow Islamic principles while preparing
teaching module to disseminate Islamic knowledge. Consequently, distant teacher and students wou
ld be bound to share Islamic knowledge during communication. Moreover Islamic principles in edu
cation enable the teachers and students to be enriched as a good man physically, logically and menta
lly. Islamic principles help to purify all individuals nafs,qlb, ruh and it also assist to heighten our aq
l.
On the other hand, The Holy Quran and Sunnah are the main source of Islamic principles. T
herefore, Islamic teaching principles are designed based on the teaching of Quran and Sunnah. As a
result, while a teacher communicates with distant learners s/he should search the appropriate Islami
c principles relating to the lesson to deliver lecture. Nevertheless, lecturers can play a vital role to pr
omulgate the philosophy of Islamic principles among the distant students. Moreover, it can be consi
dered that teachers are more responsible to assist the students to construct their knowledge based on
Islamic principles. Similarly, a Muslims moral character must be reflected while conducting with ot
her individuals.
To gain Allahs pleasure Ummah should communicate with each other in a good manner. All princip
les of Islamic communication should be followed while communicating with others. We should not
give more priority on the worldly achievement neglecting the ethical and moral teaching of Islam.
We need to be ethical and truthful to others. So to communicate with others Prophet Mohammad (pe
ace be upon him) advises, You must speak the truth for the truth leads to virtue and virtue leads to
Paradise (Al- Bukhari& Muslim). It is praiseworthy that effective communication of any education
al institution or any projects depends on the actual practice of Islamic principles.

In this study the writers have attempted to establish a conceptual framework for the effective comm
unication of distant education based on Islamic principles. Nowadays many educational institutions
have already offered distant education system for those learners who are entirely unable to attend th
e class regularly due to the time confliction with the regular class and their own job. In a Muslim co
untry, distant education should be integrated with the Islamic principles so that educators and learne
rs can exchange their views from the Islamic sense. Without Islamic teaching Muslim individuals e
ducation is incomplete. Therefore Islamic principles have tremendous power to enhance effective co
mmunication in distant education and to fulfill education.

8. References
Al-Quran
Al- Bukhari& Muslim
Al-Ghazali's . On al-Ghazali's view of ethics, see Ihya' Ulum ad-Din, in particular,
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ON ASSOCIATION Papers, 1952-1987 (Predominantly, 1966-1977).

Bower B. L., (2001). Distance Education: Facing the Faculty challenges. Online
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y of West Georgia, Distance Education Center.
Burgess J. V., (2006). Transactional Distance theory and Student Satisfaction with
Web-based Distance Learning Courses. A Dissertation submitted to the department of Instructional
and performance Technology. The University of West Florida.
Cornell V. J., 92005). Teaching and Learning in the Quran. The Journal of Scriptual
Reasoning. November, 2005. A 2005, Society for Scriptual Reasoning.
Crawford J., (2009). Learning Theories that Encompass Distance Education. Learning
Theories Related to distance Education. Bois State University.
Diaz (2000).Carving a New Path for Distance Education Research. The Technology
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Frick W. T., (1991). Restructuring Education Through Technology, Issue 326

Giossosy Y., Koutsoube M., Lionarakis A., &Skavantzos K., (2013). Reconsidering
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Halstead, J. M., (2004) An Islamic concept of education. Comparative Education, 40
(4). pp. 517-529. ISSN 03050068
Ihya' Ulum ad-Din, vol. 2, p. 107-19.
M. Kamal Hassan (1986). Some dimensions of Islamic Education in Southest Asia
inTaufik Abdullah and Sharon Siddique (Eds), Islam and Society in Southest Asia, Singapore: Instit
ute of Southest Asian Studies.
Mind Extension University (1991).The Education Network.
Moore, M. (1991). Editorial: Distance education theory. The American Journal of
Distance Education, 5(3), 1-6.
Moore, M. (1993).Theory of transactional distance. In D. Keegan (Ed.), Theoretical
principles of distance education (pp. 22-38). London: Routledge.
Moore, M., &Kearsley, G. (1996).Distance education: A systems view. Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth.
Nasseh B., (1997). A Brief History of Distance Education.
Nasar, Seyyed Hussein (1981). Islamic Life and Thought. Albany: University of New
York Press.
Neeley, L., Niemi, J.A., &Ehrhard, B.J. (1998). Classes going the distance, so people
dont have to: Instructional opportunities for adult learners. T.H.E. Journal 26 (4), 72-74.
Saba, F. (2000). What is distance education? Defining the concepts and terms which
have characterized the field. Distance-Educator. Retrieved March 21, 2002, from http://www.distan
ce-educator.com/index1a101600.phtml
Sarder, Ziauddin (1993). Paper, Printing and Compact Disk: The making and
Unmaking of Islamic Culture.Media, Culture and Society 15, 43-59.
Salleh, MohamadJohdi (2012) Islamic principles of administration: implications on
practices in organization In: Technology, Science, Social Sciences and Humanities International Co
nference TeSSHI 2012, 14 - 15 November 2012, One Helang Hotel Langkawi.
Schmidt K.E. & Gallegos A.,(2001).Distance Learning: Issues and Concerns of
Distance Learners.Journal of Industrial Technology Volume 17, Number 3 May 2001 to July 200
1 www.nait.org
Tesone, D.V., & Ricci, P. (2003). Distance learning programs for career-
change business educators. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship. 8(1) 57-65.
University of Guelph (2002).Your learning connection.Open Learning. Guelph, ON.
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World Arien Mack, Editor. Volume







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A PRAGMATIC STUDY OF MEDIA WAR AGAINST MILITARY RULE IN NIGERIA
(1989-1999)

Mahfouz A. Adedimeji, Ph.D.,
Department of English,
University of Ilorin,
Ilorin, Nigeria.
mahfouzade2@yahoo.com
madedimeji@unilorin.edu.ng


Abstract
This paper examined the deployment of language as terrible weapons (Akinfeleye, 1988:112) by t
he Nigerian media in fighting military rule over a ten-year period in Nigeria. Based on the speech ac
t theory of pragmatics which construes utterances as not mere statements of truth and falsity but as a
ction-performing linguistic elements, the study highlighted the analysis of thirty headlines of News
watch, Tell and The News magazines in combating the military in the last decade of its rule in Niger
ia. The paper, while overviewing the Nigerian press, military rule and the three magazines, reported
the various speech acts engendering the casting of the various headlines as well as their analysis. It
concluded by affirming the truism of words being mightier than the sword and that language is pow
erful tool which can be used to achieve various results when deployed effectively.

Keywords: press, military, Newswatch, Tell, The News, speech acts, pragmatics.

1. Introduction
In the world of information or the Information Age in which we live today, the kind of langu
age that man uses, hears or reads, shapes, to a surprising extent, the world he lives. According to Bi
rk and Birk (1959:3), mere words can make and prevent wars, create understanding or inflame preju
dice, form constitutions or destroy them, sell shoddy or superior products or ideas, justify mans wo
rst actions or express his highest ideals. There is no substitute for words (Boulton, 1960:8) and it i
s through words that language attains its essence as a symbolic manifestation of experience (Broo
ks, 1964:99).
Language, as used by the media or press, both of which are used interchangeably, has been r
eckoned by Kwame Nkrumah (cited in Akinfeleye, 1988:120) as a weapon of fighting illiteracy, po
verty, ignorance and the essential weapon to overthrow colonialism. It is also considered a powerf
ul tool for construction and a powerful weapon for destruction and defense (Birk and Birk, 1959:1
9). The essence of language lies in its effectiveness in achieving the purpose for which it is meant. T
his paper highlights, using the pragmatic theory of speech-acts, how the Nigerian media, through th
e deployment of language, launched offensives on three military regimes over a ten-year period cul
minating in the successful attainment of democracy in 1999. It focuses on headlines of three news
magazines and concludes that the war of words waged on the Nigerian military regime was largely r
esponsible for the enthronement of democracy in the country.

2.0 The Diachrony of the Media and Military Rule in Nigeria
The media or press, which includes radio, television, wire services, newspapers, magazines and suc
h other channels of communication, evolved in the collection and dissemination of information (Olu
gbiji et.al 1994:117). The press is a pervasive, indispensable aspect of human existence without whi
ch the society will cease to exist; that is, if its members do not interact or share information (Okonk
wo, 1978:117). The primary responsibility of the press is to report accurately and wherever possible
, seek out the truth (Jason, 1997:115). According to Medubi (1999:109), there are four major functio
ns underpinning the responsibility of the press: information dissemination (i.e. reporting news and e
vents), education/interpretation (i.e. giving enlightenment and being a watchdog for the society), ser
vice function (providing services like advertisement, measures against health hazards, etc.) and ente
rtainment function.
While Ekwelie (1978:202-115) discusses the functions of the press from the viewpoints of (a) the ne
ws function, (b) the education-information function, (c) the economic function, (d) the opinion funct
ion and (e) entertainment and other functions, the over-arching duty of the press, as espoused by St.
Louis Despatch (cited in Agbese, 1997a:67-111) is to:
Fight for progress and reform and never tolerate injustice and corruption, always fight demagogues
of all parties, never belong to any party, always oppose privileged classes and public plunderers, ne
ver lack sympathy with the poor, always devoted to the public welfare, never be satisfied with merel
y printing the news, always be drastically independent, never be afraid to attack wrong, whether by
predatory plutocracy or predatory poverty.

The Nigerian press, regarded as the most outspoken volatile, witty and free in black Africa (Arnol
d 1977:113) started with Iwe Irohin Fun Awon Egba ati Ijebu published in 1859 by Henry Townse
nd in Abeokuta. More stables were to join the pioneering Iwe Irohin during the anti-colonial protest
and the nationalist struggles of the first half of the twentieth century. The press, after printing, is th
e oldest of the modern occupations in Nigeria, for there were pressmen before there were lawyers,
doctors, engineers and educationists (Dare, 1985:114).
With Independence attained on October 1, 1960 and the resultant freedom and awareness it brought
about, the Nigerian press blossomed with more newspapers, magazines and radio/television stations
. The birth of the Nigerian press is aptly captured by Golding and Elliot (cited in Oso, 1997:5) that
Nigerian journalism was created by anti-colonial protest, baptised in the waters of nationalist propa
ganda.
The post-independence era with its drastic, unprecedented socio-political changes, public enlighten
ment and economic crisis, heralded the emergence of more stables, all aimed at positive social chan
ge. The Nigerian press is not for the faint-hearted (Akinrinade, 1997:112) though to Alhaji Sheu S
hagari and some others, the Nigerian press is misleading... inept...mischievous...self-serving...illiter
ate (Newswatch, Jan.9, 1989-p.41). It is flamboyant and exuberant, especially with the long militar
y intervention in Nigerian politics, which ceased some fourteen years ago, which made it imbibe the
concept of advocacy journalism, which Oso (1997:10) defines as a practice of journalism where the
practitioner refuses to comply with the canon of the profession which compels him to be a disinteres
ted, impartial or neutral recorder of events, the journalist chooses and defines objectives, goals and
causes which he thinks and in public interest and uses his stories to canvass, champion, project and
defend such ideas.

The practitioners of advocacy journalism, which was the hallmark of the last decade of military rul
e in Nigeria, otherwise known as the radical press, the guerrilla press, the agitational press, the milit
ant press, etc. are, for the purpose of this study, are those journalists in Newswatch, Tell and The Ne
ws who launched psychological offensives, hauled linguistic missiles and deployed words as weapo
ns to confront the military.
Meanwhile, the history of the Nigerian press is replete will the gloomy pictures of suppression and r
epression by the state power, especially the military, which had ruled the country for more than thirt
y of its fifty years independence. The animosity and contempt that the military has for the press sur
faced just three years after its incursion into politics with the overthrow of the first civilian governm
ent. Thus, in November 1969, Daily Times was closed and its principal officers, including its Chair
man, Alhaji Babatunde Jose, were detained. The paper was eventually taken over (or captured) by
the Government in 1976 and the press had to be walking a tight rope.
The trial of the publishers of the African Spark, Dr. Ohanbamu, for an alleged false story against G
eneral Muritala Muhammed, the banning of Newbreed by General Olusegun Obasanjo and the shavi
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ng of the hair of Minerre Amakiri of the Tide on the orders of the then Rivers State Governor, Diette
Spiff, are just a few of the various infractions against the press before the second republic (Onanuga
, 1997:117). The return of the military on December 31, 1983 subjected the press in Nigeria to furth
er stiff legislations and official gagging. The notorious Decree No 4 of 1984 was promulgated by th
e Buhari/Idiagbon regime to protect public officers and the first victims of the decree were Tunde T
hompson and Nduka Irabor of The Guardian, who were jailed for publishing reports on Government
diplomatic postings, in addition to the newspaper being fined N50,000.00.
The assumption of power by General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida (IBB) on August 27, 1985 mark
ed a watershed in the annals of the military aversion to the free press. Series of harassment, hauntin
g, hunting, detention and intimidation of journalists characterised his government, which allegedly
murdered Mr. Dele Giwa, the founding Editor-in-Chief of Newswatch, through a letter bomb. Whe
n his phantom transition programme was on course, in 1989, IBB ordered the closure of The Guardi
an as it was later done for Concord. Previously, General Babangida had ordered the closure of News
watch for six months, based on argumentum baculinum (one based on force and power), on April 6,
1987.
The trying political period of the early 90s gave birth to Tell and The News, considered the most vi
brant Nigerian newsmagazines which more than any other publication... suffered the most harassm
ent (sic) in the hands of General Babangidas security agents (Olugboji et al. 1994:114), and which
were repeatedly shut in 1993 and 1994. In 1990 alone, at least five media houses were shut down b
y the Nigerian military authorities (Civil Liberty Organisation 1991:43) with scores of journalists ar
rested and traumatised.
The darkest period for the press was witnessed under the regime of General Sani Abacha who seize
d power on November 17, 1993 from the Interim National Government, which was headed by Chief
Earnest Shonekan. Barely a year after General Abacha seized power, more journalists had been arre
sted and detained than the combined number of those arrested in the Nigerian history (Olugboji et al
. 1994:2)
In July 1995, media organisations were asked to register with the Newspapers Registration Board, a
booby trap designed to further gag the watchdog. The order was challenged in court. In 1996, there
were several cases of detention of journalists, though no media house was shut. Six journalists were
incarcerated for alleged complicity in a coup plot and notable were the travails of Godwin Agbroko
of The Week, Eyiwumi Tosin of Vanguard, Richard Akinola and Muyiwa Daniel of Concord and Bu
nmi Aborishade, publisher of the defunct June 12 magazine.
With the self-succession bid of General Abacha and the public denunciation and disapprobation of s
uch as spear-headed by the press, 1997 was the year of Operation Total Crackdown (Headline, Tel
l, Nov. 24. 1997). Tension mounted up and by 1998, it was Murder incorporated (Headline, New
swatch March 2, 1986) again as Abacha Declares War (Headline, Tell August 29, 1994) on the tea
ming opposition. Cases of human rights violation of the journalists and the public at large were legi
on (Civil Liberty Organisation, 1991).
The assumption of power by General Abdulsalami Abubakar, after the sudden death of Gene
ral Abacha on June 8, 1998, brought relief to the besieged press and the embattled public. But the p
ress was too experienced to trust a seemingly unassuming military man. Having paid considerably f
or trusting General Babangida, General Abubakar was closely monitored, carefully attacked and con
tinually hit until he fulfilled his promise to hand over power to a civilian president.
Hence, to a considerable extent, General Abubakar was given the benefit of the doubt and was close
ly tackled and persistently covered by the media missiles until he fulfilled his promise. General Ab
ubakar eventually handed over to the democratically elected Chief Olusegun Obasanjo (on May 29,
1999) who was declared winner of the election, and who assumed power again twenty years after he
also voluntarily relinquished power to a civilian president, in the same manner.

3.0 An Overview of Newswatch, Tell and The News
The quest to use the power of language and its chief function of communication to transform
, or at least, sensitize the Nigerian public, was the impetus behind the establishment of the three ma
gazines sampled for this study. The three media organisation were conceptualised and born during
military regimes. The dictatorial, revolutionary undercurrents which characterise military rule perh
aps informed the militant, radical posture of the magazines in distilling their messages. One thing t
hey all have in common is courage and determination to articulate their views without minding who
se ox is gored in the process. To quote Onanuga (1997:42), the Editor-in-Chief of The News extensi
vely here is considered desirable:
Newswatch, The News and Tell were all established by journalists who were nurtured on the noble i
deals of journalism and who believe that the ideas must not be extinguished by the crushing weight
of the jackboot. Because these journalists cannot contemplate living without journalism, they are st
uck to publishing, jackboot threat, or no jackboot threat. For them, journalism is more than a busine
ss. It is a lifetime vocation. For them, their existence derived from the failure of the government m
edia to live up to their responsibilities to both the people and the government.

Newswatch magazine was founded by four editors, Dele Giwa, Ray Ekpu, Yakubu Muhammed and
Dan Agbese, all seasoned journalists. According to Dele Giwa, they wanted to build a magazine w
hich will be open even to the most radical of ideals, as long as they are positive-and well written (c
ited in Osundare, 1990:118). The magazine hit the news stands on the 28th of January, 1985, settin
g out with a moral mission powered by a human and fearless conscience, to help society grow whil
e itself growing in the process (Osundare, 1990:6). Barely two years after its inception, it became
an international award winning magazine and Dele Giwa had to pay the supreme price for the maga
zines radical views. Even though Newswatch became moderate and less critical of the gover
nment with time, probably for survival sake, it received further harassments under General Babangi
da and the succeeding military regime of General Abacha.
Tell, Nigerias independent weekly, is the quintessence of advocacy journalism, with its characteristi
c use of emotive language, sensational and populist appeal to emotion and public sentiments. The
language is also combative and negative, designed to portray the opposition camp in negative, de
precatory and threatening light (Oso, 1997:11). Its founding fathers are Nosa Igiebor, Dele Omotu
nde, Onome Osifo-Whiskey, Dare Babarinsa and Kolawole Ilori who all decamped from the Newsw
atch to pursue what Adeniyi (2001:111) refers to as a single-minded determination, a course that w
as to confer on it a golden plank of heroism.
The founders of Tell appear to have parted ways with Newswatch to pursue combat journalism from
which the latter was diverting. At its birth on the 18th of April, 1991, its editors thought of a magaz
ine intended to inform, educate and entertain the Nigerians (Adeniyi, 2001:12) and they remained
faithful to their ideals and their integrity. The magazine and its staff suffered untold hardships, hara
ssments, intimidation and persecution from the agents of Generals Babangida and Abacha.
Moreover, The News magazine was founded by the team of Bayo Onanuga, Sani Kabir, Idowu Oba
sa, Dapo Olorunyomi, Babafemi Ojudu, Kunle Ajibade and Seye Kehinde. The magazine, with the
motto, defining the present, shaping the future, began in January 1993 with a mission, according t
o Onanuga (cited in Oso, 1997:11), to
Be dedicated to the promotion of the principles of civilised nationalism, democracy, liberty and the
equality of the various ethnic groups of the Nigerian federation to partisanly neutral on the side of
truth, justice and good government.

The News maintained a defiant, militant position and expectedly stepped on powerful toes w
hich made it face trials and tribulations during the incumbency of General Babangida and General A
bacha administrations. Apart from roping one of its editors, Kunle Ajibade, into a phantom coup sa
ga which was almost fatal, the General Abacha regime saw to the mysterious disappearance of one
of its reporters, Bagauda Kalto. By 1994, a year after it hit the news stands, The News was voted b
y the Commonwealth Press Union (CPU) to have made the most outstanding contribution to the co
mmonwealth paper industry. The magazine, which claims to be fresh, spicy and authoritative, is ab
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out people, reporting their pains and their triumphs.

4.0 Pragmatics and the Speech Acts Theory
The word pragmatics derives from the Greek word pragma which means deed o
r action. The term pragmatics, according to Taylor (1998:118), was first used by Morris (1938) w
ho described it as one of the three (with syntax and semantics) component fields of semiotics. The
main goals of pragmatic theories, as Adegbija (1999:1989) avers, are to explain: how utterances in c
ontexts and in particular situations; how contexts contribute to the encoding and decoding of meani
ng; how speakers and hearers of utterances perceive them; how speakers can say one thing and mea
n something else; and how deductions are made in context with respect to what meaning has been e
ncoded in a particular utterance.
In other words, as Lawal (1997:152) proposes, pragmatic theories must revolve around speech act f
unctions, along with presuppositions, implicatures and mutual contextual beliefs (MCBs). Thus, th
e theory of pragmatics is that of meaning interpretation and pragmatic theories generally explicate t
he reasoning of speakers and hearers (Katz, 1977:19). Scholars and theorists like Bach and Harnish
(1979), Adegbija (1982), Leech (1983), Thomas (1995), Lawal (1995), Kreidler (1998), Osisanwo (
2003), among others, are unanimous in submitting that pragmatics accounts for specific meanings o
f utterances in particular social and situational contexts.
While pragmatics is important as it enables the understanding of the principles and procedures guidi
ng the interpretation of socio-cultural and contextual meanings of utterances, the aim of pragmatic t
heories is to explain how speakers of any language can use the sentences of that language to convey
messages which do not bear any necessary relation to the linguistic content of the sentence used (Ke
mpson, 1977).

The dominant theory of pragmatics is the theory of doing things with words, popularised by Austi
n (1962), one of its pioneering theorists. This is further advanced by Mey (2001:6) who describes th
e theory of pragmatics as follows:
Communication in society happens chiefly by means of language. However, the users of language, a
s social beings, communicate and use language on societys premises; society controls their access t
o the linguistic and communicative means. Pragmatics, as the study of the way humans use their lan
guage in communication, bases itself on a study of those premises and determines how they affect, a
nd effectualize, human language use.

Until the post-humous publication of Austin (1962), philosophers, especially the logical positivists,
had solely construed a sentence as either analytic or empirical. In other words, sentences were verif
ied as either true or false (Thomas, 1995:30) giving verve to what is studied in linguistics as truth co
nditional semantics.
Austin (1962) sets out to challenge this myopic approach to language, asserting that utteranc
es need not necessarily have truth conditions but are rather used to perform actions or carry out actu
al events. Austin differentiates between constatives (sentences that have truth /falsity values) and p
erformatives (sentences that do things with words). A speech act, according to Austin, is the total sit
uation in which the utterance is issued (Thomas, 1995:51). This concept has received further apprai
sal and modification by Austins student, Searle (1969) and a vast army of scholars including Bach
and Harnish, 1979; Adegbija, 1982; Levinson, 2003; Leech, 1983; Thomas, 1995; Yule, 1996; Lawa
l, 1995; Kreidler, 1998; Mey, 2001; Osisanwo, 2003; Odebunmi, 2006; Babatunde, 2007; and Sbisa,
2007.
Mey (2001:95) considers speech acts as verbal actions happening in the world. According to
him, uttering a speech act, I do something with my words. I perform an activity that at best intenti
onally brings about a change in the existing state of affairs. To Yule (1996:134), a speech act com
municates while Babatunde (2007:51) considers the thrust of the speech act theory as a consideratio
n of the social and linguistic contexts of language use. According to Adegbija (1998:44), the core pr
inciple of the speech-act theory is that in uttering a sentence, a speaker, besides making a propositio
n about a state of affairs in the world about the truth or falsity of a proposition, committing himsel
f to a future course of action, or making somebody else do something also performs an action suc
h as requesting, stating, commanding, or informing. The theory is relevant to media discourse as it h
as been found that news reports perform the illocutionary acts of advising, commending, warning, t
hreatening, condemning, highlighting and exposing (Adedimeji, 2005: 133-138).
Searle (1969), building on Austins work, defines speech acts as the basic or minimal units
of linguistic communication and goes further to develop his five illocutionary classes as: Represent
atives or Assertives (the speaker asserts a proposition to be true with verbs like affirm, boast, conclu
de, deny, report, etc.), Directives (the speaker wants the hearer to do something with verbs like orde
r, command, invite, insist, beg, entreat, etc.), Commissives (the speaker commits himself/herself to
a future course of action with verbs like pledge, promise, guarantee, vow, undertake, etc.), Expressi
ves (the speaker expresses an attitude to a phenomenon using such verbs as apologise, appreciate, c
ongratulate, deplore, detest, regret, etc.) and Declarations (the speaker changes the status or reality o
f a person, object or situation solely by making utterances like I name this art work Mona Lisa,
I pronounce you guilty, I sentence you to two years imprisonment (Adegbija, 1982; Odebunmi,
2006; Babatunde, 2007).
Speech acts are actions performed by the use of an utterance to communicate. They are the linguisti
c acts made while speaking, which have some social or interpersonal purposes and pragmatic effects
(Wales, 2001:363). Speech acts can either be direct or indirect. Direct speech acts are utterances tha
t are explicitly expressed. What is meant is clearly stated in direct speech acts. Indirect speech acts,
however, are utterances in which we say one thing and mean what we have said, and also mean anot
her illocution with a different propositional content (Adegbija, 1999:196).
Leech and Thomas (1990:191) see indirect speech acts as cases in which one illocutionary act is p
erformed indirectly, by way of another. While they assert that speakers use indirectness for politen
ess (Leech and Thomas, 1990:194), they cite factors such as clash of goals, instrumental rational
ity, wishing to say and not to say something simultaneously (by using indirectness, the speaker s
ays one thing and implies another, leaving him/herself an out in case of reprisals) and interestingn
ess as the motives for indirectness. A speech act, can also be locutionary, illocutionary and perlocut
ionary. The speech-act theory is considered relevant to literary works as observed by Pratt (1977:86)
thus:
Speech act theory provides a way of talking about utterances not only in terms of their surface gram
matical properties but also in terms of the context in which they are made, the intentions, attitudes, a
nd expectations of the participants, the relatrionships existing between participants, and generally, t
he unspoken rules and conventions that are understood to be in play when an utterance is made and
received.

This study adopts the set of speech acts proposed by Kreidler (1998) which tends to incorporate the
essentials of Austin and Searles classifications. According to Kreidler (1998:182-194), seven types
of utterances are identifiable based on their general purposes.
Assertives are concerned with facts that are subject to empirical investigation such as inform, r
eport, state, etc. (which relate to Searles Representatives). Performatives are those acts that brin
g about a change in the state of affairs they name, a category that corresponds to Austins Performati
ve utterances and Searles Declarations. The felicity condition of this category is that the speaker an
d hearer must be within an extralinguistic institution before they can perform. According to Krei
dler (1998:187), the speaker must be recognised as having the authority to make the statements. T
he circumstances must be appropriate and examples include resign, declare, sentence, exco
mmunicate, etc.
Verdictives, which are just like Austins, are acts in which the speaker makes an assessment
or judgement about the acts of the addressee; for example thank, accuse, rank, etc. Expressi
ves assess or evaluate the actions or failure of the speaker to act or perhaps the present result of t
ILCC 2013
182

hose actions or failures, for instance, apologise, confess, admit, etc. This category differs fr
om that of Searles Expressives because it is restrospective in nature, making an anaphoric reference
directly or indirectly to a previous situation; Searles is basically expressive as the term denotes.
Directives, on the other hand, are illocutionary acts by which the speaker tries to get the ad
dressee to perform some act or refrain from performing an act, the examples of which include co
mmand, direct, charge, forbid, warn, etc. This category corresponds directly to Searles D
irectives and is related to Austins Exercitives. While Commissives are speech acts that commit a
speaker to a course of action, e.g. agree, threaten, decline, promise, etc. which squarely m
atch Austins and Searles Commissives, the last Kreidlerian category, phatic utterances, derived f
rom the concept of phatic communion coined by Malinowski, is used to establish rapport betwee
n members of the same society. Examples here include greetings, farewells, polite formulas, etc. es
pecially when they are neither Verdictive nor Expressive in nature.
All the above classifications are part of the illocutionary act, with which the force of an utter
ance is made. As Kempson (1977:51) puts it, a speaker utters sentences with a particular meaning
(locutionary act) and with a particular force (illocutionary act) in order to achieve a certain effect (p
erlocutionary act) on the hearer. It is noted that the speech acts theory is chiefly the theory of illoc
utionary acts because illocutionary acts are the central objects of study of speech acts (Adegbite,
2000:76).

5.0 Data base
Three magazines namely Newswatch, Tell and The News are sampled. The magazines are se
lected on the basis of their prominence in the respective military regimes and the similarity of their
agenda. Ten headlines from each of the three magazines over a total period of ten years that marked
the highest point of agitation against military rule in Nigeria were selected. The data presented are i
n three groups, A, B and C. Group A data feature Newswatch headlines cast against General Baban
gida (between 1989 and 1993). Group B data constitute Tells fireworks against the government of
General Abacha (1993-1998) while the last group, Group C, presents The News attacks on General
Abubakar (1988-1999).
The following are headlines of Newswatch, Tell and The News:
Group A: Newswatch
(1)a N BEYOND REACH Feb. 13, 1989
(2)b IBBs Surprise Move The Sacking of AFRC Feb. 20, 1989
(3)c The 3rd Republic How New is the Constitution ? March 27, 1989
(4)d Is Judiciary in Retreat ? Jan. 29, 1990
(5)e Count down to 1992 IBB Changes Gear
In the Last Lap of the Race Sept. 10, 1990
(6)f Transition in Turmoil Oct. 26, 1992
(7)g 1993 to Be or Not To Be ? Nov. 16, 1992
(8)h Nation in Darkness Dec. 21, 1992
(9)i Hardship April 19, 1993
(10)j Standstill No Light No Water No Fuel More Strikes May 31, 1993
Group B: Tell
(11)a ABACHA DECLARES WAR The Role Emirs Played August 29, 1994
(12)b ABACHA MUST GO IN 1995- Military Commanders December 12, 1994
(13)c SECRET ACCOUNTS/HOW ASO ROCK LOOTED THE NATION
January 30, 1995
(14)d AMERICA SHAKES THE JUNTA Threatens Tougher Measures
September 11, 1995
(15)e PANIC GRIPS ASO ROCK Military On Red Alert December 4, 1995
(16)f ABACHA Vs ABACHA His Latest Plot to Succeed
Himself Whey He May Fail February, 17, 1997
(17)g THIS REGIME IS GODLESSIts Bound To Fail GANI February 24,1997
(18)h NO WAY FOR ABACHA Nigerians Say Enough is Enough April, 14, 1997
(19)i THE ODDS AGAINST ABACHA Self-Succession Plan in Trouble
June 9, 1997
(20)j OPPOSITION UNITES AGAINST ABACHA
We Can Die For Him... Daniel Kanu March 23, 1998

Group C: The News
(21)a. REVEALED ABUBAKARS AGENDA The IBB Connection 3 August, 1998
(22)b THE IGBO what have They Done ?
A Story of MARGINALISATION 10 August, 1998
(23)c. Guerrilla War in Niger Delta 14 September, 1998
(24)d. ABUBAKAR Agenda Unfolds Why He Cant
Sack Abacha Boys 5 October, 1998
(25)e. Abubakar GIVES UP 18 January 1999
(26)f Return of the CHAGOURIS How Abacha Business
Partners Penetrate Abubakar 1 February, 1999
(27)g. Rumpus in The MILITARY Bamaiyi Battles Abubakar 22 March, 1999
(28)h. THE RUSH TO Share Nigeria Abubakar Under Fire 29 March, 1999
(29)i. Abubakars FINAL COUP Obasanjo, Governors-Elect PANIC 12April, 1999
(30)j. The Soyinka Interview Abubakars Junta DUBIOUS 3 May, 1999
The summary of the analysis (see Adedimeji, 2002) is presented in the following table:


Data Speech Act Type Function
1 Indirect Verdictive Complaining
2 Indirect Expressive Reporting
3 Indirect Directive Questioning
4 Indirect Directive Questioning
5 Direct Assertive Stating
6 Indirect Verdictive Assessing
7 Indirect Verditive Questioning
8 Indirect Verdictive Complaining
9 Indirect Verdictive Complaining
10 Indirect Expressive Reporting
11 Direct Assertive Affirming
12 Direct Directive Commanding
13 Direct Expressive Reporting
14 Direct Assertive Threatening
15 Direct Assertive Threatening
16 Direct Expressive Informing
17 Direct Expressive Condemning
18 Direct Assertive Rejecting
19 Indirect Expressive Reporting
20 Direct Assertive Threatening
21 Indirect Expressive Exposing
22 Indirect Directive Questioning
23 Indirect Expressive Reporting
24 Indirect Verdictive Assessing
25 Direct Assertive Reporting
26 Direct Expressive Exposing
ILCC 2013
184

27 Direct Expressive Informing
28 Indirect Verdictive Assessing
29 Direct Assertive Stating
30 Indirect Verdictive Judging

6.0. Analysis
It is evident from the foregoing summary that indirect speech acts, which are utterances where one t
hing is said but another thing is meant with a different propositional content in addition to what is sa
id (Adegbija, 1999:196) or cases in which one illocutionary act is performed indirectly by way anot
her (Leech and Thomas, 1990: 191) are preponderant during General Babangidas regime (Group A
) constituting 90% while there is only one instance of direct speech acts or (utterances where what i
s meant is clearly stated) or 10% of the data. There are five verdictives, two expressives, two directi
ves and one assertive. In Group B or under General Abacha, however, there is only one indirect spe
ech act (10%) while most speech acts (90%) are direct, the opposite of the Group A result in that cat
egory. There are also five assertives, four expressives and one directive. In Group C or under Gener
al Abdulsalam, the distribution of direct and indirect speech acts is almost even at ratio 6:4 or 60% a
nd 40% respectively. There are also four expressives, three verdictives, two assertives, and one dire
ctive.
The result shows that the press, for certain reasons, did not criticise General Babangida directly. De
liberate attempt was made in the casting of the headlines to condemn him and his government in a s
ubtle way. Except in two instances, the name IBB was not mentioned as a strategy of avoiding conf
rontation, as much as possible. General Babangidas antecedents of allegedly masterminding the m
urder of the magazines founding Editor-in-Chief and his perceived deceptive, often cunning counte
nance, with which he consolidated himself in power, are some of the reasons for this approach of th
e press. There is a strong reliance on using images, colours and pictures which often lend themse
lves to divergent interpretations rather than verbal linguistic codes to achieve what Lascal (cited in
Leech and Thomas 1990:194) refers to an out in case of reprisals.
The language of the press was thus that of doubt and sceptism while his policies, programmes and t
he state of the nation were criticised with his name seldom mentioned in the headlines. It can be gai
nfully surmised that General Babangida was attacked without causing him a lot of damage, for fear
of reprisals, giving his previous antecedent and experience of the sampled press medium, Newswatc
h.
In other words, the press under General Babangidas leadership, within the scope of our data was cri
tical, but not combative, anti-status quo but diplomatic in approach. General Babangidas reaction t
o all these criticisms was repressing the media men and houses as well as forcefully quelling the var
ious protests under his regime. For instance, the January 30 1989 edition of Newswatch presented a
cover story highlighting various wicked measures taken by IBB to further gag the suppressed press.
The headline of the edition was aptly captioned Media Decree chaining the Watchdog.
Though thousands of civilians died under his practical step to subjugate the public including the v
olatile media, General Babangida was eventually forced to step aside from power on 26 August 1
993, replacing himself with Shonekan (Uweche, 1996:119). As such, General Babangida was defea
ted, at a high cost although.
In the Group B data, against what used to be the case under General Babangidas rule, there
was a tendency to directly confront and unapologetically criticise General Abacha. The language of
the press was highly combative, decidedly offensive with direct speech acts that amounted to lingui
stic missiles. The media left no stone unturned in condemning, rejecting, exposing, threatening and
attacking the General based on the perceived lessons of deception and hypocrisy learnt from Genera
l Babangida. Aso Rock, The Junta in respective frequency dominate the headlines where Aba
cha, mentioned in six out of ten instances, is not used, all in an attempt to portray the government o
f General Abacha the way it was perceived, without taking recourse to much indirectness. The text
s of the headlines are powerful and forceful with performative violent verbs selected for pragmati
c effect. It is entailed that given the prevailing autocratic ruthlessness of General Abacha, he should
also be fired by linguistic missiles ruthlessly. It is doubtable if any other Nigerian military leader ha
d been so terribly criticised, condemned and embarrassed by such level of language use.
The reaction of General Abacha to the media warfare and public demonstrations was brutal.
He brooked no dissent in unleashing a Reign of Terror on the nation, as the headline of Tell, 3rd
November 1997 indicates. His tyranny was thus unprecedented as he had the singular honour of
being the worst ruler Nigeria ever had (Uweche, 1996:2). All opposition regardless of being milit
ary or civilian, high or low, was decisively dealt a fatal blow.
However, despite the operation total crackdown launched by General Abacha and the resultant de
aths, closures (of press houses), detention and tortures of the ubiquitous opposition groups, the press
especially did not relent. The psychological warfare of the press arguably occasioned the heart-atta
ck General Abacha allegedly suffered, culminating in his unexpected death. Though, he did not surr
ender willingly to the linguistic power, he had to vacate the seat he so much coveted when he was g
ripped by the hands of death.
Definitely, the press attacks on General Abubakar, as the study shows, were not as serious as
those launched on the previous regimes. Much attention was given to uncovering the various atrocit
ies perpetrated by General Abacha. One can gainfully assert that he was being made to partly pay f
or the sins of his comrades-in-arms, the previous two rulers. There was a tendency, moreover, to mi
ldly criticise General Abubakar so that he would not attempt to truncate his transition programme as
the two Generals before him did. With appropriate word density and face threatening acts, General
Abubakar was covered to achieve the perlocutionary effect of not disappointing Nigerians.
Practically, General Abubakar reacted to the missiles against him by freeing all the political
detainees and others who were unjustifiably incarcerated by General Abacha. He was intimidated e
nough to announce an epoch-making less-than-a-year transition programme. His activities were clo
sely monitored and he made good his promise by conducting elections as scheduled and handing ov
er to a democratically elected president.

7.0 Concluding Remarks
This paper has shown that language to the press is like missiles, bombs and explosives to the
military: they are used to wage war or make peace as the situation warrants. In Nigeria, it is discov
ered, the press had been at the forefront of setting agenda and fighting the cause of democracy, the r
ule of law and justice in compliance with the opinion of Nnamdi Azikwe, one of Africas most gla
morous politicians and journalists, as quoted by Akinfeleye (1988:121) that, there is no better mea
ns to arouse African people than by power of pen and of the tongue.
During the worst decade of military rule in Nigeria (i.e.1989-1999), the scope of this study, headline
s were cast, projected and propelled with force as great and compelling as such could be to awak
en protest against the status quo and force the military out of power. A study of thirty headlines, ten
for each of the regimes of General Babangida, General Abacha and General Abubakar revealed the f
acets of assault on the military through linguistic (and non-linguistic) means by a selection of the Ni
gerian vocal media. It can be deduced that the press set the machinery for the eviction of General B
abangida in motion, practically chased General Abacha out of power (or out of this world) and blac
kmailed General Abubakar into quickly stepping out of power.
It is noted that the media did exceedingly well by fighting the military to achieve democracy
with the force of language deployed through speech acts. It is a challenge as well to the press to all
ow the hard-fought-for democracy to thrive as it should desist from all temptations to advertently or
inadvertently provide a springboard or excuse for military overthrow of the civilian government. T
he greatest of such temptations is the prevalent cancer of corruption which not only threatens the
credibility of the press but also its capacity to perform its constitutional roles and which has cau
ght the attention of serious-minded professionals (Aiyetan, 2002:112). It is believed that the rot i
n the media should be treated accordingly, at least, for the sake of democracy while truth should be i
ts hallmark, not lies in its various ramifications (Adedimeji, 2013). Lastly, the synopsis of this stud
ILCC 2013
186

y can be presented thus, in the words of a former Senate President and current Secretary to the Gove
rnment of the Federation, Anyim Pius Anyim, with whom we agree that:
The power of the media is, therefore, enormous and far reaching since the colonial era until this tim
e, government has seen the media as sometimes helpful, sometimes dangerous but always an indisp
ensable institution for social control (Sunday Punch, 2002:12).

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Improving Young Learners Vocabulary using Benteng-bentengan
Nisrin Adelyna Darayani
University of Muhammadiyah Malang


Corresponding Author: Nisrin Adelyna Darayani, University of Muhammadiyah Malang,
nisrinadelyna@gmail.com
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract.
It is widely believed that one of the substances of learning English is vocabulary. Not only becomes language componen
ts, also, it is as the basic of language. Structuring vocabulary to young learners is important because it sets up a strong b
asic in their mind to learn understandable vocabulary as it should be known by their ages. Besides, teaching to young le
arners is not that easy as we thought.
There has been considerable difference in teaching young learners and adult learners. Despite being tolerance, the abilit
y to perceive learning strategies and teaching media to ease teaching and learning process is needed for teacher. It is und
eniable that media plays important role to clarify the material to what the teacher explained, by means; it becomes the to
ol to have interaction between teacher and students.
Deciding a best media to teach young learners is not easy. A best chosen media is got by recognizing the characteristics
of young learners. One of alternative medias chosen using in this teaching vocabulary is Benteng-bentengan, one of I
ndonesia traditional games that has replaced by the existence of modern games in this era. In addition, Indonesia traditio
nal game is a game that plays together by people in a certain place. Moreover, it has numerous function such as to entert
ain and as one of instruments to keep up the tradition.
This traditional game can be played as teaching media in class, especially in teaching English as foreign language.
By playing this game, young learner not only enjoys the game, but it gives additional benefits for them such as to
gain their creativity, build up their togetherness and sympathy to other and also the use of language can be applied
as media to interact with their friends. Therefore, this media can be the alternative chosen to teach young learners
vocabulary.
Keywords: vocabulary, young learners, traditional game
Background
Considering the important role of English as widely spoken language, teaching English should have been tau
ght as early as possible to the children. Moreover, teaching young learners is not as easy as adult. The approp
riate technique in teaching English will help teachers to teach them.
According to Willis and Slattery (2004) said that one of the most stimulating techniques in teaching English
vocabulary is games; besides, the basic of teaching to young learners must be interesting and enjoyable. In ad
dition, not only entertaining and interesting, the chosen games as the technique in teaching English is conside
red to be implemented in all language skills as stated by Ersoz (2000).
There are many kinds of games to teach young learners. Here, traditional game is chosen as the technique in t
his research. Traditional game is a game that is passed to one generation to another in a particular culture. On
e game should undergo the test of time and its generation. One that survives will be passed for a long time (S
eagoe, 1971 in Hurlock, 1978.p.322). It is therefore, the researcher choose Benteng-bentengan to be impleme
nted as one of games in learning English.
This research has done at third grade students of SD Muhammadiyah 6 Dau where one of schools that condu
ct young learners education. Through this research is expected to get an alternative ways in teaching and im
proving young learners vocabulary mastery.

Theoretical framework

ILCC 2013
190

Giving instruction and skills in a classroom with the materials and use the approach, method, strategies and t
echnique to create the class effectively are called by teaching. In teaching, there is sequences of activities tha
t have the goal and planned well (Herrel and Jordan, 2004).
In teaching learning process, teachers usually prepare the teaching approach, strategy, method, and technique
.
Anthony (1963 in Brown, 1994:48) stated that approach is a set of assumption dealing with the nature of lang
uage, learning, and teaching. Brown (1994:51) stated that theoretical position and beliefs about the nature of
language, the nature of language learning and the applicability of both to pedagogical settings are called by a
pproach.
Herdian (2012) stated that teaching strategy is a kind of learning activity which has to be done by teachers an
d students to get the teaching goal effectively. There are two kinds of strategy from the way to deliver it; they
are inductive and deductive teaching strategy as mentioned by Senjaya (2008, in Herdian, 2012).
Teaching method is a way to implement the teaching strategy in a real activity (Herdian, 2012). He stated so
me kinds of method. They are speech, discussion, demonstration, simulation, laboratory, brainstorming, deba
te, and symposium.
Games are used by the researcher to teach English vocabulary at third grade students. Games are fun and chil
dren like to play them. And games add variation to a lesson and increase motivation by providing a plausible
incentive to use the target language. Remember that for many children between and twelve years, especially t
he youngest; language learning will not be the key motivation factor. Games can provide useful to the childre
n.

Research methodology
1. Research design
This research used experimental research one group pretest-posttest design to investigate whether or not teac
hing English games improves students vocabulary ability.
pretest treatment posttest
O
1
X O
2


Before giving any treatment to the students, they are given the pretest to know whether they have known the
kinds of profession and the activities in English or not. After getting the score from the pretest, the researcher
gave a treatment that is teaching English vocabulary using games technique. In the instruction, the students
played a game which is Benteng-bentengan using cards to help them. To know the impact of the games techn
ique in teaching English vocabulary mastery at third grade of SD Muhammadiyah 6 Dau, students are given t
he posttest which is the same questions as the pretest questions.

2. Research method
The instrument for data collection is written test that consist of 15 questions, that is multiple choice and matc
h form. The material is about the kinds of profession and the activities. Students are expected to mention kin
ds of profession and the activities.

3. Research findings
1. The condition of the students English vocabulary mastery at third grade students of SD Muhamma
diyah 6 Dau
The result showed that the students ability in English vocabulary is low. It reflected from the mean students
pretest score. They were in trouble to answer the questions. Furthermore, there are many students got the lo
w score; besides, some got high score. It shows the students ability in English vocabulary mastery. Not only
in multiple choices but also in matching the word, they got difficulty. In doing this pretest, some of them ofte
n asked about the questions. They did not know what the meaning of it.

2. The process of teaching English vocabulary mastery at fourth grade students of SD Muhammadiyah
6 Dau
This research used games technique, since it makes the young learners interested in learning a new English v
ocabulary and will be reached the goal of instruction easily. By doing game will make motivate them learnin
g English vocabulary and it provides the stimulus. While teaching English vocabulary mastery at third grade
students of SD Muhammadiyah 6 Dau, they were happy. In implementing the games, there are some instructi
ons followed by students. They are spelling the vocabulary and reading questions from the cards when playin
g the game. The cards are consisted some questions that should be asked by students to their friends. In doing
the games, the researcher explained how to play the games, and then the researcher gives an example for hel
ping the students are more understand how to play the games. After the students are ready to play, the researc
her gives them an opportunity to play the game which has done twice. After few a days, the teacher gave the
same questions as the pretest, for evaluating the effect of the games in improving the students vocabulary as
the posttest.

3. Data Analysis
Researcher has to analyze them in order to find out whether teaching using games improves students
vocabulary mastery or not. Here, a researcher needs to use t-test. This test is used to distinguish the effect of
a method for pre-test and post-test, and also to check whether the Null hypothesis is accepted or not
(Sudjiono, 2006:278). The level of significant or used was 5% because it is usually used in educational
research, and a form for t-test would be used as below.

Where:
t = the difference between two means
1
= average or mean of post-test score
2
= average or mean of pre-test score

N
1
= sum of students who take post-test
N
2
= sum of students who take pre-test

After the researcher found the t-value, she compared it with t-table. According to Levin (1999:25), the compa
rison is done by using the selected level of and the appropriate degree of freedom, df = N
1
+N
2
-2. Then, the
researcher saw the result on the table. If the t-value

is bigger than t-table value means that teaching using ga
mes does not improve students vocabulary mastery. On the contrary, if the t-value

is smaller than t-table, tea
ching using games improves students vocabulary mastery.
Besides using t-test, the researcher also used SPSS program to count t-value. Based on Laboratorium Kompu
ter UMM module, the Ho is accepted if t-value is between t table and +t table, and Ho is rejected if t-val
ue is not between t table and +t table.
4. Displaying the data

The following are the data of the score obtained from the pretest

No. Name Score
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Almas Nila E
Adam Dwi A.D
Ahmad Fadhil A
Balqis Saraja
Basti Mahbub Ibrahim
Cindy Claudia
Dimas Mahendra
Erieck Fajar Airlangga
Ghandi Miftakhul Ilmia
Hamdan Ashari
Ilham Nurhakim
Khusna Nur Lailatus S.
M. Bayu Prasetyo
M. Ilham Hidatullah
20
25
30
20
35
40
45
30
45
50
30
40
45
55
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15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
M. Nauval Amrullah
Moch. Ferlanda Maulana
Moh. Akmal Hakim
Moh. Iqbal Ashidiq
Moh. Izdiar Al Nafisi
Muh. Fakhruddin
Netto Angkasa Hayuningrat
Naufal Imaduddin
Nidaul Harmain Al Makzum
Qathrunnada Salsabila
Rizky Ramadhani Patawari
Selvi Nur Afiyah
Shofiyyah Rikhadatul Aisy
Yovani Kistiara Yanti
35
50
50
55
30
45
55
30
55
35
55
40
40
35

SUM 1120
Mean Score 40

Sum of Squared of Pretest (SS
2
)

Value






The pretest mean-score was used to find the sum of squared of pretest value or SS
2
value which would be us
ed in finding t-value. The SS
2
value was 3150.

The following are the data of the score obtained from the posttest
No. Name Score
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Almas Nila E
Adam Dwi A.D
Ahmad Fadhil A
Balqis Saraja
Basti Mahbub Ibrahim
Cindy Claudia
Dimas Mahendra
Erieck Fajar Airlangga
Ghandi Miftakhul Ilmia
Hamdan Ashari
Ilham Nurhakim
Khusna Nur Lailatus S.
M. Bayu Prasetyo
M. Ilham Hidatullah
M. Nauval Amrullah
Moch. Ferlanda Maulana
Moh. Akmal Hakim
Moh. Iqbal Ashidiq
Moh. Izdiar Al Nafisi
55
65
70
75
65
70
85
65
50
55
50
40
60
55
60
60
50
75
65
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
Muh. Fakhruddin
Netto Angkasa Hayuningrat
Naufal Imaduddin
Nidaul Harmain Al Makzum
Qathrunnada Salsabila
Rizky Ramadhani Patawari
Selvi Nur Afiyah
Shofiyyah Rikhadatul Aisy
Yovani Kistiara Yanti
50
70
55
65
75
75
80
85
50
SUM 1775
Mean Score 63.39

Sum of Squared of Posttest (SS
1
) Value





From the mean score, the sum of squared of posttest value or SS
1
value result was 3652.679.


t-TEST AND t-TABLE CALCULATION
t-test Value







t Table
= 5% = 0,05
df = N
1
+N
2
-2
df = 28+28-2
df = 54
t-table value = 1,684


t-TABLE DISTRIBUTION

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The Result of t-test
The mean of pretest score was 40 and posttest score was 63.39. The SS
1
value was 3652.679 and SS
2
value
was 3150. From the result of pretest and posttest and also the SS value above, the researcher found the result
of t-value. The t-value was 7.800 which was bigger than the t-table. The t-table was 1.684, with the level of s
ignificant or 5%. The calculation of t-test and t-table was stated above, and the t-table distribution was state
d above.
From SPSS result, the t-value was found -7.916 and t-table was 2.05 with the level of significant 5% and df
was 27.






Conclusions and suggestions
1. Conclusions
From the analysis result, this research showed that teaching English using game improved students vocabula
ry ability at SD Muhammadiyah 6 Dau. It is shown by the t-value which was bigger than t-table with level of
significant 5%. Moreover, the t-value in SPSS was not between t table and +t table.
The improvement was significant which was shown from the result of pretest mean score and posttest mean s
core. The mean score of pretest was 40 and the mean score of posttest was 63,39.

2. Suggestions
After finding the result of the study, the researcher gives some suggestions as below.
Teacher had to be creative to create and select the appropriate technique to teach English for young learners.
Teaching using games motivates students more in learning English.
The use of English in daily communicative will help students easily learn.

References
Slattery, Mary and Willis, Jane. 2009. English forPrimary Teachers. New York: Oxford University Press.
Herdian. 2012. Apa Perbedaannya: Model, Metode, Strategi, Pendekatan dan Teknik Pembelajaran.(http://he
rdy07.wordpress.com/2012/03/17/apa-perbedaannya-model-metode-strategi-pendekatan-dan-teknik-pembela
jaran/) Retrieved on 15 June 2013
Herrel, Adrienne and Jordan, Michael. 2004. Fifty Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners. New
Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
Levin, Irvin P. 1999. Relating Statistics and Experimental Design, an Introduction. Iowa: Sage Publication, I
nc.
Mutiah, Lutfatul. 2007. The Use of Games and Songs in Teaching English to the Fourth Grade Students at M
I AlGhazali Panjerejo Rejotangan Tulungagung. Unpublished thesis. Malang: UMM.
Sudijono, Anas. 2006. Pengantar Statistik Pendidikan. Jakarta: PT. Rajagrafindo Persada.












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MASTER OF TEACHER WEBSITE (MOTWEB):
E-LEARNING BASED APPLICATION AS A SYSTEM TO
IMPROVE TEACHERS COMPETENCY TO DEVELOP
TEACHERS QUALITY IN INDONESIA

Tika Novita Sari
1
, Wahyu Andi Saputra
2
and Tri Hardiyanti
3

1
Dept of Informatics Engineering Education, Yogyakarta State University

2
Dept of Informatics Engineering Education, Yogyakarta State University

3
Dept of Elementary School Teacher Education, Yogyakarta State University

Corresponding Author: Tri, Hardiyanti, Dept of Elementary School Teacher Education, Yogyakarta State
University, email address: triacheery@gmail.com/ tria_sabanewmail@yahoo.com
____________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract. In Indonesian Law number 14 year 2006/ chapter IV section 10, it is stated that teachers competency consi
st of pedagogy, personality, social, and professional aspects that were gotten from profession education. Those compete
nces are really important to improve the education quality in Indonesia. As known that the condition of education in Ind
onesia hasnt showed a significant increasing. According to Fasli Jalal (2008), the Board of Director of High School, al
most a half of 2,6 million teachers in Indonesia are considered that they havent eligible yet for teaching students in clas
s. Their qualifications havent met the 4 aspects that have to be qualified. Master of Teacher Website (MOTWeb) is a m
edia to improve teachers competency and also used as a media for teachers certification. The aim of this research are 1)
to design and make the MOT Web as a learning media for teacher, 2) knowing the coincidence and appropriateness of
MOT Web as an e-learning media to improve the competency of teacher and as an instrument test for teachers compete
ncy. The research method in this research is Research and Development method. The procedure in this research based o
n 10 Step and Development Model from Borg & Gall (1983: 775). Then we simplified this method into 4 steps, those
are : (1) Need Assessment, (2) Model design, (3) Implementation, and (4) Validation. This media were made by Moodle
, an open-source framework. There are some features in this website such as forum, e-books, exercises, and certificatio
n exams. In validation, there are Alpha Testing and Beta Testing. In Alpha testing, the authors do interview to 2 lecturers
. In Beta testing, this system was tested to 18 users and most of them said that this system is very useful and helpful wit
h appropriateness percentage is 70%. MOTWEB is really appropriate to be used as an e-learning media to increase teac
hers competence and as instrumental test for teachers qualification. The existence of MOTWEB gives the user much a
dvantages as an e-learning media to improve the competence of teacher, especially in pedagogic.

Keywords: MOTWEB, E-learning, Teacher Competence, Indonesian Teacher Quality
Introduction
In Indonesian Law number 14 year 2006/ chapter IV section 10, it is stated that teachers competency are
consist of pedagogy, personality, social, and professional aspect that were gotten from profession education.
Those competences are really important to improve the education quality in Indonesia. As known that the
condition of education in Indonesia hasnt show a significant increasing. According to Fasli Jalal (2008), the
Board of Director of High School, almost a half of 2,6 million teacher in Indonesia are considered that they
havent eligible yet for teaching the student in class. Competence does not satisfy qualifications as described
above. In fact, the teacher is the most important factor in improving the quality of education. As has already
been implemented in developing countries that the quality of education is much higher than Indonesia, the
ideal teacher by Anies Baswedan, Ph.D in Jodhi (2011) said that a teacher must master two basic concepts,
those are pedagogy and leadership. In terms of mastery of pedagogy, he said that teachers today must be
always be up-to-date on the development of science pedagogy.
Regulation of the Ministry of Education and Head of BKN number 03/V/PB/2010 and Number 14 Year
2010 dated May 6, 2010 which became effective on January 1, 2013, explained that the terms of promotion /
professorship of III / b to rank higher position shall implement self-development activities (training and
teacher collective activities) and scientific publications / innovative work (scientific papers, making props,
learning tools, technology work / art) .The self development in terms of this study, in line with the
Regulation of the Minister of National Education of the Republic of Indonesia Number 16 Year 2007 on the
Standards of Academic Qualifications and Competencies Teachers. The law states that teachers should be
able to take action to improve the quality of reflective learning by doing research.
On the other side, the development of Internet and technology in the world is very quickly. Indonesia is a
country consuming this technology and the internet to remote corners of the country-has been touched by
this progress. The development of the internet is being one of the main considerations for the government in
the implementation of teachers competency test Uji Kompetensi Guru (UKG) by online tests. UKG held
from 2012 it became the first step for the government to implement development programs and teacher
professional development in the form of continuing professional development activities. However, the
implementation of UKG is still lacking. Syawal Gultom (Gandi Makitan: Tempo 03/08/2012), said the
national average value of the results of calculations per July 1, 2012 was 47.84. This value is still considered
below the standard expected. In addition, the implementation of constraints in terms of implementation UKG
there are some teachers that is one of Junior High School teacher, discloses in using a computer that instantly
makes mental down because she is not familiar with the test online. (Dara in Hilda: 2012)
Therefore, the authors propose the concept of "MOT Web" to overcome the problems of teachers in
Indonesia by providing an online system that can be accessed in order to enhance teachers' pedagogical
competence and professionalism to every teacher in Indonesia. This system is an online web system. Each
teacher can obtain reference materials related to the research activities and questions to test the ability of
teachers to instantly find out how much a user (teacher) can encourage to constantly learn.
Goal of the Research
The aim of this research are 1) to design and make the MOT Web as a learning media for teacher, 2) knowing
the coincidence and appropriateness of MOT Web as an e-learning media to improve the competency of teac
her and as an instrument test for teachers competency.
Methodology
Research Design
The method that used in this research is the design approach or Research and Development method.
Procedures that used in the development of this software as it has been developed by experts and include 10
step models of the development of Borg and Gall (1983:775), which we simplify in 4 steps. In line with the
research and development of the model above, the procedures to be done in developing this MOT Web is the
steps: (1) needs analysis/need assesment, (2) design of the model, (3) Implementation, (4) and validation.
Need Analysis
The stage of the analysis phase that is to identify and obtain data on the needs what is required in the design
and implementation of systems and design thinking to the next. According to Pressman (2002:319), the
analysis is a process of discovery, improvement, and specification. In this stage, the identification of the data
required for system development. The steps that are taken in the analysis phase include: a) the analysis of the
technical specifications, that is: what are the analytical capabilities needed by the system, b) analysis of the
system, that is: an analysis of the performance of the work will be performed by the system being designed
or built.
Model Design
Architecture
The architectural design is an illustration for explaining the structure and the program modules represent
relationships between modules.
b. Interface
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Interface design is the design software interfaces in order for the user easily understand the purpose of the
software while the software is running as it should. With the appearance of the user-friendly interface, users
do not need to go too far to understand the programs that are difficult to understand, but the user interface,
they can run software more easily. Design flowchart is a picture of how these processes are derived from
user input will be processed in a software system.
Implementation
Implementation is the stage the modules translate the results into the design of the application form by using
a specific programming language and incorporate them into a more complete unified system. The steps that
must be done in the implementation are: (a) collect and choose the modules that will be translated into a
programming language, (b) determine the required programs to support programs that have been designed,
(c) translating procedures, subroutines and functions -function of the modules into the programming
language, (d) unify procedures, subroutines and functions of modules that have been made into the unity
program.
Validation
Software testing is the process of executing the program to find errors. Before the program is applied, then
the program must first free from errors. Therefore, the program should be tested to find errors that may
occur. Testing is done for each module and continued with testing for all the modules that have been strung
together. Testing in field research techniques includes Alpha Test and Beta Test. Alpha Test is the process of
testing and revision of the program took place at the time of creation Software. This process includes an
assessment of the aspects of the media and programming aspects. It required an expert media and
programming experts who can objectively assess the software that has been created
Object Research
Object of research is making Master Of Teacher Website (MOT Web). This website development is to
improve the professional competence of teachers and pedagogic competence in particular. The target that we
use in this research is a continuity of the program students study Primary School Teacher Education,
Yogyakarta State University.
Data Collection Techniques
Collection techniques in this research use two stages. First, use the measurements of program functions in
accordance with a predetermined plan. Second, the media expert and matter expert related with precision
manufacturing, software benefits for teachers or questionnaire to assess the feasibility of software Mot Web.
Data Analysis
Data analysis techniques for the first phase is described as the result of engineering information systems are
implemented in software, and the level of validation and reliability testing program. The second phase, also
uses descriptive qualitative, that explained about the feasibility of the product to be implemented.
Furthermore, the data that is processed communicative with the expected number and percentage obtained.






The feasibility of measurement for matter experts and media experts are as follows


Eligibility percentage (%)
Xy
Xt
X 100%



Where Xt is the score of eligibility; Xy = maximum score;% = percentage of viability. The collected data
were analyzed by qualitative descriptive analysis techniques disclosed in the frequency distribution and
percentage of category rating scale that has been determined as a percentage of the presentation, then draw
conclusions about each indicator.
Results and Discussion
Development Procedure
This website was made by using Moodle framework. There are some function that can be used from Moodle
library, they are forum, course, resource, quiz, and agenda
Testing Procedure
The testing procedure in this research was tested to media expert and content expert. Media testing is testing
process and revision to the program during the producing. It includes assessment of the appereance. Thats
why this testing need an expert who can assess objectively. Content testing is related to the content, those are
the material and quize.
The second testing is tested to the student of Elementary School Education from Yogyakarta State University.
The reason why we choose this student is because they are involved in education and aware to technology d
evelopment.
The result
Architectural Design
MOT Web

Forum

Soal

Materi

Chat

Upload

Berdasar mata
pelajaran

Berdasar mata
pelajaran



Picture 1. Architecture Design

The description of every menu are:
1. Forum
Used for interaction between teacher and each other teacher. In this forum, teacher can deliver their
feeling, complaint, material, or publication of their research.
2. Exercise
This website has some various kind of exercise. Those are competence tes, science, social,
Indonesian, Math subject. There also duration or time period during the test. And after the test is
over, this website will show the correct answer for them.
3. Material/content
This menu will provide some material of every subject for teacher. This menu also will show
announcements, news, calendar, and guidance for research.
The login form divided into 2 forms, those are general visitor and member. The general visitor is a
visitor who doesnt registered as a member. The member are teacher who have been registered by
the admin. The differences content between general visitor and member are the material, quiz,
content, and news are more specific and comprehensive.


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200


Picture 2. General Visitor Login Form Picture 3. Teacher Login

Interface




Picture 4.Interface design of website Picture 5. Procedur

Implementation
Implementation is applying the design of the step before. This website was made by using an open source L
MS (Learning Management System) from Moodle . the step of making this website are:
Seeking the content and material
Purchasing the domain of the website
Purchasing the domain name
Installation Moodle on our webhosting
Configuration over internet
Choosing theme
Uploading the material
Maintenance


Here is the result:

Picutre 6. The interface of MOTWEB

After the website is ready, then the website must be tested by developer (including all aspect, unction, and us
ability system). The result of the test
Result of Validity Test
Media Expert Data

Num. Name NIP Expertise
1. Yuniar Indrihapsari, M.
Eng
198206212010122002 Interactive Multimedi
a
2. Unik Ambarwati, M.Pd 19791014 2005012001 Learning Strategies
Matter Expert Data
Num Nama NIP Expertise
1. Ikhlasul Ardi Nugraha,
M.Pd
198206232006041001 Elementary schoo
l science teaching
Feasibility Test Results Pictures
Num. Component Assesment
1 2 3 4 5
Material aspects
1. Suitability competency test materials with grille competenc
y test

2. Conformity with subject matter competence pedagogy
3. Suitability of the material with the development of professi
onal competencies

4. Substance suitability website has been created with the Min
istry of National Education website

Aspects of information clarity
5. interface design
6. Clarity of instructions for using the menu
7. Grouping information for each field category
8. Clarity of exam questions and results are displayed
Aspects of usefulness
9. Use of the website for the development of pedagogical com
petence

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202

10. Use the website as a means to exercise primary school teach
er UKG

11. The use of websites to measure the ability of teachers in wo
rking.

12. Use the website as a means of exchanging information thro
ugh the establishment of a forum.


From the test results and retrieval of data can be analyzed the performance and quality of media. In
the alpha stage of testing, no revision is obtained from the questionnaire design experts and media.
Category:
16% - 32% = do not deserve to be tested
33% - 49% = less worthy to be tested
50% - 66% = good enough to be tested
67% - 83% = worth to be tested
84% - 100% = very feasible to be tested
Media Expert 1:
Eligibility percentage (%)
Xy
Xt
X 100% =
60
42
X 100% = 70 % % (Worth to be tested)
Media Expert 2:
Eligibility percentage =
60
44
X 100% = 73,33 % (Worth to be tested)
Matter Expert :
Eligibility percentage =
55
41
X 100% = 74,54 % (Worth to be tested)
Num Critic from Media Expert and Matter Expert
1. Text / font is too small (Log in, etc)
2. Be Focused on material
3. Fulfill the information
4. The menu that is using English to be translate into Indones
ia language.

Individual Testing
The external testing are taken from 3 random respondents from students of PGSD UNY that will checking th
e function and usability. The researcher provides online questionnaire.
Num. Name NIM PKS PGSD
1. Murwantana 10108247051
2. Fika Chilmi R 10108247071
3. Yustina Martini 10108247063

The material of the questionnaire are:
Num. Question Result
1. Usefulness of the webs
ite
The website is very useful, very helpful in sharing a
nd information-exchaning between each teacher.
2. Content The content are need to be improve
3. Quiz The quizzes are interesting and developing
4. Material The material is still need some innovation
5. Forum Chat, forum, and news are interesting and developin
g 6. Chat
7. News
8. Critic and Suggestion Need some revision and development in order to hel
p the teacher competency
Need some new innovation
The material need to be enhanced

Discusstion
Based on expert analysis of data media and design experts above this website earn approppriateness percentage for 70%
that means this website is approppriate to be used as an e-learning media. On the second testing, from different expert, t
hey said that this media need some revision on bigger font size. Beside that, the experts are suggested us to enhance th
e material. And on this second testing, the approppriateness percentage is increasing to 73,33%.The third testing is mate
rial testing. The expert suggest to translate the English menu to Indonesian. Other than that, this website need some extr
a help menu to give more information for the user. The approppriateness percentage is 74,54% that means apprippriate t
o be used with some revision. External testing is tested to 3 random respondents. And the result are: this website is quite
useful, and the quiz is interesting. This competence test is an extra feature which become a good point for this website.
The forum and chat menu also interact the users. Some critics that gotten from them is that this website need to enhance
the amterial and concerning the teaching proccess such as method, strategy, nad model.Based on tha dat analysis, Mas
ter Of Teacher Website is approppriate to be used with some revision, especially enhancing the material so that this we
bsite can be used as a media that will increase teachers competence.
Conclution
From the results obtained by means of making the following conclusions:
Master Of Teacher Website creation (MOTWeb) using software engineering principles. The first phase of
the needs analysis, design, implementation (coding), testing, and maintenance.
Media and material test results of three lecturer experts showed a percentage of 70% and 73.33% on the test
medium and 74.54% on test material. This media expert test results indicate that the tested media worthy and
fit for use in some revision course with content.
References
Aboedhari, H.M. (1985). Strategi Pusat Pengembangan Guru dalam Meningkatkan Mutu Pendidikan Guru
Tenaga Teknis Kependidikan Lainya. Makalah disampaikan dalam sarasehan dan forum komunikasi VI
FPIPS dan JPIPS FKIP/ STKIP se Indonesia di Kampus IKIP Malang.
Arikunto, S. (1990). Managemen Pengajaran Secara Manusiawi. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta.
Bernadib, Imam dan Sutari Imam Barnadib. 1995. Beberapa Aspek Ilmu Pendidikan. Yogyakarta: Penerbit
Andi.
Clark, Ruth Colvin and Mayer, Richard E. 2011. E-Learning and the Science of Instruction. San Francisco:
Pfeiffer
Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan RI. (1994). Pedoman Pembinaan Profesional Guru Sekolah Dasar.
Jakarta: Direktorat Jendral Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah.
Departemen Pendidikan Nasional. (2008). Sertifikasi Guru dalam Jabatan Tahun 2008, Buku 5 Rambu-
rambu Pelaksanaan Pendidikan dan Latihan Profesi Guru(PLPG). Jakarta: Depdiknas.
GadiMakitan. (2012). Hasil uji kompetensi guru masih di bawah harapan. Website:
http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2012/08/03/079421057/hasil-uji-kompetensi-guru-masih-di-bawah-harapan.
Diambil pada tanggal 17 agustus 2012.
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Hilda SabriSulistiyo. (2012). UKG ONLINE 2012: Terobosan Yang Mencemaskan. Website:
http://www.bisnis.com/articles/ukg-online-2012-terobosan-yang-mencemaskan.
Horton, William K. (2012). E-Learning by Design Second Edition. San Francisco: Pfeiffer
Jodhi Yudono. (2011). Mejadi Guru Ideal. Website:
http://oase.kompas.com/read/2011/11/04/14563555/Menjadi.Guru.Ideal.
Moh. Uzer Usman. (2007). Menjadi Guru Profesional. Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya.
Mulyasa. (2008). Standar Kompetensi dan Sertifikasi Guru. Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya.
Undang-undang Nomor 14 Tahun 2005 tentang Guru dan Dosen. Bandung :Fokus Media






























Enhancing Literacy Skills In Higher Education Through Digital Storytelling
Leela Chakrabarty
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
leela@fbk.upsi.edu.my

_______________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract. This paper will showcase Digital Storytelling (DST) that has proved to be instrumental in enhancing literacy
skills in higher education. It highlights the motivational elements of DST as perceived by the undergraduates in a public
university and explores ways to further develop their interest in reading and enhancing their writing skills. This study
explored the use of multimedia and traditional literacy to answer the question: How did writing a story and
constructing the video influence students learning? Thirty five semester three Diploma in English Studies students
created a series of two digital stories implementing narrative writing. These productions were undertaken using two
basic platforms; Microsoft Office tools-Power Point 2007 and Windows Movie Maker. The study showed how literacy
skills were impacted through the use of digital storytelling and how it can be adapted to different content and
proficiency levels and represent a tangible record of student progress and basis for evaluation. The students came to
recognize the importance of organization, story, voice, emotion, pacing, economy of words, and value of re-writing
while developing presentation skills. In analyzing the reflections by the students it is noted that students find that digital
storytelling has had an impact in the enhancement of critical thinking skills and language skills. This in turn trained
them to be more creative and critical in their writings.

Keywords: Digital storytelling, literacy skills.
Introduction

Although it is generally assumed that the motivation level of higher education students is high as they are
supposed to be self motivated, it may not be so in reality. Motivation and involvement will increase if
students find the activities meaningful and engaging. This was the starting premise for embarking on digital
storytelling as teaching and learning tool in an ESL higher learning classroom. Trending now is that students
tell stories digitally as they get involved in a continuous process of sharing information about themselves on
social networking sites, through images and sound besides words, with peers and the world. Thus class
activities merely based on pen and paper may appear boring and less engaging.

Miech & Mosteller (1997) reviewed the research on computer-assisted language learning (CALL) and found
a pattern of usage that reflected changes underlying educator beliefs about learning. With the advent of easy
to use software we are able to capture and tell our stories to a broader population via digital storytelling using
pictures, videos, text, music and narration bringing a particular concept to life. When seen from a
pedagogical perspective, a digital storytelling activity actually targets all four skills (reading, writing,
listening and speaking) apart from promoting research skills, critical thinking and reflection. It could be an
excellent tool for informally assessing learners on their language skills.


Rationale of the Study

Educators and researchers are looking to the future not by asking the question, Should technology be used
in education? Instead they are now asking How technology should be used to help students achieve higher
levels? Heo (2009) conducted an experimental study to show the effects of digital storytelling on pre-
service teachers self-efficacy and professional dispositions. According to the study, Knowledge and skills
of personal technology can be transferred to educational technology settings with the help of digital
storytelling. Prior to that, Li (2007) investigated the use of digital storytelling to integrate multimedia
technologies into higher education. In that study participants were pre-service and in-service teachers in
higher education. The results revealed that these experiences can improve students learning skills during the
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incorporating phase of technology implementation in education. Thus, this study seeks to explore ways to
further develop the students interest in reading and enhancing their writing skills through digital storytelling.


The Research Questions:

The study looked into the impact of digital storytelling in a writing class. The following two research
questions were examined:

RQ1: How did writing a story and constructing the video influence students learning-in terms of literacy
skills such as reading and writing?

RQ2:Which learning area(language, critical thinking, reflection, artistic or communication skills) had the
most impact as perceived by the students?

Literature Review

(Porter,2008) expressed that DST builds communication skills: creativity and inventive thinking, multiple
intelligences, higher-order thinking, information literacy, visual literacy, sound literacy, technical literacy,
effective communication, teamwork and collaboration, project managements, and enduring understandings.
According to Brice (2009) kids tend to learn best by multi-modalities teaching. Since multimedia digital
gadgets comprise multimodal properties, digital storytelling can help learners of ESL (English as a Second
Language) students to enhance their literacy skills; namely reading and writing skills. Apart from that,
researches conducted by Hibbing and Rankin-Erikson(2003) demonstrated that digitally-enhanced stories are
excellent mnemonic devices that help students retain new information and comprehend difficult material
easily.

Dogan(2007)conducted a study with three groups of teachers and the results revealed that the teachers who
used digital storytelling in their classrooms believed that their students increased their technical, research,
presentation, organizational and writing skills. They also reported that they thought that the digital
storytelling process had positive effects on students motivation and engagement levels. On a similar note,
Rudnicki (2009) explored whether discussions about storytelling evoked students' higher consciousness of
the stories they tell and she found that this in fact helped them tell more meaningful digital stories.

In another research by Anh Nguyen (2011) who interviewed graduate students at a university, found that
students own learning and teaching practices were influenced by personalizing elements in the script, using
computer-based digital storytelling software, reflecting on their own work and listening to feedback from
others, and perhaps most important, sensing their own progress as they worked through all the components
of digital story making.

Some researchers have already highlighted the importance of the use of digital storytelling in language
teaching and learning (Gregori-Signes, 2008; Robin, 2006) well as the need for more research on the
learning outcomes of its usage in educational settings (Barrett, 2005; Yuksel, Robin, McNeil, 2010). Robin
(2006) reiterates that Digital storytelling not only offers language teachers the opportunity of working with
all four language skills, but also brings together the idea of combining the art of telling stories with a variety
of digital multimedia such as images, recorded audio narration, video and music.


3.0 Methodology
The students were required to produce two digital stories. They were to read a number of story books to find
a story that they like. They then had to re-write the story in their own words. They were to create a ten to
fifteen minutes movie based on the narrative writing.
The learning areas investigated were: (1) Reflection Skills (2) Language Skills (3) Critical Thinking Skills
(4) Communication Skills (5) Artistic Skills.
This paper describes the practical experience of incorporating digital storytelling in an ESL classroom at
tertiary level. Using the writing class as an anchor, students created digital stories through multi-media
production. Final projects were then presented to the class.

Participant and Setting

Thirty five semester three Diploma in English students were the participants. They had completed the
SPM(Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia) or what is equivalent to O levels in some other countries. The evaluation
scheme was fully exam-based. None of the students had any formal training in the use of software to make
movies. The thirty five participants comprised both male and female students from all over Malaysia who
opted to take a diploma level study at a local public university in Malaysia.

Procedure

To answer research question 1, How did writing a story and constructing the video influence students
learning, the researcher assumed the role of a non-participant observer. Observations were recorded as field
notes and analyzed. The purpose of the observation is to gain additional information about the process
involved. The observation allowed documentation of the learning dynamics amongst the students. Apart
from that, their writings were scored. To answer research question two, Which learning area had the most
impact as perceived by the students?; data was collected through an online forum portal from students. The
forum sought to determine which learning areas were most meaningful as they delved with digital
storytelling. The forum posted semi-structured interview- like questions to gain insight into the students
thoughts and perspectives about the effectiveness of digital storytelling.
























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3.3 Stages in DST











In the first project, students were first taught storyboarding and then how to use the Microsoft Power point in
the production. Basic animation concept was exposed whereby students created multiple pictures to produce
the movement in the story. Students were not required to purchase or use any other software for the
production. The students were then introduced to Windows Movie Maker as well as iMovie.

The following pictures show a student who managed to create multiple slides to show the movements
required in one of the scenes in the story. The slides were based on the students storyboard.



Fig. 2: Storyboarding
The pictures were drawn according to the needs of the story. They were scanned into the computer and saved
in the pictures file. The pictures were later inserted into the power-point slides during the final production.
Sound and music were allowed to be inserted. Focus was not given to the writing of the story at this stage,
although they did write the scripts. Here, the main focus was to expose students to storyboarding and basic
animation concept that was to animate objects to effectively illustrate story action.
The second project required students to come up with their own digital story. Here the researcher instructed
the students to find a story by reading other stories in story books. Students selected a story to be re-written.
This was done by paraphrasing and summarizing. They were also given instructions for the structure of the
story. The story had to be well organized and the following pattern included:



Structure of the story

1-Setting: It introduces the main characters and the initial situation of
the story.
2-Conflict: It presents some kind of problem or goal to reach and the
tension around it.
3-Resolution: It is the end of the story and presents a solution to the
conflict.
Table 1: Instructions for the structure of the story
The students were allowed to change parts of the story to be re-written in their own version. This is now the
script development stage. Students were taught to work with appropriate sentences as their words would be
accompanied by images. This stage lasted for few sessions depending on the students ability to write. As it
was an integrated skills environment, the researcher had students submit multiple drafts of their scripts and
assisted them with form and structure.

The next step was capturing and processing images. Images were used to further illustrate the story. This was
a fun step in which students were able to be creative and original as they chose images they believed to be
meaningful reflections of their stories. The students had to justify their choices. This was done as an
additional critical thinking activity. Students were encouraged to use digital cameras to take pictures. They
were allowed to draw their own pictures and scan them. Once they had their pictures digitized, they made a
copy of the folder.

Having done with images, it was time to combine the scripts with music. At this point the students combined
the images onto a timeline. They could also record narration here. However, narration was not done in this
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project as the focus was on reading and writing. They also added music tracks. This was another venue for
students to unleash their creativity as they mixed images, and added cool transitions and fun music to their
stories.

Finally, the students reviewed and presented the completed version of the digital story. The students had a
special presentation session using a computer projector for other students to watch and enjoy. Assessment
was included in this project. They were given comments on form and structure immediately after
presentations by the researcher. There was also a peer- reviewing session where students commented and
offered suggestions for improvements.

As a means to illustrate the actual processes that the students had undergone before they actually created
their final product, a sample is described here. The students were asked to write down the process.

Students As pre-production process:
Firstly, she listed down all the different ideas that she had wished to use and went through them one by one.
She crossed out the ones that she didnt want and kept the ones that she would probably choose. In the end,
there were only two stories that she decided to choose from: Blood and Chocolate, a story about an ancient
being called the Loup Garou and The Firework Makers daughter. She decided to choose The Firework
Makers Daughter because it stresses more on moral themes such as determination whereas Blood and
Chocolate revolved around forbidden love which she thought was very typical.

Secondly, she wrote the script that she would include in her project. She made sure that the sentences were
simple and easy to understand. Then, she looked for some images from the internet that she would use in her
project and edited them according to her colour scheme. She used Photoshop CS3 and Genius EasyPen
drawing tablet to draw her illustrations. Below are two of the illustrations that she drew. In addition, she used
CyberLink YouCam3 to record her desktop movement when she was drawing the illustrations. With the
videos of the illustration in progress, she incorporated it in her project to make it more interesting.


Fig. 3: Student As drawings: She used the Genius EasyPen drawing tablet

4.Findings

Observation notes were used to answer research question 1; How did writing a story and constructing the
video influence students learning?


Instruments Results Overall Findings
Researchers Journal Students showed an improving
progress although some seemed lost
at first. Then after a few readings and
discussions, they began to fill up the
mind maps with the main details.
They provided feedback to each
other. Even the quiet ones started to
be brave in asking questions and
providing responses. It was found that
many had problems with vocabulary.
They had to make literary decisions.
They had to determine whether they
will use first, second or third person.
They were challenged to expand word
choices. Some of them resorted to the
use of the dictionary and thesaurus.

Students rewrite the stories with a
personal twist.








Students gathered or created images,
audio and video. They chose what
will impact and set the tone for their
digital story. It was observed that
students revisited and revised their
storyboard. Students were seen to be
so engrossed in their work that they
dont leave when the time is up

DST made students contribute
actively.
Reading the stories allowed them to
build on their foundation of the story
line and enhanced their vocabulary.
Reading the stories enhanced their
reading skills whereby they learnt to
pick up the main points and the
supporting details to be included in
their story.







Rewriting the stories encouraged
them to think critically about what
they particularly like or dont like
about the story, and what features
they want to highlight and exaggerate
in their own version. Thus, the
ignition of critical thinking skills has
in turn made the students better
writers.

Through matching pictures with the
story line, they become acutely aware
of mistakes and poor word choices.
Script writing scores - rubrics Students managed to produce well
written scripts that established a
meaningful purpose of the story and
maintained clear focus throughout
until the story reached a logical
ground.
17 students obtained Outstanding
scores- extremely well written and
contains all of the required elements;
11 students obtained good scores-
well written and contains all of the
required elements; 7 students
obtained average scores- written in
an adequate manner and contains
most of the required elements. None
obtained poor scores

Table 2: The Findings on the Influences of Digital Storytelling on Students' learning

During the first stage, organization is very important. At first, students seemed at a lost. They did not know
where to begin. They were merely staring at a blank sheet of paper. They were then asked to read some
stories. The researcher then used mind-mapping to help students keep track of information. There were many
rounds of discussions before each one of them made a decision on their stories. It was found that many had
problems with vocabulary. Reading the stories allowed them to build on their foundation of the story line and
enhanced their vocabulary. This was also the time where literary decisions come into play. Students had to
determine whether they will use first, second or third person. They were challenged to expand word choices.
Some of them resorted to use the dictionary or thesaurus. Reading the stories enhanced their reading skills
whereby they learnt to pick up the main points and the supporting details to be included in their story.

When they were actually writing, another learning area came into play, that was critical thinking skills. Some
of them had re-written the stories adding a personal twist. As an example, a male student had written an
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outline of Dr. Jekyll and Mr Hyde in the Malaysian version. He said it was rather difficult to visualize the
setting so he wanted to use Malaysian setting in his story. He then changed the names to Dr Johan and Mr
Hadi along with some of the names of places such as London to Kuala Lumpur and so forth. The pictures
were characters dressed up in Malaysian attires. Apart from that he also changed the ending. Some re enacted
stories in their version and captured their own pictures. Some students were allowed to choose a book that
they like or really dont like and create a parody. This encouraged them to think critically about what they
particularly like or dont like about the story, and what features they want to highlight and exaggerate for
their own version. Thus, the ignition of critical thinking skills has in turn made the students better writers.

Storyboarding is the process whereby magic happens and writing come alive. Using their storyboard as a
guide, students gathered or created images, audio and video. They chose what will impact and set the tone
for their digital story. Through matching pictures with the story line, they become acutely aware of mistakes
and poor word choices. It was observed that students revisited and revised their storyboard. Students were
seen to be so engrossed in their work that they dont leave when the time is up. At this stage, students were
provided with a rubric so they understand what is necessary for a completed story. The storyboard
presentations also indicated that there was awareness of audience as well as emotive content. The students
could clearly explain why their selection of vocabulary, pictures, graphics and music suited the target
audience.

Overall, it was noted that there was student engagement in learning. They were encouraged to provide
feedback to each other. This in turn made the students reflect on their work. They were proud of their
products. Although the students were struggling in the beginning, they managed to write good stories after
reading, paraphrasing, writing, editing and re writing. All these phases had helped to enhance the students
reading and writing skills. Students developed their digital skills as there was extensive, informal peer-
learning and feedback in the process of tool application. The positive progress in the students' writing ability
was also indicated by the students' storyboard scores. The final productions showed a clear improvement
regarding the use of linguistic routines with the final outcome that contained more complex structures and a
varied range of expressions used to start and to end a conversation. The students were able to construct
coherent stories that included both a narrative and a dialogue.

Seventeen students out of thirty five obtained Outstanding scores- these were the stories that were
extremely well written and contained all of the required elements, such as a meaningful purpose, clear focus
and logical conclusion; eleven students obtained good scores- well written and contained all of the required
elements and seven of them obtained average scores; their scripts were written in an adequate manner and
contained most of the required elements. However, with additional effort, it could be even better. None
obtained poor scores.

To answer the research Question 2: Which learning area had the most impact as perceived by the
students?,the students were asked to categorize their learning area that they think they have improved on.
Five themes were identified that dealt with the improvement of student learning using digital storytelling.
The MyGuru2 platform was used to illicit responses from the students.


Learning Areas Frequency Percentage
Reflection Skills 5 14.29
Language Skills 19 54.29
Critical Thinking Skills 22 62.86
Communication Skills 4 11.43
Artistic Skills 2 00.57
Students that have chosen more than one skill 17 48.57
Total number of students 35 100.00
Table 3: Learning areas


The discussion on the above findings are as given below, according to the identified learning areas and some
samples of students postings are also inserted to show how the students responded.

Reflection Skills: Five students indicated that digital storytelling allowed them to improve their reflection
abilities. For instance, one student said that:

My DST is about love and sacrifice. From this story, I reflect their situations and learn from it. I learn to love life and to
be grateful because we still got the chance to live happily. Even if we have problem, we should smile and be strong
because there a lot of people outside there who are more suffer than us Finally, just like the main actor in my DST
said, now I am trying to live life to the fullest for tomorrow might never be.

Language Skills: 19 students indicated that digital storytelling had helped them to improve on their language
skills. Regarding the language skills, this is what some of the students had to say:

After I created a digital storytelling (DST), I found that my language skills such as speaking skill, narrative skills for
both written and oral have a big increase. It was because when Im creating my DST, I needed to insert some text.
From the text that I inserted, I needed to make sure that there are no grammatically errors in order to attract readers
attention. Besides, my I also can speak well when Im presenting my DST to my course mates. Hence, after creating my
DST, my language skills have improved.

This project also really has improved my language skill. We have to write in a proper and correct English language. I
asked my friends to check my grammatical errors besides asking for their opinion of using the different style of English
writing to make my DST more attractive to watch. For me, this project was not only improving one skill, but can
improve some skills at a time.

While I was doing my work on DST, I need to make sure that my grammar is all true. I have to see my lecturer and
asked her about my language so that my DST has a good quality. Apart from that, I also got many improvements in
speaking skills that also can be categorized as language skills. Before I submit my final work of DST, I need to present
it in front of class and of course I have to speak. Doing DST helped me a lot in language skills.

Critical Thinking Skills: 22 students indicated that DST had enhanced their critical thinking skills. Some of t
hem said that:
Doing the DST has improved me on language skills and higher level thinking skills. When I did the DST , my language
skill has improved because I need to use a right words to make sure my DST is excellent and easily readable by the
readers. I had done so many correction on my grammatical error and get explanation about my grammatical error from
my classmates who read my DST. I have so many improvement on my grammar My thinking skills has increased
because by doing the DST, we have to be creative and thinking out of the box to make sure our DST is interesting, fun
and provide knowledge to the readers.

I learn how to think creatively when make a digital story telling. I can make my own story and it is really great. It
makes me think out of box. To make a interesting digital story telling is difficult. But this is one way to practice high
level thinking.

Communication/social skills: Four students indicated that using digital storytelling had improved their social
skills/ communication skills. One student said that:
I think that the social skills is more relevant to me. because before this Im quite shy guy. so by doing all the DST I think
that Im more expose to the public. when we make the movie, we need to share to the public and get the comments. it
really give something new. when I make it, I must set my mind, it s for commercial purpose so Im trying my best to
promote my movie to the public.
Artistic Skills: Only two students indicated that they had improved in their artistic skills. These two students
were identified as the only ones good and interested in drawing. One of them said:
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Creating an interesting DST requires one to think more on what to put in the DST, how to put it, where, when and why.
This requires patience and the artistic ability to compose the scenes so that they fit along nicely with the music that
plays. I certainly have acquired some artistic abilities along my journey to complete this DST. I used tablet and
Photoshop to draw the scenes in my DST, and thanks to that Ive brushed up my drawing skills that have rusted for the
past 2 Semesters. I am more aware of the presentation of the characters for the story. I learned that characters need not
be fancy and beautiful but they must be able to express emotion.

The results indicated that overall, the students experience in digital storytelling was positive. The learning
areas most impacted were language skills(inclusive of reading and writing skills) and critical thinking skills.

5. Discussion

Writing digital stories ignites a love of learning and creates powerful stories for others to share and enjoy. By
incorporating digital storytelling projects into learning, teachers can reach todays students and, at the same
time, help them to develop the skills they need to be successful in the complex, technology-rich world.
Digital storytelling learning projects may be a cure for reluctant learners as this approach to learning is an
exciting and compelling way to engage students in the learning process and to inspire them to become
lifelong learners. It is noted that Digital Stories has given voice to those who dont always participate in
class. Digital story telling enhances technology-rich project learning and this is what most students would
rather do given a choice to write a traditional paper or create a digital story that presents their research and
learning. Students of all ages enjoy creating stories, and more and more students are eager to use
technological tools to create those stories.

Through engagement, motivation, visualization, extensive production and contact with the target language,
digital storytelling tools helps students to enhance their literacy skills. Students developed their digital skills
as there was extensive, informal peer-learning and feedback in the process of tool application. DST can be
adapted to different content and proficiency levels and represent a tangible record of student progress and
basis for evaluation. For example, if the content is describing places, then students could be allowed to take
pictures of the identified place, do research on the place and develop a digital story. Teachers can actually
identify students according to proficiency levels and prepare various tasks according to their levels.



References

Barrett, H. (2005). Storytelling in higher education: A theory of reflection on practice to support deep
learning. In C. Crawford, D. Willis, R. Carlsen, I. Gibson, K. McFerrin, J. Price & R. Weber (Eds.),
Proceedings of the Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2005
(pp. 18781883). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.

Brice, A. E. & Brice, G. R. (2009). Language Development: Monolingual and Bilingual acquisition. Boston:
Pearson.

Dogan, B. (2007). Implementation of digital storytelling in the classroom by teachers trained in a digital
storytelling workshop. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Houston, Houston, Texas.
(Publication No. AAT 3272583).

Gregori-Signes, C. (2008). Integrating the old and the new: Digital storytelling in the EFL language
classroom. GRETA, 16(1&2), 4349.

Heo, M. (2009). Digital storytelling: An empirical study of the impact of digital storytelling on pre-service
teachers self efficacy and dispositions towards educational technology. Journal of Educational Multimedia
and Hypermedia, 18(4), 405-428.

Hibbing, A. N., & Rankin-Erikson, J. L. (2003): A picture is worth a thousand words: Using visual images to
improve comprehension for middle school struggling readers. Reading Teacher, 56(8), 758.

Li, L. (2007). Digital storytelling: Bridging traditional and digital literacies. In T. Bastiaens & S. Carliner
(Eds.),Proceedings of World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher
Education 2007 (pp. 6201-6206). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Retrieved from http://www.editlib.org/p/26774

Miech, E.J. & Mosteller, F. (1997). On CALL. A review of computer-assisted language learning in U.S.
colleges and universities. In R.M. Branch & B.B. Minor (Eds.)Educational media and technology yearbook,
Vol. 22. (pp. 61-84). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, Inc.National Storytelling Association U.S.
(1997)Retrieved from http://www.eldrbarry.net/

Nguyen, A. (2011). Negotiations and challenges: An investigation into the experience of creating a digital
story. (Doctoral dissertation) University of Houston, Houston, TX. Available from:
http://gradworks.umi.com/34/62/3462838.html

Porter, B. 2008. Digital Storytelling, (Online), (http://www.DigitTales.us accessed on June 11, 2011)

Robin, B. (2006). The educational uses of digital storytelling. In D. A. Willis, J. Price, N. E. Davis, &
R. Weber (Eds.), Proceedings of the Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International
Conference 2006 (pp. 709716). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.

Rudnicki, A. (2009). Coming full circle: Exploring story circles, dialogue, and story in a graduate level
digital storytelling curriculum. (Doctoral dissertation) University of Houston, Houston, TX. Available from
http://gradworks.umi.com/33/88/3388729.html

Yuksel, P., Robin, B. R., & McNeil, S. (2010). Educational uses of digital storytelling around the world. In
M. Koehler & P. Mishra (Eds.), Proceedings of the Society for Information Technology & Teacher
Education international conference 2011 (pp. 1264-1271). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
























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Linguistic Argumentation and Logic:
An Alternative Method Approach in Arabic Grammar

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Solehah Yaacob
Dept. of Arabic Language & Literature
Kulliyah of IRKHS
International Islamic University Malaysia

Abstract

This research emphasizes the relationship between linguistic argumentation
1
and logic
1
. Linguistic
argumentation is a language system which uses the meaning of expressions in a sentence to draw a
complete meaning of the sentence, as there lies a dependence between expressions. In fact, this
connection between expressions enhances the overall meaning from the very fundamentals of the
sentence structure in the logical relationship between ideas; where there lies a relation between
words and the mind which is dependent on the logic of combined utterances. In order to signify the
above concept of thinking, the researcher has turned to the theory of the early system of Arabic
grammar which focuses more on analogical approach rather than anomaly. The analogical approach
in the system is based on the underlying theory which implies the aforementioned relationship, even
though some modern views may disagree on the interpretation of this issue. To round out the
discussion, the researcher has included similar existing theories on Latin grammar which have
shown the logical approach to be a result of the connection between linguistic argumentation and
logic. As a result of this discussion, the connection between words and logic is shown to be a
universal concept.

Keywords: Logic, Method, Grammar and Analogy

Introduction

The relationship between language and logic was discovered by early Muslim`s scholars. They
believed that drawing a relationship between the two was basically a rouse to redirect the topic of
discussion to theology and law in terms of Aristotelian logic. However, in order aver this argument
and in order to exhibit the relevance of logic for the study of grammar, the researcher will
henceforth use the term linguistic argumentation to refer to the study of the Arabic grammar
system. In fact, Al-Frb (d.950)
1
developed such a theory on the relationship between language
and logic, discussing the origin and development of language from a logician`s point of view. This
can be found in his book Kitb al-urf
1
wherein he connects the ideas of Arabic grammar
demonstrating his awareness of the relevant differences between languages, in general, and between
Greek and Arabic, in particular. His aim was to incorporate the disciplines grammar and logic
together, for he believed there was no doubt that they were connected to each other. He based this
on his view that logic the use of logic transcends the domain of any particular language and is
common to all languages
1
. In fact, this connection has been proven in his book:
This science (logic) corresponds to the science of grammar because the relationship of the
science of logic to reason and the intelligible equals the relationship of the science of
grammar to language and the expressions. The rules that the science of grammar provides
for the expressions are paralleled by the rules that the science of logic provides for the
intelligible.it has in common with the science of grammar that it provides the rules for the
expression and it differs from the science of grammar in that the science of grammar only
provides rules concerning the expressions of a particular nation, whereas the science of logic
provides universal rules that are valid for the expressions of all nations
1
.
He here has explained the connection between language and logic concerning the expression of a
particular linguistic group, a nation, are related to their mode of expressing meaning in a
grammatical sense, and that the expression of all nations or logics demonstrates a universality of
approach which is a valid means of expression for the all nations.
This point has been supported by, Ikhwn al-af, The Brethren of Purity, in their Rasil.
They believed that the heart is the organ responsible for distinguishing between intelligible
(mafhm), and unintelligible sounds. From the former, it distills the meaning (man) of sounds.
They regarded this as the process of knowledge in establishing a correspondence between word and
meaning. They explained in Rasil,
therefore, we need exterior speech and we have to teach it and to study its laws, which
take a long time to explain. The pure spirit that are not embodied do not need language and
speech for the mutual understanding of the knowledge and the meanings that are in their
thoughts
1
.

The Brethren of Purity are not the only scholars to have discussed the correspondence
relationship between the issue of word, meaning and thought, Jabr Ibn Hayyn
1
also has a
speculation about the correspondence between word and meaning where he believed this
correspondence are based on the balance of letters (Mizn al-Hurf). This theory is clearly derived
from Greek sources and is based on concepts ranging from the numerical speculations of the
Pythagoreans to Platos dialogue on Kratylos
1
postulation on the origin of language. However, Ibn
Hayyn places greater interest on the nature of physical elements in his investigation. Thus, he
often uses grammatical theory as a heuristic instrument such as the grammarian applies his methods
of Tasrf (morphology) in order determine their radicals in contrast the alchemy or physical scientist
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dissects the objects in order to find out their constituent element
1
.
The discussion on the origin of language by Ibn Jinn and his teacher, Ibn Fris, should
also be considered for his arguments on the origin of language being revelation or agreement
between word, meaning and thought. Notably, most of the speculative philosophers held that the
connection between language and logic is a matter of mutual agreement and convention rather than
revelation and inspiration. This statement emphasizes the human nature of language and origin of
speech is with man. Based on this concept, arises the Mutazilite correlation that since man has free
will, then men are responsible for their own acts, their own words. In the context of the spoken
word, by speaking man he is the one who brings into being, such as the nomenclature of mutakallim
can be given only to someone who produces speech
1
.
This leads to the discussion of the literary study conducted al-Jurjn on meaning and
expression where he considered the logical ideas to be signified by the expression. He linked his
view to meaning as being the determining factor differentiating the level of quality of the between
linguistic dimension in a text; by not considering this dimension in isolation but rather as it is
realized within a coherent text
1
.
From the aforementioned viewpoints, it is relevant that the relationship between language
and logic is not a matter of philosophical speculation discussed among philosophers, but its also
been a field of study and discourse between grammarians and rhetoricians.

Views Regarding Logic being Enhanced by Linguistics Argumentation

We acknowledge that vast the contributions of Arab logicians during the Golden Era of Islam
enhanced the concept of meaning in the sentence structure, yet must also give note to the Orientalist
perspective on this issue. They claimed that the idea of the existence of a relationship between
syntax and semantics was taken directly from Aristotles works. This theory has been supported by
Prof. Bursill Hall, who states:
Nevertheless, the attention paid to syntax by the grammarians of the later 12
th
century laid
the basis for the continued close association between logic and grammar, a relationship
fruitful enough to create a logical grammar within the domain of grammar and which
culminated in the speculative grammars of the modesties. This was a development from the
result of the full assimilation of the `new` Aristotle and the works of the Arab logicians
1
.
Charles E. Butterworth supported this idea in a similar statement, saying:
Aristotles writing found a much more receptive audience on the other side of the
Mediterranean as learning on his writings flourished in Constantinople, Edessa and Antioch.
When the School of Alexandria was forced to close, it moved to Antioch in Syria. In the 6
th

century, many of Aristotle`s writings had been translated into Syriac. This activity continued
until some Syriac translations were rendered into Arabic. In the 10
th
century, the school
moved to Baghdad
1
.
This historical movement of study of the Aristotles works has been proved by Amad Amn
when he showed the interest of a number of Arab scholars in the translations of Greek philosophy
and science within Islamic world. These include Hunain bin Isaq, Yaya bin Bitrq and Ibn al-
Muqaffa
1
.
The process of translation of Greek philosophical works went through a process of serious scholarly
endeavors when they were translated from Arabic
1
and rendered into Hebrew during the period of
Islamic Spain and then into Latin in the middle of the 12
th
century. Prior to this, the writings of
Aristotle were unknown in the West. While, in the East, these works had already been studied and
commented on by Al-Kind, Al-Frb and Ibn Sn, and they were redressed again by Averroes, in
the beginning of 13
th
century. Even after the Latin conquest of Constantinople in 1204 and the
discovery of new Greek manuscripts, the most complete translations of Aristotle`s works were still
those done from Arabic texts
1
.
The researcher believes it essential to highlight some of the tremendous contribution of Averroes in
enhancing the ideas of Aristotle when he translated the `Categories` in his `Middle commentary on
Aristotles Categories, as this work had a great impact on the development of the Modistae
1
in
Europe and, as it seems, the starting point in the progress of understanding Aristotles categories in
the Middle Ages. Charles E. Butterworth supports this view without, writing:
without exaggeration, the beginnings of scholarship in the later middle ages can be
traced to the effect this newly found legacy had upon western Europe, especially to the
effect it had upon such important thinkers as John of Salisbury, Saint Thomas Aquinas,
Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon
1
.
Butterworth notes that in Averroes commentary, he presented the
uncombined utterances which denote uncombined ideas necessarily denote one of ten
things either substance or quantity or quality or relation or where or when or position or to
have or doing or being acted upon
1
.
To further our understanding from of Averroes view on this matter the researcher gives one of his
examples on the subject. Averroes gave the situation of a man and a horse and how they are
distinguished from each other, as both of them have a dependant relationship on each other, as in
Zayd rode a white horse last year. The words Zayd and horse are understood by the listener when
they are used together in a context they have a relationship. A new meaning is added to this image
with the addition of the word white; conveying that is a white horse. Here, the word white
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shows the concept of quality and thus is termed an adjective. Analysis of this example shows that
Averroes was more concerned with meaning conveyed in a relationship between word as it is
related to the concept of thinking, such that there is relation between words and thinking which
depends on the logic of utterances when combined.
Analysis of this statement is similar to the concept of nam introduced by Al-Jurjn in his book
Dall al-Ijz when he described that what is understood by a sentence is dependent on the
connection of meanings in utterances of which it is made. This is idea is highlighted in Part two of
Chapter 14 of Averroes commentary on the Categories. However, it must be kept in mind, that the
statement and supposition do not admit truth or falsehood in as far as the thing to which the
supposition refers outside the mind is itself altered. For example, take the supposition that Zayd is
sitting, is indeed true
1
when Zayd sits and false when he stands
1
. Averroes manner of analyzing
here is similar to the concept of logical analysis when the case is that the action of something needs
to be confirmed with the correct word of the action and not vice versa.
It can be concluded from this discussion that the connection between syntax and semantics in
linguistic theory has been thoroughly debated among Muslims scholars. This activity is especially
important in the study and interpretation of the meaning of the Quran and Sunna, and should be
applied to reach a correct understanding of its meaning in a modern context.

The Relationship between Linguistic Argumentation and logic

We have discussed previously the role of early grammarians in linguistic polemics, and we have
found that there is a group of Modern scholars who have debated aforementioned issue. These
include Khlid Ibn Sulaymn Muhanna al-Kind. He has mentioned in his book, Ul al-Naw
wa al-Taalam al-Naw f al-Dars al-Lughaw al-Arab al-Qadm
1
, that the argumentation in the
explanation of grammar is divided into four divisions which are; first, the linguistic argumentation
is affected by philosophy and speech, secondly, linguistic argumentation is affected by the
principles of Jurisprudence, thirdly, linguistic argumentation seeks more than one external
influence, and fourthly, linguistic argumentation has not been subjected to these influences.
The researcher views that al-Kinds divisions are unnecessary, as its essence can be stated as:
linguistic argumentation is affected by speech, philosophy and jurisprudence. Why? This is due to
the fact that the philosophical influence of grammar is an aspect that requires delicacy in its
exploration and application. Regarding the impact of jurisprudence, it is an important matter to be
cited because the grammatical normative process is purely a result of the ancient Arabs dexterous
scholarly endeavors. As for the remaining two points, al-Kind himself has mentioned they are two
normal events that do not require a discussion.
In order to thoroughly discuss on logic, we have to discover the point at which philosophy entered
the discussion of Islam? According to Ibn Nadm in al Fihrist, We find recently that the Persians
transferred something of logic and medicine books from Greek into their Persian language, and it
remained so until they were transferred to Arabic by Abdullah bin al-Muqaffa
1
Relying on this
evidence, the researcher believes that the concept of philosophy was digested by the great Arab
grammarians from their study and translation of Greek philosophical works during the later part of
the second century hijr, and henceforth they imparted such theories in the discussion of studies in
their own fields. It has its authorship in medicine, engineering, astronomy and logic and this means
proximity of time, philosophy and speech. However, the intended meaning of the researcher is that
the philosophical idea which appeared in Arabic grammar was the work of Muslim philosophers
who sought wisdom in their work and they were convinced of this method. In fact, the acquisition
of philosophy is not a result of a relationship with the Greeks, but rather is evidence of the
dexterous Arabs work and their ability to apply this knowledge to problems in Arabic grammar.
From study of this matter, the researcher concludes that the grammatical rules which have their
origin in philosophy are: al-Taqdrt, al-Hadhaft and al-Imrt, This conclusion is confirmed by
Ibrahm Muaf in his book Ihy Al-Naw, wherein he discusses the influence of philosophy on
Arab grammarians. He comments that Arab grammarians, in this path of theirs, are affected by all
means by the philosophy of the Word (al-Kalm). This concept was not only common among them,
but it dominated their thinking, and was taken as a standard means of practice based on the
information available to them at their time
1
.
Ibrahm Muaf responded to this view with regards to the issue of estimation:

1
. He describes the Arab grammarians as being in search of
answers for linguistic dilemmas and in this situation they were by all means going to find a
resolution even if their methodology was foolish. He puts forth many examples of this including :

. He explains that some grammarians have claimed that this sentence is in fact truly;

. This is based on analogy of the following Quranic verses :

1

which means , and

1

that means: , and
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1

which means:
1
. According to Ibrahm Muaf these examples in linguistic and
semantic and meanings are similar to the case of: and , where there is a
case of omission yet this meaning is understood by the reader. He also gives the example of the
ruling for the case where the predicate exists of an omitted subject, such as in the case of the
sentence: . He puts forth that for the word it is possible to assign it the
accusative case as though the estimated meaning is , and it is equally valid to assign it the
nominative case when its meaning is estimated as . He views that such examples of omission
are common in every language, however, in the case of the Arabic language in particular, this type
of expression is most often reserved for the cases of al-Ijz and al-Takhff. Herein, by eliminating
that which is understood, the argument for estimation is rejected (al-Taqdrt). Ibrahm Muaf
continues that estimation and expansion lead to the loss of an existing Arabic grammar rule saying:
They did not make for him a conclusive word and decisive saying, and they overdid the
aspects of the speech. Many types of parsing are intolerable. They estimate the factor as a
nominative, hence they make [it] nominative case and estimate [it] as the accusative hence
they make accusative case, and they do not see that it is followed by a difference in meaning
or a switch in the understanding
1
.

Then Ibrahm Muaf points out that the Arab grammarians adherence to philosophy led them
lose their concern for the meanings of speech relative to its different conditions, such as the case of

1
, in the example: . Some scholars hold that the accusative case is
permissible on al-mafuliyyah and others hold that the nominative case is suitable based on the fact
that are in fact two subjects connected by a conjunction . The first position is viewed as
the weaker of the two arguments because it has taken the position that the second subject is
not preceded by a verb. He holds that in fact, each of the assumed meanings conveys a different
meaning that cannot be substituted by the other one. That is, in the assumption that the intended
meaning of: is estimated to be equivalent to:
This conveys a different meaning than: It is as though the
estimation took place to explain the connection between the two subjects.
However, the majority of the grammarians do not accept the aforementioned argument, due
to their view that a double entndre was indeed meant by the speaker
1
. And this has caution of the
majority is based on a history of such double meanings in Arabic language. For example if an Arab
said,
1

, where the word following the conjunction, , is in the accusative

case due to its carrying the meaning of
1
.
Abdul Ramn Muammad Ayb has followed the same direction as Ibrahm Muaf,
noting that Arab grammarians have at times mixed between the parsing and the parsing location.
Take for example and when they fall under the definition of the expressed, because their
end voweling is changed by altering the compositions which precedes them. However, this view
does not hold true in the situation of the vocative , such as and , and the topic of the
of absolute negation such as
1
. In addition, the grammarians claimed in their
reasoning of as , is semantically equivalent and therefore is means . They
explained that this is a full attribution of equivalence. However, Abdul Ramn Ayb views that
the phrase and the phrases are not equivalent, this is based on the fact that the first
is compositional, and the second is predicative and there is no equating between the composition
and predicate
1
. All these arguments are forms of linguistic argumentation, especially in Qiys
(Analogy), Ijma (Consensus), and Istihb (Presumption of Continuity).
The researcher has observed other forms of linguistic rules based on linguistic constants and
these too, have marked influence of philosophical matters and logic. This is other than the note
made by Abdul Ramn Ayb with regards to the matter of omission of parsing at the end of the
word; including estimated parsing ) ) in the case that al-madar al-muawal (
) is made accusative case by fatatun muqaddaratun ( ) because it is an accusative
object and they have based this assumption on the interpretation of the example by

1
. From
the words where the parsing of the defective noun is estimated in it are:
and ., where is made nominative case by case by latent ending in an
original y and is made accusative case by the argument:

, and of
the words which can be estimated by what is known by the location is occupied by arakatu al-
munsibah ( ) as in:

. The preposition bi causes the attached name of the

preposition ) ( ,

to be parsed as genitive case, and at the same time this prepositional

phrase is a predicate of and is thereby made accusative case by fathatun muqaddratun that is
not apparent due to the location being occupied by arakatu al-munsibah.

Abdul Ramn Muammad Ayb analyzed and critiqued this aforementioned
argumentation. He agrees with the position that estimation plays a significant role in Arabic
grammar. However, he ridiculed the grammarians saying that al-madar al-muawal is made
accusative case by estimated . He ridiculed their conclusion as being delusional or built on the
assumption that the parsing mark that doesnt have an existence. He described their situation as like
a teacher who entered an empty classroom, and assumed that there are students in it. Then, he
passed out test questions and the answer sheets! In the case of the sentence , he believes that
it leads to two sites of parsing: genitive site due to the action of the preposition and accusative
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predicate as a effect of the site. He said that the former of the two is of no necessity and it is
better to say that this sentence is of one predicative side
1
. In this matter, the researcher agrees with
the fact that the prepositional phrase in this sentence is in a predicative position, however, disagrees
with Ayb in regards to the discountability of the effect of the preposition on the name of the
preposition as this is necessary to mention as it is that which is responsible for the genitive case
attribute of the name of the preposition or else we would find it in the accusative case.

Another scholar who stands by the view that Arabic grammar is affected by philosophy is
Ibrahim Anis. He is of the opinion that the Basrans are from the people of logic due to their
conscientious effort in judgments
1
. He means by this that it was the Basrans who were concerned
with esoteric interpretation, reasoning, exegesis and measurement. He explains that it is as if in
their pursuit of linguistic scholarship they wanted to imbue the subject of grammar with flexibility.
Ibrahim Anis believes that the Basrans are the people of logic based on their interest in
measurement and reasoning, and with the methods of Fiqh scholarship. This leads the researcher to
ask whether Ibrahim Anis considers the Basrans to be people of philosophy and logic due to their
interest in measurement and reasoning?
Shawqi aif holds a similar position, and believes that the intellect of Basran grammarians
was more acute and deeper than their Kufan counterparts. They were more prepared than the Kufan
grammarians for the introduction to scientific study, as they preceded them in communication with
foreign cultures, in general and Greek thought in particular, and surpassed them in that they were
familiar with Aristotles work in logic; its limits and measurements
1
. aif sees the linguistic
immersion of the Basrans with Taqid theories of the placement of bases of the Arabic grammar
and the depth of their knowledge of them evidences the high degree of influence by Greek language
and philosophy.
Al-Makhzm took the same path of Shawqi Dhaif, noting that many of the Arab linguists
were scholars of al-Kalm and have been affected by philosophy and logic. This is a a general
claim that all Arabs linguistics at this time were affected by logic and speech, yet the researcher has
discussed previously that the Kufans were not deemed to have been affected or influenced to the
same degree as the Basrans by philosophical and logic subjects. Evidence to support this position is
in the Kufan grammarians rejection of the idea of reason of Ibtidi for making the subject
nominative case. In so far as whether or not the Arabic language was being influenced by
philosophy and logic after the second century hijr, it seems to have been the case as mentioned by
Ahmad Amn in his book Dhuha al-Islam . He mentions clearly here that both al-Ma mn and
Hrn al-Rashd sent delegates to Rome during this period to learn the Roman language, in order
that they may use this knowledge to translate the Roman sciences into Arabic
1
.
Occasionally, not all linguistic arguments proved to be as clear, and such is the case for the
study of some examples put forth by Arab linguistic scholars. The researcher is of the opinion that
some examples and arguments put forth by Abdul Qdir Al-Muhair fall into this category and
considers his arguments to be strange. Take for the example his explanation of the parsing of a
subject noun when it begins a sentence. He starts with analysis of: . He claims that :
is a subject in the nominative case , and : a verb corresponding to its subject in the position of
the predicate. Then, he analyzes the sentence:

.Here,

: is a subject in the accusative

case due to the effect of , : a verb corresponding to its subject. The final example upon
which he build his argument is . : is a subject that begins the sentence and is in
the nominative case, : a verb corresponding to its subject
1
. The researcher notes that this
example is similar to the first in this series with the exception that the subject is plural and the
corresponding verb is conjugated in the 3
rd
person plural according to the action of the preceding
subject. Al-Muhair views that the verb , in the example of , is what makes to
be nominative and that it is not nominative by reason of its being the subject (Ibtid) of a
nominative sentence. This line of argument is similar to the opinion of the Kufan grammarians on
this issue. The Kufans responsed to the Basrans saying: Verily, the subject is not made nominative
case by the Ibtid but the subject and predicate are nominative. Therefore, this opinion does not
leave with the governor and the governee, but it is a difference in explanation and an attempt to
understand the construction of the word through its meaning, as it is clear in the saying: not every
subject is nominative, not every object is accusative, and not all annexed are genitive. It is possible
of parsing a noun at the beginning of the sentence by looking at the meaning of the sentence; hence,
the meaning becomes the judge
1
. However, the researcher believes that Al-Muhair s view is based
on assumptions.
On the other hand, the researcher sees that Shawqi aif is certain of the parsing of meanings
through nominative of the subject and accusative of the object, and he is opposed to the educational
estimated parsing. Shawqi aif has referred to the idea of canceling the parsing of the nominal
conditional tools such as such as:

. He said,
The grammarians have disagreed in assigning the agent in

. Some say: the conditional verb

alone contains its pronoun, and some say: it is the answer verb because the benefit completes
with it, and say: It is the sum of both because both complete the sentence.
Thus, he called for the cancelling of the parsing of the metaphor of the number
1
such as:
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since it does not serve any interest in its appropriateness of pronunciation. This
is due to the fact that both are always built on the absence of vowels( ) and are correlative to
one pronunciation. It suffices to know that the first is called and the second is called
, in order to differentiation between them. In terms of usage, the first is always followed by
singular noun in the accusative case, while the second is differentiated as being either a singular or
plural noun in the genitive case. This process of assigning special names to a single term, in fact,
has been used to facilitate linguistic education, both past and present.
As Shawqi aif commented in his book Tajdd al-Naw, this has been a humble attempt to
facilitate Arabic grammar; freeing it from the rules, excess subsectioning and distressing
complications. What Shawqi aif was referring to here was the canceling of educational parsing
that confuses students yet, he does not imply that implicit parsing should be done away with as it
influences factors such as nominative of the subject and accusative the object, like that is found in
the example: . This is a fundamental rule of Arabic grammar that cannot be changed.
The researcher agrees with aifs position and deems it to be the duty of the grammarian to respect
the Arabic language as it manifests itself in many forms, the highest example of which is in the
rhetoric of the Quran and Hadith, and not to simplify grammar to the extent with preference
towards the student and will show prejudice to the linguistic history of Arabic.
Al- Shib referred to this concept and recognized the role of the context of grammar to meaning,
noting that grammar with Sbawayhi was not limited to showing that the subject is nominative, and
the object is accusative, but also shows what befits it of meanings and words
1
. This indicates that
Sbawayhi did not limit himself to the science of linguistics but was also involved in the science of
rhetoric and in the clarification of the meanings of a word; its explanation and esoteric
interpretation.
Due to their similarity of views, it seems that Al-Makhzm was influenced by his teacher Ibrahm
Muaf . Al-Makhzm is known to have commented on the fact that many grammarians were
scholars of al-Kalm and they realized the depth of the relationship between grammatical study and
the methods of speech and logic. He holds that during the fourth century hijr Arab grammarians
were influenced by their contact with philosophy and logic and with their exposure to the methods
of the scholars of al-Kalm
1
. That is, it seems that Arab grammarians in the fourth and fifth century
hijr were much influenced by philosophy and logic, and then they combined grammar and speech
at the fundamental level of grammatical studies.
The researcher observes that, Ibrahm Muafs views did not form in a void nor are they unique,
rather they are a repetition of the ideas put forth by the scholar Ibn Maa. According to Ibrahm
Muaf , who has focused on the studies on estimation, he has come to the conclusion that Arab
grammarians estimated in order that their linguistic rules be synchronized in one form. He sees that
the rule of estimation put forth by Muhammad Ahmad Arafah is faultless, and that estimation used
in order to that the grammar convey the correct meaning. If it was assumed that Arabic doesnt
have parsing signs that indicate the meanings, then estimation would have been essential to convey
the correct meaning. Take for example the sentence: . Here, indicates that there is a
situation immediately in front of the speaker and he is speaking to a single masculine addressee, and
conveys the presence of a predatory animal, a lion. The two words do not convey a complete
correct meaning together unless it is estimated that the speaker is warning the addressee of the lion
and saying beware of, , the lion. Otherwise, it does not indicate the intended meaning
1
.
Elsewhere, Arafah remarks on the essentiality of estimation to Arabic language and grammar. He
comments that estimation is a requirement of the meaning, so that we do not find fault in it. If we
find an effect and we didnt find it [the factor], then we turn to its estimation. In the
aforementioned case we find the use of the accusative case evidence that an integral part of the
meaning is not stated in words. The grammarians would then estimate any factor, such as in the
examples of : as being similar to as they are similar in the use of the accusative
case. Some scholars have refused this approach, and dont accept the estimation of and the
meaning it conveys, in spite of its correctness. He stands by the idea that estimation serves the
meaning and does not serve the pronunciation
1
.
The researcher points out that Ibrahims refusal to the estimation, altogether and detailed needs to
be considered, if only he had shortened his rejection on some of the arbitrary estimates that had a
philosophical color. The difference in the factor is not considered a defect because we could not
imagine that all the linguistic sections are the subject of an agreement between the grammarians,
and this is required by the nature of things. From the perspective of the parsing mark, the
grammarians made the parsing as a purely verbal rule that follows the factors pronunciation and its
effect, and they neither saw, in its marks, a signal that refers to a meaning nor an effect in forming
the concept or shedding light on its image
1
.
This argument is not absolute and we can see the effect of alternative parsings in the books which
discuss the meanings of the Quran. Take discussion of the parsing and the effects of the factor in
the following Quranic verse:

1

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The discussion revolves around the parsing of with accusative case. The Sunnis say:
(everything) is a creation of God is assigned the accusative case, because it is the predicate of the
verb which has been placed in the initial position (Ibtid). The majority opinion ( )
disagrees with this argument because they hold that if the verb is not benefiting by adding value to
the description, and rather that which comes after it fulfills this role corrects the predicate and the
meaning was such that the verb is the chosen predicate accusative in the first noun, the pronoun
attached to then it is clear that the verb descriptive.
An alternative reading, the qadariyah reading ( ), disagrees with the accusative
parsing of in the same ayah and stand by its reading in the nominative case:

1

The hold that the verb is in the position of adjective for . They base this on the fact that it
conveys the meaning: Everything We created. This argument has been based on its estimation, the
extent in its appearance and its time, and so on
1
.
Al-akbr agrees with the first argument on this issue as mentioned in his book At-tibyn f
Irb Al-quran ,that being in the accusative. However, he puts forth a different argument for
this effect. He considers that the factor in this verse is a deleted verb that is explained by the
mentioned; the evidence is that has been parsed in the accusative. He also believes that the
accusative reading is preferred over nominative as it conveys the significance of the creation of
everything more emphatically. He considered the possible reading of in the nominative, in the
position of ibtid, and adjective for all or something, and

is its predicate, and came to the

conclusion that it does not support the position that this indicates the generalization of creation. But
rather conveys that everything created is done so by pre-measurement
1
.
Reflection of the discussion put forth for the parsing of brings us back to the
commentary made about Ibrahm Muaf and applies to a large extent to Ayb. He called for the
cancelling of estimation entirely, arguing that it has been influenced philosophy. Though we do not
deny the influence of philosophy on grammar, we do not believe that this justifies the denial of the
rule of estimation and removal from grammar, because such a deed will lead to a large change in
the map of Arabic grammar. Ayb has overlooked the fact that there are many variations of
readings of the Holy Quran and the prophetic Traditions, as well as Arabic poetry which cannot be
understood without esoteric interpretation and estimation, even if this is a mental process; occurring
in the mind of the speaker and the listener.
The researcher believes that grammarians have used logic in the fundamental steps of
grammatical analysis. For example, in the parsing of the verb in the sentence

; it is
a present tense verb, made nominative by an apparent . The question here is why doesnt
become a predicate as in the example ? The answer to this is that the governor cannot
precede the governee, and in order to solve this predicament grammarians have invented an implicit
governor for . They came to the conclusion that there is rationale for the effect of
accusative or jussive on it, rather it is in the initial position with an implicit agent preceding it. The
researcher believes that this is an invention of the grammarians is an influence of philosophy and
logic, and the implicit agent in this case is immaterial.
Ibrahm Muaf commented on the condition of Arab grammarians in this path and noted
that they by all means affected by the philosophy of words that was common among them. It
dominated their thinking, and was taken as a given in the assessment of facts in them
1
. Similarly,
with regards to whether the reason for the emergence of the grammar agent is due to the logic and
Aristotelian philosophy, or due to the philosophy of words, the researcher believes that the
emergence of the grammar agent in the linguistic argumentation is mainly a result of mans natural
impulse to search for the cause of all that he sees. Therefore, in the search to understand the cause
and effect in grammar, we ask the questions: Why is the subject made nominative case and the
object is made accusative case? And on what basis it is nominative and accusative? It seems that
this rule was used by Arabs in their poems, then grammarians interpreted this phenomenon and took
it as a fundamental of grammar. This invention alone shows that Arab grammarians relied on
philosophy and logic in linguistic analysis.
Exploring language by questioning the fundamental reasons for parsing brings up other
questions. In the case of the accusative object which is genitive in the feminine sound
plural, such as , why do grammarians explain the use of the genitive case for
lightness? What is the reasonable standard for this usage?
In a similar case, what is the governor of in the phrase ?
Grammarians have said
1
that it is in the accusative case for the reason of distinction () and
therefore its parsing is not attributed to any other factor, or governer. This brings us back to the
claim that every governee must have a governor and the governee doesnt precede it. Then what is
the argument for an effect without even an implicit governer?
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The case of the circumstantial accusative () meets with similar objections. Take for
example, , what is the governor of ? Grammarians have said
1
the circumstantial
accusative must be accusative. Then, taking this rule into consideration, we look at the
example of in the sentence where is a present verb in the nominative case
evidenced by an apparent , and the direct object of said verb is in the circumstantial
accusative position, yet at the same time is also the subject of a nominal sentence ? The
researcher believes that the grammarians claim that is in the circumstantial accusative case
closes the opportunity for other arguments to be brought forth on the issue.
Scholars agree that there is substantial evidence to support the claim that Arab grammar was
influenced by philosophy
1
and the researcher points specifically to the grammarians adoption of
the concept of; that is, for every impact there is an influential, and two influences dont fall on
one impact. On the history of this subject, T. J. De Boer mentioned the precedence of the people of
Basra using of logic before other Arabs was a social phenomenon that can be attributed to the
influence of the establishment of philosophical schools of thought which appeared in Basra before
anywhere else. The diversity of Basran grammarians, which included many Shiites and Mutazilites,
paved the way for the foreign wisdom to affect their verbal ideologies
1
. De Boer explains the
impact of Greek philosophy on Arab grammar, The logic of Aristotle had an impact on the Science
of linguistics that was not concerned in collecting Shawhid and synonyms and the like
1
.
Arabs grammarians relied on the principles of logic as a means of conducting ijtihd in
grammatical analysis, and especially relied on the tenet: where every influential has a single impact
and therefore, two disputed factors are not accepted on one governee. They applied it in analysis of
cases such as: where they sought to explain the apparent influence of two influences
on one impact. Remaining committed to this rule, the Basrans chose the second
1
verb as the single
influence on the subject i.e. while the Kufans chose the first verb
1
as the single influence
on the subject i.e. . Yet, we raise the following question: why cant an exception be made to
account for the possibility of the existence of two influences on one impact, as is manifested in the
sentence being discussed here. Isnt is possible for this to be resolved by al-ishtighl? What would
be the result if was stated and both verbs were considered to be the influence on a
single factor? As shown above, it is clear to us that this sentence is correct in terms of parsing and it
consists of two verbs connected by which is indicative of two shared works, and
occurring at the same time to a single subject . Meanwhile, the meaning of conveys
that two different actions have occurred. The question then arises as to why the meaning is
accepted as a valid social construct, but grammarians argue refuse it?
As mentioned previously by De Boer, Arabic in Basra was affected by the philosophical and
logical culture, therefore, the researcher puts forth that the grammar used to explain language
should be consistent with the culture of that language. It seems to be in their saying: for every
influential there is an impact in the conflict, that they search for the influence, yet have forgotten to
guard the meaning. Both the Basrans and Kufans undoubtedly realized that is the subject, yet
they disagree on how to explain this in grammatical terms.
In a different example, that of the case of: , again we find two verbs and a
single subject, however, the second verb has been given priority as the influence on . It can be
said that the subject of is and that is an attached pronoun called y al-mutakallim (
) which is an objective of the first verb, and these roles are reversed after the conjunction
where t al-fil ( ) is the subject for the second verb and is the subject. This
brings up two questions. Firstly, if Zayd is the subject of the first sentence and the direct object of
the second sentence, then what is the role of the first verb if it does not have priority, by nature of
its precedence in the sentence, to influence the parsing of Zayd? The second point, what is the role
of waw al-aif ( ) when the second verb has an influence and the first verb does not. It is
as though the aif () is points to the existence of al-tarub in the sentence.
This brings us back to the issue of why did the Basrans choose the second verb as being the
influence and not both of the verbs? The researcher recommends the Basrans awareness of
different strength of the verbs according to the meaning intended in the saying; the second has the
priority of working. However, the researcher brings up the point that the role of the first verb
cannot be non-existent, because without it then the complete meaning is lost.
This dependant relationship between the verbs is seen here in the example:
. Grammarians said
1
that the second verb was considered the influence, since if the first
verb was considered to be the influence then the second verb would be neglected. The term which
they used to explain this situation is imr which doesnt mean deletion, but rather that it is not to
be effective while working. They explain that the first verb is ineffective (imr) and the second
verb is working (imal). Since each verb has its own subject then each has in influence on its own
subject and the order of the verbs can be switched without causing a problem
and there is no benefit from the presence of two verbs connected by waw al-aif because of the
presence of a different subject in even though it has been preceded mention of the other
subject .
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Another example of discourse of Arab grammarians differing in their opinion of defining the
influence is the example of . The Basrans claim
1
that the governor of is estimated,
which means that is not the influence. So, then why do the Basrans estimate ? It is as if
this sentence was an answer existed in a context, and was a response to the question: ? It
could not be the answer to the question: , as this reply would require an affirmative
reply, yet it could be a response to: , for it would bring about a reply such as
. The Kufans disagreed
1
with this argument and explained that

, pronounced, is the
governor for and the proof is that the transitive verb,

, requires an object. In this discussion

it is clear that understanding the order of the components of the sentence is vital in order to being
able to uphold the idea that the governor must precede its governee. To oblige by this rule, the
Basrans invented the idea of an estimated governor preceding . Hence, they explained that is
a governee, and its governor is estimated and its estimation is . This is the mental perception
of the existence of an estimated verb in the statement.
We can see from the manner in which Arab grammarians defended the tenet of precedence
of the governor before the governee and different schools of grammarians put forth different
philosophical arguments to come to this conclusion. In the aforementioned discussion of various
grammatical issues it can be affirmed that there was a philosophical influence in Arabic grammar.
Although the researcher does not support the argument that this phenomenon existed due to the
influence of the Greek and Roman philosophical works, but rather the dexterous Arabs themselves
sought out wisdom through philosophy discourse.
Philosophical Influence in the Concept of Modistae
1

In order to have a comprehensive discussion on the concept of relationship between the logic and
linguistics on Arabic grammar, it is important to consider the structure of Latin grammar and shed
light on the logical discourse which it has gained from Greek philosophy. We will utilize the a
minor concept in the construction of the Modistae concept in sentences for discussion. For
example: homo currit (The man runs). According to Alain De Liberas study on 12
th
and 13
th

century thought this sentence would be described as:
an intransitive construction in which a verb has an immediate dependence on the
substantive which represents the first constructible. In analytic approach, it would be
considered as follows: There is at least one individual, a man, and he is running; or more
simply: Something that was a man (regardless of whether it still is or not) has run, or there is
at least one individual, which is a man and that it has been the case that he is running, or
more simply. Something that is now a man has run
1
.
He continues that in the case of: homo currit bene (The man runs well) the adverb is drawn back to
the substantive through the verb, and in Homo albus currit bene (The white man runs well) we find
an intransitive construction in which adjective and verb are immediately dependent on the
substantive, and the adverb is dependent on it through the verb
1
.
Note however that the case of a transitive construction such as Socrates currit (Socrates
runs), the subject term Socrates supposits for a man. This is different from the intransitive
construction which is presented as a relation between determinable and determinant such as homo
est animal, man is an animal
1
.
Martin of Dacia recounts that several debates occurred between Modistae scholars on this
issue, including the construction of acts and the construction of persons
1
. Herein, we do not find
that they had issue with examples such as Socrates et Plato currunt (Socrates and Plato run), where
two nouns are one suppositum (noun phrase).
In the case of one noun being influenced by two verbs, take the example of the conjunction
of si Socrates currit is literally translated to be: If Socrates runs. Yet, according to Giulio Lepschy
conveys the meaning: if he runs he moves
1
. However, Boethius of Dacia holds a different opinion
on this matter and commented that a conjunction in a construction is but only a connector between
the words in the sentence, so it is not a constructable. Being constructable, it must be a mode of
signifying grammatical properties reflected to the mind.
Lepschy gives evidence of further discourse on the matter and offers Radhulphus different
approach to solving this question, for he sees it to be an issue of the fundamental distinction
between intransitive and transitive construction. He has summarized that sentences fall into four
categories or, four basic constructions:
1) intransitive construction of acts such as Socrates currit (Socrates runs);
2) intransitive construction of persons such as homo albus (white man);
3) transitive construction of acts such as lego librum (I am reading a book); and
4) transitive construction of persons such as cappa Socratis (Socrates cloak)
1
.

Another type of construction in Latin is like
1
: vado in ecclesiam (I go to church). In this
case the preposition is considered to be a medium of the construction of the verb with the
complement and assigned to the complement which is ecclessiam (church) and is termed
linguistically terminans (the determinator). In the case of the two previously mentioned
constructables; homo albus currit and homo currit bene, the adjective albus and the adverb bene are
determinants.
Thomas of Erfurt, another of the Modistae scholars, disagreed with his fellow scholar,
Radhulphus with regards to the different forms of construction and believed in the concept of
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suppositum (noun phrase) and appositum (verb phrase) such as Socrates percutit Plato,(Socrates bit
Plato), depends on the term of verb is either oblique
1
or not and therefore follows it in a verb +
oblique construction
1
. In all, it can be said that Erfurt emphasized grammar based on the meaning of
the word in the sentence.
The point here is not busying ourselves with the polemical issues between the arguments of
Radhulpus and Thomas of Erfurt, but rather to point out their different methods for construction
analysis. Of important note here is that the semantics of the Modistae puts forth a distinction
between formal meaning and material meaning, where the formal meaning is stable, and is defined
by the nature of words. The material meaning, on the other hand, cannot be properly determined by
the context.
We can say, the aim of these grammarians was to explore how a word corresponded to
concepts understood by the mind, how it signified reality and how this was successfully realized.
Since a word cannot signify the nature of reality directly, it must stand for the thing signified in one
of its modes or properties such as being, understanding and signifying. It is this discrimination of
modes that the study of categories and parts of speech is all about. Thus the study of sentences
should lead one to the nature of reality by way of the modes of signifying
1
.
The researcher would like to highlight the tremendous contribution put forth by Averroes
(Ibn Rushd) when he translated the Categories in his Middle Commentary on Aristotles
Categories. Here, he enhanced the explanation of Aristotles ideas, and had a great impact on the
development of the Modistae in Europe, for it seems, the he was the starting point in the progress
towards understanding Aristotles Categories during the Middle Ages. Charles E. Butterworth
supports this idea, commenting:
without exaggeration, the beginnings of scholarship in the later middle ages can be traced
to the effect this newly found legacy had upon western Europe, especially to the effect it had
upon such important thinkers as John of Salisbury, Saint Thomas Aquinas, Albertus Magnus
and Roger Bacon
1
.

In his commentary, Averroes distilled Aristotles principles and presented them in a concise
fashion. For example he said,
uncombined utterances which denote uncombined ideas necessarily denote one of ten
things either substance or quantity or quality or relation or where or when or position or to
have or doing or being acted upon
1
.

We can see in his discussion that he combined examples from Greek and Arab grammatical
discourse in his discussion of understanding meaning in a sentence based on the relationship of the
components. He explained the case of a construct including a man and horse where to differentiate
between the human and animal elements, as both of them have relationship of depending on each
other, as in the sentence: Zayd rode a white horse last year. The relationship between Zayd and a
horse is understood by the listener when they are combined by the verb rode. The introduction of a
new meaning comes about with insertion of: white. In white horse, white shows the concept of
quality in the sentence and is therefore called an adjective.
Averroes method of analysis reflects that he emphasized meaning where it was in relation to
a concept of thinking, i.e. there is relation between words and the mind which depends on the logic
of utterances when combined. This issue is specifically dealt with in part two, chapter 14 of
Averroes Commentary on the Categories. Notably, Averroes commentary is very similar to the
theory of nam introduced by al-Jurjn in Dalil al-ijz, where the later explained that meaning
of a the sentence is dependent on the connection of meanings in utterances
1
.
However, not all of Averroes arguments were discussed from the point of view of
maintaining meaning. With regards to the idea that a statement and supposition do not admit truth
and falsehood in as far as the thing to which the supposition refers outside the mind is itself altered,
for example, the supposition that Zayd is sitting is indeed true when Zayd sits and false when he
stands
1
, we see that Averroes emphasized concept of logic when the action of something needs to
be confirmed with the correct word of the action and not vice versa.
The above discussion shows the role of linguistic argumentation and the concept of logic in
the discussion of the construction of meaning and in Modistae grammar. The discussion of Latin
grammar between Modistae scholars, reveals that they too utilized a discursive, analytical approach
to grammar. Then, Averroes took an important step towards explaining Aristotles Categories and
brought it to reach of Modistae scholars. It is evident that through Averroes deep knowledge of
both the Arabic and Latin grammatical systems he was able to synthesize many linguistic examples
and utilized philosophical arguments from both systems, thereby carrying the influencing of Arab
grammar to the world of Latin grammatical scholarship. Averroes influence by Al-Jurjns theory
of nam; wherein an explanation was put forth to arrive at the meaning derived from the connection
between the utterances, rang forth in his analysis and discussion of Aristotles Categories. It is
evident here that the search for explanations and reasons for linguistic constructs which conveyed
the intended meaning created a need for the use of logic, be that Arab or Greek, so that the
convention of a grammar system came about to explain the meaning in language.

Conclusion

The discussion of the relationship between the linguistic argumentation and logic is an alternative
approach to study of grammar, and the researcher has offered evidence from the corpus of Arabic
ILCC 2013
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grammar itself to support this methodology. In order to create a balanced discussion, the researcher
tied together both early Arab grammatical theory and modern Arab views. Astonishingly, though
some of the modern views are flooded with the idea that Arabic grammar is a philosophically ridden
field, they made the error in assuming that the historical discourse was not effective and have even
erroneously called for the lack of necessity of parsing, a concept which it at odds with the
relationship between the relationship between grammar and the conveyance of an intended
meaning. They believe that the concepts of al-taqdrt and al-imr spoil the mood of system in
Arabic grammar, and called for their abolishment as being the solution. However, the researchers
stand on the issue is not for a destructive approach but rather to take a constructive approach. Thus,
we have presented some ideas from Latin grammatical discourse of the Modistae in order to
uncover the methodology used for Latin, as this language has very strong contact with Greek. It was
found that most of the scholars of Latin language were students of Arab logicians such as Averroes
and therefore had exposure to Aristotles Categories, but did so through the eyes of a scholar who
was grounded in both Arabic and Greek grammatical theories. Based on the evidences shown here,
the researcher believes the connection between grammar and logic has been emphasized and seeing
how this has been used to describe and analyze the relationship between grammar and meaning in
expressions, that this provides a new alternative approach to the study of grammar, not only Arabic
grammar, but also may be applied to other languages.
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Amad Amn (1969) uha al-Islm, 1
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Allmah, all (1993) Taawwur al-Naw al-Arab f Madrasatai al-Barah wa al-Kfah, Beirut:
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Butterworth, Charles E. (1983) Averroes Middle Commentaries on Aristotle`s Categories and De
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(1995) al-Madris al-Nawiyyah, Cairo: Dr al-Marif.

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De Libera, Alain (1980) On some 12
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H. Zainal Abidin Ahmad (1975) Riwayat Hidup Ibnu Rushd Filosuf Islam Terbesar di Barat,
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Hall, G.L. Bursill (1971) Speculative Grammars of the Middle Ages, Paris: The Hague.

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Ibn Nadm (1994) Al-Fihrist, Tunis: Dr al- al-Marif.

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Fun Lyrics as An English Learning Media Software for Elementary School Student via
Music Lyric
Tika Novita Sari
1
, Wahyu Andi Saputra
2
, Novi Maisaroh
3
, Wasilatun
4
, Luqman A.
5

1
Yogyakarta State University, Karang Malang Yogyakarta 55584, Indonesia

Corresponding Author: Wahyu, Andi Saputra, Yogyakarta State University,
wahyusaputra@live.com:

________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract.

English has an important role in intellectual, social, and emotional development of a student.
This role is indicated by its position in every class subject. Many people say that English is
very important to be taught to student for their absorption and development of science,
technology, art and culture, and also relation among countries. The existence of English subject
in Indonesian Curriculum is to teach the student so that they can have such good skill in
English, especially in speaking and writing and also to be used as international language. Fun
Lyrics is one of alternative learning media to be used in English class for elementary school
student. Theaim of this research is to design and improve the Fun Lyrics and knowing the
eligibility of this learning media in education world. The research method is Research and
Development (R & D) method. The procedure is based on 10 Step and Development Model
from Borg & Gall (1983: 775). Then, the authors simplified this method into 4 steps, those are :
(1) Need Assessment, (2) Model design, (3) Implementation, and (4) Validation. The
development of this application is using Microsoft Visual Basic 6.0, Adobe Flash, and
Windows Media Player. There are 2 versions of this software, desktop and mobile version. The
desktop version is made by using Microsoft Visual Basic 6.0, and the mobile version by using
Adobe Flash CS 4. There are some feature in this media. They are choosing the song, edit the
lyrics, and change the skin of that media. How the way this media can run is when they choose
a song then 2 lyrics will appear, in Indonesian and English. There are 2 technique in testing.
They are Alfa Testing and Beta Testing. The Alfa Testing were tested to 2 professional
multimedia lecturers and the result is 85,41% for appropriateness number and it means this
software is very appropriate to be used. The Beta Testing were given 30 students of elementary
school and the appropriateness percentage is about 91,1%. It means that this software is very
appropriate to be used. The elementary school student is very interested with this media and it
really help them in learning English.


Keywords: English, Student, Learning Media



Introduction
English as a lokal subject that is stated on Dekdikbud RI No. 0847/14/1993 chapter VIII. It is declared that
an elementary School grade is allowed to enhance the subject of their curriculum only if it doesnt the
purposes of national education. This policy is also supported by a regulation from Education and art
ministry No. 060/U/1993 on February 23rd 1993 about the possibilites of english to be a local subject for
Elementary School.
Based on the regulation of national education ministry number 22 year 2006, The purposes of English
subject for elementary school is to develop the skill of language to support the action. Used for interaction,
the topics are about conditional and situational of daily activites. It is important to be taught for the
improvement of their knowledge, technology, and arts. The existence of English subject in Indonesian
Curriculum is to teach the student so that they can have such good skill in English, especially in speaking
and writing and also to be used as international language.
Yogyakarta as cultural and educational region need to be aware about the importance of english. That is the
reason why our government concern on improving english, especially in Grammar and Vocabulary. One way
that will interact students attention is by using learning media. Fun Lyrics is an alternative learning media
for elementary school student in learning English.
The author proposes a research about English learning media software, called Fun Lyrics: English Learning
Media Software for elemtary school student via music lyric. With this software, it is expected that student
understand and learn english better because this one is not boring.

Theory
Learning Media
Tho word media comes from latin medius that means center, intermediary, or middleman. Gerlach
and Ely (Azhar Arsyad, 2007) said that media in general definition os human, material, or happening which
construct the condition of children and hel them gaining kowledge, skills, or stance.
Arief S. Sadiman (2009) on the speech of Kasihani E. Suyanto said that media can be used as a mediator to
tranfer the information between message sender and message recipient so it will stimulate their mind.
Feelings, attention, and interest of student till a learning process will conducted. Learning process is the
planned efforts that will manipulate the source of studying, include learning proccess without the coming of
teacher. One effort that can be used to earn effective learning is by a media of learning.
Media of learning is used to explain the material to be verbalistic-less (only by word or verbal). It also solve
time, space and sense problem. We can say learning proccess is a proccess of comunication. Learning
proccess consist of 5 elements: teacher, source of teaching, media of learning, student, and the goal of
studying. Media of learning are: material, quipment, hardware software. So, media of learning is everything
that can be used to transform the information so it can interests the attention, interest, and mind of student to
reach the purposes of studying.

English
English is an international language where commonly known in 2 styles, British and American. This
language has been an important need of humans life related to technology, infomration, and science. And
thats why the curriculum of a country must organize it.
English for elementary school student, as stated on national curriculum, is purposed for them so they are
allowed to read, write, and speaks english. It means, the student are expected on able to understand common
instructions, having interaction with their mate, and reading and writing with simple text on their daily life.
On English learning, there are 4 skills of linguistics, they are: performatif, functional, informational, and
ILCC 2013
242

epistemic.
The characteristic of elementary school student
An elementary school students age are at 7-12 years old. In this age, they are on the last period of being a
children. Their fellowship coverage will be wider and more because thay have been a mate in a school.
Education that is orientet at this period will be concern at the basic education for their growth and
development, intelligence, emotional, linguistics, as their personality and development step on children
(Conny R. Semiawan, 1999).
Hemerly (1982) from the speech of of dissertation of Kasihani E. Suyanto stated that English teaching for
elementary school student will be better if it be taught earlier for children. An assumption about age and
learning are children will learn linguistics better than older-aged learner, english learning must be initiated
as ealier as possible, children are easier to be interacted on education.
Fitting to childrens development, they like seeing such interesting pictures, clear, and colorful. They also
love listening to a story, while reading a full-of-picture book. Playing while studying is a cheerful activity for
children.
Visual Basic (VB) 6.0
Visual basic come at 1960s developed by Dartmouth College. BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbol
Instrution Code) programming language has been developed quickly. And today, this software has
compatible to Windows OS 32-bit..
Research Method
Time and Place
This research had been held on November 2011 for 1 month and take place in:
Engineering Faculty and Education Science Faculty in making the software and consultation to the expert
Minggiran Elementary School, Yogyakarta as testing place and approppriatenes test.

The Step of Producing
This research is based Research and Development Method. The procedure in making the software is based
on 10-steps of making and developing model by Borg & Gall (1983:775) that we simplified into 4 steps. The
steps on implementing on Fun Lyrics production are: 1. Need assessment, 2. Model Designing, 3.
Implementation, 4. Validation
Need Assessment
This step will identify and earning the data about the need in modelling implementing the system. It
includes: a. The analysis of English learning process, b. The learning media of teacher, c. The stance of
student to the media, d. The stance of student to the teaching
Model Designing
This step is to illustrate and explaining the model about content, size, coloring. Model was made in an easy
interface.
Implementation
This step will translate every module from designing step into an application with certain language
programming and rebuild them into a system. The steps are: a. Collecting and choosing module, 2.
Determining the program that will be used, c. Translating the procedure and sub routine to the programming
language, d. Rebuild them into a program.
Validating the Program
Testing this software is to knowing the bug of making this software to determine the approppriateness of
useing this Fun Lyrics as a media of learning English. This step sonsist of testing by expert, revision, then
tested to student as the subject.

Research Object
The object of this research is Fun Lyrics Software. The result will support the teaching process which uses
this media.
Research Instrument
The instrumenf of this research are questionnaire and interview to knowing and analyzing the needs of
English learning proccess and assess the Fun Lyrics as a studying media. The data sampling was taken to
earn the data of approppriateness level of the software and result will be used for validation. The assessment
includes: content, interface, picture, and audio.
Data Sampling and Analyzing
Data sampling are in 2 steps. First, by measurement of functions as implemented from design.
Second, by questionnaire to assess the approppriateness of Fun Lyrics software.
Data analyszing is by promoting the product, checking the validation and trustworthiness of
software. The second step, by using descriptive-qualitative method, it is by accomplishing the
approppriateness of the software after implemented to the student. And then the data will be
processed to earn the percentage

Approppriateness percentage (%)
Xy
Xt
X 100%


The data collected will be analyzed by that technique of calculation and will be wrote on a frequency and
percentage based on assessment scale, and then described and conclude it into each indicator. The aspect are:

Precentage Value Scale Interprestation
80 - 100 % 4 Very Appropriate
60 - 79 % 3 Appropriate
40 - 59 % 2 Enough
0 - 39 % 1 Not Appropriate




Hasil
Batik Guide Mobile Application
Screenshoot Program Versi Desktop




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The description of each menu are:
Main menu (menu utama): Main menu are consist of link to the sites on the internet, Help, and exit
Find lyrics: Contain the list of the song
Edit lyrics: To edit the lyrics
Change skin: To change skin

Screenshoot Program Versi Mobile


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Validate
This are the results of the research instrument data processing to media expert and programming
expert. In Fun Lyrics, the songs is song for children which familiar with children daily activities.
The lyrics contained in the song is only used to attract the attention of student in learning English
material. The example of the relation between lyrics and daily activities are:







In this
case,
need the
character
of
teacher to
help
students
Indicator Material Relation to the song
Enhancement
English
vocabulary
Introduction my self and
my friend
Perkenalan guru
My Family Satu-satu
Class and school
environment
Lihat Kebunku
Kind of clothen Topi Saya Bundar
Kind of transportation Naik Delman
Kring-kring ada Sepeda
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improve this English vocabulary. From results of validation and data collection, it can be analyzed
performance and software quality.
Tabel. Data Ahli media Pembelajaran

No. Name NIP Position Areas of
Expertise
1.

Masduki
Zakaria, M. T
19640917 198901
1 001
Lektor Pembelajaran
Elektronika
Digital
2. Umi Rochayati,
M.T
19630528 108710
2 001
Lektor Pembelajaran
Elektronika
Industri

Test result table by media expert (desktop version).
No. Aspect Xt Yt %
1. Design 47 56 83,92
2. Information Clearness 20 24 83,3
3. Advantage 23 24 95,8
Total 90 104 86,5

Test result table by media expert (mobile version).
No. Aspect Xt Yt %
1. Design 47 56 83,92
2. Information Clearness 21 24 87,5
3. Advantage 23 24 95,8
Total 91 104 87,5








Convertion table
Percentage Scale value Interpretation
80 - 100 % 4 Very Suitable
60 - 79 % 3 Suitable
40 - 59 % 2 Suitable Enough
0 - 39 % 1 Less Appropriate

Fun Lyrics application for desktop version get the category Very Suitable or 86,5%, whereas
mobile version get the category Very Suitable too or 87,5%. The next test is test to programming
expert. The data was collected are:

Tabel. Programming Expert Data
No. Name NIP Position Areas of
Expertise
1.

Yuniar Indrihapsari
M. Eng
19820621 201012
2 002

2. Adi Dewanto, M.
Kom
Asisten Ahli Manajemen
Sistem
Informasi
3. Dessy Irmawati,
M.T
19791214 201012
2 002
Asisten Ahli

Tabel. Data acquired from programming expert (desktop version):

No. Aspect Xt Xy %
1. Design and algorithm of program 90 108 83,33
2. Documentary and coding structure 33 36 91,67
Total 123 144 85,41

Tabel. Data acquired from programming expert (mobile version):

No. Aspect Xt Xy %
1. Design and algorithm of program 89 108 82,04
2. Documentary and coding structure 31 36 86,11
Total 120 144 83,33


Convertion table:
Percentage Scale value Interpretation
80 - 100 % 4 Very Suitable
60 - 79 % 3 Suitable
40 - 59 % 2 Suitable Enough
0 - 39 % 1 Less Appropriate


Fun Lyrics application, desktop version get the category Very Suitable or 85,41%, whereas
mobile version get the category Very Suitable too or 83,33%.
In validation stage of media expert, known some weakness in this application. Then, the author did
revision. From media expert, this are some case had to be reapired.
This media still simple, need to be equipped with some buttons so that student more easily using
this application.
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The size of media must be maximal, to make it more interesting and facilitate students to read the
lyrics.
After revision, then test the application again to media expert. After the application said good, then
the author test this application in elementary school Minggiran, Yogyakarta. The students very
attracted and enthusiastic follow our program. One of the thing that makes them attractive in this
learning because this learning use computers that it is rarely done in this school. They are very
excited and have hish curiosity to English. After some songs played, they follow the songs.
Data of testing results in Elementary School of Minggiran Yogyakarta:


No Pernyataan Ya % Tidak %
1. I feel that English is hard to be learnt 19 55,8 15 54,2
2. I like reading an Englilsh book 18 52,9 16 57,1
3. I have a computer 8 23,5 26 76,5
4. I have a handphone 29 85,3 5 14,7
5. I like playing PC games and in other peripheral 32 94,1 2 5,9
6. I like studying by using computer or handphone 30 88,2 4 17,8
7. Studying by using computer or handphone is
easier and more enjoyful than by using book.
26 76,4 8 23,6
8. I feel easier when learning English on FL
Software.
28 82,3 6 17,7
9. I feel more friendly with the buttons (the
buttons are easy to be used)
26 76,4 8 23,6
10. Im interested in learning English after
studying by Fun Lyrics Software.
31 91,1 3 8,9



From the table above, show that the level of student interest in learning English using Fun Lyrics
application is 91,1%. It can be concluded that this application is suitable used as learning media.
Students interest to learning use Fun Lyrics. They will know some new words. Indonesian
vocabulary and then translated in English. They are easier to memorized words. Teacher will
expand the vocabulary with the similar words. For example, bangun tidur=wake up then expand
in daily activities likes room, bed, and the others.

Conclusion
From the research acquired some conclusion as follows:
The design of Fun Lyrics is done through several phases: need analysis, design, implementation,
and validation.
To determine software feasibility, testing on four lecture, media expert and programming expert
and get the feasibility of 87 % for media expert. And get the feasibility of 84,37% for programming
expert. Aspects tested are design, clarity of information, and benefit.
To determine feasibility software for users, tested on 30 respondents and get the feasibility of
91,1%.

Acknowledgements
With the completion of this study, we would like to thank:
Dr.. Rahmat Wahab, M.A. as Rector of the State University of Yogyakarta.
Dr.. Mochamad Bruri Triyono as Dean of the Faculty of Engineering, Yogyakarta State University.
Mr. Drs. Muhammad Munir, MPd as Chairman of the Department of Electronics Engineering
Education.
Mr. Handaru Teak, Ph.D. as the supervisor who has given directions to the completion of this final
report.
Parents and family who always given me endless support and prayers.
UKM Rekayasa Teknologi who always gave encouragement.
All concerned that I can not mention one by one that has provided relief material and sprituil.
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Rosdakarya.
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Tarigan, Henry Guntur. 1985. Berbicara Sebagai Suatu Keterampilan Berbahasa. Bandung:
Angkasa.
Tim Pustaka Kamila. 2006. Warna-warni Kecerdasan Anak dan Pendampingannya. Yogyakarta:
Kanisius
Zamroni. 2000. Paradigma Pendidikan Masa Depan. Yogyakarta: Bigraf Publishing.



































INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS ON VOCABULARY ACQUISITION AMONG EFL
LANGUAGE LEARNERS

Azadeh Asgari
Department of Languages & Humanities, Faculty of Educational Studies,
University Putra Malaysia (UPM)

Department of Languages, Faculty of Medicine,
Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences (SBUMS), E-mail: Azia.Asgari@gmail.com


Abstract: In this study, attempts were made to explore two vocabulary-learning strategies used by a
dvanced EFL learners at KIE institute in Tehran. A total of 130 EFL language learners participated a
s a sample of this research. In this study, an Oxford Placement Test (OPT) and two English tests, Pr
e-test and Post-test were used as instruments. At first, an Oxford Placement Test (OPT) was given to
homogenize students based on their vocabulary knowledge and as the result were divided into two
groups. Then, Pre-test and Post-test, with a treatment interval of one semester were conducted. The
collected data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS 16). The results show
ed that the results of OPT test in the two groups were the same. Moreover, there were significant dif
ferences among the students who learned memory strategies and the students who did not. Between
these two vocabulary learning strategies (keyword method and concept mapping), keyword method
proved more effective for long retention but not a lot; however, the difference between them was no
t significant.

Keywords: Memory strategies, Keyword method strategies, Concept mapping strategies

Introduction
English has been a major communicative language among countries for decades. English consists of
four paramount skills, listening, speaking, reading and writing and three components vocabulary, gr
ammar and pronunciation. As the researches indicate, the students need to have enough vocabulary
knowledge in order to deal with them. In other words, vocabulary plays an important role in learnin
g a foreign language. Rubin and Thompson (1994, p.79) pointed out, One cannot speak, understan
d, read or write a foreign language without knowing a lot of words. Therefore, vocabulary learning i
s at the heart of mastering a foreign language. Vocabulary is an element that links the four skills of
speaking, listening, reading and writing all together. To communicate well in a foreign language, stu
dents should acquire an adequate number of words and should know how to use them accurately. As
Decarrico (2001) stated vocabulary learning is central to language acquisition, whether the langua
ge is first, second or foreign (p. 285).

As a result, researchers have paid attention to introducing strategies for teaching and learning vocab
ulary. Nation (2001) declared that vocabulary-learning strategy is a subcategory of language learnin
g strategy, which itself is a subcategory of general learning strategy.

Language learning strategy was widely defined by scholars. Oxford (2001) defined language learnin
g strategies as operations employed by the learner to aid the acquisition, storage, retrieval and use
of information; specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable,
more self-directed, more effective and more transferable to new situations (P.166). Schmitt (1997)
defined vocabulary learning strategies as the process by which information is obtained, stored, retri
eved and used... therefore vocabulary learning strategies could be any which affect this broadly defi
ned process (p.203).

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In addition, researchers became interested in proposing taxonomies for language and vocabulary lea
rning strategies in order to help learners to overcome their problems in foreign language learning. T
he first typology of language learning strategies was introduced by Rubin (1981, 1987). Rubin (198
1) identified two major categories of strategies contributing to second language learning. One major
group was strategies that directly affected learning and the other was strategies that contributed indi
rectly to learning. Later on she categorized strategies into three main classes: learning, communicati
on, and social strategies (Rubin, 1987). They are further subdivided into cognitive and metacognitiv
e strategies. Cognitive strategies included a) clarification/verification, b) guessing/inductive, c) infer
encing, d) deductive reasoning, e) practice, f) memorization, and g) monitoring. And social strategie
s were a) asking questions to fellow students/teachers/native speakers, initiating conversations, liste
ning to L2 media. Oxford (1990) proposed a very comprehensive taxonomy of language learning str
ategies. She introduced two main categories: direct and indirect strategies. Direct strategies are thos
e strategies with language itself directly containing memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies
.Indirect strategies are those dealing with thoughts or feelings to help learning indirectly encompassi
ng metacognitive, affective, and social strategies.

On the whole, several classifications for vocabulary learning strategies were developed by scholars.
Cook and Mayer (1983) distinguished two vocabulary-learning strategies: determination strategies a
nd consolidation strategies. Lawson and Hogben (1996) introduced four vocabulary-learning strateg
ies: repetition, word feature analysis, simple elaboration and complex elaboration. The most compre
hensive taxonomy of vocabulary learning was developed by Schmitt (1997). He categorized the stra
tegies into two groups containing 59 individual vocabulary-learning strategies: the ones to determin
e the meaning of new words when encountered for the first time, and the ones to consolidate meanin
g when encountered again. The former, discovery strategies, contains social and determination strat
egies and the latter, consolidation strategies contains social, memory, cognitive and metacognitive st
rategies.

Memory strategies became a key group in Schmitts strategy classification system. These strategies,
also called mnemonics, engage learners in learning new words through mental processing. Schmitt
defined memory strategies as approaches which relate new materials to existing knowledge (p. 20
5). Mnemonic strategies involve the use of both visual and verbal mental imagery to relate a word t
o be memorized with some previously learned knowledge. One mnemonic strategy, the Keyword M
ethod, has been shown to be superior to any other deliberate vocabulary learning strategy (see revie
ws in Meara, 1980). Atkinson (1975) defined Keyword Method in this way: By a keyword, we me
an an English word that sounds like some part of the foreign word. In general, the keyword has no r
elationship to the foreign word except for the fact that it is similar in sound. The keyword method di
vides vocabulary learning into two stages. The first stage requires the subject to associate the spoke
n foreign word with the keyword, an association that is formed quickly because of acoustic similarit
y. The second stage requires the subject to form a mental image of the keyword, interacting with th
e English translation; this stage is comparable to a paired-associate procedure involving the learning
of unrelated English words (Atkinson, 1975: 821).There are two versions of the Keyword Method,
one based on the construction of visual images and the other based on the construction of sentences
. Evidence exists that the visual imagery version is superior to the sentence construction version in f
acilitating recall of words (Pressley, et al, 1982).

Non-mnemonic strategies, such as concept mapping, encourage learners to process target words in t
erms of their semantic properties. Concept mapping involves brainstorming associations that a word
has and diagrammatically displaying the results (see Skmen, 1997). According to Joseph Novak, a
Cornell University professor who developed this idea in the 1960s, concept maps are tools for orga
nizing and representing knowledge. They include concepts, usually enclosed in circles or boxes, and
relationships between concepts, indicated by a connecting line between two concepts. Concepts are
represented in a hierarchical fashion with the most comprehensive concepts at the top of the map a
nd the more detailed specific concepts at the deeper level. Novak and his research team based their
work on David Ausubels cognitive assimilation theories and the constructivist movement, both of
which stress the importance of assimilating new information into previously learned structures: To
learn meaningfully, individuals must choose to relate new knowledge to relevant concepts and prop
ositions they already know (Novak & Gowin, 1984).

Skmen (1997) mentioned that combining non-mnemonic concept mapping strategies with the mne
monic Keyword Method resulted in greater retention of words than if either the Keyword Method or
concept mapping alone is used. Mckeown and Beck (1988) suggested that integration of multiple m
ethods rather than a single method would be the best approach. Furthermore, Brown (2001a) claime
d the need to make an investment of developing multiple strategies in learners vocabulary learning
process.

Related studies on keyword method and concept mapping strategies
Numerous studies have confirmed the effectiveness of the keyword method in both foreign languag
e and native language vocabulary learning (Atkinson & Raugh, 1975). Atkinson and Raugh (1975) e
xplored the effectiveness of a mnemonic procedure, the keyword method, for learning Russian voca
bulary. The findings showed the keyword method is highly effective. In another study, Pressley, Mc
Cormick, Miller and Shriberg (1979) found that experienced language learners used strategies that
were as elaborate and effective as the keyword method. OMalley et al. (1985) found strategies invo
lving deeper more involved manipulation of information (i.e. imagery, inferenceing, Keyword Meth
od) being much less frequent. Avila & Sadoski (1996) showed that the keyword method Mnemonics
in the Classroom 7 can be helpful for limited English proficiency (LEP) students in an ESL setting
in American schools. Also, researchers have attempted to investigate which de-contextualized vocab
ulary strategies (Keyword Method or Concept mapping) is more effective. Wu and Chang (2005) re
viewed three Taiwanese researches and introduced 15 vocabulary memory strategies. Among all, ke
yword method and semantic mapping were the most commonly used strategies for vocabulary learn
ing among learners. Zhang (2005) stated that vocabulary is basic to communication and often seen a
s the greatest source of problems by the second language learners. However, it is often overlooked i
n the Chinese EFL classroom. This study highly recommended one of the de-contextualized vocabul
ary learning strategies, keyword method. After the analysis of theoretical basis, it resulted that keyw
ord method is widely used for Chinese learners.

Method such as concept mapping has been proven effective in several research studies (Scanlon, Du
ran, Reyes, and Gallego, 1991). McCagg and Dansereau (1991) studied the efficacy of a specific ty
pe of spatial learning strategy. They tested the effects of student-generated knowledge maps on psyc
hology students and found that mapping had a positive effect on students memory retention, based
on performance on recognition and recall tests. They also found that the effects were maintained ov
er time. Ellis (1995) stated that shallow processing like oral rehearsal does not lead to long-term ret
ention of words but that deep processing, whereby concept mapping associations are accessed and e
laborated, does (p.12). Boyle (1996) studied the effects of teaching a cognitive mapping strategy to
middle school students with mild learning disabilities or mild mental retardation. He specifically res
earched changes in students literal and inferential reading comprehension. The students were taught
to use a cognitive mapping strategy, which provided a series of steps to follow for constructing cog
nitive maps while they read. He found that students with mild disabilities could improve their readin
g comprehension of short passages once they were taught the strategy, and that they could complete
the maps independently and accurately. ODonnell, Dansereau and Hall (2002) reported about resea
rch that concept maps are useful for increasing comprehension with low-ability students in the scien
ces, and that concept mapping may have significant impact on summarization skills. Parsa Yekta an
d Nikbakht Nasrabadi (2004) examined the effects of teaching by concept mapping method on mea
ningful learning of 205 fourth-year nursing students in two nursing faculties in Tehran. They conclu
ded teaching by concept mapping strategy has significant effects on meaningful learning and retenti
on of the students and more nurse educators would attempt to use the concept mapping strategy in t
he promotion of meaningful learning.

Regarding the preceding researches, the present article aims to compare two vocabulary strategies:
keyword method and concept mapping strategies to see which one is more effective for long-term re
tention. Based on the mentioned aiming points, the following research questions can be formulated:
Are there any differences in the scores between EFL students who learn memory strategies and EFL
students who do not learn memory strategies?
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Which of these two strategies (keyword method or concept mapping strategies) have more impact
on the students learning?

Methodology
Participants
A total of 130 intermediate EFL students participated in a homogeneity test. They were both males a
nd females within the age range of 16 to 20 with mean of 16, chosen from KIE institute in Tehran. F
or whom English was a foreign language. Their first language was Persian.

3.2. Instrumentation
This study adopted two instruments, a Placement Test and two English vocabulary tests (pre-test an
d post-test).
3.2.1. Placement test
The Oxford Placement Test was given to homogenize the students. This test was used to discern the
level of the students and consisted of three parts: grammar, language use, and vocabulary. This test
comprised 50 multiple-choice questions with the reliability index of 0.82 calculated by Spearmans
rho, and pre-determined accepted validity.

3.2.2. English vocabulary tests
Two English vocabulary tests were used in this study (pre-test and post-test) taken from Interchange
Passages Placement and Evaluation Package by Lesley, Hanson and Zukowski (2005) consisting of
30 multiple- choice questions with the reliability value of 0.80 computed by Spearmans rho.

Pre-test was given to know about participants knowledge of vocabulary before treatments and post-
test was utilized to clarify the effectiveness of two mentioned strategies, keyword method and conce
pt mapping, through comparing with the results of pre-test.

3.3. Procedure
The overall experimental procedures were divided into three major phases including pre-test, treatm
ent and post-test. In the first phase, all 130 participants were homogenized by an Oxford Placement
Test (OPT). Therefore, after conducting OPT test the participants were homogenized and the numbe
r of participants was reduced to 60 because some of the participants were good and they did not nee
d any treatment. 60 participants were randomly divided into two groups, in each group 30 subjects.
In the second phase, a pre-test was carried out. The vocabulary test was scored and the students sco
res were analyzed. A correct answer was assigned 1 point and incorrect answer was given zero point
. The total possible points were 30. In the next phase, the two groups received the treatments. Since
the instruction was embedded in regular English classes, the English words related to the instruction
were also based on their textbook. Vocabularies were taught based on keyword method strategy to t
he first group and concept mapping strategy was taught to the second group during one semester (ab
out 40 days). In the final phase, a post-test with the same scoring system was given and the results o
f pre-test and post-test were compared to consider the most effective strategy.


4. Data Analyses
As mentioned before, this research investigated two instructional methods, keyword method vs.
concept mapping strategies on vocabulary acquisition among Intermediate students in KIE English
Language Institute in Tehran. The data was collected from 60 tests, which included demographic
information such as name and age and 30 vocabulary multiple-choice questions. With the use of
frequency tables and histograms, a description of the condition of demographic criteria and research
hypotheses was presented. Then, different statistical means, T-Test, Independent Sample T-test, and
two Pair T-tests with the Box-plot were used in order to consider research hypotheses.

Results and Discussions
At this section, the two research questions have been answered along with the tables and graphs that
proved the results. The following table and graph demonstrates a comparison among the scores of th
e students who learned memory strategies and the students who did not.

Table 1. The comparison of the students mean score who learned memory strategies and who did n
ot learn
-value
(Sig)
df
Statistics
T
Std. Error
difference
Mean
Differenc
e
SD
Mea
n
N Score
0.000 59 -8.909 2.777 -3.52
4.948 20.27 65 Pre-test
Group
3.279 23.78 65 Post-test

There is a difference in the scores between EFL language learners who learned memory strategies a
nd EFL students who did not learn memory strategies.

H0: The mean score of the students who learned memory strategies and students who did not le
arn memory strategies is the same.

The comparison of the students mean score who learned memory strategies and the students who di
d not learn memory strategies calculated by two-pair Test states -value (sig) is equal to 0.000 and it
is smaller than the significant level (=0.05). As the result, at this level H0 failed and it could be dec
lared that the students scores who learned memory strategies and the students who did not learn me
mory strategies have significant differences.

According to the second research question that tried to prove the effectiveness of one of these strate
gies, keyword method and concept mapping, the following table and graph declares this result.

Table 2. The comparison of the students mean score in keyword method and concept mapping strat
egies
-value
(Sig)
df
Statistics
T
Std. Deviat
ion
Mean N Scores
0.391 58 0.892
2.6018 3.833 65 Key-word method
Group
2.9525 3.200 65 Concept mapping


There are differences among the students score of memory strategies in both groups of keyword me
thod and concept mapping strategies.

H0: The students mean scores of memory strategies in the two groups (keyword method and concep
t mapping strategies) are the same.

The comparison of the students scores of memory strategies in two groups (keyword method and co
ncept mapping strategies) computed by Independent Sample T-test reveals that -value (sig) is equal
to 0.382 and it is bigger than level of significance (=0.05). It depicts H0 did not fail and therefore
it could not say that the students scores of memory strategies in these two groups have significant d
ifferences.

Conclusions
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The findings of the study on the impact of two kinds of vocabulary learning strategies: keyword met
hod and concept mapping strategies. The findings revealed that there is a statistically significant diff
erence among the students who learned memory strategies and the students who did not learn memo
ry strategies. It is concluded that memory strategies could be used as an important ways to memoriz
e the words forever. In the same study, Sperber (1989) conducted a survey in Western Europe and N
orth America among students of foreign languages to establish how mnemonics are used. Sperber e
stimates that at least 10,000 students were contacted. The result showed that the mnemonics were s
uccessfully used.

Furthermore, the results showed that the keyword method seemed to be a little more efficient than c
oncept mapping strategies for memorizing the words; however, this difference is not statistically sig
nificant. In the same study, Atkinson and Raugh (1975) explored the effectiveness of a mnemonic pr
ocedure, the keyword method, for learning Russian vocabulary. The findings showed the keyword
method is highly effective. In another study, Avila & Sadoski (1996) showed that the keyword meth
od Mnemonics in the Classroom 7 can be helpful for limited English proficiency (LEP) students in
an ESL setting in American schools. Moreover, researchers have attempted to investigate which de-
contextualized vocabulary strategies (Keyword Method or Concept mapping) is more effective. Wu
and Chang (2005) reviewed three Taiwanese researches and introduced 15 vocabulary memory strat
egies. Among all, keyword method and semantic mapping were the most commonly used strategies
for vocabulary learning among learners.


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Atkinson, R.C.(1975). Mnemotechnics in second-language learning. American Psychologist, 30,
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Language and Communication Skills (LCS) of Leadership in Educational Management

By
Safrat Folake Adelakun
(Postgraduate Student)
Department of Educational Management and Leadership
Institute of Education (INSTED)
IIUM
flkadelakun@gmail.com
&
safradela@yahoo.com

Abstract:
Poor language and communication skills of educational leaders have been observed to be a major
menace to leadership success in goal accomplishment. Leadership which happens to be the pioneer
ing function of Management steers other areas such as Planning, Organizing and Coordinating of E
ducational management, therefore it requires some strategic skills such as language and communic
ation to accomplish its function. The power of oratory skill in leadership goes a long way in providi
ng solution to some salient issues facing leadership in educational management. In this vein, this ar
ticle will present the powerful oratory skills that solve various issues particularly relating to subord
inates and their job functions. This paper will conclude on the basis that the presented (LCS) will to
the highest degree, solve major issues between the leaders and their subordinate thus decision maki
ng and implementation of policies will be easier.
Keywords: language, communication, leadership, administration, subordinate, skills






INTRODUCTION
This study is an attempt to present some communication skills which educational leaders need in th
e day to day running of their organization especially while communicating with their subordinates i
n relation to their job functions. In the first instance, it explains the relationship between language, c
ommunication and leaders. The methodology will explore what are the skills and explain how, wher
e and when to use each skill and the effects of the skills to the organization at large. This study will
implore the use of descriptive and analytical method in presenting the language and communicating
skills to leaders in promoting healthy and virile environment and how helpful it can go in solving to
p-down communication problem in educational management. At the onset, we have to understand th
e meaning of language, communication and their relationship to the leader.
WHAT IS LANGUAGE? :
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Language is the means of interpreting and regulating culture. It remains the predominant mode of c
ommunication whether in spoken or written form. Using language for conversation by speaking de
mands a bit more carefulness because you are aware that there is an audience whose task is to listen
to you and analyze every word you use. Speech in language can be Monologue (presence of clear sp
eaker-audience relationship), Conversation (talking with other people rather than to) and Discussion
(when talk passes back and forth among several speakers)
1
It also serves in defining the roles of pa
rticipants (Speakers, Readers and Listeners). There are majorly two types of communication: vocal
and non-verbal language. The former is mainly the context of this study while the latter are forms of
bodily, facial expressions /gestures of message. Vocal language is a form of oral expression (comm
unication) of oneself. Usually it involves two ways whereby we have the speaker and the listener. Al
so, in Language, Motivation to speak connects with desire to communicate and under normal intera
ction; the feedback is to the content and not the form of utterance. Language is made up of symbols
in different languages. This means a symbol which has positivism in a language might have negativi
sm in another.
THE MEANING OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another, whether this
is done vocally (using voice) written (using printed or digital media such as books, magazines, web
sites and emails) visually (using logos, maps, charts and graphs) or non-verbally (using body langua
ge and/or gestures) to make meaningful result to the listener. The perfection of how well this infor
mation can be transmitted and received is a measure of how good our communication skills are. In a
nutshell, communication implies interpretation on somebodys part.
It has been a common assumption that poor communication is a key contributor to the failure of
major change efforts, therefore, to make change a leader need to communicate the change vision
1
.
Not surprisingly, communication skills are increasingly regarded as a critical skill set for leaders,
particularly in situations where the leader is an instrumental driver of change.
In the good sense of it, communication skills, both in terms of personal ability and strategic
capability, are being given increasing importance in leadership competency models. Leaders who
stand out from the crowd are those with exemplary communication skills. The feedback skill is
associated with the communication skill and it helps the followers to improve their behavior and
make the organization accomplish its objective and thus needs to be improved through training in
coaching.
1
Therefore, leadership communication skills training have become a core component of
leadership development programs in success seeking organizations.
Studies of communication provide direction as to how managers can effectively and persuasively co
mmunicate. Communication can be coded or not coded depending on the understanding the receiver
has about the message.
INTEGRATED COMMUNICATION ROLE OF LEADERSHIP
Leadership is sometimes interchangeably use with management. While leadership is linked with vis
ion, mission and values, management is related to processes and structures put in place in any organ
ization. Leadership is the ability of one who led to influence other stakeholders particularly the subo
rdinates towards the belief in the vision design for the organization. As no man is an island of mou
ntain, the leader will carry out the process and structure with the aid of human resource. Therefore
in the process of influencing, the leader engages in communication through formal language of the
organization. Communication skill is very much pertinent to be practiced by the leader to effectivel
y and successfully perform the role and function vested on him/her. In the context of this paper, the
following is the leadership communication model
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Figure1: Leadership communication model Adapted from
1

Communication skills
In everyday life of human beings, ability to communicate effectively is the most important of all life
skills. To be effective in his duty, the leader engages in interpersonal communication which is face-
to face with the followers and it is not just about what is said, the language used but how it is said
considering the tone of the message; facial expressions sent with the message; gestures and other
body languages. The interpersonal skills broken down by research consist of the following elements
: Communicators (sender and receiver), Message (information sent), Noise (distortions) and the Fee
dback (receivers returned information). In the context of this study, leadership in educational man
agement will need but not constricted to the following skills which are basically divided into three:
1) Interpersonal skill
2) Presentation skill
3) Writing skill

Interpersonal skill of a leader in communicating with the subordinate as the name denotes, is the rel
ationship that should exist between the leader and the led. The interpersonal skill includes but not li
mited to:
Listening skill
Communication skill
Stress Management skill
Assertive skill
Decision making skill
Problem solving skill
1

o By listening, this study means the ability to accurately receive messages in the
communication process. The word accuracy is used to emphasize that a balance is
required to get message as intended by the sender. Listening is key to all effective
communication, without the ability to listen effectively messages are easily
misunderstood communication breaks down and the sender of the message can
easily become frustrated or irritated. To an educational management leader in
measuring effective communication right, he needs ample measure of accuracy in
this skill.
o Communication skill is a spice to interpersonal skill in the sense that it expresses the
feelings, understanding towards effectiveness of ideal situation of the speaker and
the listener. As a leader, there is ample need to be very skilled in the two types of
communication (verbal and non-verbal). Verbal communication to a leader requires
the following to be effective: the opening, reinforcement, effective listening,
questioning (close and open), reflecting and clarifying, summarizing and closing. By
engaging in the above steps, the leader is assured of higher percentage of positive
impact of his message on the led. The non-verbal communication which includes
body movement, posture, eye contact, paralanguage, close/ personal space, facial
expression and physiological change aspect is also a vital component to the leader.
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The leader gets the feedback and optimizes the message through the non-verbal cues
received from his followers.
o By been assertive it is the ability to express feelings, wishes, wants and desires
appropriately and it is vital aspect of personal and interpersonal skill. The leaders
interactions with other people, whether at home or at work with employers,
customers or colleagues, assertiveness can help him to express himself in a clear,
open and reasonable way, without undermining the rights of his self or others.
Assertiveness enable individuals to act in their own best interests, to stand up for
themselves without undue anxiety, to express honest feelings comfortably and to
express personal rights without denying the rights of others
1
.
o Stress is seen as a bad omen in an organization and thus must be controlled. An
effective communicative leader must possess a holistic approach to stress
management. This can be achieve by incorporating stress management activities into
day by day culture of the system. It must be acknowledged that by optimizing the
health of the workforce we ensure the good health of the organization. This becomes
manifest in terms of maximum performance and productivity.
1

o Problem solving skill is the ability to face the challenges surrounding the leader at
any time. This is a must possess skill because the leader is bound to face challenge
to make change effective. The problem may be within or out of the organization
which will come purposely to defeat the accomplishment and productivity of the
organization. An effective communicative leader will need analytical skill to
process solution to the problem at stake. Analytical skill is the ability of the leader
to recognize development opportunities for their members and determine whether
communication in form of coaching is needed
1
. The leader will need to find out how
the task is perform, the strength and weak areas of the performed task, determine
other procedures and conclude on the specific alternative to improve him to
overcome the challenge.
HOW TO DEVELOP YOUR INTERPERSONAL SKILL
Learn to Listen
Listening is not the same as hearing. Leaders must take time to listen carefully to what others are sa
ying through both their verbal and non-verbal communication.
Choose Your Words
Leaders should be selective and aware of the words to be use when talking to others. Could you be
misunderstood or confuse the issue? Leaders need to practice clarity and learn to seek feedback to e
nsure the message has been understood. They need to encourage others to engage in communication
and use appropriate questioning to ascertain understanding of the message.
Understand Why Communication Fails
By learning about the various barriers to good communication, leaders can be aware of - and reduce
the likelihood of - ineffective interpersonal communication.
Relax
It is common practice that when we are nervous we tend to talk more quickly and therefore less clea
rly. Being tense is also evident in our body language and other non-verbal communication. Instead,
as a leader try to stay calm, make eye contact and smile. In fact, studies had shown that smiling redu
ces tension in the body. Leaders must let their confidence shine.
Clarify
A leader must show an interest in the people he/she talk to, ask questions and seek clarification on a
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ny points that could be easily misunderstood
Be Positive
Leaders must try to remain positive and cheerful. People are much more likely to be drawn to leade
rs of such if he can maintain a positive attitude.
Develop sense of Empathy
For leaders to have effective communication, they need understand that other people may have diffe
rent points of view. Try to see things from their perspective. You may learn something while you gai
n the respect and trust of others.
Understand Stress
Stress is understood to be part of the experiences of a leader. You as a leader must learn to recognize
, manage and reduce stress in yourself and others. Although stress is not always bad it can have a d
etrimental effect on the communication process. Learning how to recognize and manage stress, in y
ourself and others, is an important interpersonal skill.
Learn to be Assertive
Leaders should aim to be neither passive nor aggressive. Being assertive is about expressing your fe
elings and beliefs in a way that others can understand and respect. Assertiveness is fundamental to s
uccessful negotiation.
Reflect and Improve
Leaders must always think about previous conversations and other interpersonal interactions; you sh
ould learn from your mistakes and successes. Always keep a positive attitude but realize that we ca
n all always improve our communication skills.
Negotiate
As a leader you should learn how to effectively negotiate with others paving the way to mutual resp
ect, trust and lasting interpersonal relations.
Working in Groups
Most of the time, we find ourselves in group situations, professionally and socially. As a leader, you
should learn all about the different types of groups and teams.
Presentation skill
Ability to Present information clearly and effectively is a key skill to get your message or opinion a
cross and, today, presentation skills are required in almost every. As a leader and administrator or ex
ecutive, if you need to share your ideas, plans and strategy with your team members, you need appl
y an effective presentation skill in order of coherence for better comprehensive understanding. This
will make your points a hot cake, acceptable and leaving your ideas only to constructive criticism
among your subordinates.
Leaders must not avoid fears, fidgeting and feeling terrified when need be to make public talk, but t
he initial fears can be reduced by good preparation which will also lay the groundwork for making a
n effective presentation. It requires the leader to attempt these steps
Understanding the purpose
The leader must understand that the presentation is a means of communication which he has adapte
d to suit the purpose of various speaking situations, such as talking to a group, addressing a meeting
or briefing a team. To be effective, step-by-step preparation and the method and means of presentin
g the information should be carefully considered through effective speaking.
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Preparing the Presentation
There is need for the leader to be fully prepared for the presentation. This is the crucial foundation
stage and there should be no levity.
Organizing the Material
Leaders must realize that Irrespective of whether the occasion is formal or informal, he should alwa
ys aim to give a clear, well-structured delivery. He should know fully, and understand the context o
f exactly what he want to say and the order in which he want to say it. Clarity of ideas and good or
ganization will result in a lively, logical and compelling message.
Deciding the Presentation Method
Sometimes, few people are able to give a presentation without notes. A leader need to know his own
abilities and decide how best to make the presentation. He might manage his talk by using full text,
notes on cue cards, keywords on cue cards, or mind maps
Working with visual aids
Use of visual aids enhances proper understanding of the message. Most visual aids will need advanc
e preparation and should be operated with efficiency. Leaders are advice to only use visual aids if t
hey are necessary to maintain interest and assist comprehension: he should not use them just to dem
onstrate his technological prowess but if visual aids are used well they will enhance a presentation b
y adding impact and strengthening audience involvement, yet if they are managed badly they can ru
in a presentation.
Dealing with Questions
A leader should clarify at the start of his presentation, when he would prefer to deal with questions.
Some speakers prefer questions to be raised as they arise during the presentation whilst others prefe
r It is advisable to deal with questions at the end. Decide in advance how and when you wish to han
dle questions.
Writing Skill
Writing skills are an important part of communication. Good writing skills allow you to commu
nicate your message with clarity and ease to a far larger audience than through face-to-face or tel
ephone conversations. Writing that is free of error of grammar and spelling create good first impr
ession about the reader (sender). Distorted message communicated are easier to forget than distor
ted written communication because that can be pass from one hand to the other and thus spoil the
credibility of the sender to a larger extent.
Summary
In summary, Language is a means of communicating between the sender and the receiver. This stud
y has successfully highlighted the leader as the apex of change with the aid of his subordinates. He r
equire clear, concise and undistorted message to communicate in other to move the organization for
ward. The leader is seen as one playing three integrated communicative role: communication syste
m, communication planning and communication delivery. To successfully do this, he needs to learn,
apply and practice effective communication skills which are majorly divided into three: Interperson
al, Presentation and writing skills.

Conclusion
Conclusively, this article has been able to justify that issue related to communication breakdown wh
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272

ich easily degenerate law and order in organization and defeat the productivity can be resolved with
the mastering and practice of this skills. Leaders can improve their relationship with their subordina
te through the practice of good language and communication skills.
References:
http://www.skillsyouneed.com/interpersonal-skills.html: A list of Interpersonal
Skills.Retreived(7/7/2013)
http://www.ceoforum.com.au/article-detail.cfm?cid=6128&t=/JoAnne-Facey-Mercer-Human-
Resource-Consulting/Effective-communication-skills-that-make-leaders-stand-out-from-the-
crowd. Retreived(7/7/2013)
































Psychometric Analysis of The Self-Efficacy Encouragement in The University
Environment: A Chinese Version

Muhammed Yusuf,
Faculty of Education and Human Development,
Sultan Idris Education University (UPSI),
Tanjung Malim, Perak, Malaysia,
Email address: kuanademola@yahoo.com or muhammed.yusuf@fppm
_____________________________________________________________________________
Abstract. This study introduced the Self-efficacy Encouragement Questionnaire (SEEQ -14 ite
ms). The scale was developed to examine whether the university lecturers encourage undergradu
ate students to develop their academic sense of efficacy during class activities and to what exten
t using a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to test the cross language equivalence of the SE
EQ and to explore whether its psychometric properties are universally sound. A translated SEEQ
-English version to the Chinese language was distributed to 65 undergraduate Chinese national s
tudents who are concurrently studying English communication and Music in Malaysia. The PCA
attempts to answer the following research question: what are the psychometric properties of the
self-efficacy encouragement questionnaire? The results indicated that the Self-efficacy Encoura
gement Questionnaire (SEEQ) is an established inventory with satisfactory validity and reliabilit
y indications and for that reason, it's justified to be used in other studies. The findings of the freq
uency analysis indicate that the respective university lecturers do communicate and encourage t
he Chinese degree students to develop their academic self-efficacy during English class activitie
s.
Keywords: Self-Efficacy, Encouragement, Psychometric, Chinese.

1. Introduction
Bandura 1986, 1997 arguers that human action towards success depends on how deep the intera
ctions between ones personal thoughts and own activity management. Besides, low Self-efficac
y is associated with helplessness feeling and it is a predictor of human failure (Bandura 1994). F
urther, a sense of self- efficacy motivates students to believe in their own ability to successfully
exercise learning activities. When students are confident in themselves they think of learning dif
ficulties as challenges (Bandura 1986 ; Bandura and Lock 2003; Schunk 1982).
Accordingly, there are several factors that influenced individuals to develop self-efficacy beliefs
. They are enactive attainment, actual experience, verbal persuasion, social evaluation and Com
parison (Bandra, 1986, 1994; Schunk et al. 1987). Sense of social performance and modeling co
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uld lead to self-efficacy development (Schunk 1987; Schunk and Hanson 1988), Childrens inte
raction and parent environment increased self-efficacy (Bandura 1997; Meece 1997; Jonson-Rei
d et al 2005). Social persuasion or word of encouragement helps to develop self-efficacy (Band
ura 1986). It was empirically shown that Collective Cognitive and teachers' self-efficacy influen
ced students' academic achievement (Bandura, 1993; Hoy and Murphy 2003; Pajares 1992 Asht
on & Webb, 1986; Ashton, 1985).
2. Research method

The scale was developed to examine whether the university lecturers encourage degree stu
dents to develop their academic self- efficacy during class activities and to what extent they wer
e encouraged. The SEEQ comprises 14 items and were rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging fr
om 1 (very strongly disagree) to 7 (very strongly agree. A translated SEEQ-English version to th
e Chinese language was distributed to 65 undergraduate Chinese national students who are curre
ntly studying Music at Faculty of Music and performing Art, the International University Colleg
e of Technology Twintech IUCTT- Malaysia. Yes of course, the Chinese version of SEEQ was di
stributed after a considerable content validity by some experts in educational research. The Prin
cipal Component Analysis was applied to answer the following research question: what are the p
sychometric properties of the self-efficacy encouragement questionnaire? Further, a frequency a
nalysis was used to test proportion of the lecturers self-efficacy encouragement. The findings ar
e stated below.

1.2. PCA Results
All 14 Items were included in the self-efficacy encouragement investigation. The KMO and Bart
lett's test results show that Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling Adequacy (MSA) was .912
Indicating that the overall MSA result fulfilled the requirement of at least .60. The MSA result is
a strong indicator to continue the investigation, especially, Bartletts test was also statistically si
gnificant p <. 001.

Further, Anti-image Correlation was used to test items parallel. Accordingly, each item loading
was greater than the benchmark of at least 0.5. This is an indication of adequate interrelationship
among the items of the SEEQ (fig. 1).



1
2
3 Item no
4
5
6
7
8

Item 1
.935a
Item 2 .885a
Item 3 .924a
Item 4 .939a
Item 5 .922a
Item 6 .920a
Item 7 .926a
Item 8 .855a
Fig. 1: Anti-image Correlation


9
10
11 Item no
12
13
14

Item 9
.873a
Item 10 .891a
Item 11 .960a
Item 12 .897a
Item 13 .952a
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276

Item 14 .923a
Continued.
Notice: a Measures of Sampling Adequacy (MSA)

In addition, the measurement of Communality (fig. 2) reveals that all items -exempt item 3-
are above the requirement of at least 0.5, nevertheless, the item 3 was retained due to other stati
stical strength of the item, for example, Anti-image Correlation shows (. 924) loading for the ite
m 3 which is greater than the requirement (0.5). Also, test for individual item reliability reveals .
95 for the respective item. Taking the above and others into account, the researcher decided to re
tain the item for any further analysis.




Initial Extraction
encouragement 1.000 .526
encouragement 1.000 .660
encouragement 1.000 .464
encouragement 1.000 .516
encouragement 1.000 .656
encouragement 1.000 .534
encouragement 1.000 .672
encouragement 1.000 .620
encouragement 1.000 .609
encouragement 1.000 .780
encouragement 1.000 .719
encouragement 1.000 .821
encouragement 1.000 .512
encouragement 1.000 .592





Fig. 2: Communalities Result
Item no Component
1
encouragement .725
encouragement .812
encouragement .681
encouragement .718
encouragement .810
encouragement .731
encouragement .820
encouragement .787
encouragement .780
encouragement .883
encouragement .848
encouragement .906
encouragement .715
encouragement .769
Fig.3 : The Underlying Component Matrix

The Initial Eigenvalues and component Matrix results (fig. 3) grouped the 14 Items into one fact
or namely, encouragement factor. The total variance explained was 61% and the remaining 29%
could not explained by this study. The analysis also shows factors loading of 8.67 which was hig
her than the requirement of at least 1 (Hair & Black 1998). Additionally, Chronbachs alpha wa
s applied to examine the internal consistency of the self-efficacy encouragement questionnaire.
The finding demonstrates a commanding statistical internal consistency for the SEEQ (. 95).

2.2. Frequency Analysis Result
The findings of the frequency analysis indicate that the respective university lecturers encourag
ed Chinese degree students to develop their academic sense efficacy during English class activit
ies. Also, the frequency analysis shows that the SEEQ perfectly describe the academic sense effi
cacy of the respondents. For illustration, the majority of participants (44 %) indicated that item
three My lecturers inform me that my self-efficacy will help me to obtain better academic achie
vement was truly described their learning believe. 41.5% of respondents demonstrated that ite
m one My lecturers encouraged me to be confident in myself and beat the odds of my universit
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278

y courses and item five My lecturers inform me about their self-confidence and how it helps t
hem to overcome lots of learning difficulties were truly explained their self-efficacy perception
. At the same time, 41% demonstrated that item two My lecturers make me confident that I hav
e ability to execute all my university assignments was also portrayed their learning self-efficac
y perception (fig. 4).


No of item Not v. true Sort true true Very true
1 3.1% 12.3% 41.5% 32.3%
2 1.5% 20% 40% 20%
3 3.1% 21.5% 44.6% 23.1%
4 1.5% 32.3% 26.2% 26.2%
5 3.1% 21.5% 41.5% 26.2%
6 1.5% 24.6% 38.5% 16.9%
7 1.5% 24.6% 33.8% 30.8%
8 3.1% 16.9% 36.9% 29.2%
9 3.1% 26.2% 35.4% 29.2%
10 7.7% 27.7% 35.4% 18.5%
11 3.1% 27.7% 32.3% 24.8%
12 1.5% 26.2% 33.8% 23.1%
13 3.1% 33.8% 32.3% 15.4%
14 1.5% 27.7% 29.2% 29.2%
Fig. 4: Frequency Analysis
Notice: 1 = not very true of me 2 = not true of me 3 = sort of true of me 4 = true of me
5 = very true of me.

3. Conclusion
The present study contributed to the available empirical educational research findings of the self
efficacy beliefs. Also, the study indicated that the university lecturers were personally involved i
n students self-efficacy development process. Empirically, this is an important recognition for t
he respective university lecturers that they were actively encouraged their students to be confide
nt in their studies. Bandura (1997, 1994) emphasized on the important role of verbal persuasion
on the self-efficacy development. It was empirically shown that teachers' self-efficacy influence
d students' achievements (Bandura, 1993; Hoy and Murphy 2003; Pajares 1992 Ashton & Webb,
1986; Ashton, 1985).

Based on the Principal Component Analysis investigation, the results of the SEEQ - Chinese Ve
rsion were statistically sound, valid, and reliable. It is a significant construct and innovative cont
ribution to the educational research field since it is unusual for many researchers in education to
investigate the self-efficacy developmental process relating to the lecturers of universities. The
SEEQ-Chinese Version could be used in any other similar studies. The present findings were si
milar to the results of the SEEQ-English version by Muhammed Yusuf (2010; Rohaty, Muhamm
ed Yusuf & Tamuri. 2010; Muhammed Yusuf 2012). Further, the PCA statistical results were als
o signified by the finding of frequency analysis (Fig. 4).

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Bandura, A. 1977. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological
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Bandura, A. 1986. Fearful Expectations and Avoidant Actions as Coeffects of Perceived Self-Ine
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Bandura, A. 1986. Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Engl
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Bandura, A. 1989. Human Agency in Social Cognitive Theory. American Psychologists, 44 (9):
1175-1184. Bandura, A., 1989. Regulation of Cognitive Processes through Perceived Self-Effic
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Bandura, A. 1993. Perceived Self-efficacy in Cognitive Development and Functioning. Educati
onal Psychologis 28: 117-148.
Bandura, A., Ann, O.C., Taylor, B., Gauthier & Gossard, J. 1987. Perceived Self-Efficacy and P
ain Control: Opioid and Nonopioid Mechanisms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
9: 1339-1394.
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Bandura, A. & Jourden, F. J. 1991.Self-Regulatory Mechanisms Governing the Impact of Social
Comparison on Complex Decision Making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60 (6
) : 941-951.
Bandura, A. 1994. Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior
4 :71-81. New York: Academic Press. (Reprinted in H. Friedman [Ed.], Encyclopedia of mental
health. San Diego: Academic Press, 1998).
Bandura, A. 1997. Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
Bandura, A. Conce, P., Claudio, B., Barbaranelli, C. 1999. Self-Efficacy Pathways to Childhoo
d Depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76 (2): 258-269.
Bandura, A. & Locke, E. A. 2003. Negative Self-Efficacy and Goal Effects. Revisited Journa
l of Applied Psychology 88 (1): 87-99.
Babbie, E. (1989). The practice of social research (5th Ed.). California: Wadsworth
Publishing Company.
Collins, J. L. 1982. Self-efficacy and ability in achievement behavior. Paper presented
at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York (March 19
82).
Hair, S. & Black, T. 1998. Multivariate Data Analysis (5th Ed). New Jersey: Hall PTR.
Hoy, W. A. & Murphy, H. P. K. 2003. Teaching Educational Psychology to the Implicit Mind.T
o appear in B. Torff & R. Sternberg (Eds.). Understanding and teaching the intuitive mind. Mah
wah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Jonson, M. R., Saunders, D. L., Williams, T. & Williams, J H. 2005 Academic Self-Efficacy am
ong African American Youths: Implications for School Social Work Practice. Children & School
s 27 (1): 5- 10.
Muhammed Yusuf. 2010. Self-efficacy, Achievement Motivation, and Learning Strategies of U
KM Undergraduate Students and their impact on academic achievement. National university of
Malaysia (Faculty of Education -Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia).
Meece, J. L. 1997. Child and adolescent development for educators. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
Rohaty, Muhammed Yusuf & Tamuri. 2010. Psychometric Analysis of Self-Efficacy
Encouragement: an English version. Science Direct and Scopus, also Procedia Social and Behav
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Muhammed Yusuf. 2012. Psychometric Analysis of Self-Efficacy Encouragement: a Malay vers
ion. Journal
of Sostanalble development- Canada.http://www.ssrn.com/link/OIDA- Intl Journal-Sostanalble-
dev.html
Pajares, F. 1992. Teachers Beliefs and Educational Research: Cleaning up a Messy Construct. R
eview of Educational Research, 62: 307-332.
Pajares, F. & Miller, M. D. 1994. The Role of Self-efficacy and Self-concept Beliefs
in mathematical problem-solving: A Path Analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology 86: 19
3-203.
Pajares, F. & Kranzler, J. 1994. Self-efficacy, Self-concept, and General Mental Ability in Mathe
matical Problem-solving. Florida Educational Research Council Research Bulletin, 26: 8-32.
Schunk, D. H. 1982a. Effects of Effort Attributional Feedback on Children's Perceived Self-effic
acy and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology 74: 548-556.
Schunk, D. H. 1982b. Verbal self-regulation as a facilitator of children's achievement and self-ef
ficacy. Human Learning 1: 265-277.
Schunk, D. H. 1983a. Developing children's self-efficacy and skills: The roles of social compara
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Schunk, D. H. 1983b. Reward contingencies and the development of children's skills and self-ef
ficacy. Journal of Educational Psychology 75: 511-518.
Schunk, D. H. (1984a). Self-efficacy perspective on achievement behavior. Educational Psychol
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Schunk, D. H. 1984b. Sequential attributional feedback and children's achievement behaviors. J
ournal of Educational Psychology, 76: 1159-1169.
Schunk, D. H. 1984c. Enhancing self-efficacy and achievement through rewards and goals: Mot
ivational and informational effects. Journal of Educational Research 78 :29-34.
Schunk, D. H. & Lilly, M. W. 1984. Sex differences in self-efficacy and attributions: Influence
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Schunk, D. H. & Gunn, T. P. 1985. Modeled importance of task strategies and achievement belie
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Schunk, D. H., Hanson, A. R. & Cox, P. D. 1987. Peer-model attributes and children's achievem
ent behaviors. Journal of Educational Psychology 79: 54-61.
Schunk, D. H. & Hanson, A. R. 1988. Influence of peer-model attributes on children's beliefs an
d learning. Journal of Educational Psychology 81: 431-434.
Schunk, D. H. 1989. Self-efficacy and achievement behaviors. Educational Psychology Review
1: 173-208.
Turner, S. L., Alliman-Brissett, A., Lapan, R. T., Udipi, S. & Ergun, D. 2003 The career-relate
d parent support scale. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development. Alexandri
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a 36 (2): 83

5. APENDIX : Self-efficacy Encouragement Questionnaire (SEEQ)

The following questionnaire (SEEQ) asks about your lecturers encouragement to develop your
academic self-efficacy. Your responses are treated confidentially. In order to ensure this, please
do not write your name or any identification on the questionnaire. Remember there is no right
or wrong answer, just answer as accurately as possible. Use the scale ratings below to answer th
e questions. If you think the statement is very true of you, circle 7; if a statement is not at all tru
e of you, circle 1. If the statement is more or less true of you, find the number between 1 and 7 t
hat the best describes you.

7
117

1 = not at all true of me ;
2 = not very true of me ;
3 = not true of me ;
4 = not sure ;
5 = sort of true of me ;
6 = true of me ;
7 = very true of me ;

1. My lecturers encouraged me to be confident in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
myself and beat the odds of my university courses.




1. My lecturers make me confident that I have ability 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
to execute all my university assignments.

1. My lecturers inform me that my self-efficacy will 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
help me to obtain better academic achievement.


1. My lecturers make it clear to me that my 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
self-efficacy will make me survive in the university
setting.


2. My lecturers inform me about their self-confidence 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
and how it helps them to overcome lots of learning
difficulties.


3. My lecturers do inform me that taking difficult 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
courses will provide me with encouragements and
helpful experiences for future university courses.


4. My lecturers build confidence in me that if 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
I keep on trying, I will overcome my university
course difficulties.

5. My lecturers encourage me to be brave/confident 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
enough to discuss my course difficulties with them.


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284

6. My lecturers remind me that I have to be brave to 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
discuss my learning obstacles with my university
course mates.


7. My lecturers give me enough confidence to set 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
effective learning goals for my university courses.

8. My lecturers emphasis that it is when I believe 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
in myself I can make my specific course goals
achievable.


9. My lecturers stress that my confidence can help my 1 2 3 4 5
6 7
university course plan work.

10. My lecturers encourage me to not doubt myself in 1 2 3 4 5
6 7
making my time management plans work.


11. I feel encouraged by my lectures to feel confident 1 2 3 4 5
6 7
in designing effective study plans for my university
courses.



Lexical Borrowing from the Arabic Language in an Islamic Course Conducted in English

Nurul-Ikhlas Arshad, Mohamed Ismail Ahamad Shah
International Islamic University Malaysia


Corresponding Author: Nurul-Ikhlas, Arshad, International Islamic University Malaysia, email
address:ikhlasarshad@yahoo.com

_____________________________________________________________________________
__________
Abstract.The incorporation of Islamic Arabic words into the English language is one of the most
visible and salient features of Islamic English. Since a number of studies by Muslim scholars an
d academicians have advocated the concept of Islamic English, this study intends to further adva
nce the concept by contributing to the accumulated literature from a linguistic perspective. This
study analyses the patterns and processes of borrowing that can occur in the retention of Islamic
Arabic words. Classroom discourse in a weekend course conducted in English by an internation
al Islamic institute was analyzed using Haugens (1950) model on lexical borrowing. The study
shows that the most common process of borrowing in the discourse is total importation, as loan
words make up the majority of the borrowed features.Loanblends and loan translations were als
o detected although each make up only less than ten percent of the borrowed features. The stud
y found that there is a need to consider how Islamic Arabic words are used in English, in additio
n to retaining their forms. Recommendations are provided in this aspect, particularly in teachin
g Islamic Studies in the English language as well as in retaining Islamic Arabic terms in the gen
eral discourse among Muslims.
Keywords: Islamic English, World Englishes,lexical borrowing, Islamic Arabic terms
1. Introduction
As the English language became the lingua franca of the world, the language spread to diverse c
ommunities and nations. With its widespread diffusion into different communities that are cultu
rally unique and diverse, this communicative tool which is seen as Judeo-Christian based and e
ntrenched in Roman secular worldview (Ratnawati, 1996, p.353) finds itself undergoing inevita
ble modifications to meet the specific and unique communicative needs of its new speakers. T
hese modifications can be seen in the various World Englishes or varieties of English having the
ir own distinctive linguistic features and suited to meet the needs and identities of their language
communities (Kachru, 1997).
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Many studies have been conducted to study these linguistic modifications in the different Englis
h varieties including at the lexical level. Bamgbose (1996, p.6) for example described lexical in
novations as inevitable and stated that in East Africa, one has to be familiar with the uses of lex
ical items such as wananchi(citizen), matutu(collective taxi), bwana (master) and panga(machet
e) among others. Similarly, when in India where Indian English is spoken, one would encounte
r lexical items that are foreign to the speakers of Standard Englishes such as avatar, guru and puj
a as well as compound blends such as ghatroad and gobar gas (Pingau, 2009). These lexical inn
ovations are often from semantic fields that are intertwined with ones culture and identity such
as food, religion and philosophy. They include culture-specific registers that are often absent in
the Standard Englishes.
This also holds true for the Muslim Ummah, having their own linguistic needs that are intertwin
ed with their religion and identity. A number of studies by Muslim scholars and academicians (e
.g.,Al Faruqi, 1986; Khairiah&ZuridahHayati, 2009; Khairiah& Maskanah, 2010; Dahiru, 1996;
Haja, 2007) have supported this notion, showing the need for the application of Islamic Arabic t
erms in the English language. With the absent of many Islamic religious referents in Standard E
nglishes, Muslim scholars such as Al Faruqi (1986) speak of the concern in the preservation of I
slamic understanding as distortion of meanings can easily occur through transliteration and trans
lation. Al Faruqi (1986, p.13) stated that through such distortions many meanings suffer chang
e, loss or obliteration from consciousness and thus produce a serious threat to the continuity of
Islamic understanding (p.14). This concern and the perceived inadequacy of the English langua
ge to meet the communicative and linguistic needs of the Muslims bring forth a new or modified
form of English which is termed as Islamic English by Al Faruqi (1986). While studies have eff
ectively shown the needs and importancefor an Islamic English(e.g.,Al Faruqi, 1986; Dahiru, 19
96; Ratnawati, 1996; Sheila & Zalika, 2009), there is still more studies required to further under
stand the trends, reality and nature of the language (Dahiru, 1996) and propel forward the conce
pt of Islamic English. One aspect that is seen as lacking in research is the linguistic features of I
slamic English which this paper intends to explore,albeit restricted to the lexical level, particular
ly the processes of lexical borrowing from the Arabic language. It is also of current interest to e
xplore the authentic usage of the language in a linguistic domain (Islamic Studies and Sciences)
that was once reserved for the Arabic language or the native languages of the Muslim nations.
1. Theoretical Framework
Lexical borrowing can basically be understood as the incorporation of lexical items from a sourc
e language into a receiving language. In the context of New Englishes, speakers who engage in
the borrowing of lexical items may not be the native speakers of the English language wherein i
n this case borrowed items are introduced by fluent non-native speakers for cultural retention pu
rposes, a process known as endo-borrowing. This is different from exo-borrowing where the
borrowing is done by native speakers of the receiving language (Haspelmath, 2003, p.4). Since
speakers may not be natives of the English language, the source language is termed the maintai
ned language and borrowing in this paper is defined as the attempted reproduction in a maintai
ned language, of features from another language with which the former is in contact (Tan, 2009
, p.455). In addition this paper included frozen or idiomatic phrases as lexical items together wi
th single or compound words, in line with Gumperz (1982, p.66 as cited in Hornberger& McKay
, 2010) who defined borrowing as the introduction of single words or short, frozen idiomatic ph
rases from one variety into the other.
In analyzing and describing the linguistic processes involved in the borrowing of Islamic Arabic
words, the paper utilized a framework by Einar Haugen (1950) as it is considered one of the be
st-known taxonomies of borrowed items (Haspelmath, 2003, p.4). In this framework, borrowed
items are analyzed according to the degree of morphemic and phonemic substitution involved w
hen reproducing the foreign items into the maintained language. The substitution of morpheme
s of the foreign items with that from the maintained language may involve none, partial or comp
lete substitution. Based on this criterion of morphemic and phonemic substitution, loan items ar
e then grouped into three major categories of loanwords, loanblends and loanshifts.
Loanwords undergo zero morphemic substitution, where total morphemic importation takes plac
e. It is the direct transference of a lexeme in both meaning and form (Capuz, 1997, p.87) altho
ugh with varying degrees of phonemic substitution. An example of this is the word shivaree tak
en from French charivari (Haugen, 1950, p.213). Loanblends, on the other hand, involves only
partial morphemic substitution where only a part of the word has been imported while the rest is
substituted with morphemes from the maintained language. This can be illustrated in the borro
wing of the word plum piefrom American English as [blaumpa] in Pennsylvania German in w
hich the morpheme [pa] has been imported but the native [blaum] has been substituted for plu
m (Haugen, 1950, p.214]. Further classification under loanblends is possible and has been iden
tified as blended stems, derivational blends and compound blends. In the case of loanblends it i
s important to highlight here that only features reproduced after a model from the source langua
ge is considered as a loan item in the form of loanblends. Creations that appear as loanblends or
hybrids, although combining both the morphemes from the source and maintained language, are
not loanblends as they did not come into being as direct imitation of a foreign model (Haugen,
1950, p.220).
Loanshifts can be divided into semantic loans and loan translations. Only the latter is relevant t
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o this study as the paper is not looking into shifts in semantics. Loan translations is a borrowing
process that involves complete morphemic substitution without importation. Independent lexem
es or morphemes previously existing in the maintained language are utilized and combined in i
mitation of the structural pattern of a model from the source language, forming a new lexical uni
t in the maintained language. An example of a loan translation is the German word wolkenkratz
erwhich is modeled after skyscraper(Haugen, 1950, p.214).
Using this theoretical framework by Haugen (1950) the paper then intends to examine the authe
ntic usage of Islamic English at the lexical level among a sample of its language community. T
he research objectives can be expressed as follows:
1. To examine the lexical featureS of Islamic English, specifically the lexis borrowed from the
Arabic language, in an authentic setting.
2. To provide a descriptive account on the borrowing of Arabic words that occurred in the selec
ted Islamic course using Haugens (1950) model on lexical borrowing.

3. Method
Audio recordings of the most recent course conducted by a selected educational Islamic institute
was obtained. This institute, although shall remain anonymous, teaches Islam in different cities
worldwide using the English language. The recordings run for approximately 766 minutes (12 h
ours) and consist mostly of the lectures by the course instructor although the speech of various s
tudents is also heard from class discussions and question-answer sessions. The course which wa
s on Islamic Eschatology was conducted in an intensive manner over a weekend, as it catered fo
r working adults in addition to university students.
Following the transcription of these recordings, specific words and phrases of Islamic Arabic ori
gin were manually identified. With the assistance of a speaker fluent in the Arabic language and
who has a background in Islamic Studies, each identified item was analyzed to determine wheth
er an Arabic model is available and whether they are based on these Arabic models. Items meeti
ng this criterion were then classified as either a loanword, loanblend or loan translation using Ha
ugens (1950) model on lexical borrowing.

4. Findings
A total of 413 borrowed items were found in the particular 12-hour discourse. It should be note
d that this figure represents the total number of unique borrowed items found in the study and d
oes not reflect their frequency. It should also be highlighted here that the results is based on a re
stricted and limited sample engaged in a particular topic and thus proper precautions should be t
aken in generalizing the findings. The results here do not claim to represent the overall distribut
ion or patterns of borrowed words in Islamic English but merely demonstrate instances of patter
ns that can occur and the processes involved.
It was found that an overwhelming majority of the borrowed items identified involves the proce
ss of total importation. Loanwords amounted to 86 percent (n=357) of the borrowed features. C
ompound blends (6 percent, n=24) as well as loan translations (8 percent, n=32) were also detect
ed in the study although they form a small minority of the borrowed features. Thus three types
of lexical borrowing occurred: total importation (86 percent), partial substitution (6 percent) and
complete substitution (8 percent). The great amount of loanwords detected perhaps suggest the l
ack of congruence between the Arabic and English language, the difficulty to borrow through co
mplete substitution, as well as semantic considerations.

Table 1: Examples of loanwords identified in the study
Category Loanwords Total
Islamic Concepts all () Duny ()
Du () Dn ()
Adhn () ijb ()
Jannah () Slh ()
Dhikr () Zakah ()
183 (51%)
General Arabic Khals ( ) Tartb ()
Zaman ( ) Tr ( )
Aqrn () ashsh ( )
Majlis () N-ib ()
Sir () Sir ()
49 (14%)
Islamic Devotional/Social Terms Qiblah ( ) In sh Allh ( )
Wud () SubnAllh ()
Ruk' () Bismillah ( )
Mus-af () mn ()
Taslm () Khuf ()
39 (11%)
Sciences of Shari'ah Fiqh () Bid'ah ()

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UsliFiqh () Khilf ()
Wjib ()
Mustaab ( )

udd ()
Darrah ( )
Mahab () Rji ()
25 (7%)
Islamic Sects Ismailyah() Mu'tazilah ( )
Qarmitah() Nusayriyah ()
Khwarij () Khumus()
Usawliyah() al bada'()
Rwandiyah ( ) Mutah()
24 (6.7%)
Islamic History/Civilization BanMakhzm( ) (battle of) Al Nahrawn()
BanTamm( ) Bb al Lt( )
BanIsrl()
(battle of) Al arrah( )
Bandam( ) MulkanJabryah( )
(battle of) Badr() Khulaft al Rshidn( )

19 (5%)
Sciences of Hadith Sa () Mutawtir ()

asan ()
Aad ()

Sunnah () Isnd ()

Mawd' ( )
Nakrah()
Daf()
9 (2.52%)
Islamic Eschatology Mahd ()
Al Dukhn ( )
Dbatulard ( ) Ruwaybidah()
Dajjl ( )
(al-ayaat) Kharazt( )
al Jassah()
Yjj-wa-Mjj ()
8 (2.24%)
Sciences of Quran Way ( )

1 (0.03%)
Total 357



Table 2: List of compound blends (n=24)
Category Compound blends Arabic Model
Islamic Concepts 'Arprayer

Dhuhr prayer
Wjib fast
Zakah wealth
Fajr prayer
Sunnah prayers
Tarwi prayer
Jhilyah time
Ibrhm station

Sciences of Shariah Sharah rulings
Bid'ah actions
Sharah system
UsliFiqh principle
Good bid'ah
Bad bid'ah
Fabricated adth
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Sharah method
Sharah text
Sharah terms
anaf scholar

Islamic Sects Sh'ah doctrine

Shiite Imms
Twelve ImmFiqh

Islamic History & Civilization Umayyad Khalfah

Table 3: List of loan translations (n=32)

Category Term Arabic Model
Islamic Concepts Student of knowledge
People of knowledge
The straight path
The black stone
Friday prayer
Mother of the believers
True vision
Islamic manner
The unseen
Sunni scholars
The companions
Islamic history
Non-Muslims
Non-Islamic
Pillars of Islam
Night journey
Minor sins
Book of deeds

Islamic Devotional & Social Terms Wipe over socks
All-Aware
Oft-Forgiving
Severe in Punishment

Sciences of Hadith Authentic narrations
Weak narration
Chain of narration

Sciences of Shari'ah Stronger opinion

Islamic Eschatology Signs of the Hour
Minor signs of the hour
Major signs of the hour
Beast of the Earth

Phrases (Allah is) the Best of all planners
Ordering the good and prohibiting the evil

Tables 1, 2 and 3 above present loanwords, compound blends and loan translations respectively.
As seen in the tables above, all of the borrowed features belong to the semantic field of religion
except for a small number (n=49 loanwords) which are considered to be general Arabic terms alt
hough driven by a religious context and needs. Since the majority of the borrowed features are
of the same semantic field, further classification was employed in order to group them accordin
gly. The categorization utilized, as seen in tables above is based on Al FaruqisTowards Islamic
English (1986) with modifications.
As shown in Table 1, slightly more than half (51 percent) of the loanwords belong to the categor
y of General Islamic Words and Concepts, followed by General Arabic Terms (14 percent). As e
xpected, Islamic Devotional and Social Terms were also common, garnering about 11 percent (n
=39) of the total amount of loanwords. The remainder of the loanwords belong to more specific
fields of Islamic Sciences, bearing more technical thus limited terms. Although the breakdown
of the loanwords here do not represent the general breakdown in Islamic English, it can be sugg
ested that Islamic discourse outside the classroom or discourse among Muslims in general woul
d have similar patterns, of mostly consisting of loanwords of general Islamic Arabic terms as we
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ll as devotional and social terms. This is because the loanwords that are of specific Islamic field
s are expected to be less common as they are more technical in nature. Of course research is nee
ded to prove or disprove this claim.
It was also found that loanwords consist of both abstract and concrete nouns. This somewhat dif
fer from a previous study on lexical borrowing where abstract nouns were seen more likely to be
reproduced as loan translations while objects unique to the source culture tend to be loanwords (
Jian, 2005). The difference could be due to the semantic field of the nouns wherein abstract nou
ns in this study are mostly from the semantic field of religion, a semantic field that is very closel
y intertwined with the identity of a Muslim thus suggesting a greater need for their retention in f
orm and semantic integrity. Another possibility is that some of the abstract nouns borrowed thro
ugh total importation could be a part of the core vocabulary of Islamic English although such ha
s not been formally established yet. This possibility is supported by the fact that the majority of
the loanwords in this study (76 percent) were seen unaccompanied by a definition or proper expl
anation of the terms (although English equivalents were used together with 36 percent of the loa
nwords). It is thus suggested that future studies contrast the nouns borrowed through total impo
rtation and complete substitution. There should also be a study that aims to determine the core v
ocabulary of Islamic English.
In addition to this, it was found that loanwords were modeled after both monosyllabic and polys
yllabic items (except for general Arabic terms which are mostly monosyllabic or disyllabic) whi
le the majority of the compound blends and loan translations were modeled after polysyllabic Ar
abic words (Table 2 and Table 3). Therefore, the principle of economy may not be the first crite
rion here in determining the type of features that will be borrowed through total importation. Th
is again supports the postulationthat other factors such as guarding the semantic integrity or the
difficulty to substitute Arabic with English morphemes, may have a greater role in determining t
he borrowing process of Islamic Arabic items. Again, research is needed to validate such claims
and determine the factors that influence the likelihood of a foreign model to be borrowed throug
h total importation, partial substitution or complete substitution.
In terms of the integration of borrowed features into the maintained language, very little (if any)
phonemic substitution occurred in the borrowing process, similar to a previous study conducted
by Tan (2009) on lexical borrowing in Malaysian English. Tan (2009, p.465) suggested that this
is due to the fact that the borrowers, being non-native speakers of English, are less likely to per
ceive a need to alter the pronunciation of borrowed features just to make them sound more like t
he recipient language words as the recipient language is an external variety. Morphosyntactic i
ntegration too was rare. Some instances of the inflectional morpheme s used to pluralize loan
words were detected, forming words like sheykhs, ijbs, imms, halaqahs, sunnahs and fatws.
The only form of integration applied to the compound blends and loan translations is word order
reversal such as the compound blend fajr prayer (from ) and loan translation the straigh
t path (from ).
It is also interesting to note that some Islamic Arabic terms (n=6) were reproduced through both
total importation and complete substitution, bringing to existence both a loanword and a loan tra
nslation. These include items such as mother of the believers and ummulm'minn, beast of the
earth and dbatulardas well as severe in punishment or shaddul iqb. It is not possible here to
determine the reasons or motivations behind utilization of both processes for the borrowing of th
ese terms until further research is made, nor is it possible to predict which form will outlast the
other in Islamic English.
Since the call for the retention of Islamic Arabic terms mainly stems from the concern for the pr
eservation of Islamic understanding, it is worthwhile here to highlight a few patterns that were o
bserved among the loanwords. It was found that the majority of the loanwords (76 percent) wer
e lacking in proper definition or explanation. This include terms that were seen accompanied by
or interchangeably used with their perceived English equivalents which may or may not be true
equivalents in addition to lacking proper definition (32 percent, n=114). Some of these terms (
n=50) in fact have been highlighted for retention in its Arabic form by Al Faruqi(1986) as these
terms, particularly Quranic terms, are not possible to be rendered in one English word (p.21).
Nevertheless these terms (n=50) were seen accompanied by, or alternately used with their percei
ved English equivalent, in addition to lacking proper definition (except for five terms which wer
e properly defined: slh, zin, ghusl, jannah, barakah). Table 4 provides a list of these terms to
gether with their equivalents used.

Loanword English equivalent
Yaqn Certainty
Dua Supplication
Wal Guardian
ikmah Wisdom
Rib' Interest, Usury
Al Ghafr Oft-Forgiving
Khayr Goodness
Rijs Filth
Mushrikn,mushrik, mushrikas Polytheist
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Fatw Opinion
Amal Deeds, Applying Knowledge
Dhan Thinking
Wjib Compulsory, Must
JazkumullahuKhayr May Allah reward you
Lilha ill-Allh
There is no god worthy to worship but Allah
Sujd Prostrate
Akhi Brother
Slh Prayer
Rasl Messenger
yah Verse
Khalfah Caliph
Shirk Associating partners with Allah
Khabth Filthy (substance)
Zin Fornication
Tawbah Repent
Jahannam Hell
Jihd Strive in His path
Ghusl Bath, head to toe
Way Revelation
Sa Authentic
Ramatullahi alaih May Allah have mercy on him
Azz All-Mighty
arm
Prohibited
adth Narration
Jannah Heavenly abode
khirah Afterlife
mn Faith
Ummah One nation
Dn Faith
Fitnah, fitn Trial, Calamity, Ordeal
aq (alhaqq)
The Truth
Ilm Knowledge
Jhiliyyah Ignorance
Barakah Blessing
Bayah Pledge of allegiance
Abd A worshiper
Ibdah An act of worship
Mawd Fabricated
Dif Weak
all Legal, Lawful
Table 4: Terms listed in Al Faruqi (1986) and used with English equivalents (n=50).
There were also instances whereconcepts(n=16) that have been identified for retention in the A
rabic form by Al Faruqi (1986) were communicated only in its perceived English equivalent or t
ranslation (see Table 5). The Arabic form is absent in the discourse.

English Terms Arabic Terms
Believers M'minn(those who possess Iman)

Reward Thawb (reward granted by Allah on the Day of Judgement)
Guidance Hidyah(divine guidance or revelation of Islam)
Justice Qist (justice, equity and uprightness in dealing with all matters)
Blessed Mubrak (infused with grace and approval of Allah)
Mislead/astray Dalla/dall (to err and go astray from the straight path Allah has revealed to t
he Prophet)
Injustice Dhulm(the act or action of committing injustice)
Patient abr(to resist evil or tragedy and remain firm in adherence to the cause of Islam)

Be mindful of Allah Taqw (the combination of piety, faith, loyalty, commitment called for
in Islam)
Table 5: Examples of Islamic concepts using English equivalents only (definition from Al Faruq
i, 1986).

The usage of some Biblical or Christian terms were also observed in the discourse, such as s
on of Mary, Eve and the second coming of Jesus Christ. While these terms refer to the same
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persons or events in Islam, the two religions do not have an identical understanding of these per
sons and events.
All of this raises some concern in both the preservation of the semantic integrity of these Isla
mic concepts as well as the general Islamic understanding of a Muslim. It is possible that the as
sociation of Islamic terms with inaccurate English equivalents together with the absence of prop
er definition or explanation, the complete substitution of certain Islamic terms and concepts with
English equivalents or translations as well as the usage of Biblical terms, will produce or reinfor
ce inaccurate understanding of these terms and promote semantic shifts. This will defeat the pri
mary purpose of retaining Islamic Arabic terminologies in the English language, which is to pre
serve the correct Islamic understanding of these concepts.
Thus it is very important that future research on these patterns and their consequences are condu
cted, including the use of compound blends and loan translations, especially in terms of its effec
t on ones Islamic understanding. Potential semantic shifts of loanwords in Islamic English sho
uld also be investigated.

5. Conclusion
This study examined the authentic usage of Islamic English particularly the occurrences of borr
owing of Islamic Arabic terms, in a recent course conducted by an Islamic educational institute.
It was found that the majority of the borrowed Arabic terms in the course were reproduced throu
gh total importation (86 percent) followed by complete substitution (8 percent) and partial substi
tution (6 percent). Although it appears that many borrowed items were true to their Arabic form
s, the study shows that some patterns may warrant concern. About 32 percent of loanwords wer
e seen accompanied by, or interchangeably used with, their perceived English equivalents while
lacking proper definitions, including terms that have been recommended for retention in the Ara
bic form by Al Faruqi (1986). In addition to this, there were Islamic concepts that were complet
ely substituted with its perceived Englishs or translations despite being highlighted for retention
in the Arabic forms by Al Faruqi (1986).
Thus, while there were a great number of loanwords used in the Islamic discourse analyzed, th
ere need to be greater attention paid to how these loanwords are used. As demonstrated in this s
tudy, the use of equivalents and lack of explanation and such may actually contribute to the conf
usion of their meaning and may even promote semantic shifts to a certain degree. Further resear
ch is needed to determine the consequences of such language patterns on the understanding of th
ese Islamic terms.
What can be suggested at the moment is that more awareness is raised in how borrowed items
are used and should be used, in addition to promoting the retention of Islamic Arabic terms. Th
ose who engage in Islamic discourse, especially those who are teaching Islamic Studies in the E
nglish language, should be careful in using perceived English equivalents and instead, should tr
y to actively highlight the semantic differences between the Islamic terms and their perceived E
nglish equivalents. Should speakers instead resort to using the English forms of important conc
epts, students should be made aware of the differences in the understanding of these concepts be
tween the Islamic and external worldview (e.g. secular worldview) followed by a redefinition of
the English form according to the Islamic perspective (as per the concept of Islamization of lang
uage introduced by Al-Attas, 1980). This is line with current research that have advocated for th
e redefinition of certain English lexicons according to the Islamic perspective and the productio
n of an English dictionary for Muslims (e.g. Alwa, 2013; Khairiah, Engku Haliza, AinonJariah&
Nuraihan, 2013; Khairiah&Engku Haliza, 2009).
When using Islamic Arabic terms, instructors of Islamic Studies (or other relevant fields such as
Islamic English for Special Purposes) should look to provide the propers or definitions the terms
, in the class text, in the glossary of materials used or verbally during classroom time. This is in
accordance with Al Faruqis recommendation when using Islamic Arabic terms, wherein a brief
explanation or definition should be given in order to ensure that terms are understood correctly (
1986, p.21).Instructors could prepare beforehand, a list of Islamic Arabic terminologies and thei
r definitions. These lists should not be limited to the technical or specialized vocabulary of the I
slamic subject, but include general Islamic concepts and vocabulary that students may encounter
in the course. This is because it is predicted that there will be high occurrences of general Islam
ic terms as demonstrated in this study. All of this will hopefully create awareness among studen
ts, promote better understanding of key concepts and vocabulary in Islam and address any existi
ng confusion, in the effort to preserve Islamic concepts and understanding.
It is hoped that the study has shed some light on the linguistic processes and patterns involved i
n the borrowing of Islamic Arabic features and ultimately contribute to a better grasp of the reali
ty and nature of Islamic English today.

6. References
Al-Attas, Syed Muhammad Naquib (1980). The concept of education in Islam. Kuala Lumpur:
ABIM

Al Faruqi, IsmailRaji (1986). Toward Islamic English. Virginia: International Institute of Islami
c
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Thought.

Alwa Abd. Rashid (2013). Selected English words in an English dictionary from an Islamic per
spective: a case study. Unpublished masters thesis, International Islamic University Malaysia.

Bamgbose, A. (1998). Torn between the norms: innovations in world Englishes. [Electronic ver
sion].World Englishes, 17(1), 1-14.

Capuz, J. G. (1997). Towards a typological classification of linguistic borrowing. [Electronic
version].RevistaAlicantina de EstudiosIngleses, 10, 81-94.

Dahiru Muhammad Argungu (1996). English, Muslims and Islamisation: Between needs and de
eds.In Jalal Uddin Khan & A. E. Hare (Eds.), English and Islam: Creative Encounters 96 (pp. 33
1-347).Kuala Lumpur: IIUM Research Centre.

HajaMohideen Bin Mohamed Ali (2007). Islamic terms in contemporary English. [Electronic
version].English Today, 90(23), 32-38.

Haspelmath, M. (2003). Loanword typology: steps toward a systematic cross-linguistic study of
lexical borrowability. In T. Stolz, D. Bakker & R. S. Palomo (Eds.), Aspects of language contact
:New theoretical, methodological and empirical findings with special focus on Romancisationpr
ocesses (pp.43-62). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter [Electronic version].

Haugen, E. (1950). The analysis of linguistic borrowing. [Electronic version]. Linguistic Socie
ty of America, 26(2), 210-231.

Hornberger, N. & McKay, S.L. (2010). Sociolinguistics and language education. United Kingdo
m: Multilingual Matters.


Jian, Y. (2009). Chinese borrowings in English. [Electronic version]. World Englishes, 28(1), 9
0-106.

Kachru, B. B. (1997). Norms, Models and Identities. Retrieved 30/10/2011, from http://www.jal
t-
publications.org/tlt/files/96/oct/englishes.html.

Khairiah Othman, Engku Haliza Engku Ibrahim, AinonJariah Muhammad & Nuraihan Mat Dau
d
(2013). Islamic definitions of selected English words in English dictionary: students perspe
ctives. [Electronic version]. World Applied Sciences Journal, 21, 95-101.

Khairiah Othman &Engku Haliza Engku Ibrahim (2009, December). An English dictionary for
Muslim learners: is there a need? Paper presented at the Eight Annual Worldwide Forum on
Education and Culture, Rome, Italy.

Khairiah Othman & Maskanah Mohammad Lotfie (2010). Incorporating Arabic words in the
teachingof English: Students perspectives. Unpublished paper, International Islamic
UniversityMalaysia.

Khairiah Othman &ZuridahHayati Abdul Hamid (2009). Incorporating Arabic words in the
teaching of English: Teachers perspectives. Unpublished paper, International Islamic
UniversityMalaysia.
Pingau, S. (2009). Indian English. Scotland: Edinburgh University Press.

Ratnawati Mohd. Asraf (1996). Teaching English as a second or foreign language: The place of
culture. In Jalal Uddin Khan & A. E. Hare (Eds.), English and Islam: Creative Encounters
96 (pp. 351-367). Kuala Lumpur: IIUM Research Centre.

Sheila ParveenLallmamode& Zalika Adam (2009, May). Awareness of Islamic English among
Muslim students in Malaysia. Paper presented at SoLLs International Conference on Langu
age and Culture: Creating and Fostering Global Communities, Putrajaya.

Tan, S.I. (2009). Lexical borrowing from Chinese Language in Malaysian English. [Electronic
version].World Englishes, 28(4), 451-484.
Tan, S. I. (2009). Lexical borrowing in Malaysian English: Influences of Malay. Unpublished
doctoral thesis, University of Hong Kong.

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English Language Teaching Challenges in Malaysia: Polytechnic Lecturers Experience
Suhaily Abdullah
1
and Faizah Abd Majid
2

1 2
Fakulti Pendidikan, UiTM Shah Alam Selangor, Malaysia

Corresponding Author: Suhaily Abdullah, Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam, Selangor Mala
ysia, suhaily.abdullah@gmail.com
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract. This study sought to investigate the challenges faced by two lecturers in teaching English in a po
lytechnics setting. The case study inquiry strategy (via informal semi-structured interviews and reflective jou
rnal writing) was employed in getting the real insights from the participants who were purposely selected for
this systematic investigation within 9 consecutive weeks. Basic qualitative analysis (Creswell, 2009) was carr
ied out through document analyses of the interview transcripts and reflective journal entries. The analysis wa
s carried out by inductively identifying the emerging themes shared by both participants and had been consid
ered as their challenges in language teaching. Some practical suggestions are also offered to the identified cha
llenges in the discussion part of this study.
Keywords: ELT, polytechnic lecturers, challenges, Malaysia
1. Introduction
Currently, local higher education system operations have undergone some extensive transformation phases due to th
e external forces such as the advent of rapid globalization, emergence of information and communication technology, an
d drastic change of socio-economic status in the community. Technical and Vocational Education and Training, or hence
forth TVET, as a part of alternative branch to our education system is no longer viewed as a below average field instead,
it is actively being improved in complementing the development progression of the nation. The transformation plan has
been systematically geared towards assisting the national mission requirement in becoming a fully developed country b
y 2020. Thus, this newly transformed system is patterned in a way to be able to provide justifications to the arising issue
s such as the employability concerns and industrial needs. So, there is not a marvel to find that the Polytechnic Transfor
mation Plan (PTP) was listed as one of the Critical Agenda Projects (CAP) in the National Higher Education Strategic P
lan (NHESP) which was started in 2007 (Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi, 2007). This aspiration was established in order
to empower the revamped technical education. It is also meant for the communities as their lifelong learning platform t
o formally acquire their skill knowledge, and upgrading or upskilling their existence practice.
The achievement from the transformative action plans that has been fulfilled so far is gathered as an encouraging re
sult in which can be continuously pursued to the ends. Some positive attainments include the growth of responses of the
public choices in choosing polytechnics as their preferred tertiary education institution, the dynamic involvements of th
e industrial key players in current polytechnic curriculum developments, and the up-to-date continuous professional dev
elopment programmes offered to the academic and non-academic polytechnic staff in sustaining their subject content co
mpetency and acquired skills (Jabatan Pengajian Politeknik, 2012). Other than that, the entry point requirement of the st
udents has recently been altered (starting July 2010 session) in order to ensure the potential students possess initial featu
red standards as employable graduates in their fields of choice for the future labour market (Jabatan Pengajian Politekni
k, 2011). However, there is an issue on unemployability of technical graduates due to their lack of communication skill
especially in term of poor of English language command (Ahmad Yasruddin, Wan Mohd Haniff, Affidah Mardziah, Noo
r Izma, & Farawaheeda, 2010; Ezihaslinda, Noor Raha, Wan Jumani, & Noor Azlinda , 2011; & Suhaily, Noor Asmaa,
& Wan Rahayah Rahimi, 2011). Thus, this study is meant to investigate the background scenario, particularly refers to t
he English language teaching and learning scope in polytechnics, that may establish unacknowledged connection to this
deficit apart of the holistic efforts have been imposed and carried out by the government to ensure the action plans are i
n line with the nation mission in term of generating human capital for high income economy (Sahul Hameed, Mohd Am
in, & Mohd Ali , 2010)
2. Content
1. Background and scope of the study
Polytechnics are one of the tertiary education institutions in Malaysia that have been established and operated based
on the TVET context. Originally, it was meant to produce semi-professional workers in technical and some other relate
d service-based fields in order to conform with the revolutionary industrial development in early post-dependency perio
d. Recently, it is undergoing an extensive transformative milestone which consists of 4 crucial phases. The transformativ
e plan has yet to be completed as it only steps onto the second phase (2013 2015) of the overall proposed action plan a
fter The Quick Win and institutional transformative phase from year 2010 to year 2012. The aim to become a preferred
tertiary learning institution among secondary school leavers has shown a positive remark when the targeted enrolment e
xceeded up to 310 students in 2011 (Jabatan Pengajian Politeknik, 2012). It indicates that the community is starting to c
onsider their choices in planning their tertiary studies to polytechnics. So, polytechnics are no longer being the last resor
t for the students who are not able to secure entries in universities. Instead, polytechnics have fallen onto similar band as
other higher learning institutions in Malaysia. Thus, the re-establishment of selected polytechnics or the new establishm
ent of polytechnics into polytechnic premiers and polytechnic MEtROs does do the wonder in attracting the Sijil Pelajar
an Malaysia (SPM) holders who possess good academic achievement to enroll as polytechnic students (Jabatan Pengaji
an Politeknik, 2011). It can be seen through the entry requirement enhancement which has been imposed by Jabatan Pe
ngajian Politeknik (JPP) starting July 2010 session, whereby the applicants are required to achieve, at least, to pass both
Malay Language and English Language with another 2 to 5 credits in other related subjects depended on the their cours
e choices. It does not reduce the number of applicants to further their study in polytechnics. Besides transforming the in
stitutional image, the drastic calls for the changes are also applicable to the curriculum developments. The collaboration
with industrial stakeholders in filling the skill gaps between what have been currently demanded by the sectors with the
one that has been taught in polytechnics is successfully conducted from time to time. This effort is considered as the ba
ckbone of this transformative agenda to gear up polytechnic students towards becoming employable graduates to serve i
n the industrial sectors. To date, this is in line with the national mission in term of producing high skillful and sharp min
d human capital to the industry in achieving a developed nation status by 2020.
Given the pressing need for skilled workers, the concerns on current skill demands, and recent evolving technical a
nd service fields are tunefully supported by other required attributions such as communication skill, entrepreneurship sk
ill and interpersonal skill so the polytechnic graduates can be trained as competitive human capital to the local industrial
innovative-led economy. Currently, it is reported that 3.3 million new jobs have been offered to the public and 46% of
the posts are waiting to be filled which require the proportion of 24% and 22% of vocational and technical workforces r
espectively (Abdul Karim, 2013). This is an impossible mission to be fulfilled by polytechnic graduates since there are
only 35 000 exit attributes being produced annually (Abdul Karim, 2013). Furthermore, only some of them are successf
ully being hired after six months upon their graduation. Consequently, the nation is still lack of trained technical workfo
rces to serve in the industrial sectors even though there are an increment of the intake numbers in students enrolment to
polytechnics. This imbalance intake and exit attributes is considered as an urgent concern that needs to be desperately a
ddressed (Jabatan Pengajian Politeknik, 2011; & Ministry of Higher Education, 2012).
Despite of the aforementioned revamp initiatives, it is also understood that the employers in Malaysia are still in the
dilemma when confronted with the graduate employability (Ministry of Higher Education, 2012). The issue in term of t
he concern on lacks of engineering, technical and science graduates who are qualified to be hired has triggered an alarm
ing attention in the media (Ahmad Yasruddin et al., 2010). According to a report (Ministry of Higher Education, 2012), t
he two most common drawbacks identified by employers in hiring fresh graduates are related to the facts that they have
poor command of English (55.8%) and poor character, attitude or personality (37.4%). Thus, it is clearly shown that En
glish proficiency is viewed as a major attribution which has been taken into consideration by employers in hiring their
workforces even though the graduates are highly trained for the offered posts (Noor Raha & Kaur, 2010). The requireme
nt of working in private sectors influence this cause whereby most communication transfers are carried out in English es
pecially in multinational companies and local-based foreign investor factories.
There are several findings related to this concern. First, the poor command of English among civil engineering poly
technics graduates included the inability to effectively demonstrate their skills in a simple procedural work routine such
as understanding technical documents and writing the reports (Ahmad Yasruddin et al., 2010). Next, majority of the che
mical engineering students in a higher learning institution experienced high communication apprehension that hindered
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304

them to effectively communicate due to the lacks of self-willingness to use the target language in public particularly dur
ing the learning process (Noor Raha & Kaur, 2010). Furthermore, there are other few studies reported that tertiary instit
ution students also possessed low range of vocabulary list and faced difficulties in understanding complex sentences and
sentences that structured using low frequency words in which contributed to the low English proficiency graduates too
(Normazidah, Koo, & Hazita, 2012). In addition to that, there was a slight significant difference between certificate and
diploma students of commerce students to experience high anxiety level in learning English which directly influenced t
heir language achievement particularly referred to their communication apprehension (Suhaily et al., 2011).
These findings are linked to what has been discovered in another research in claiming that the recent teaching and l
earning of the English language especially in polytechnics still could not produce graduates with an acceptable English
proficiency required by industries (Harlini, 2011). This has elicited challenges to English lecturers in this particular TV
ET higher learning institution to reflect on their practices in keeping abreast with the efforts to move the gap become clo
ser. Therefore, even though Harlini (2011) suggested that more studies on the evaluation on the curriculum are needed t
o uncover the real predicament and challenges that students faced in improving their language proficiency and Ahmad Y
asruddin et al. (2010) recommended replication studies on investigation of English proficiency needed by engineering st
udents in different population, the highlighted issue on the failure of graduates to be proficient in basic English commun
ication calls for another immediate exploration on polytechnic lecturers language teaching practices. This is sorely mea
nt to differ the investigation on the targeted concern from language lecturers perspective so that it can be added to the ci
rcle of the unemployability issue especially in term of low English proficiency graduates that have been commonly con
ducted through students standpoint, employers scope and curriculum (Ahmad Yasruddin et al., 2010; Ezihaslinda et al.,
2011; Harlini, 2011; Ministry of Higher Education, 2010, 2012; Noor Raha & Kaur, 2010; Suhaily et al., 2011). Conseq
uently, present study is purposely conducted to explore the situational issues faced by English lecturers in order to bridg
e the gap that revolve within policy compliance, institutional environment, syllabi requirement, students proficiency an
d the reality of their language teaching practices.
2. Language lecturers in polytechnics and problem identification
First and foremost, English is a compulsory subject to all polytechnic students except for those who are undergoing
their industrial attachments. Even English is not classified as a main subject content being offered, it is a requirement fo
r the students to pass their English module. The English language teaching and learning in this particular TVET higher e
ducation institution is based on on-going assessment mode. It means that the grading is determined by students accumu
lative marks in their spoken and written assignments, quizzes, and listening tasks for the whole semester, and then comb
ine with their final standardized test. If the students fail to perform any of the assigned tasks, they are given chances to i
mprove their marks in any ways that suit the syllabi and the lecturers availability before they are allowed to sit for their
final standardized test. Besides that, students attendance is also taken into consideration in determining their status whe
ther they are qualified to be evaluated by the lecturers or not based on the compliance of the institutional academic proc
edure. The continuous monitoring process on the attendance is also considered as part of lecturers task. Thus, these situ
ations indirectly defines the list of language lecturers job scope which is not limited to the teaching and learning proces
s only. This kind of list can be considered as a threat to the lecturers professionalism because unreasonable teaching tas
ks hinder teachers to prepare for quality teaching and undertake professional development programmes due to wider job
scope with limited time allocation (Marwan, 2009; & Mohd Ali, Mohd Amin, & Muhamad Sukri, 2010).
Next, in current inter-transformation phase, language lecturers have two different sets of English syllabus to be use
d as their guide in instructional teaching preparations. The groups of students who enrolled before July 2010 learn Engli
sh in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) context whereas the later intakes are taught in Communicative English (CE) s
etting. To start off, though each group of students relies on a similar syllabus that has been used across the fields (i.e. en
gineering, commerce, information and technology, and hotel and tourism), the module preparation is conducted in a ma
nner to closely accommodate the authenticity consideration of students background. These circumstances indirectly ur
ge the language lecturers to be aware of the trans-disciplinary subject contents of different fields so that they can practic
ally integrate the specific corpora and jargons used in the notes, examples and tasks as contents of the module (Sarimah,
Amerrudin, & Noraini, 2013). So, the awareness of the lecturers in this term promotes the discourse community to the
students in preparing them for the communicative demands in their future workplace (Khairi Izwan, 2001). In other wo
rds, the language lecturers tacit knowledge should addresses the surface ideas of their students fields of study so they c
an interchangeably teach any language topics to different courses of students (Khairi Izwan, 2001; & Sarimah et al., 201
3).
In addition, in recent polytechnic transformative revamp action plans, the English syllabi have been developed into
the principles of Communicative English (CE). This indicates the emphasis on the speaking skill has been given the spe
cific focus on language teaching in polytechnics. It is designed to provide students with useful expressions that can be u
sed in a wide variety of social interactions and situations (Khairi Izwan, 2001). As a result, the calls for communicative l
anguage tasks in the lesson plans are inevitable to promote the interaction in the target language. Still, some concerns re
lated to class size (Suhaily & Faizah, 2012a), students level of proficiency (Ahmad Yasruddin et al., 2010; Noor Raha
& Kaur, 2010; & Suhaily et al., 2011), facility (Mohd Khalid , 2012; & Sahul Hameed et al., 2010) and personal pedago
gical knowledge supports (Khairi Izwan , 2001; & Suhaily & Faizah, 2012b) have to be taken into account in which putt
ing the lecturers in do more with less resources position and dilemma. That is why the debates on the reasons why En
glish language proficiency level of the polytechnics students is low have been going for several years (Mohd Khalid, 20
12). It develops a never-ending-issue chain whereby the real symptom is never been bothered to be clearly addressed so
that it can be acknowledged and the cotangent measures can be taken into consideration.
Last but not least, language lecturers in polytechnic must ensure they comply with the institutional requirements. A
s for the credit hours, an English module should be taught to the students within 15 weeks of instructional duration per s
emester. The lecturers have to teach a minimum of 16 hours per week. This is accumulated from the three hours of teach
ing per class. A common class size in polytechnic is between 35 to 45 students per class, depending on the latest intake
of the semester. So, it means a lecturer must teach and deal with 280 to 320 students of 8 different classes who are from
different courses per week. The weighing of lecturers work demand can be easily listed if the students sit for their quiz
or submit their individual task in that particular week. Other than that, they must attend a minimum of 10 days courses p
er year and involve in newly cultivated culture, research, with none basic research background. In addition to that, atten
ding impromptu meetings, assessing students activities, performing in community services and collaborating with indus
tries are some other lists to the polytechnic lecturers job inventory (Sahul Hameed et al., 2010). All in all, it is a worth
effort to explore on the real challenges in the English teaching practice of polytechnic lecturers in order to dictate on th
e visible factor that influences the outcomes of the language teaching and learning.
3. Research question
Basically, this exploratory study on English Language Teaching (ELT) in a polytechnics context was purposely dri
ven in order to share the outcomes of this research question:
1. What challenges do polytechnic English lecturers face in their teaching practice?

3. Research methodology
1. The study
This study was a part of an on-going postgraduate research involving a specific Malaysian polytechnic as a research
population. The focus is more on local based setting that includes a multiple-cases-in-a-single-site exploration. The find
ings revealed in this study are based on the responses gathered from two English lecturers as research participants. The
purposive sampling method was chosen in order to select the participants of this study. Their academic background and
years of teaching in polytechnic system fall under a similar range of related features. Furthermore, the implementation o
f this type of sampling method was also influenced by the access factor and willingness factor (Creswell, 2007). Two En
glish lecturers were selected; one male and one female. However, there would not be any comparative intentions especia
lly in term of gender factor addressed in this study.
2. Data collection
This study employed a fully qualitative research orientation in order to collect the anticipated data for the findings.
Two instruments were used to capture participants responses related to their language teaching practices in polytechnic.
Firstly, they were asked to keep reflective journals so they could share daily recollections of their activity, thought, feeli
ng, aspiration or expectation which were related to their teaching practices. There was no specific guide imposed to the
participants as the researcher intended to let the responses written in a natural setting as possible. This is because writin
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306

g diary enables to permit one to freely express what they feel by using their own preferences in term of words and phase
(Sidhu & Kaur, 2010). With that in mind, it was expected that the specific phenomenon could be identified in the entrie
s. That is why the specific guide was not given to the participants as they wrote the entries within 9 consecutive weeks b
efore the researcher put stop to it once they had not display any new topics or any other potential themes in their sharing
. In other words, the write-up reached the saturation point (Eekelen, Boshuizen, & Vermunt, 2005). Yet, a gentle remin
der was given to them so the frequency of the entries per week should not be less than 3. Later, each one of them would
be informally interviewed by asking them the semi-structured questions which had been prepared in an interview protoc
ol. Their responses were audio-taped and then transcribed verbatim for the analysis purposes later on. All these were car
ried out after participants agreed and had endorsed their signature on the consent form. For the trustworthiness purpose,
members-checking method was employed in order to ensure the accuracy of the responses and entries to what had bee
n intended by the participants to say or write. Hence, the internal validity of this study had been systematically acknowl
edged (Suhaily & Faizah, 2012b).
3. Data analysis
The analysis of this study was conducted using a Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) software, Atlas.ti version 7. Th
e reading, re-reading and coding process were carried out through Atlas.ti 7 user interface. The process is mostly similar
to the basic qualitative analysis (refers to Figure 1) by Creswell (2009). With this tool, the data from both sources could
be easily linked through the code manager which included the highlighted phrases in which later could be edited or re
work as the on-going process of the study before a finalized networking was created.

Interpreting the meaning of themes/descript
ions




Interrelating themes/description -case study





Themes Description
Validating the accuracy o
f the information



Coding the data (hand or computer)




Reading through all data


Organizing and preparing data for analysis



Raw data (Transcripts & journal entries)

Fig. 1: Basic data analysis in qualitative research (Creswell, 2009)
4. Results and discussions
Based on the inductive analysis on both cases from both data sources, there are several frequent responses given by
the participants that shared similar features which could be interpreted as the emerging themes of the topic discussed. T
he following table (Table 1) depicted the summarized derived concerns as the specific examples of the challenges. The i
dentified emerging themes were mostly related to the issues and concerns of students, classroom, policy, workload, time
and institution. The table consists of 5 major features that challenged participants in their routines. First and foremost, t
he aspects that related to students are identified as the most worrisome issue. Then, this feature is followed by the partici
pants related concerns on their professionalism and list of non-academic tasks. Last but not least, the derived features h
ave been centred around classroom related concerns, and policy or institutional requirement or practice issues. All in all,
these are 5 identified features that can be interpreted as sources of challenges in participants language teaching practice
s. Each challenge is supported with the specific situational examples that had been derived from participants entries and
responses.
It appears that participants did not only deal with common language learning drawbacks such as students proficien
cy, attitude and behaviour, they also had to manage other unrelated teaching concerns like students attention, participati
on, attendance and class size. It is understood that the polytechnic students were those who excelled in their subject cont
ent skill and knowledge, but were relatively poor in their language command (Ahmad Yasruddin et al., 2010). Thus, extr
a efforts from the lecturers were always welcomed. In these cases, the lecturers were willing to practice drilling as to ge
t only an answer for a classroom task. In a way, this effort could have trigger students attention and participation in the
class but sadly it did not work out. It was also unfair to the high proficient students to be dragged into this kind of learni
ng environment. Other than that, the lecturers made use of their diplomacy sense if the students forgot the previous lesso
n or they came in late to the class, yet the students were weakly expressed their respect to the lecturers. Thus, in this mix
-ability of students context, the lecturers effort were somehow viewed as worthless efforts. The students, too, did not re
ally have any intentions to put more on theirs. Hence, students hesitancy to actively and willingly participate in the clas
sroom activities does not lessen their anxiousness or does not improve their sense of comfort and confidence to use the l
anguage. That is why students nowadays are considered as not work-ready graduates for future job positions by their p
otential employers (Ezihaslinda et al., 2011). Since the existing efforts from lecturers part are less likely to succeed, th
ere is one particular alternative to overcome this issue, segregating the students based on their proficiency levels that tra
nscends their permanent subject-content tutorial groups. It can be done by addressing their English SPM result or Englis
h GPA from the previous semester. It can also be run by sitting for requirement on diagnostic test as an entry point for th
e English subject starting from their first semester. Institutional administrators could help the lecturers on this matter. By
doing so, more centralized distribution of the students in a class will be based on their level of proficiency in which mo
stly helpful to the language lecturers in adjusting their English teaching and learning expectations. They may, at the sam
e time, able to reflect on their own practice in order to pinpoint the areas that in the need of mending (Marwan, 2009).
Both ways help to increase the effectiveness of the language lesson output.

T
h
e
m
e
s

(
C
h
a
l
l
e
n
g
e
s
)

Issues related to stud
ents
Concerns related to
classroom
Non-academic tasks
Concerns related to
professionalism
Policy or institution
al requirement/ pract
ice
S
u
b
t
h
e
m
e
s

(
E
x
a
m
p
l
e
s
)

1. Students
attendance
2. Students
attention in class
3. Students
attitude towards
learning
4. Students
behavior towards
lecturers
5. Students
participation in
class
6. Students
proficiency
1. Unconduc
ive venue for
classroom
(replacement and
assessment
purposes)
2. Big class
size (35-40
students)
3. Mix
ability students
(big gap between
high proficient &
low proficient in a
class)
1. Updating
attendance
2. Marking
papers
3. Writing
reports (PPSMTI
research & MSK
report)
4. Participati
ng in MQA audit
5. Involving
in students
activity (English
Festival)
1. Inadequat
e received
knowledge (non-
TESL
background)
2. Non
English speaking
environment in
office
3. Need to
collaborate with
industries (content
development)
4. Lack of
language courses/
workshops
1. Attending
external course
2. Attending
in-house course
and training
3. Lack of
effort from the
administrators in
imparting new
implementation of
the policy (new
syllabus
introductory)
Table 1: Summary of the emerging themes and subthemes
Then, there was another concerns on the participants job inventory (Sahul Hameed et al., 2010). A list of non-aca
demic tasks which were promptly being assigned to the participants based on the immediate institutional needs on certai
ILCC 2013
308

n particular matters, such as MQA audit, students activity (English Festival), PPSMTI research and Minggu Suai Kenal
(MSK) report, was derived from both data sources. Other than that, there were also frequent mentioned of actions on up
dating their teaching portfolio, which is Fail Rekod Pensyarah (FRP), particularly in term of monitoring attendance an
d marking. All these exposures indirectly brought diverse administrative aspects to the language lecturers and tested thei
r informal management skills to their teaching routine, which is a good thing. It is undeniable that experiential knowled
ge is equally important as lecturers formal teacher education background (Suhaily & Faizah, 2012b), yet this particular
job inventory consumed most of the lecturers time and occupied their personal space that led to undefined workloads,
which is a clich constraint experienced by other educators regardless of their institutions (Marwan, 2009; Mohd Ali et
al., 2010; Sahul Hameed et al., 2010; & Suhaily & Faizah, 2012a). One practical alternative can be taken into account w
ould be the maximum collaboration within colleagues, non-academic staff as well as students involvement. In this man
ner, the concepts of permanent support team (Mohd Ali et al., 2010), experiential learning (Eekelen et al., 2005) and trus
tworthiness (Kane, Sandretto, & Heath, 2004) are effectively meaningful to be instilled and enculturated to the language
lecturers work routine so that the language learning environment does not only take place inside the classroom, it may
also provide the native environment exposure to others who are actively involved with the lecturers job progress and st
udents social circles. Hence, the notion of the discourse community (Khairi Izwan, 2001) concerns can be alienated d
ue to the familiar environment of open interactions using minimum English would be shared by all levels of community
in polytechnic context. As a result, it also promotes self-regulated learning (Kane et al., 2004) to the other subject conte
nt lecturers, non-academic staff , and students, or the language lecturers themselves, in practicing and sustaining their la
nguage proficiency.
In addition to the aforementioned issues and recommendations, the participants were obliged to fulfill institutional
policy such as attending external and in-house courses from time to time which none regarded their need on the langua
ge content improvement. At the same time, they were required to implement a new syllabus without a proper workshop
or detailed briefing regarding embarking on the implementation. They were left alone to figure it out as the imparting o
n the information was poorly conducted and was not widely briefed to the community of the institution. To increase mor
e alarm to these, the lack of facility issue (i.e. unconducive venue for replacement class or insufficient space in normal c
lassrooms to occupy big size classes) was highlighted as the participants challenge in their teaching routine as well. In
most common ground, they needed to act on their own term in order to ensure the lessons could be carry out in their mo
st proper ways even the class session had to be conducted in the library. Thus, in these listed issues, it is assumed that t
he institutional practice and policy, and lack of administrative supports are another features that increase lecturers burd
en to be fully committed to their core practice, which is teaching. This is a serious threat to the lecturers professional de
velopment (Marwan, 2009). In relation to these, they could view these threat as their never-ending list of works, one-w
ay solution alternative and undefined job scope which might be acted as deteriorating factors of their reflective language
teaching practice. The question on their teaching and learning process quality may be arisen from time to time. Conseq
uently, they felt inadequate in terms of their non-TESL background, awareness of current industrial demand and recent
ELT inputs due to lack of external supports (Kane et al., 2004; Sahul Hameed Abdul Wahab et al., 2010; Suhaily & Faiz
ah, 2012b). So, there is no other way to deal with this matter except that the higher administrators in the institution shou
ld admit the flaws and then come out with workable short term and long term action plans to re-align their executive yea
rly planning or annual strategic plan. They can impose a general order to maximize the usage of existence facilities in th
e premise. It is also appreciated that the glimpse of language lecturers work nature could be publically acknowledged to
other subject content lecturers and vice versa so that both sides become aware of each other routine. In certain extent, t
he subject content lecturers could offer win win approaches to the language lecturers on the basis of striving for excel
lence in their teaching practice. Last but not least, the culture of in-house training programmes and transdisciplinary res
earch collaboration could be re-promoted and introduced as part of the polytechnics working environment culture. Thei
r availability can be a massive positive impact in which the content expert lecturers of language, or any other fields, ma
y able to incorporate their knowledge, skill and experience to be internally shared with the less competent or novice con
tent lecturers, or the lecturers of different disciplines. This general institutional implication tunes with what have been a
greed by Mohd Ali Jasmi et al., (2010), to which extent that the teaching and learning process is challenging and comple
x and it incorporates many different role players and variety of different factors that need to be considered, then all play
ers must bring their parts to the successful learning mission, particularly to the higher education institution students.
4. Conclusion
This study was purposely carried out in order to explore the challenges faced by 2 polytechnic lecturers in their Eng
lish Language Teaching (ELT) practice. The basis of the study was conducted through an interpretive case study orientat
ion whereby the analysis process was run using Atlas.ti 7, a QDA software. There are 5 challenges have been derived fr
om both data sources; namely reflective journal entries and interview transcripts. Students-related-issues is the central p
oint of the lecturers teaching challenge. Then, concerns on professionalism and non-academic tasks have been successf
ully concluded as another 2 more challenges to the English lecturers practice. Lastly, their challenges include the classr
oom-related-issues and institutional-or-policy-related-practice. In relation to this discovery, 2 specific language based so
lutions and a general institutional implementation have been put forward in suggesting the practical implication to the t
arget audience. The limitation of the case study design in term of its contextual setting, sample size and profundity of th
e data, however, should be put into consideration in generalizing the findings into bigger population. Further in-depth st
udies which include more sample and variation of instruments or research orientations could be conducted to identify m
ore exact features of the challenges faced polytechnic lecturers ELT practice. In addition, the empirical or comparative
studies on current polytechnic students English proficiency based on the latest Tracer Study result should also be carri
ed out to set the current overview of students potential since they are the main challenge to the language lecturers teac
hing practice. In a conclusion, the findings of this study contribute to the recent literature on deficit of employability iss
ue concerning polytechnic students and provide initial impressions on polytechnic lecturers in teaching English.
5. Acknowledgements
Thank you for never failing to share your experience even in between your passing-baton moments (to all my rese
arch participants, supervisor and families).
6. References
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Noor Izma Ab Ghani, & Farawaheeda Rashid. (2010). The English proficiency of Civil
Engineering students at a Malaysian Polytechnic. Asian Social Science, 6(6), 161170.
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(2nd ed.). California: Sage Publication.
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods
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Eekelen, I. M. Van, Boshuizen, H. P. a., & Vermunt, J. D. (2005). Self-regulation in Higher
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6362-0
Ezihaslinda Ngah, Noor Raha Mohd Radzuan, Wan Jumani Fauzi, & Noor Azlinda Zainal Abidin.
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Harlini Khairuddin. (2011). An evaluation of the English for Specific Purposes curriculum in a
Malaysian Polytechnic. Univesiti Teknologi MARA.
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Jabatan Pengajian Politeknik. (2012). Laporan Tahunan Politeknik 2011. Putrajaya.
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Kane, R., Sandretto, S., & Heath, C. (2004). An investigation into excellent tertiary teaching:
Emphasising reflective practice. Higher Education, 47(3), 283310.
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Human Capital at Tertiary Level. Putrajaya.
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Mohd Ali Jasmi, Mohd Amin Zakaria, & Muhamad Sukri Saud. (2010). Lecturer perceptions on
workload, the impact towards the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process in
polytechnic. 1st UPI International Conference on Technical and Vocational Education and
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integration of Digital Language Lab in English Language Lesson. Universiti Teknologi
MARA.
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in English among ESP learners in an engineering course. English for Specific Purposes
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ILCC 2013
312

Mobilizing Peoples Support to Combat Demonstration: (De)legitimization Discursive
Strategy in Arab Spring Political Discourse
Abdul kadir Sulaiman
International Islamic University Malaysia

Corresponding Author: Abdul kadir, Sulaiman, IIUM, E-mail address: a_kadir@iium.edu.my
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract. Handling demonstration is increasingly seen as a crucial task of leaders, but the role of specific
discursive strategies, related linguistic tools and argumentative devices employed by those leaders to
mobilize peoples support is little understood. This article aims to explain the (de)legitimization strategies
employed by Arab leaders and to examine the linguistic choices associated with those strategies. The strategy
of legitimization through emotions (one of the five strategies of legitimization) proposed by Reyes (2011) are
applied to analyze some examples in the speeches of Arab leaders, specifically, former president of Tunisia
Ben Ali (FPBA) and former president of Egypt Hosni Mubarak (FPHM) in which they addressed the issue of
demonstrations during Arab Spring. Both FPBA and FPHM delivered, respectively, three speeches while
facing Arab Spring demonstrations. The key findings of this study are, first, that both presidents (FPBA and
FPHM) influence the perspectives of audience toward them positively and toward demonstrators negatively
through the choice of (de)legitimization strategies. Second, the linguistic choices made by the leaders clearly
indicate that choosing vocabulary and grammar is important to portray demonstration negatively.

Keywords: Arab Spring, critical discourse analysis (CDA), demonstration, legitimization and
(de)legitimization strategy, political discourse
1. Introduction
Mobilizing support for combatting demonstration in a country requires some shared understanding and
common commitment (Markocy, 2001:1014) to be developed among people in order to make them believe
and support the ruling government. In this regard, the leaders of ruling government play a vital role to
develop mutual understanding between government and citizen in dealing with demonstration which is a
crisis that can lead to the fall of ruling government. In this respect, the linguistic struggle of leaders in
managing such crisis in the real life settings provides us naturalistic data to be examined from the linguistic
perspectives. Even so, less attention has been paid into the influence of leaders discursive strategies on
managing the crisis of demonstration. To address this problem, I adopt interdisciplinary discourse-oriented
approach (Wodak, 2011: 593) to investigate strategic crisis management from the linguistic perspectives,
exploring discourse in use during Arab spring.
In socio-political perspective, there is basic conflict of interest between ruling government and citizens
i.e. the interest in maintaining power from ruling partys side and the interest in obtaining equal treatment
from the citizens side which leads to the scenario of one compete another. This competition or two-sided
battle between ruling government and their opponents can be easily realized through the discourses
produced and distributed by them. On the other hand, demonstration is seen as a sound outcome of this
everlasting battle between the two groups.
The present study considers demonstration as a mass discourse which can influence the perception of
people locally and abroad- toward the image and reputation of the group targeted by demonstrators.
Meanwhile the speeches of the leaders responding to this mass discourse are considered as counter-
discourse. While facing threat to reputation and risk of losing power, leaders use to produce counter-
discourse in order to influence the salient audience to disbelieve the discourse of other party (i.e.
demonstrators) for the purpose of continuous holding of power. This is because the aim of politicians is to
maintain their hegemonic power through different means and particularly through discourse (Antonio Reyes
2011: 783).
One of the most newsworthy demonstration events of the past recent years is most probably Arab spring
demonstrations. While facing those demonstrations, Arab leaders use different strategies in their speeches to
convince people that they are the appropriate leaders and their decisions and suggestions worth to be
followed. At the same time, they attempt to create the bad image of other. In order to achieve this, they
choose certain words and grammar to accomplish their mission and to make salient audience involved and
engaged in their discourses. Arab leaders use their power and access to control the public media to legitimize
their own leadership and (de)legitimize the demonstrations. Reyes (2011) defines legitimization as the
process by which speakers accredit or license a type of social behavior. In this respect, legitimization is a
justification of a behavior (mental or physical (782). Reyes argues that the process of legitimization occurs
by providing arguments that explain our social actions, ideas and thoughts related to a goal such as seeking
our interlocutors support and approval motivated by certain reasons such as obtaining or maintaining power.
(Reyes, 2011: 782)
The concept of legitimization and (de)legitimization in discourse proposed by Van Leeuwen (1996, 2007,
2008). Van Leeuwen underlines four key categories of legitimations: authority legitimation (reference to
personal and impersonal authority, expertise, and role modelling), rationalization (reference to goals and uses
of institutionalized social action), moral evaluation (reference to a value system) and mythopoesis (narratives
that reward legitimate actions) (Van Leeuwen, 2007:92). These categories have been applied by Van
Leeuwen & Wodak (1999) while analyzing the justifications of political official for rejecting immigrants
petition to be reunited with their relatives in Austria. Rasti and Sahragard (2012) utilized the four
(de)legitimation categories of Van Leeuwen with Wodaks five discursive strategies of positive self-
presentation and negative other-presentation while conducting analysis of the actor and action
(de)legitimation of the participants involved in Irans nuclear power contention in the media discourse
namely The Economist.
Reyes (2011) develops the categories of legitimization proposed by Van Leeuwen (1996, 2007, 2008)
and proposes five strategies of legitimization: legitimization through emotions; legitimization through a
hypothetical future; legitimization through rationality; voice of expertise and altruism. He integrates five
discursive strategies (referential strategies or nomination strategies; predication strategies; argumentative
strategies; perspectivation, framing or discourse representation; intensification or mitigation) proposed by
Wodak (2001) into legitimization through emotions.
The present study aims to examine some examples of the (de)legitimization strategy through emotions in
Arab spring political discourse delivered by former president of Egypt Hosni Mubarak (FPHM) and former
president of Tunisia Ben Ali (FPBA) to their people during Arab spring in order to elicit peoples support to
combat the demonstrations. Respectively both of them delivered three speeches while grappling with the
demonstrations and demonstrators. This study sees speeches of Arab leaders toward demonstrators during
Arab spring as a rich source of naturalistic data from which it can investigate a number of important issues.
The first of these is to analyze (de)legitimization process through emotions as mentioned by Reyes (2011) in
which he integrates the categories of legitimation by Leeuwen ( 2007, 2008) and Wodaks (2001) strategies
of positive self-presentation and negative other-presentation into his model. Second, this study examines the
linguistic features of those strategies adopted by the two former presidents in order to invoke emotions
behind the justification of the (de)legitimatization.

2. Arab Spring and Discourse Analysis
Arab Spring becomes an interesting socio-political phenomenon that attracts researchers to investigate
issues related to this phenomenon from various perspectives. Wolfsfeld, Segev & Sheafer (2013) for
instance, investigate the role of social media during Arab Spring by answering the question whether
participations in social media increase the number of protests or the number of protests increases the
participations in social media. Moghadam (2013) attempts to reveal the promises and perils of the
democratization process of three early cases of Arab Spring (Tunisia, Egypt and Morocco). Hess (2013) on
ILCC 2013
314

the other hand try to study the relationship between Arab Spring and Chinese Winter to identify the
similarities and differences of social and economic driving factors those lead to the fall of Egypt and Tunisia
and not to the China.
From the linguistic perspective, one of initial studies on Arab spring and critical discourse analysis
(CDA) is that of Maalej (2012). The aim of the study was a person deixis analysis of the last three speeches
of former president of Tunisia Ben Ali. This study revealed that Ben Ali uses WE and THEY in two early
speeches before shifting to I-YOU and WE-THEY which is explained as an effort to reproducing power
abuse, dominance and inequality by way of making political concession. Zouheir in some way includes the
analyses of negative other-presentation and positive self-presentation through the pronounce choices. What is
quite interesting and concern our studies is the discursive and linguistic shifts as Zouheir argues that the
gradual loss of power by OPT caused him to make concession, which was reflected in the pronounce shifts in
the speeches (Zouheir A Maalej 2012: 697).
Similarly, El Mustapha lahlali (2011) proposes that there are shifts from an authoritarian to a democratic
discourse by President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt and President Zine El- Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia to address
the public unrest. He identified that both former presidents use in term of structure and strategy- the
patterns: blame and denial, Acknowledging reality, emphasis on individual achievements and pledge of
drastic reform and change.
Useful though these studies are in providing insights into discursive strategies adopted by former
presidents of Arab countries while facing demonstrators, they provide too little insights into the aspect of
legitimization and (de)legitimization strategies in by those leaders in their speeches and the pragma-linguistic
devices through which they are realized in the process of managing demonstration. To address this gap, the
current study tries to answer the following questions:
a- What (de)legitimization strategies do FPBA and FPHM adopt in their speeches to evoke emotions of
their audience ??
b- How do FPBA and FPHM employ the linguistic devices in their (de)legitimization strategies?
3. Methodology
The data for this study consists of speeches of former president of Egypt Hosni Mubarak (FPHM) and
former president of Tunisia Ben Ali (FPBA) delivered as a response to the mass demonstration during Arab
spring in their countries in which they were presidents. Coincidently, both of them delivered three speeches
regarding to the crisis. The three speeches of FBHM were delivered on 29
th
January 2011, 1
st
February 2011
and 10
th
February 2011. Meanwhile, the three speeches of FPBA were delivered on 29
th
December 2010, 10
th

January 2011 and 13
th
January 2011. We chose the former president of Egypt Hosni Mubarak (FPHM) and
former president of Tunisia Ben Ali (FPBA) to study the discursive strategies employed by them because
they are among the leaders who have faced the demonstrations threat into their power and they both handled
the demonstration within the quite similar strategies and the quite similar time framework i.e. from
December 2010 to February 2011. To mark the significance of the occasion, all the six speeches -three of
FPHM and three of FPBA- were broadcasted by most television stations in Egypt and Tunisia and became
newsworthy events that time. All of those speeches can now be accessed from YouTube website.
The total length of our data is 1 hour 7 minutes and 36 seconds long which represents more than 5151
words. The detail of hours and word count of each speech of the former presidents are as follows:




Table 1: Data by Video Length and Word Count.
Former President Ben Ali Former President Hosni Mubarak
Speech 1 Speech 2 Speech 3 Speech 1 Speech 2 Speech 3 Total
Video
Length
(minutes)
7:06 12:43 8:26 11:31 10:44 16:52 67:36
Word
Count
(number)
615 1082 760 793 726 1175 5151

While this may appear to be a small corpus, but the present study argues that its aim is to study the
genre of managing demonstration discourses in their specific context i.e. Arab spring through the lens of
critical discourse analysis (CDA) in order to understand and explain the specific social phenomena through
the in-depth analysis rather than studying huge size of context-less corpus to make generalization. In this
respect, the scholars of CDA claim that CDA studies mostly deal with only small corpora (Meyer, 2001:25).
That is because the aim of CDA is to investigate object under study with multilevel analysis to understand
complex social phenomena (Wodak, 2001). In fact, a lot of studies carried out in CDA only deal with small
size data relating to specific context, for instance, the study of Reyes (2011) deals with two political speeches
to investigate legitimization strategy and the study of Augoustinos et al. (2011) deals only with one political
speech in order to investigate political apology.
In conducting the present research, the researcher uses the legitimization strategies as developed and
applied by Reyes (2011). One of the five strategies of legitimization of Reyes (2011) namely legitimization
through emotions and five discursive strategies of positive self-presentation and negative other-presentation
developed by Wodak (2001) within her discourse historical approach (DHA) have been integrated and
applied to current study while investigating the (de)legitimatization process in the speeches of FPBA and
FPHM. the strategies of positive self-presentation and negative other-presentation are: (a) referential
strategies or nomination strategies; (b) strategies of predication; (c) strategies of argumentation; (d) strategies
of perspectivation, framing or discourse representation; (e) intensification or mitigation.

4. Findings
The examples of (de)legitimization strategy through emotions in Arab Spring political discourse is
examined with specific focus on linguistic features.
4.1. Examples of (De)legitimization through Emotions
In handling demonstration and gaining peoples support, FPBA and FPHM engage with emotional
discussions with the concerns on moral aspect of demonstrations and demonstrators. Both FPBA and FPHM
use the emotional evoking strategies. Pointing to problems such as implications of demonstration to the
human and country being was an essential part of the both leaders campaign to combat the demonstrations.
Table 2: (De)legitimization through Emotions.
No. Emotional
Strategy
Explanation Examples Linguistic Choices
1 Implications
to human
being
By reference to:
Threats to human life

Violent incidents, sometimes bloody, which have caused
the death of civilians and caused injuries to several
officers of the security force. (FPBA, 27 December 2010)
Predication: adjective (violent
and bloody)
Argumentation: material verb
(caused death and caused
injuries)
ILCC 2013
316

Threats to daily routines ...

before these demonstrations change to chaos, threaten
the law and impede daily routines of citizen. (FPHM, 29
January 2011)
Nomination: noun (chaos)
Argumentation: material verb
(impede)
Threats to feelings


We are together living in the very painful days. What
hurts our hearts most is the fear, disturbance, worry and
unpleasant feelings those strike the absolute majority
of Egyptians on what will happen tomorrow to them,
their families and the future of their country. (FPHM,
1 February 2011)
Emotive loaded vocabularies:
noun (fear, disturbance,
worry)
Appeal to future: phrases
(what will happen,
tomorrow, future of their
country)
2 Implications
to country
By reference to:
Threats to economy


.
This is a negative and uncivilized manifestation that
tarnish the image of our country and impedes the
advent of investors and tourists which will effect on
jobs creation while we need them to curb unemployment.
(FPBA, 27 December 2010)
Predication: adjective
(negative, uncivilized)
Argumentation: material verb
(tarnish, impede)
Threats to security

Indeed what happened within these demonstrations

transgress vandalism, chaos and fire to something planned
for more than that to shake the stability and violate
laws. (FPHM, 29 January 2011)

Fear appeal: phrase (to
something planned for more
than that)
Emotive loaded vocabulary
(that to shake the stability
and violate laws)
Threats to image of the
country
...
and interfering some diplomatic representatives in
the land of Egypt. (FPHM, 1 February 2011)
Argumentation (interfering
some diplomatic
representatives in the land of
Egypt)
3 Negative
other-
presentation
By reference to:
Naming

.. Nomination (extremists,
agitators). predication (paid
by others)
Attributes

Nomination (guerrillas)
predication (hooked)
Actions

Argumentation (attack in the
night)
4 Conclusion
On the whole, the negative traits of demonstration and demonstrators were found to mobilize the
support of audience, as expected of the speeches of FPBA and FPHM who were under threat of losing power.
It is likely that the way implications of demonstration to other fellow human being and to the country were
highlighted would make audience adopt a negative attitude towards the demonstration. It is also noticed that
the negative attitude of audience towards demonstration was triggered through the emotional appeals by
highlighting the threats of demonstration to human life, their daily routines, their feelings as well as the
threats to countrys economy, security and image.
All the above negative traits of demonstration and demonstrators have been achieved through the
negative other-presentation strategy as highlighted by Wodak which includes nomination, predication,
argumentation, perspectivation and mitigation and intensification. In conclusion, demonstration and
demonstrators were represented negatively through the choices of lexical and grammar.
This study only gives some examples of the (de)legitimization strategy through emotions. Thus it is
suggested for future research to study the (de)legitimization strategy through emotions in a more
comprehensive way. It is also important to mention that this study has focused only on one of the
(de)legitimization strategies proposed by Reyes (2011). Future research should probably study the rest of
strategies proposed by him.
5 Notes
Bolded words and phrases in this article represent linguistic choices relevant to the process of
(de)legitimization through emotions.
6 Acknowledgements
The author is grateful for the financial support of the Research Management Centre, International Islamic
University Malaysia (IIUM) in the preparation of current research under grant Number EDW A13-035-1462
7 References
Caldas-Coulthard, C.R. (2003). Cross-Cultural Representation of Otherness in Media Discourse,
In: Weiss, G and Wodak, R (eds) Critical Discourse Analysis: Theory and Interdisciplinarity.
New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 272-296
Diamond, J. (1996). Status and Power in Verbal Interaction: Study of Discourse in a Close-Knit
Social Network. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Gee, J.P. (2011). How to do Discourse Analysis: A Toolkit. New York: Routledge.
Hess, S. (2013). From Arab Spring to the Chinese Winter: The Institutional Sources of
Authoritarian Vulnerability and Resilience in Egypt, Tunisia, and China, International
Political Science Review, 34 (3), 254-272.
Maalej, ZA. (2012). The Jasmine Revolt Has Made The Arab Spring: A Critical Discourse
Analysis of The Last Three Political Speeches of The Ousted President of Tunisia, Discourse
& Society, 23 (6), 679-700.
Markocy, L. (2001). Consensus Formation during Strategic Change, Strategic Management
Journal, 22, 1013-1031.
Meyer, M. (2001). Between Theory, Method, and Politics: Positioning of The Approaches to CDA,
In: Wodak, R and Meyer, M (eds) Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis. London: SAGE,
14-31.
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Moghadam, VM. (2013). What is Democracy? Promises and Perils of the Arab Spring, Current
Sociology, 61 (4), 393-408.
Rasti, A., Sahragard, R. (2012). Actor Analysis and Action Delegitimation of The Participants
Involved in Irans Nuclear Power Contention: A Case study of The Economist, Discourse &
Society, 23 (6), 729-748.
Reyes, A. (2011). Strategies of Legitimization in Political Discourse: From Words to Actions,
Discourse & Society, 22 (6), 781-807.
Van Dijk, T.A. (2009). Society and Discourse: How Social Contexts Influence Text and Talk. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Van Leeuwen, T., Wodak, R. (1999). Legitimizing Immigration Control: A Discourse-Historical
Analysis, Discourse Studies, 1 (1), 83-118.
Van Leeuwen, T. (2007) Legitimation in Discourse and Communication, Discourse &
Communication, 1 (1), 91-112.
Wodak, R. (2001). The Discourse-Historical Approach, In: Wodak, R and Meyer, M (eds) Methods
of Critical Discourse Analysis. London: SAGE, 63-94.
Wodak, R., Kwan, W., Clarke, I. (2011). Getting People on Board: Discursive Leadership for
Consensus Building in Team Meetings, Discourse & Society, 22 (5), 592-644.
Wolfsfeld, G., Segev, E., Sheafer, T. (2013). Social Media and the Arab Spring: Politics Comes
First, The International Journal of Press/Politics, 18 (2), 115-137.



















PENGGUNAAN STRATEGI PEMBELAJARAN ATURAN KENDIRI KEMAHIRAN BERTUTUR
BAHASA ARAB DALAM KALANGAN PELAJAR MELAYU DI PUSAT ASASI UIAM

Mastura binti Arshad
1

1
Quranic Language Department
International Islamic University Malaysia
Malaysia
amastura@iium.edu.my

Corresponding Author: Kaseh Abu Bakar, Jabatan Pengajian Arab dan Tamadun Islam, Fakulti
Pengajian Islam, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia, kasehabubakar@gmail.com
________________________________________________________________________________

Abstrak. Kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab sering dikaitkan dengan penggunaan strategi pembelajar
an yang pelbagai dan berkesan. Salah satu strategi pembelajaran bahasa Arab ialah strategi pembe
lajaran aturan kendiri. Berdasarkan keputusan Ujian Kemahiran Bahasa (APT Skills Test) di Pu
sat Asasi UIAM dapati majoriti pelajar tidak berjaya melepasitahap 6 (band 6) dalam Ujian mahara
t al-kalam (kemahiran bertutur). Prestasi sebegini mungkin terjadi kerana mereka tidak mengguna
kan strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri secara efektif. Oleh itu, kajian ini meninjau penggunaan
strategipembelajaran aturan kendiri kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab dalam kalangan pelajar Mela
yu di Pusat Asasi UIAM. Kajian ini melibatkan 163 orang pelajar jurusan Bahasa Arab (BAR) da
n Ilmu Wahyu (IRK) yang dipilih melalui kaedah persampelan rawak berkelompok. Soal selidik tel
ah digunakan sebagai instrumen kajian. Data kajian telah dianalisis secara deskriptif mengguna
kan median dan sisihan piawai. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan strategi yang memperoleh penggu
naan tertinggi merupakan strategi-strategi kendiri bersifat keagamaan (Metafizik) manakala strategi
kendiri yang memperoleh penggunaan terendah pula merupakan strategi kendiri yang melibatkan a
ktiviti komunikasi bahasa Arab secara aktif.

Kata kunci: strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri, kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab

Abstract: Foreign language speaking skill is often associated with the use of variety and effective
learning strategies. One of the strategies is Self-regulated learning strategies. Based on the result of
Speaking Test in APT Skills Test, majority of students failed to achieve band 6 for Arabic Speaking
Test. Such performance may occur due to the lack of practicing the self-regulated learning
strategies in Arabic speaking skill learning strategies. Therefore, this research surveyed the practice
of Self-regulated learning strategies in Arabic Speaking Skill among Malay students at the Centre
for Foundation Studies (CFS) IIUM. This research involved 163 respondents taking B.A.R. and
I.R.K. courses, using the Cluster Sampling Method. A Questionnaire was used to collect data for
this study. The data were analyzed through descriptive analysis using median and standard
deviation. The findings showed that the most practiced strategies was religious strategies
(Metaphysics), while the lowest score was strategies that involves actively communication in
Arabic.

Keywords: Self- regulated learning strategies, Arabic speaking skill.
PENDAHULUAN

Kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab sering dikaitkan dengan penggunaan strategi pembelajaran yang ba
ILCC 2013
320

nyak, pelbagai dan berkesan (Sueraya et.al 2010). al-Alwan (2008) menyatakan bahawa salah satu
petunjuk utama kejayaan ialah penggunaan strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri. Pembelajaran Atur
an Kendiri ialah satu proses pembelajaran yang berasaskan pelajar. Kebanyakan ahli teori peng
aturan kendiri berpendapat bahawa pembelajaran adalah satu proses pelbagai dimensi yang melibat
kan komponen-komponen peribadi (kognitif dan emosi), tingkahlaku dan kontektual (Zimmerman
1989). Pelajar sendiri yang akan mengaktifkan dan mengekalkan aspek kognitif, kelakuan dan a
fektif secara sistematik dengan tujuan untuk mencapai matlamat pembelajaran mereka (Brophy 199
8; Pintrinch dan Schunk 1996).

Ia bukan satu keupayaan mental atau prestasi pelajar tetapi ia merupakan satu proses arahan kendiri
yang memandu keupayaan mental pelajar untuk berfungsi dalam melakukan tugasan. Menurut Hs
u (1997), Pintrinch dan De Groot (1990) strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri merupakan satu pro
ses yang aktif dan konstruktif untuk mengawal kognitif, metakognitif, motivasi, tingkahlaku dan
yang berkaitan dengan pengurusan sumber dan persekitaran kajian.

Memandangkan strategi pembelajaran kendiri adalah pendekatan yang membolehkan pelajar
memperoleh pengetahuan dan kemahiran secara berdikari, seseorang pelajar haruslah bersikap auto
nomi dan proaktif dalam proses pembelajaran dan tidak seharusnya menunggu ransangan guru dala
m pembelajarannya, malah hendaklah mencari peluang untuk belajar secara berdikari. Penggunaan
strategi pembelajaran kendiri didapati memberikan beberapa kelebihan kepada pelajar seperti men
dorong kepada pencapaian yang tinggi dalam akademik (al Alwan 2008). Selain itu, kurikulum y
ang disusun dengan tujuan meningkatkan tahap pembelajaran kendiri juga menghasilkan penca
paian pelajar yang tinggi (Bail, Zhang & Tachiyama (2008) dan Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons (2
004)).

Tinjauan kajian lepas mendapati, terdapat beberapa kajian terhadap beberapa komponen pembelajar
an kendiri seperti motivasi (Kaseh dan Zainuddin 2009), sikap pelajar (Ghazali Yusri, Nik Mohd. R
ahimi & Parilah, 2010b), motivasi dan kebimbangan ujian (Ghazali Yusri, Nik Mohd. Rahimi &
Parilah, 2010a), kesan perbezaan bentuk kursus terhadap penggunaan strategi pembelajaran kendiri
(Ghazali Yusri dan Nik Mohd. Rahimi 2010).

Dalam konteks kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab pula, beberapa kajian telah dilakukan tentang kelem
ahan pelajar dalam menguasai kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab khususnya pelajar IPTA (Anida 200
3; Siti Ikbal 2006; Abd. Halim 2009; Sueraya et.al 2010), kajian strategi pembelajaran kemahiran b
ertutur bahasa Arab yang terbahagi kepada strategi dalam kelas, strategi penggunaan media, strategi
penyertaan dalam aktiviti ko-kurikulum dan strategi bertutur bersama rakan (Sueraya et.al 2010). S
elain itu, terdapat kajian yang mengkaji penggunaan strategi belajar bersama rakan dalam konteks k
emahiran lisan (Ghazali Yusri, Nik Mohd. Rahimi, Parilah M.Shah, Wan Haslina Wah & Ahmad
Thalal Hassan, 2012).

Berdasarkan tinjauan kajian lepas, didapati belum ada kajian yang mengkaji penggunaan str
ategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri dalam meningkatkan kemahiran bertutur, serta kajian yang m
engkaji pengetahuanpelajar terhadap strategi-strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri. Oleh itu, kajian i
ni cuba mengkaji penggunaan dan pengetahuan pelajar tentang strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri
kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab.

PERNYATAAN MASALAH

Sebahagian besar pelajar Institut Pengajian Tinggi (IPT) khususnya dalam aliran pendidikan Islam
masih belum mampu menguasai kemahiran bertutur walaupun telah dapat pendedahan yang lua
s dalam bahasa Arab sejak berada di sekolah menengah. Menurut Naimah dan Aini (2005), walaupu
n pelajar-pelajar bahasa ketiga menerima pembelajaran secara formal pada peringkat sekolah, namu
n mereka masih lagi menghadapi masalahuntuk berkomunikasi dalam bahasa Arab yang dipelajari.
Ab. Halim (2007) dan Sueraya et.al ( 2010) turut menyatakan bahawa penguasaan bahasa Arab
di kalangan pelajar lepasan IPTA yang mengambil pengkhususan bahasa Arab tidak mencapai taha
p kecekapan berbahasa yang baik.

Di Pusat Asasi UIAM, keputusan Ujian Kemahiran Bahasa (APT Skills Test) mendapati maj
oriti pelajar tidak berjaya melepasi tahap 6 (band 6) dalam Ujian maharat al-kalam (kemahiran ber
tutur). Justeru, adalah perlu untuk mengkaji penggunaan Strategi Pembelajaran Bahasa (SPB) Kema
hiran Bertutur Bahasa Arab di kalangan mereka. Prestasi sebegini mungkin terjadi kerana mereka
tidak menggunakan strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri secara pelbagai dan berkesan. Oleh i
tu, kajian ini cuba meninjau penggunaan danpengetahuan pelajar tentang strategi pembelajaran atur
an kendiri.
PERSOALAN KAJIAN

Kajian ini dilakukan berdasarkan persoalan kajian berikut, iaitu:
1. Bagaimanakah penggunaan strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab
ILCC 2013
322

dalam kalangan pelajar Melayu di Pusat Asasi UIAM?
4. METODOLOGI KAJIAN

Kajian ini merupakan kajian kuantitatif yang menggunakan instrumen soal selidik. Soal selidik dip
ilih bagi meninjau penggunaan strategi kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab yang dilakukan oleh 163
pelajar Melayu jurusan Bahasa Arab dan Ilmu Wahyu di Pusat Asasi UIAM. Berdasarkan tinjauan
kajian lepas, 35 item strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri telah digubal. Peringkat pra uji tela
h dijalankan bagi mengenalpasti sebarang kelemahan dan kekurangan pada instrumen yang di
bina. Peringkat pengumpulan data pula dijalankan oleh pensyarah masing-masing dalam 7
sesi kelas yang berasingan. Proses analisis data dibuat menggunakan perisian SPSS (Statistical
Packages for the Social Sciences) Versi 20 bagi menjawab objektif kajian. Statistik perihalan iait
u kiraan median dan sisihan piawai digunakan untuk menganalisa penggunaan strategi pembelajar
an kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab.

5.DAPATAN KAJIAN

Pengkaji telah mengadaptasi interpretasi skor min (Oxford 1990) dan menyesuaikannya mengikut k
esesuaian kajian ini. Oleh itu, pengkaji mencadangkan interpretasi median seperti berikut:

Jadual 2 Interpretasi skor median tahap penggunaan SPB

__________________________________________________________________________________

Tinggi Sentiasa benar tentang diri saya (sentiasa) 5
Selalunya benar tentang diri saya (kerap kali) 4
____________________________________________________________________
Sederhana Biasanya benar tentang diri saya (kadang-kadang) 3
____________________________________________________________________

Rendah Biasanya tidak benar tentang diri saya (sekali-sekala) 2
Tidak pernah benar tentang diri saya (tidak pernah) 1
__________________________________________________________________________________

Respon 1 (Tidak Pernah Benar Tentang Diri Saya) bermaksud responden tidak pernah menggunakan strategi
tersebut, respon 2 (Biasanya Tidak Benar Tentang Diri Saya) bermaksud responden hanya sekali-sekala men
ggunakan strategi tersebut. Respon 3 (Biasanya Benar Tentang Diri Saya) bermaksud responden kadang-kad
ang menggunakan strategi. Manakala respon 4 (Selalunya Benar Tentang Diri Saya) bermaksud respondenke
rap kali menggunakan strategi dan respon 5 (Sentiasa Benar Tentang Diri Saya) bermaksud responden sentias
a menggunakan strategi tersebut.
Penggunaan strategi pelajar mengikut item strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri

Jadual 3 Susunan kekerapan penggunaan berdasarkan item strategi pembelajaran aturan kendiri
n=163
Item Strategi Penggunaan Min Mod Med S.P
1 2 3 4 5
i. Penggunaan tinggi

26 Berdoa 3 8 31 31 90 4.21 5.00 5 1.03
(1.8%) (4.9%) (19.0%) (19.0%)(55.2%)

11 Baca Quran 4 8 38 51 62 3.98 4.00 5 1.02
( 2.5%) (4.9%)(23.3%)(31.3%)(38.0%)

29 Siapkan diri 3 10 50 43 57 3.87 4.00 5 1.03
(1.8%) (6.1%) (30.7%)(26.4%)(35.0%)

27 Ungkapkan kata-kata
peransang 6 16 43 45 53 3.75 4.00 5 1.12
(3.7%) (9.8%) (26.4%)(27.6%) (32.5%)

ii. Penggunaan sederhana


25 Yakinkan diri 6 14 60 33 50 3.66 4.00 3 1.11
(3.7%) (8.6%) (36.8%) (20.2%) (30.7%)

28 Mempersiapkan
diri 7 28 48 40 40 3.48 3.00 3 1.16
(4.3%) (17.2%) (29.4%)(24.5%)(24.5%)

13 Berlatih sebutan
Arab 6 21 70 40 26 3.36 3.00 3 1.02
( 3.7%) (12.9%)(42.9%) (24.5%) (16.0%)



24 Beranikan diri 7 34 52 38 32 3.33 3.00 3 1.14
(4.3%)(20.9%)(31.9%)(23.3%)(19.6%)

23 Tetapkan
matlamat 10 23 62 41 27 3.32 3.00 3 1.10
(6.1%)(14.1%)(38.0%)(25.2%)(16.6%)

35 Bayangkan diri
guna bahasa
Arab 23 30 47 20 43 3.18 3.00 3 1.38
(14.1%)(18.4%)(28.8%)(12.3%)(26.4%)

15 Ulangi kembali apa
yang diajar 12 29 65 37 20 3.15 3.00 3 1.08
(7.4%)(17.8%)(39.9%)(22.7%)(12.3%)


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324

12 Gunakan nahu
dan sarf yang
betul 9 34 72 31 17 3.08 3.00 3 1.02
(5.5%)(20.9%)(44.2%)(19.0%)(10.4%)
34 Bayangkan diri
setanding pelajar
Timur
Tengah 36 28 43 19 37 2.96 3.00 3 1.45
(22.1%)(17.2%)(26.4%)(11.7%)(22.7%)

14 Berlatih membina
ayat 18 39 66 22 18 2.90 3.00 3 1.12
(11.0%)(23.9%)(40.5%)(13.5%)(11.0%)

8 Baca bahan
bahasa Arab 31 36 47 34 15 2.79 3.00 3 1.24
(19.0%)(22.1%)(28.8%)(20.9%)(9.2%)

21 Menilai kemajuan
pertuturan 33 33 57 29 11 2.71 3.00 3 1.17
(20.2%)(20.2%)(35.0%)(17.8%)(6.7%)


3 Menterjemah di
dalam minda
apa yang dilihat
di papan tanda 33 33 60 24 13 2.70 3.00 3 1.18
(20.2%)(20.2%)(36.8%)(14.7%)(8.0%)


4 Menterjemah di
dalam minda apa yang
dibaca 37 43 53 22 8 2.50 3.00 3 1.13
(22.7%)(26.4%)(32.5%)(13.5%)(4.9%)

iii. Tahap penggunaan rendah

33 Bayangkan diri cekap
bertutur 38 42 30 19 34 2.81 3.00 2 1.46
(23.3%)(25.8%)(18.4%)(11.7%)(20.9%)

18 Cari sebanyak
mungkin
peluang 26 55 44 23 15 2.67 3.00 2 1.18
(16.0%)(33.7%)(27.0%)(14.1%)(9.2%)

19 Cari orang yang
boleh bertutur
bahasa Arab
secara aktif 36 46 42 23 16 2.61 2.00 2 1.25
(22.1%)(28.2%)(25.8%)(14.1%)(9.8%)



9 Memperbanyak aktiviti
mendengar pertuturan
bahasa Arab 36 58 36 24 9 2.46 2.00 2 1.15
(22.1%)(35.6%)(22.1%)(14.7%)(5.5%)

5 Menterjemah di dalam
minda, apa yang
didengar seperti
berita 39 50 45 18 11 2.46 2.00 2 1.17
(23.9%)(30.7%)(27.6%)(11.0%)(6.7%)

17 Merancang
jadual 49 51 36 22 5 2.28 2.00 2 1.13
(30.1%)(31.3%)(22.1%)(13.5%)(3.1%)

10 Membaca buku
strategi belajar
bahasa 46 54 41 17 5 2.25 2.00 2 1.08
(28.2%)(33.1%)(25.2%)(10.4%)(3.1%)

32 Membayangkan diri
berkomunikasi di negara
Arab 53 41 27 19 23 2.50 2.00 1 1.41
(32.5%)(25.2%)(16.6%)(11.7%)(14.1%)

6 Bertutur bahasa Arab
di hadapan
cermin 49 47 36 22 9 2.36 2.00 1 1.20
(30.1%)(28.8%)(22.1%)(13.5%)(5.5%)

22 Beri ganjaran kepada
diri sendiri 59 41 29 20 14 2.32 2.00 1 1.31
(36.2%)(25.2%)(17.8%)(12.3%)(8.6%)

31 Mempelajari budaya
orang Arab 56 45 31 16 15 2.32 2.00 1 1.29
(34.4%)(27.6%)(19.0%)(9.8%)( 9.2%)

1 Berfikir dalam
bahasa Arab 52 46 37 17 11 2.32 2.00 1 1.22
(31.9%)(28.2%)(22.7%)(10.4%)(6.7%)

30 Mengaplikasikan pertuturan
bahasa Arab
di kedai-kedai
dan restoran
Arab 63 52 19 15 14 2.17 2.00 1 1.28
(38.7%)(31.9%)(11.7%)(9.2%)( 8.6%)

16 Mengikuti kursus-kursus
komunikasi
Bahasa Arab 65 41 33 16 8 2.15 2.00 1 1.19
(39.9%)(25.2%)(20.2%)(9.8%)(4.9%)

2 Bermonolog melalui
penulisan diari dalam
bahasa Arab 61 54 24 14 10 2.13 2.00 1 1.19
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326

(37.4%)(33.1%)(14.7%)(8.6%)(6.1%)

7 Merekodkan pertuturan
sendiri dalam
bahasa Arab 86 40 19 13 5 1.84 1.00 1 1.11
(52.8%)(24.5%)(11.7%)(8.0%)( 3.1%)

20 Tinggal bersama rakan
berbangsa Arab
di asrama 117 22 11 10 3 1.53 1.00 1 0.99
(71.8%)(13.5%)(6.7%)( 6.1%)(1.8%)



Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa item no.26- (saya berdoa agar Allah mempermudahkan saya
bertutur bahasa Arab) dan item no.11- (saya membaca al-Quran setiap hari untuk memperbetul da
n melancarkan sebutan saya) memperoleh median skor tertinggi 5. Selain itu, item no.29 (saya m
empersiapkan diri untuk menerima sebarang teguran daripada pensyarah dan rakan terhadap kesalah
an bahasa yang dituturkan dan berusaha memperbaikinya) dan item no.27- (saya mengungkapkan k
ata-kata peransang untuk menaikkan semangat saya untuk terus mempertingkat pertuturan bahasa A
rab) turut memperoleh skor median yang sama.

Terdapat 10 item yang memperoleh skor median terendah. Item-item yang memperoleh sko
r median terendah ini terdiri daripada item no.20 (saya tinggal bersama rakan berbangsa Arab di as
rama), item no.7 (saya merekodkan pertuturan sendiri dalam bahasa Arab), item no.2- (saya berm
onolog melalui penulisan diari dalam bahasa Arab), item no.16- (saya mengikuti kursus-kursus baha
sa Arab di luar), item no.30-(saya mengaplikasikan pertuturan bahasa Arab di kedai dan restoran Ar
ab), item no.1-(saya berfikir dalam bahasa Arab), item no.31-(saya mempelajari budaya orang Arab)
, item no.22 (saya memberi ganjaran kepada diri sendiri), item no.6-(saya bertutur bahasa Arab di
hadapan cermin) dan item no.32-(saya membayangkan diri berkomunikasi di negara Arab).

6.0 PERBINCANGAN DAPATAN KAJIAN

Meneliti pola item strategi yang paling banyak dilaporkan penggunaannya oleh pelajar, didapati bah
awa strategi-strategi yang paling popular di kalangan pelajar ialah strategi kendiri yang bersifat kea
gamaan atau Metafizik. Sebagai contoh, strategi yang memperoleh median penggunaan tertinggi ial
ah strategi berdoa agar Allah mempermudahkan bertutur bahasa Arab diikuti strategi membaca al-Q
uran setiap hari untuk memperbetul dan melancarkan sebutan. Dapatan ini hampir menyamai dapata
n Kamarul Shukri et al. (2009) yang menunjukkan Strategi Metafizik memperolehi min strategi ked
ua tertinggi di kalangan pelajar SMKA Terengganu.

Pemilihan strategi kendiri bersifat Metafizik sebagai strategi yang paling kerap digunakan oleh pelaj
ar jurusan BAR dan IRK mencerminkan kepentingan strategi tersebut dalam pembelajaran bahasa A
rab. Ajaran Islam yang menganjurkan doa sebagai senjata mukmin dan memohon pertolongan Allah
dalam setiap tindakan. Firman Allah dalam surah al-Ghafir ayat 60:

Maksudnya:

Berdoalah kepadaku, nescaya aku perkenankan permintaanmu.

Pengkaji merasakan bahawa sebagai pelajar jurusan agama, para pelajar amat menyedari bahawa m
ereka mempelajari bahasa Arab sebagai bahasa ibadah. Justeru, hubungan antara para pelajar jurusa
n agama dengan bahasa Arab sebagai bahasa al-Quran adalah amat rapat sekali. Tambahan pula, bah
asa Arab adalah bahasa agama yang wajib dipelajari oleh setiap individu muslim. Oleh itu, kajian in
i mendapati bahawa motif keagamaan yang kukuh muncul sebagai strategi yang paling digunakan o
leh pelajar Bahasa Arab dan IRK di Pusat Asasi UIAM.

Manakala item strategi kendiri yang mendapat median penggunaan terendah pula memperlihatkan s
trategi-strategi komunikatif secara aktif seperti tinggal dengan rakan-rakan berbangsa Arab di asram
a, merekodkan pertuturan sendiri dalam bahasa Arab dan bermonolog melalui penulisan diari dalam
bahasa Arab. Dengan kata lain, kajian ini mendapati pelajar tidak cuba mencabar kebolehan diri unt
uk bertutur bahasa Arab.


Faktor persekitaran juga memainkan peranan yang penting. Persekitaran pelajar di Pusat Asasi UIA
M yang dikelilingi oleh ramai pelajar bukan natif (bukan Arab) menyebabkan pelajar merasa tidak t
erdesak untuk menggunakan bahasa Arab dan merasa lebih selesa untuk berkomunikasi menggunak
an bahasa Melayu bersama rakan-rakan sekuliah mereka. Senario di Pusat Asasi UIAM melihatkan
kurangnya pelajar-pelajar berbangsa Arab yang mengambil jurusan sastera. Majoriti pelajar berbang
sa Arab mengambil jurusan seperti Kejuruteraan, Fizik, Perubatan, Farmasi dan Senibina. Justeru it
u, pelajar BAR dan IRK didapati kurang bergaul dengan mereka dan tidak mengambil peluang kee
masan untuk tinggal bersama pelajar-pelajar berbangsa Arab di asrama lalu menyebabkan pelajar tid
ak menggunakan strategi pembelajaran yang memerlukan komunikasi bahasa Arab secara berterusa
n. Ini dapat dilihat dalam dapatan kajian ini yang menunjukkan item no.20 (tinggal bersama rakan b
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erbangsa Arab di asrama) dan item no.11 (duduk bersebelahan penutur asal (rakan berbangsa Arab)
memperoleh median penggunaan terendah (median= 1).

Sistem pembelajaran sekarang yang berorientasikan peperiksaan turut menyumbang kepada dapatan
ini. Dapatan ini secara umumnya menyokong dapatan Oxford dan Nyikos (1989) mengenai bentu
k strategi yangselalu dan jarang digunakan pelajar. Mereka berpendapat bahawa pendekatan akadem
ik yang berorientasikan pengajaran dan peperiksaan telah membataskan usaha pelajar untuk mencub
a strategi-strategi baru yang lebih kreatif serta melibatkan latihan penggunaan bahasa di luar kelas.
Pengajaran bahasa Arab yang lebih menekankan tatabahasa, aspek metalinguistik dan analisis bahas
a (Abdul Rahim 1994) juga mungkin merupakan penyebab pelajar-pelajar kurang menggunakan stra
tegi-strategi yang bersifat komunikatif.

Selain itu, tiadanya pengetahuan tentang strategi kendiri, kurangnya kesedaran dan motivasi dalama
n juga merupakan faktor yang mempengaruhi penggunaan strategi pembelajaran kemahiran bertutur
bahasa Arab. Sueraya et.al (2010) dalam kajiannya mendapati antara faktor yang mempengaruhi k
elemahan bertutur bahasa Arab ialah kurangnya kesedaran tentang strategi pembelajaran bahasa (SP
B) kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab. Nurazan (2003) dalam kajiannya di kalangan pelajar UNISZA
turut mendapati majoriti pelajar tidak mengetahui strategi-strategi pembelajaran bahasa yang dinyat
akan lalu menyebabkan tahap penggunaan SPB bahasa Arab adalah berada di tahap sederhana. Oleh
sebab itu, pengetahuan pelajar tentang SPB Kemahiran Bertutur merupakan perkara penting bagi m
embantu pelajar mencapai kejayaan dalam pembelajaran mereka.


7.0 PENUTUP

Pengkaji berharap agar kajian ini akan memberikan manfaat kepada pelajar dan juga pengajar.
Dalam bidang pembelajaran bahasa Arab, pelajar yang didedahkan dengan pelbagai strategi
ternyata mampu meningkatkan kebolehan bahasa. Pengetahuan tentang strategi-strategi
pembelajaran kendiri kemahiran bertutur bahasa Arab mampu menarik minat pelajar untuk
mengaplikasikannya dalam pembelajaran. Selain itu, penggunaan strategi yang tepat dan
bersesuaian akan melahirkan pelajar bahasa yang bijak dalam mengendalikan pembelajaran bahasa.
Apa yang penting, penggunaan strategi dalam pembelajaran kemahiran bertutur menjadikan
pembelajaran bahasa Arab lebih mudah dan menyeronokkan sekaligus menolak tanggapan bahawa
bahasa Arab sukar dipelajari. Strategi pembelajaran kendiri hendaklah didedahkan kepada para
pelajar agar pelajar lebih berautonomi, tidak bergantung dan mengharapkan segala maklumat
daripada guru semata-mata. Semoga kajian ini memberi sumbangan terhadap aspek pengajaran dan
pembelajaran bahasa Arab di Malaysia.

9.0 RUJUKAN

Al-Quran.

Ab. Halim Mohamad. 2007. Masalah komunikasi bahasa Arab di kalangan pelajar bacelor bahasa
Arab di IPTA Malaysia. Prosiding Seminar Penyelidikan Dalam Pengajian Islam Ke-4, hlm. 1-13.

Ab. Halim Mohamad. 2009. Tahap komunikasi dalam bahasa Arab dalam kalangan pelajar Sarjana
Muda Bahasa Arab di IPTA Malaysia. Journal of Islamic and Arabic Education 1(1), hlm.1-14.

Abdul Rahim Ismail. 1994. Pengajaran bahasa Arab sebagai bahasa kedua: permasalahan dan
penyelesaian. Dlm. Muhammad Bukhari Lubis (pngr.). Persuratan Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Anida Abd. Rahim. 2003. Strategi pembelajaran Bahasa Arab di kalangan pelajar Melayu. Tesis
Sarjana, Universiti Malaya.

al-Alwan, A.F. (2008). Self-regulated learning in high and low achieving students at al-Hussein
bin Talal University (AHU) in Jordan. International Journal of Applied Educational
Studies, 1 (1), 1-13.

Bail, F. T., Zhang, S., & Tachiyama, G. T. (2008). Effects of a self-regulated learning course on
the academic performance and graduation rate of college students in an academic support
program. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 39(1), 54-72.

Brophy, J. (1998). Motivating students to learn. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Duncan, T.G., & McKeachie, W.J. (2005). The making of the motivated strategies for learning
questionnaire. Educational Psychologist, 40 (2), 117-128.

Ghazali Yusri, Nik Mohd. Rahimi, Parilah M. Shah, Wan Haslina Wah & Ahmed Thalal Hassan.
(2012). Penggunaan strategi belajar bersama rakan dalam kalangan pelajar kursus bahasa Arab di
Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM). Asia Pacific Journal of Educators and Education 37: 37-50.

Kamarul Shukri Mat Teh. 2009. Penggunaan strategi pembelajaran bahasa Arab dalam kalangan
pelajar sekolah menengah agama. Tesis Dr. Falsafah, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

Kaseh Abu Bakar & Zainuddin Ismail. 2009. Al-Nizam al-zati lidafiiyyati taallum al-lughah al-
thaniah wa mutaallimu al-lughah al-arabiyyah fi Maliziya. Proceedings of the Malaysia Conference
on Arabic Studies and Islamic Civilization (MACASIC). hlm. 1131-1136.

Naimah, A., & Aini, A. 2005. Kajian tentang persepsi pelajar UiTM terhadap kepentingan bahasa
ketiga di UiTM. Unpublished manuscript, Shah Alam.
ILCC 2013
330

Nurazan Mohmad Rouyan. 2004. Strategi pembelajaran bahasa dalam pembelajaran bahasa Arab:
Kajian di KUSZA. Disertasi Sarjana, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

Oxford, R.L. & Nyikos, M. 1989. Variables affecting choice of language learning strategies by
university students. Modern Language Journal 73(3): 291-300.

Pintrinch, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in education: Theory, research and
applications. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Inc.

Siti Ikbal Sheikh Salleh. 2006. Masalah penguasaan pertuturan bahasa Arab di kalangan pelajar
Sekolah Menengah Agama di Selangor. Dlm. Mohd. Rosdi Ismail & Mat Taib Pa. Pengajaran dan
pembelajaran Bahasa Arab di Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Universiti Malaya.

Sueraya Che Haron, Ismail Sheikh Ahmad, Arifin Mamat & Ismaiel Hassanein Ahmed Mohamed.
2010. Understanding Arabic-speaking skill learning strategies among selected Malay learners: A
case-study at the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). ProQuest Education Journals
Aug.(3): 8-9.

Swain, M. 1995. Three functions of output in second language learning. In Cook, G. And
Seidlhofer, B. (eds.). Principle and practice in applied linguistics, hlm. 125-144. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.

Zimmerman, B.J. 1989. Models of self-regulated learning and academic achievement. Dlm. B.J.
Zimmerman & D.H Schunk (pnyt). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: theory,
research and practice. hlm. 1-25. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Zimmerman, B.J., & Martinez-Pons, M. (2004). Pursuing academic self-regulation: A 20-year
methodological quest. Dlm. Jessie Ee, Agnes Chang & Oon seng Tan (pnyt), Thinking about
thinking, hlm. 3-30. Singapore: McGraw Hill Education.



















PEMINJAMAN BAHASA SANSKRIT DALAM DIALEK MELAYU PATANI DAN BAHASA
THAI: SUMBER PERSAMAAN DEMI MENYELESAIKAN KONFLIK DI SELATAN THAI


Abdonloh Khreeda-oh
Pensyarah Bahasa Melayu,
Cawangan Bahasa Melayu, Jabatan Bahasa-bahasa Timur,
Fakulti Kemanusiaan dan Sains Kemasyarakatan, Universiti Prince of Songkla, Kampus Pattani
181 Chareonpradit Road, Rusamilae, Muang, Pattani, 94000, Thailand
e-mail: lah119@hotmail.com, abdullah-k@bunga.pn.psu.ac.th


ABSTRAK

Kajian ini merupakan kajian yang meninjau proses peminjaman bahasa Sanskrit (BS)
dalam Dialek Melayu Patani (DMP) dan bahasa Thai (BTh) dari perspektif Sosiolinguistik.
Tujuan utama kajian ini adalah untuk melihat proses-proses peminjaman terutamanya proses
persamaan antara DMP dan BTh yang berlaku akibat peminjaman BS. Data kajian bagi kata
pinjaman BS di dalam DMP dan BTh diperolehi melalui bahan tulisan dan lisan. Perhatian
terhadap proses peminjaman BS dalam kedua-dua bahasa tersebut melibatkan kajian terhadap
persamaan antara DMP dan BTh melalui proses peminjaman, iaitu proses pengimportan.
Seterusnya secara tidak langsung kajian ini turut menyentuh pengaruh BTh yang mempunyai
peranan penting terhadap unsur-unsur leksikal DMP dan sebaliknya pengaruh bahasa Melayu
terhadap kosa kata BTh.

Selain daripada huraian terhadap proses peminjaman, analisis juga turut dilakukan terhadap
proses perubahan kata pinjaman BS dalam DMP dan BTh dari segi fonologi yang melibatkan
perubahan vokal dan perubahan konsonan dengan menggunakan pendekatan deskriptif. Hasil
dapatan daripada kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa selain daripada berlakunya peminjaman secara
langsung daripada BS ke dalam DMP dan BTh sehingga menghasilkan sumber persamaan iaitu
perbendaharaan kata yang seerti dan seakan-akan sama bentuknya antara DMP dan BTh. Malah
daripada unsur-unsur pinjaman, didapati adanya kata-kata DMP dan BTh yang boleh dianggap
datang dari induk yang sama dan diharap dapat membawa kepada penyelasaian konflik di selatan
Thai.

Kata Kunci: Peminjaman, Bahasa Sanskrit, Bahasa Thai, Dialek Melayu Patani Proses
Pengimportan, Penyelesaian Konflik Selatan Thai.










ILCC 2013
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PEMINJAMAN BAHASA SANSKRIT DALAM DIALEK MELAYU PATANI DAN BAHASA
THAI: SUMBER PERSAMAAN DEMI MENYELESAIKAN KONFLIK DI SELATAN THAI

1. Pengenalan

Pengaruh bahasa asing yang pertama tersebar di alam Melayu, ialah bahasa Sanskrit dan
sebahagian besar daripada perkataan-perkataan itu sudah begitu sebati dengan sistem bunyi BM
sehingga tidak lagi dirasakan sebagai unsur-unsur asing (Asmah Haji Omar, 1985: 5). Bahasa
Sanskrit datang ke Semenanjung Tanah Melayu bersama orang-orang India yang menjalankan
perdagangan,dan perhubungan ini telah terjalin sejak tahun 200 sebelum Masihi lagi (Abdullah
Hassan, 1974: 218). Abdul Rahman Haji Abdullah (1989: 19) menyatakan bahawa kedatangan
agama Hindu-Buddha ke alam Melayu adalah secara dua hala, iaitu bukan sahaja dibawa oleh para
pedagang dan paderi, tetapi juga oleh pihak penerima yang secara sukarela menerima agama
tersebut. Usaha ini disertai dengan menghantar para pengkaji ke India untuk tujuan pelajaran
mahupun mengundang Brahmin terkenal sebagai penasihat raja (Abdul Rahman Haji Abdullah,
1989: 19).

Tamadun India membawa bersama bahasa Sanskrit memasuki dunia Melayu dengan cara
yang aman. Ini terbukti dengan adanya agama sebagai teras kebudayaannya (Asmah Haji Omar,
1985: 5). Tamadun India juga telah memberi pengaruh yang amat besar, bukan sahaja bagi BM,
tetapi juga kepada kebudayaan Melayu secara meluas (Abdullah Hassan, 1994: 45). Bidang yang
dipengaruhi oleh perkataan pinjaman daripada bahasa Sanskrit juga luas, bermula daripada nama-
nama tumbuhan dan haiwan, bahagian badan, alat perkakas dan perdagangan, sehinggalah sistem
pemerintahan, agama dan ilmu pengetahuan (Abdullah Hassan, 1994: 45-46). Menurut Khalid
M.Hussain (1978: 470-473) pula, perkataan dari bahasa Sanskrit memainkan peranan penting dalam
bidang yang berkaitan dengan keagungan golongan diraja dan agama, pandangan dunia serta moral,
nama-nama gelaran dan panggilan golongan pemerintah. Ini tergambar misalnya dalam perkataan
perdana menteri, menteri, Duli Yang Maha Mulia, syurga, neraka, dosa, pahala, dan sebagainya
(Khalid M.Hussain, 1978: 473-475).
Walau bagaimanapun setelah kedatangan agama Islam ke dunia Melayu, banyak perkataan Arab
telah dimasukkan ke dalam BM. Dengan demikian bahasa Sanskrit telah disesuaikan daripada
perkataan yang menunjukkan konsep agama Hindu-Buddha kepada konsep agama Islam tanpa
perubahan perkataan. Salah satu faktor yang mengekalkan bahasa Sanskrit dalam BM adalah unsur
bahasa Sanskrit telah tidak lagi dianggap sebagai unsur pinjaman asing, sebaliknya menjadi
sebahagian daripada kosa kata BM (Hara, 2001: 107).

Seterusnya pada cogan kata Bahasa Jiwa Bangsa (Hara, 2001: 107) semuanya terdiri daripada
perkataan bahasa Sanskrit, tetapi perkataan ini telah sebati dalam BM. Begitu juga nama-nama
kereta buatan Malaysia seperti wira, perdana, satria, kenari dan sebagainya (Hara, 2001: 107)
adalah dari bahasa Sanskrit. Secara jelas didapati bahawa kedudukan bahasa Sanskrit bertambah
kukuh walaupun setelah kedatangan agama Islam yang disertai oleh bahasa Arab dan unsur bahasa
Sanskrit tetap dikekalkan dalam BM (Ismail Hussein, 1966: 31).

C.A.Mees (1967) menyatakan bahawa BTh dan BM yang tergolong di bawah filum Austrik
berada di bawah rumpun yang berlainan. BM terletak di bawah rumpun Austronesia (Asmah Haji
Omar, 1995: 35), manakala BTh pula tergolong di bawah rumpun Sino-Tibet (C.A.Mees, 1967:
12). Secara umum didapati bahawa BTh lebih dekat dengan rumpun Sino-Tibet dari rumpun
Austronesia. Persamaan yang wujud di antara BTh dan BM ialah kesan proses sejarah di antara
masyarakat penutur kedua-dua bahasa yang tinggal berhampiran. Proses sejarah yang paling
utama adalah pengaruh yang amat mendalam dari segi peminjaman bahasa asing dan peminjaman
di antara BM dan BTh sendiri, terutamanya dari segi kosa kata. Walaupun kedua-dua BTh dan
BM ini tidak tergolong dalam rumpun yang sama, tetapi kedua-dua bahasa ini tergolong ke dalam
induk yang sama, iaitu filum Austrik (C.A.Mees, 1967: 12).

2. Persamaan Bahasa Melayu dengan Bahasa Thai

Dalam BTh, terdapat beberapa perkataan yang serupa dengan BM, walaupun bunyi dan
bentuknya agak berlainan. Pitsamai Intarachat (1980: 13) menyatakan terdapat persamaan pada
sesetengah perkataan BTh dan BM disebabkan oleh empat faktor penting. Faktor-faktor tersebut
adalah persamaan secara semula jadi, persamaan kerana saling meminjam, persamaan kerana
meminjam dari sumber yang sama dan persamaan kerana meminjam dari bahasa lain melalui BM
atau BTh. Berdasarkan pemerhatian yang dilakukan di daerah Chana dan data yang dikumpulkan,
kemungkinan persamaan ini disebabkan oleh kedua-dua BTh dan BM terletak di bawah filum
yang sama, iaitu filum Austrik (C.A.Mees, 1967: 12). Berdasarkan beberapa ukuran dan faktor,
perkataan-perkataan seperti ini dapat digolongkan kepada beberapa jenis. Di sini akan sebut
hanya dua jenis sahaja iaitu 1) Peminjaman kekeluargaan dan 2) Peminjaman dari sumber yang
sama.

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2.1 Peminjaman Kekeluargaan

Persamaan perkataan-perkataan di antara BTh dan BM akibat peminjaman kekeluargaan ialah kata-
kata yang maknanya sama dan bentuknya juga sama atau berdekatan (Chantas, 1980: 13). Kata-kata
asas dalam BTh seperti / ta: / mata, / kha: / kaki , / phet / pedas, / mot / semut dan
sebagainya berkemungkinan bahawa sumbernya sama dengan perkataan BM (Hara, 1988: 445).
Berdasarkan data yang terkumpul, berikut adalah beberapa perkataan yang tergolong dalam kategori
ini, di antaranya :

Contoh :
BTh DMPC BMS
1. / ra / / sa / = sarang
2. / cicok / / cc / = cicak
3. / cu:p / / kc / = kucup
4. / tua: / / tw / = tuang
5. / pl:k / / pl/ = pelik
6. / skad / / ska / = sekat


Banyak perkataan dalam BTh yang seerti dan sebunyi dengan BM sehingga agak munasabah kalau
dikatakan persamaan sedemikian disebabkan oleh peminjaman. Namun masalah akan timbul
apabila arah pinjaman tidak dapat dipastikan kerana tiada ciri pembeza yang jelas. Oleh itu,
kemungkinan gejala ini memperlihatkan ciri-ciri kekeluargaan antara BM dan BTh, namun kajian
yang lebih terperinci perlu dilaksanakan.

Seterusnya Titima Suthiwan (1992: 699) menyatakan bahawa, mungkin beberapa kriteria dapat
dimanfaatkan untuk menyelesaikan masalah kesamaan antara BTh dan BM. Antaranya adalah
penyemakan rekonstruksi dalam bahasa Austronesia Purba atau BTh Purba serta cabang-cabang
bahasa turunannya masing-masing atau penyemakan pada unsur fonologi dan morfologi seperti
jumlah suku kata (Titima Suthiwan, 1992: 699). Peninjauan pada penyebaran sesuatu perkataan
yang hanya terjadi di wilayah yang berdekatan dengan sempadan bahasa, mungkin mendorong
perkataan tersebut dipinjam (Titima, 1992: 699). Misalnya Wilkinson (sumber dari Titima, 1992:
699) mengatakan perkataan kong (gading kapal) hanya digunakan di Kelantan dan perkataan kan
(mangkuk kecil) pula hanya digunakan di Kedah. Namun penyebaran ini menunjukkan arah
peminjaman dari BTh atau kedua-dua perkataan ini dipinjam secara berasingan dari bahasa ketiga.
Misalnya kata-kata ini mungkin dipinjam dari bahasa Cina kerana kata ekasuku seperti yang
terdapat pada dua perkataan tersebut bukan ciri yang umum dalam BM yang rata-rata adalah
bersifat dwisuku atau lebih.

2.2 Peminjaman dari Sumber yang Sama

Perkataan yang mempunyai persamaan antara BM dan BTh melalui peminjaman dari sumber yang
sama, iaitu kedua-dua bahasa tersebut meminjam perkataan dari sumber pinjaman yang sama,
misalnya dari bahasa Sanskrit. Hal ini berlaku kerana orang-orang Melayu sebelum memeluk
agama Islam pernah menganut agama Hindu yang disebarkan melalui bahasa Sanskrit (Khalid M.
Hussain, 1978: 472). Bahasa Sanskrit juga turut digunakan oleh orang Thai yang menganut agama
Buddha (Chantas, 1980: 13). Sebagai contoh, dalam BTh Standard terdapat perkataan / phica:rana /
yang maksudnya sama dengan perkataan bicara dalam BM. Kedua-dua perkataan ini, iaitu / bicara
/ dan / phica:rana / dipinjam dari bahasa Sanskrit (Chantas, 1980: 13).

2.2.1 Perkataan Pinjaman Bahasa Sanskrit dalam BM dan BTh

Dalam Kamus Khun (1989) terdapat banyak perkataan BTh dan BM yang berasal dari
berbagai-bagai bahasa di India, terutamanya dari bahasa Sanskrit dan Pali. Semua perkataan itu
sebenarnya tidak dapat dianggap sebagai kata pinjaman antara BM dengan BTh. Malah BM
mahupun BTh banyak meminjam perkataan secara langsung dari bahasa Sanskrit, Hindi dan Pali
(Titima, 1992: 698). Proses peminjaman pernah berlaku semasa pengaruh Hindu dan Buddha masih
kuat di wilayah Asia Tenggara (Khalid M. Hussain, 1978: 471) dan gejala peminjaman masih
terjadi hingga ke kini. Bahasa Sanskrit masih dianggap sebagai sumber istilah yang sesuai untuk
mengembangkan BM dan BTh, tambahan pula bahasa ini serta bahasa Pali masih berfungsi sebagai
bahasa suci yang dipelajari dan ditekuni oleh penganut agama Buddha di Thailand (Titima, 1992:
698).

Penerimaan bahasa Sanskrit dalam BM amat bersamaan dengan BTh yang juga menerima pengaruh
dari bahasa tamadun agung tersebut. Walaupun bagi BM jumlah kata pinjaman dari bahasa
Sanskrit jauh lebih kurang berbanding dengan BTh, tetapi kata-kata pinjaman ini merupakan teras
bagi BM (Khalid M. Hussain, 1978: 491). Menurut Nik Safiah Karim et.al (1996: 6), kata-kata
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pinjaman dari bahasa Sanskrit dalam BM meliputi pelbagai bidang seperti nama bahagian tubuh
badan, barang-barang perdagangan, alat perkakas, nama binatang, tumbuh-tumbuhan, senjata,
perkataan-perkataan agama, ilmu pengetahuan dan sebagainya. Disebabkan BM dan BTh menerima
pengaruh dari bahasa Sanskrit, maka secara tidak langsung kedua-dua bahasa memperlihatkan
banyak persamaan. Di samping itu terdapat juga perbezaan di antara BM dan BTh disebabkan
keadaan sosiolinguistik dan proses perkembangan bahasa yang agak berlainan (Hara, 1998: 446).
Oleh yang demikian kata-kata pinjaman dari bahasa Sanskrit yang terdapat di daerah Chana boleh
dilihat berdasarkan makna yang sama (sinonim) dan makna yang berbeza (antonim).

2.2.11 Perkataan Sinonim

Perkataan-perkataan sinonim atau seerti adalah perkataan-perkataan yang yang mempunyai makna
yang sama dengan tidak melibatkan persamaan yang seratus peratus (Abdullah Hassan dan Ainon
Mohammad, 1995: ii-iii). Manakala Ton Ibrahim (1998: 131)pula menyatakan sinonim boleh
mempunyai persamaan makna sepenuhnya atau sebahagian sahaja. Berdasarkan pemerhatian, DMP
juga mempunyai kosa kata yang seerti atau sinonim dengan BTh. Hal ini disebabkan gejala
peminjaman daripada sumber sama. Lihat antara contoh perbandingan kata DMP dan BTh yang
dipinjam dari bahasa Sanskrit berikut:

Contoh :
BTh DMP BMS

1. / khru: / / t g / = guru sekolah agama
/ khr / = guru sekolah kerajaan
2. / ru:p / / p / = rupa
3. / rot / / ld / = roda
4. / sa:mi: / / swm / = suami (bahasa biasa)
/ sawa:mi: / / swm / = suami (bahasa diraja)
5. / ra:kha: / / g / = harga

Dalam BTh, kata-kata tersebut di atas diberi bentuk yang berlainan. Dalam BTh, terdapat
kecenderungan membentuk kata ekasuku (Titima, 1992: 693); misalnya guru menjadi / khru: /, rupa
menjadi / ru:p /, dan sebagainya. Kata-kata dwisuku kata juga diberi sebutan yang berlainan seperti
/ sa:mi: / bagi suami, / ra:kha: / bagi harga.
2.2.12 Perkataan Antonim

Menurut Abdullah Hassan (1978: 164), perkataan antonim ialah dua perkataan atau lebih yang
maknanya seolah-olah berlawanan. Manakala Nathesan (2002: 143) mendefinisikan antonim
sebagai kata yang berlawanan, iaitu makna perkataan itu merupakan kebalikan daripada makna
perkataan yang satu lagi. Seperti juga dalam DMPC, hasil kajian mendapati bahawa perkataan yang
digolongkan dalam kategori ini agak kecil jumlahnya. Ini mungkin disebabkan oleh faktor bahawa
kedua-dua bahasa ini bersumberkan bahasa yang sama, iaitu dari bahasa Sanskrit. Namun tidak
dapat dinafikan bahawa lama kelamaan makna kata pinjaman dalam masyarakat bahasa yang
berlainan akan berubah (Hara, 1998: 448). Contoh perkataan pinjaman bahasa Sanskrit yang
berlainan maknanya di antara BM dan BTh ialah; ajar, curi, isteri, perdana, guna, kerja, laksana,
sabda dan sastera. Walaupun makna bagi perkataan-perkataan ini berlainan di antara BTh dengan
BM, tetapi masih memperlihatkan perhubungan dari segi semantik juga. Perhatikan contoh kata
pinjaman bahasa Sanskrit dalam BTh yang didapati dalam DMPC dan dibandingkan dengan BM:

Contoh :
BTh DMP BMS
1. / aca:n / / aja / = ajar
2. / co:n / / ch / = curi
3. / pratha:n / / pdan / = perdana
4. / khun / / gn / = guna
5. / kiriya: / / kj / = kerja
6. / sap / / sad / = sabda
7. / sa:t / / satr / = sastera

Perkataan ajar, dalam BTh menjadi / a:ca:n / yang bermakna pensyarah, tenaga pengajar di
universiti (Kamus Wichian, 1987: 210). Manakala bagi guru sekolah rendah hingga menengah
digunakan perkataan / khru: / yang berasal dari perkataan guru. Perkataan / a:ca:n / ini digunakan
khusus untuk para pengajar di universiti yang bukan berpangkat profesor. Untuk profesor, perkataan
yang digunakan adalah / sastra:ca:n / sastera + ajar (Kamus Wichian, 1987: 167).

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Perkataan curi mempunyai makanan yang berlainan dalam BM dan BTh. Dalam BM, curi
bermakna melakukan perbuatan curi, iaitu mengambil kepunyaan orang tidak dengan
kebenarannya (Kamus Dewan, 2002: 256). Sebaliknya dalam BTh, bermakna orang yang
melakukan pencurian, perompak, penjahat (Kamus Wichian, 1987: 42). Kedua-dua perkataan, iaitu
ajar dan curi dalam BTh menunjukkan pelaku perbuatan, manakala dalam BM pula menunjukkan
perbuatan.

Perkataan / pratha:n / dalam BTh juga mempunyai sumber yang sama dengan perkataan Melayu
perdana. Perkataan perdana dalam BM berfungsi sebagai kata adjektif (Kamus Dewan, 2002:
1014), manakala / pratha:n / dalam BTh berfungsi sebagai kata nama yang bermakna ketua atau
orang besar dalam sesuatu kumpulan atau pengerusi (Kamus Wichian, 1987: 87). Perkataan /
pratha:n / ini tidak digunakan untuk menunjukkan perdana menteri tetapi digunakan untuk
menunjukkan presiden, iaitu / pratha:na:thibdi / (Kamus Wichian, 1987: 87).

Selain perkataan yang menunjukkan kata nama, terdapat juga beberapa perkataan yang berlainan
maknanya antara BM dengan BTh. Perkataan guna berasal daripada bahasa Sanskrit yang
bermaksud manfaat atau faedah (Kamus Dewan, 2002: 418). Dalam BTh, perkataan ini disebut /
khun / yang mengekalkan makna kebaikan dan pada masa yang sama digunakan sebagai kata
ganti nama diri kedua, iaitu anda atau awak (Kamus Wichian, 1987: 32). Dalam BTh, perkataan
guna disebut sebagai / cha:y /.

Perkataan / kiriya: / yang bersumberkan bahasa Sanskrit sama dengan perkataan Melayu iaitu, kerja
yang juga agak berlainan maknanya. Perkataan ini bermakna gerak geri, kelakuan (Kamus
Wichian, 1987: 15), tetapi pada masa yang sama perkataan ini dieja sebagai / kariya / akan
bermakna kata kerja (Kamus Wichian, 1987: 9). Dalam BM, terdapat pasangan kata kerja dan
karya yang berasal dari bahasa Sanskrit. Menurut James T. Collins (2003: 5) perkataan kerja yang
bermakna kegiatan melakukan sesuatu sudah lama dipinjam dalam BM, bahkan mungkin
dipinjam langsung dari bahasa Sanskrit. Manakala kata karya pula bermakna buatan atau ciptaan
seni, iaitu yang dikatakan sebagai pinjaman dari bahasa Jawa (James T. Collins, 2003: 5).

Perkataan sap yang asal-usulnya sama dengan perkataan Melayu sabda, bermakna bunyi,
percakapan, perkataan dan sebagainya dalam BTh. Kata majmuk / ra:cha:sap / raja + sabda
bermaksud bahasa diraja. Perkataan sabda ini dalam BM digunakan sebagai menunjuk kepada
perkataan atau titah Nabi Muhammad s.a.w. (Kamus Dewan, 2002: 1164). Oleh itu penggunaan
perkataan sabda, menunjukkan ciri-ciri khusus dalam BM (Hara, 1998: 449). Dalam BTh
perkataan ini digunakan untuk membentuk kata majmuk seperti / tho:rasap / telefon, / khamsap /
perkataan dan sebagainya.

3. Kesimpulan

Berdasarkan huraian tentang kata pinjaman BM dalam BTh di daerah Chana, didapati bahawa BTh
dan BM mempunyai pertalian yang amat erat dan memperlihatkan banyak persamaan. Walau
persamaan yang berlaku ini bukan terangkum dalam rumpun bahasa yang sama, tetapi kesan proses
sejarah dan kesan interaksi yang terdapat dalam kedua-dua bahasa dan masyarakatnya telah
memperlihatkan sejumlah perkataan yang mempunyai perkaitan antara satu sama lain. Perkaitan
dan persamaan BTh dengan BM dapat dilihat melalui proses peminjaman, antaranya peminjaman
kekeluargaan dan peminjaman daripada sumber yang sama, sebagai contohnya adalah daripada
bahasa Sanskrit.

Persamaan antara BTh dengan BM ini, walaupun bukanlah dari segi rumpun bahasa, tatabahasa
dan sebagainya, tetapi kesan daripada proses sejarah yang dilalui oleh masyarakat penuturnya
serta kesan-kesan interaksi yang terdapat dalam kedua-dua bahasa, membuktikan terdapat
sejumlah perkataan yang mempunyai perkaitan di antara BM dan BTh, terutamanya di kawasan
penutur DMP. Perhubungan ini mampu menjadi jambatan persefahaman di antara penduduk Thai
dan penduduk Melayu di Kawasan Sempadan Selatan Thai memahami asal usul mereka yang
hanya datang dari induk yang sama dan memahami perbezaan di antara satu sama lain.
Penerimaan identiti yang berbeza dan juga pencarian identiti yang datang dari induk yang sama
akan membawa kepada penyelasaian perselisihan faham dan konflik yang berlaku di Selatan Thai
sekarang.

Bibliografi

Abdullah Hassan, 1974. The Morphology of Malay, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

______________dan Ainon Mohamad, 1994. Kamus Sinonim Antonim Melayu Utusan, Kuala
Lumpur: Utusan Publications and Distributors Sdn. Bhd.

Abdul Rahman Haji Abdullah, 1989. Islam dalam Sejarah Asia Tenggara Tradisional, Kuala
Lumpur: Penerbitan Pena Sdn. Bhd.

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Asmah Haji Omar, 1985. Susur Galur Bahasa Melayu, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka.

______________, 1995. Rekonstruksi Fonologi Bahasa Melayu Induk, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka.

C.A.Mees, 1967. Ilmu Perbandingan Bahasa-bahasa Austronesia, Kuala Lumpur: Art
Printing Works.

Chantas Thongchuay, 1993. Phasa Lae Wattanatham Phak Tai (Bahasa dan Budaya Bahagian
Selatan), Bangkok: Odian Store.

Collins, James T. 1995. Bahasa Melayu Sebagai Bahasa Antarabangsa dalam Manifesto
Budaya: Pupus Bahasa Pupuslah Bangsa, diselenggarakan oleh Asraf, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Ismail Hussein, 1966. Sejarah Pertumbuhan Bahasa Kebangsaan Kita, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Kamus Dewan (Edisi Ketiga), 2002. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Khalid M. Hussain, 1978. Kata Pinjaman Bahasa Sanskrit dalam Bahasa Malaysia dalam
Dewan Bahasa, Julai 1978, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, halaman 469-492.

Nik Safiah Nik Abdul Karim, Farid M. Onn, Hashim Haji Musa, Abdul Hamid Mahmood, 1996.
Tatabahasa Dewan Edisi Baharu, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Pitsamai Intarachat, 1980. Kham Yeam Phasa Melayu Nai Phasa Thong Thin Tai (Kata
Pinjaman Bahasa Melayu dalam Dialek Thai Selatan) dalam Phasa Lae Watthanatham (Bahasa
dan Budaya), Bangkok: Odian Store.

Pleak Khunsilapakamphiset, 1986. Phojjannukrom Kham Phong Thai-Melayu (Kamus
Perkataan Thai dan Melayu yang Seerti dan Sebunyi), Bangkok: Khurusapha.

S. Nathesan, 2002. Makna Dalam Bahasa Melayu, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Shintaro, Hara, 1998. Etimologi dalam Pengajian Melayu: Satu Cadangan Berdasarkan
Perbandingan Bahasa Melayu dengan Bahasa Thai dalam Pengajian Bahasa Melayu
Memasuki Alaf Baru, diselenggarakan oleh Sanat Md. Nasir dan Rogayah A. Razak, Kuala
Lumpur: Akademi Pengajian Melayu, Universiti Malaya.

Titima Suthiwan, 1992. Kata Pinjaman Melayu dalam Bahasa Thai dalam Dewan Bahasa,
Ogos 1992, , Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, halaman 691-700.

Ton Ibrahim, 1998. Bahasa Pernyataan Perasaan: Dimensi Semantik, Kuala Lumpur:
Akademi Pengajian Melayu, Universiti Malaya.

Wichian Tantraseney, 1987. Phojjananukrom Thai-Malay-Angkrit (Kamus Bahasa Thai-
Melayu-Inggeris), Bangkok: Sahamith Offset.


























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ANALISIS STRATEGI KESANTUNAN DALAM KRITIKAN
Oleh:
Nasihah Hashim
Prof. Madya Dr. Indirawati Zahid
Akademi Pengajian Melayu, Universiti Malaya
chahashim@gmail.com
Abstrak
Kritikan sebenarnya sesuatu yang sangat berharga dan tinggi nilainya apabila dilontarkan dengan
tujuan supaya penerima kritik menjadi yang lebih baik. Sesuatu kritikan harus dapat diterima
dengan lapang dada agar kita mampu berusaha untuk memperbaiki kelemahan dan mengukuhkan
kekuatan yang sedia ada. Sebaliknya, jika kita berasa marah dan tidak berpuas hati maka usaha
untuk menjadi lebih baik akan menemui kegagalan dan seterusnya menimbulkan perselisihan faham
dan konflik dengan pengkritik. Justeru, seseorang pengkritik seharusnya menyampaikan kritikan
dengan penuh kebijaksanaan agar dapat difahami dan dihargai oleh penerima kritik sekali gus dapat
mengelakkan berlakunya konflik dalam komunikasi tersebut. Strategi kesantunan harus
dipraktikkan oleh pengkritik bagi mewujudkan situasi bebas konflik ini. Persoalannya, manakah
yang menjadi pilihan pengkritik, sama ada strategi kesantunan positif atau strategi kesantunan
negatif atau mungkin kedua-dua strategi tersebut digabungjalinkan demi menjaga keharmonian
komunikasi yang berlaku? Ini berhubungan dengan ancaman muka yang merupakan sesuatu yang
perlu dielakkan dalam berkomunikasi apatah lagi dalam memberikan kritikan. Oleh yang demikian
kertas kerja ini akan membincangkan strategi kesantunan dalam kritikan program realiti televisyen
berbentuk pertandingan nyanyian, iaitu Mentor. Data kajian merupakan analisis strategi kesantunan
yang dipraktikkan oleh para juri profesional yang ditugaskan untuk mengkritik persembahan para
peserta pertandingan dalam program Mentor musim kelima yang diterbitkan oleh TV3. Analisis
dijalankan dengan mengaplikasikan kerangka model strategi kesantunan Brown dan Levinson
(1987) yang disesuaikan dengan model Sandwich Davies dan Jacobs (1985).
Kata kunci : kesantunan positif, kesantunan negatif, situasi bebas konflik, ancaman muka

1.0 PENGENALAN
Mengkritik merupakan perlakuan membuat analisis, penilaian, huraian atau ulasan hasil daripada
pemerhatian dan pengamatan terhadap sesuatu atau seseorang. Ketika mengkritik seseorang
pengkritik akan memperkatakan tentang kelebihan atau kelemahan, dengan melalui hasil penilaian,
iaitu pengamatan, perbandingan, atau penganalisisannya. Pendapat yang merupakan penyataan atau
kata-kata tentang kelebihan atau kelemahan tersebut dikenali sebagai kritikan. Oleh kerana itu,
tindakan mengkritik akan meninggalkan rasa ketidakselesaan, baik pada pengkritik mahupun
penerima kritikan tersebut. Tindakan mengkritik bukan mudah untuk dilakukan kerana berpotensi
menjatuhkan air muka dan maruah peserta tutur yang akhirnya akan menimbulkan konflik di
kalangan peserta tutur.
Justeru kritikan harus disampaikan dengan cara yang efektif agar tidak mengancam air muka dan
melukai perasaan kepada penerima kritikan. Oleh itu, seseorang yang diberi tanggungjawab untuk
memberi kritikan seharusnya menyampaikan kritikannya dengan menggunakan strategi yang
bersesuaian dan sebaik mungkin supaya tidak menyinggung perasaan lawan tuturnya bagi menjaga
kerukunan dan prinsip hormat-menghormati dalam hubungan kemasyarakatan. Salah satu strategi
yang harus diambil kira oleh setiap pengkritik ialah penggunaan strategi kesantunan bagi
mengelakkan berlakunya salah faham dan konflik. Strategi kesantunan digunakan oleh penutur
untuk lebih menghargai orang lain mahupun diri sendiri dan sekali gus boleh mewujudkan situasi
bebas konflik. Sehubungan itu, kajian ini dijalankan untuk memaparkan strategi kesantunan yang
digunakan oleh pengkritik ketika memberi kritikan.

2.0 SOROTAN LITERATUR

Kajian-kajian terdahulu berkaitan strategi kesantunan dalam perlakuan mengkritik masih belum
mendapat tumpuan yang terperinci dan khusus berbanding strategi lakuan bahasa yang lain seperti
penolakan, permintaan dan teguran. Kajian yang memfokuskan kepada strategi kesantunan
merupakan kajian yang mengaitkan aktiviti pertuturan untuk merumuskan strategi kesantunan yang
digunakan oleh penutur. Antara kajian-kajian strategi kesantunan yang telah dijalankan ialah kajian
lakuan bahasa memerintah bahasa Indonesia dalam kalangan kaum perempuan oleh Manaf (1999),
lakuan bahasa menolak oleh etnik Minangkabau moden oleh Triana(2009) dan kajian strategi
kesantunan golongan politik di Indonesia yang dijalankan oleh Nadar, F.X (2009). Manakala
Marlyna Maros (2011) pula telah melakukan kajian strategi kesantunan antarbudaya lakuan teguran
di kalangan penutur bahasa Melayu dengan penutur asli bahasa Cina yang menetap di Amerika
Utara. Kajian-kajian strategi kesantunan ini berupaya menjelaskan strategi kesantunan yang dipilih
oleh penutur dan menepati standard nilai yang digunakan dalam masyarakat berkenaan. Asas kajian
ini ialah penekanan aspek air muka oleh Brown dan Levinson(1987) ataupun skala pragmatik
Leech(1983).
Sementara itu, antara kajian-kajian terhadap perlakuan mengkritik yang pernah dijalankan, ialah
kajian Li, S. dan Seale, C. (2007), Nadar, F.X (2009) dan Yanti (2010). Kajian Yanti (2010)
merupakan kajian terhampir dengan kajian ini kerana melibatkan rancangan televisyen sebagai
bahan kajian. Yanti telah membuat kajian ke atas rancangan dialog Apa Kabar Indonesia Pagi TV
One (AKIP TV One). Sebanyak empat episod telah dianalisis oleh Yanti. Beliau menggunakan
pendekatan pragmatik dalam menganalisis dan membincangkan hasil kajiannya. Kaedah kajian
beliau ialah kajian kualitatif bagi mendeskripsikan strategi mengkritik dan respons penutur dan
pendengar dalam perbualan. Hasil kajian tersebut mendapati bahawa para penutur di dalam
rancangan tersebut lebih banyak menggunakan bentuk ayat yang tidak lengkap dan berfungsi
asertif. Sementara aspek strategi kesantunan didapati bahawa penutur lebih suka menggunakan
strategi berterus terang untuk mengelakkan perselisihan dalam sesi perbualan tersebut. Walaupun
kajian Yanti (2010) ini mengaplikasikan Teori Tindakan Ancaman Muka (TAM) oleh Brown dan
Levinson (1987) sebagai kerangka analisis, namun kajian ini tidak langsung melihat kepada
substrategi yang diperkenalkan oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987). Analisis data hanya melihat
kepada strategi asas sahaja. Situasi ini wajar memandangkan kajian ini adalah kajian pada peringkat
sarjana. Oleh itu, maka seharusnya kajian yang lebih mendalam terhadap strategi perlakuan
mengkritik dijalankan bagi mendapatkan gambaran yang lebih luas dan terperinci.
Sementara itu, Li, S. dan Seale, C. (2007) dan Nadar, F.X (2009) pula mengkaji penggunaan
strategi mengkritik dalam pertuturan berbahasa Inggeris. Kajian Li, S. dan Seale, C. (2007) telah
membincangkan strategi mengkritik yang digunakan dalam interaksi penyeliaan pelajar peringkat
doktor falsafah. Li, S. dan Seale, C. (2007) telah menggunakan model strategi pertuturan Brown
dan Levinson (1987) untuk menghuraikan strategi mengkritik dan mendapati bahawa model
tersebut dapat menghuraikan strategi mengkritik dalam pertuturan penyeliaan antara pensyarah dan
pelajar PhD. Selain itu, Li, S. dan Seale, C. (2007) juga telah mencadangkan agar penelitian
terhadap strategi mengkritik dalam situasi bahasa yang lain menggunakan model Brown dan
Levinson (1987) sebagai model untuk menganalisis data. Berdasarkan analisisnya Li, S dan Seale,
C. (2007) mendapati bahawa sesuatu perlakuan mengkritik boleh dilakukan dengan mengikut
strategi berikut:
Menggunakan strategi linguistik yang termasuk dalam strategi kesantunan secara umum untuk
menunjukkan perlakuan yang baik seperti memuji dan menghargai.
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Menunjukkan sikap saling hormat-menghormati dan peka terhadap aspek-aspek yang memalukan
atau salah faham (teragak-agak, kesenyapan atau berhenti seketika), atau menggunakan penanda
pengakuan (uhm, ya, betul, ok, pasti) atau menggunakan penanda inklusif.
Mengelakkan atau menghindarkan situasi yang boleh memalukan atau mengancam muka.
Mengekalkan keseimbangan kuasa
Memulakan kritikan membina dengan pujian, galakan dan ungkapan berhati-hati
Menggantikan kritikan dengan pengungkapan nasihat
Manakala kajian Nadar, F.X (2009) pula agak berbeza dengan kajian-kajian lain kerana lebih
menumpukan kepada strategi mengkritik antarbudaya, iaitu perbezaan strategi mengkritik dalam
bahasa Inggeris oleh masyarakat Jawa dengan strategi yang digunakan oleh penutur asal bahasa
Inggeris. Nadar, F.X (2009) hanya mengaplikasikan Teori Lakuan Bahasa dalam kajian ini untuk
mengenal pasti bentuk strategi mengkritik yang digunakan oleh penutur. Hasil kajian mendapati
bahawa masyarakat Jawa mengujarkan kritikannya dengan mempelbagaikan cara ujaran dan
menggabungkan beberapa bentuk lakuan bahasa, seperti yang berikut:
Penyataan keengganan
Penyataan ketidakmampuan
Penyataan harapan
Penyataan alasan
Penyataan kecenderungan
Cadangan
Menawarkan alternatif
Penyataan pengandaian
Memberi arahan
Penyataan keharusan
Penyataan pujian dan penghargaan
Sapaan
Penyataan prinsip
Penyataan falsafah
Memberi peringatan
Mengkritik
Membela diri
Penyataan penundaan
Penyataan suka dan bersetuju
Penyataan terima kasih
Kajian ini menyimpulkan bahawa strategi mengkritik masyarakat Jawa masih dipengaruhi oleh latar
budaya Jawa walaupun bertutur dalam bahasa Inggeris. Pertuturan masyarakat Jawa lebih dianggap
santun kerana mengaplikasikan strategi tidak langsung dengan menyertakan ungkapan maaf dan
nasihat berbanding dengan penutur asal bahasa Inggeris.
Kesimpulannya, perkembangan kajian pertuturan Melayu yang semakin pesat memperlihatkan
pentingnya kajian terhadap amalan pertuturan dalam kalangan masyarakat dijalankan dengan lebih
terperinci. Namun begitu, kajian terhadap lakuan bahasa dan strategi mengkritik oleh juri
pertandingan nyanyian dalam media televisyen di Malaysia masih belum pernah difokuskan oleh
mana-mana kajian terdahulu.
3.0 OBJEKTIF
Analisis yang dilakukan ini mempunyai dua objektif berikut:
Mengenal pasti penggunaan stategi kesantunan dalam penyampaian kritikan.
Menganalisis strategi kesantunan yang dipraktiskan oleh pengkritik rancangan realiti televisyen.

4.0 METODOLOGI KAJIAN
Analisis dilakukan dengan mengaplikasikan beberapa kaedah, iaitu kepustakaan, rakaman dan
pemerhatian. Kaedah kepustakaan diaplikasikan untuk mengkaji kajian-kajian terdahulu yang
berkait rapat dengan kajian ini dan teori-teori yang bersangkutan untuk menentukan lompang kajian
serta tujuan kajian dijalankan. Selain itu, kaedah ini juga diaplikasikan untuk mencari bahan kajian
dan maklumat-maklumat yang berkaitan dengan bahan kajian.
Kaedah rakaman pula diaplikasikan oleh pengkaji untuk mengumpulkan data kajian kerana sumber
data berasal daripada tayangan di televisyen. Kaedah rakaman yang dimaksudkan dalam kajian ini
ialah teknik perolehan data dengan cara merakam peristiwa bahasa yang bersifat sebenar
menggunakan alat bantu rakaman. Dalam kajian ini pengkaji telah merakam keseluruhan episod
rancangan Mentor 5. Seterusnya, sesi memberi kritikan oleh juri dalam setiap episod akan dikenal
pasti untuk ditranskripsikan ke dalam bentuk teks perbualan. Dalam hal ini, kaedah pemerhatian
akan digunakan oleh pengkaji dengan cara menonton, mendengar dan menyemak pertuturan juri
profesional yang berperanan sebagai pengkritik dalam rancangan ini sebelum mentranskripsikan
data tersebut untuk memudahkan proses menganalisis dan memperjelaskan konteks situasi
pertuturan.
Data-data mentah dalam bentuk transkripsi sesi kritikan dianalisis terlebih dahulu untuk mengenal
pasti dan mengklasifikasi ujaran-ujaran kritikan yang diujarkan oleh juri-juri dalam rancangan
Mentor 5. Ujaran kritikan dirujuk sebagai ujaran-ujaran yang dikemukakan oleh juri-juri profesional
hasil daripada penilaiannya melalui tindakan pengamatan, pemerhatian, serta analisis terhadap
prestasi dan mutu persembahan peserta Mentor 5. Kemudian, analisis strategi kesantunan akan
dilakukan oleh pengkaji berpandukan model kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987) dan model
Sandwich (Davies, D. dan Jacobs, A.,1985) yang telah disesuaikan dengan data kajian. Analisis
kuantitatif pula dipraktikkan untuk memberi gambaran secara visual tentang kekerapan ujaran
mengkritik dan strategi kesantunan yang digunakan, dalam bentuk rajah, jadual dan carta untuk
memperjelaskan lagi dapatan kajian. Seterusnya, perbincangan hasil kajian dihuraikan dengan
menggunakan pendekatan pragmatik kerana pragmatik ialah kajian penggunaan bahasa berdasarkan
konteks.

5.0 BAHAN KAJIAN

Analisis strategi kesantunan telah dilakukan ke atas rancangan realiti Mentor 5 terbitan TV3.
Mentor musim kelima telah disiarkan dalam 15 episod bermula pada 13 Februari 2011 sehingga 24
Mei 2011. Walau bagaimanapun daripada 15 episod keseluruhan rancangan ini hanya 12 episod
telah dianalisis. Tiga episod tidak dianalisis kerana tidak mengandungi sesi kritikan oleh juri
profesional, iaitu episod uji bakat (1 dan 2), dan episod 13 kerana durasi masa penyiaran telah
tamat.
Mentor musim kelima ini membariskan 6 orang protg, iaitu Salma, Shiha, Ratnah, Iqa, Aiman
dan Ayish yang dibimbing oleh 6 orang artis ternama sebagai Mentor, iaitu Erra Fazira, Dato
Sharifah Aini, Afdlin Shauki, Edry KRU, Rahim Maarof dan Noh Hujan. Seramai 11 orang juri
profesional, iaitu seorang juri tetap dan 10 orang juri jemputan telah ditugaskan untuk menghakimi
dan memberi kritikan. Secara ringkasnya, bahan kajian yang terlibat dapat dijelaskan dalam Jadual
1 yang berikut:



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JURI SESI
KRITIKAN
UJARAN
Juri tetap 29 96
Juri jemputan 83 130
JUMLAH 112 226
Jadual 1: Bahan Kajian

Jadual 1 di atas menunjukkan terdapat 226 ujaran kritikan juri yang telah dikenal pasti daripada 112
sesi kritikan yang dapat dirakam oleh pengkaji untuk dijadikan bahan kajian. Durasi masa
keseluruhan rakaman sesi kritikan ialah 5 jam 36 minit.

6.0 BATASAN KAJIAN

Kajian ini dijalankan ke atas kritikan secara lisan yang dikemukakan oleh juri profesional sama ada
juri jemputan atau juri tetap dalam rancangan Mentor 5. Kritikan lisan tersebut telah
ditranskripsikan menjadi teks perbualan untuk memudahkan analisis. Justeru, unsur bahasa bukan
verbal tidak diambil oleh pengkaji untuk dianalisis. Oleh kerana bahan kajian ini merupakan teks
perbualan yang menggunakan laras bahasa kolokial, terdapat banyak percampuran bahasa berlaku
dalam perbualan tersebut.
Oleh yang demikian, kajian ini hanya mengambil ujaran kritikan berbahasa Melayu sahaja untuk
dianalisis. Ujaran juri yang menggunakan bahasa Inggeris sepenuhnya tidak diambil oleh pengkaji
untuk dianalisis. Namun begitu, ujaran-ujaran yang hanya mengandungi beberapa perkataan bahasa
Inggeris yang lazim digunakan oleh penutur dalam perbualan seharian seperti I, you, think, hope,
prefer, good, best, most, like dan istilah-istilah berkaitan bidang muzik seperti tone, pitching, feel,
eye contact, baritone, sharp, flat, low, high dan sebagainya tetap diambil oleh pengkaji untuk
dianalisis.

7.0 KERANGKA TEORI
Brown dan Levinson (1987) telah membentuk model kesantunan yang mengemukakan beberapa
strategi pertuturan untuk digunakan bagi mengurangkan tindakan ancaman muka atau dikenali
sebagai Face Threatening Act (FTA). Model kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987) ini dibentuk
berdasarkan konsep muka dan keperluan menjaga air muka. Brown dan Levinson (1987)
menggunakan istilah ancaman muka sebagai kehilangan muka yang dapat disamakan ertinya
dengan berasa malu atau terhina. Konsep muka dalam model Brown dan Levinson (1987) ini amat
sesuai digunakan untuk menganalisis dan menggambarkan aspek kesantunan pelbagai ciri linguistik
dalam sesuatu peristiwa komunikasi. Hal ini kerana dalam sesuatu peristiwa komunikasi, terdapat
ujaran-ujaran tertentu yang mengandung ancaman terhadap muka peserta komunikasi.
Keterancaman muka peserta tutur dapat dikenal pasti melalui perlakuan berbahasa, iaitu apa yang
dituturkan oleh penutur. Tahap ancaman muka sesuatu perlakuan dapat ditentukan berdasarkan tiga
faktor, iaitu i) faktor kuasa antara penutur dan lawan tutur, ii) jarak sosial antara mereka dan iii)
keseriusan perlakuan tersebut mengikut budaya tertentu (Brown dan Levinson, 1987).
Tindakan ancaman muka akan dapat dikurangkan seterusnya dielakkan daripada berlaku apabila
peserta tutur yang terlibat dapat menggunakan strategi-strategi pertuturan yang efektif. Berdasarkan
model ini, terdapat dua aspek air muka yang mempengaruhi tindakan seseorang, iaitu air muka
positif dan air muka negatif. Air muka positif ialah keinginan seseorang untuk diiktiraf atau disukai,
manakala air muka negatif merupakan keinginan untuk tidak diganggu. Justeru, untuk mengurangi
atau menghindari berlakunya ancaman terhadap air muka penutur dan pendengar atau lawan tutur,
Brown dan Levinson (1987) telah menggariskan beberapa strategi kesantunan seperti yang
ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 1.



Rajah 1: Strategi Pertuturan Tindakan Ancaman Muka Brown dan Levinson(1987)

Berdasarkan Rajah 1 Brown dan Levinson (1987) telah mengemukakan strategi berekod (on record)
dan strategi tanpa rekod (off record) untuk mengurangkan tindakan ancaman muka. Strategi
berekod ialah strategi langsung atau tersurat, manakala strategi tanpa rekod ialah strategi tidak
langsung atau tersirat. Sekiranya penutur memilih menggunakan strategi berekod tanpa penyesuaian
(baldly on record), ujaran tersebut dianggap kurang santun kerana ujaran ini dituturkan secara
langsung, terang-terangan, jelas, telus dan tidak kabur. Sementara strategi berekod dengan
penyesuaian dianggap oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987) sebagai strategi pertuturan yang boleh
mengekalkan kesantunan, iaitu strategi berekod dengan kesantunan positif (on record with positive
politeness) dan strategi berekod dengan kesantunan negatif (on record with negative politeness).
Dalam kajian ini pengkaji menamakannya sebagai strategi kesantunan positif dan strategi
kesantunan negatif.
Strategi kesantunan positif melibatkan strategi-strategi yang menunjukkan kepada seseorang
bahawa dia disukai dan diiktiraf. Antara strategi kecil yang diketengahkan oleh Brown dan
Levinson (1987) ialah memberi penghargaan, mengambil perhatian, memberi nasihat, motivasi, dan
bersikap optimis terhadap tahap prestasi peserta, penampilan atau sikap-sikap positif yang lain.
Sementara kesantunan negatif pula ialah strategi menyelamatkan muka negatif pendengar untuk
mempertahankan kebebasan bertindak lawan tutur. Dalam melakukan strategi ini, penutur mengakui
dan menghomati muka negatif lawan tuturnya. Brown dan Levinson (1987) telah mencadangkan
beberapa strategi kecil seperti memulakan kritikan dengan meminta maaf, menggunakan kata-kata
pelunak, memberi salam atau sapaan hormat dan sebagainya. Sementara itu, strategi tanpa rekod
pula merupakan strategi melakukan tindakan ancaman muka secara tidak langsung dengan
membiarkan lawan tutur memutuskan bagaimana menafsirkan tuturan penutur. Walau
bagaimanapun, analisis kajian dalam kertas kerja ini hanya ditumpukan kepada strategi kesantunan
positif dan strategi kesantunan negatif sebagai satu strategi pertuturan yang dapat mengekalkan
kesantunan dalam kritikan.
Hasil daripada pemerhatian didapati bahawa terdapatnya tumpang tindih di antara strategi-strategi
kecil yang dicadangkan oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987). Sehubungan itu, untuk memudahkan
analisis dijalankan, pengkaji telah menyusun semula strategi-strategi kecil yang diperkenalkan oleh
Brown dan Levinson (1987) tersebut mengikut kesesuaian kajian. Dalam kajian ini, strategi-strategi
kecil tersebut dinamakan oleh pengkaji sebagai teknik. Teknik-teknik tersebut diterjemahkan oleh
pengkaji seperti dalam Rajah 2 yang berikut:

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Rajah 2: Strategi Kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987)


Selain daripada model kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987), analisis strategi kesantunan
pengkritik juga telah disesuaikan dengan model Sandwich yang dicadangkan oleh Davies, D. dan
Jacobs, A. (1985). Kedua-dua model tersebut diharapkan dapat saling melengkapi di antara satu
sama lain untuk menghuraikan strategi kesantunan dalam kritikan di rancangan realiti televisyen.
Model Sandwich seperti juga model kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987), telah memberi
panduan kepada penutur untuk bertutur dengan lebih baik agar dapat mengelakkan rasa
ketidakselesaan di kalangan peserta tutur. Model ini diperkenalkan oleh Davies, D. dan Jacobs, A.
(1985) sebagai satu strategi pertuturan yang dapat membantu penutur yang ingin memberi maklum
balas, komen, penilaian atau kritikan terhadap individu lain dengan cara yang lebih berkesan tanpa
mewujudkan sebarang konflik. Perlakuan ini diambil berat oleh Davies, D. dan Jacobs, A. (1985)
kerana ia sesuatu yang sukar dilakukan dan boleh mendatangkan rasa ketidakselesaan di antara
penutur dan pendengar, sekali gus sukar untuk mengekalkan keharmonian hubungan antara mereka.
Tambahan pula, sekiranya terdapat sesuatu penyataan negatif yang perlu disampaikan oleh penutur
tersebut.
Justeru, Davies, D. dan Jacobs, A. (1985) telah mencadangkan agar sesuatu penilaian, kritikan atau
komen harus disampaikan secara berstruktur, iaitu dengan mengapitkan penyataan negatif dengan
penyataan positif. Struktur ini dikenali sebagai struktur Sandwich. Mengikut struktur ini untuk
menyampaikan sesuatu penilaian atau kritikan negatif, secara asasnya penutur seharusnya terlebih
dahulu menyampaikan sesuatu yang positif dan mengakhirinya dengan satu penyataan yang positif
juga.
Penyataan positif dalam struktur Sandwich ini seharusnya bukanlah terhad kepada pujian semata-
mata dan penyataan negatif juga bukanlah hanya merujuk kepada kecaman sahaja, malah positif
juga merujuk kepada apa-apa bentuk penyataan yang menggembirakan dan menyenangkan seperti
penghargaan, persetujuan, penyataan suka, cadangan penambahbaikan, nasihat, kata-kata semangat
dan penyelesaian masalah. Sementara penyataan negatif pula dirujuk sebagai penyataan yang
khusus tentang sesuatu perkara atau tindakan yang perlu dibaiki, penyataan kekurangan dan
kelemahan, ketidaksetujuan dan rasa tidak puas hati penutur terhadap sesuatu atau seseorang yang
dikritik atau dinilai.

8.0 DAPATAN ANALISIS
Berdasarkan analisis, kajian ini mendapati bahawa para pengkritik menggunakan kedua-dua strategi
kesantunan yang diperkenalkan oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987), iaitu strategi kesantunan positif
dan strategi kesantunan negatif ketika menyampaikan kritikan. Di samping itu, analisis juga telah
menunjukkan bahawa para pengkritik telah memilih menggunakan struktur Sandwich dengan
menggabungkan kedua-dua strategi kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987) agar lebih mudah
diterima oleh peserta dengan hati yang terbuka. Hasil kajian telah menunjukkan bahawa daripada
226 ujaran kritikan, hanya 129 ujaran kritikan sahaja yang akan menjadi fokus perbincangan
dapatan analisis dalam kertas kerja ini. Jumlah ini mewakili 78 ujaran yang telah menggunakan
strategi kesantunan positif, iaitu bersamaan 34 peratus, 36 ujaran bersamaan 16 peratus
menggunakan strategi kesantunan negatif dan 15 ujaran, iaitu 7 peratus menggunakan struktur
Sandwich. Manakala 97 ujaran lagi menggunakan strategi berekod tanpa penyesuaian dan strategi
tanpa rekod, iaitu masing-masing sebanyak 38 dan 59. Rajah 3 berikut merupakan carta pai yang
menunjukkan peratusan keseluruhan penggunaan strategi kesantunan dalam kritikan di rancangan
Mentor 5.

Rajah 3: Jumlah peratusan penggunaan strategi kesantunan dalam kritikan
Sementara itu, Jadual 2 pula ialah dapatan analisis yang menunjukkan jumlah kekerapan
penggunaan strategi kesantunan positif, strategi kesantunan negatif dan struktur Sandwich dalam
kritikan di rancangan Mentor 5.
STRATEGI
KESANTU
NAN
TEKNIK JUMLAH
KEKERAP
AN
STRATEGI
KESANTU
NAN
POSITIF
Mengambil berat 17
Optimis 16
Memberi fakta 1
Memberi tawaran 2
Menghargai 25
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Memotivasi 10
Meminta alasan 1
Menunjukkan kesamaan 5
JUMLAH 78
STRATEGI
KESANTU
NAN
NEGATIF
Mengucapkan tanda hormat 2
Menggunakan kata-kata
pelunak
25
Pesimis 2
Menggunakan pertanyaan 6
Memohon maaf 1
JUMLAH 36
STRUKTUR
SANDWIC
H
Positif + negatif +positif 14
Negatif + negatif + positif 1
JUMLAH 15
JUMLAH KESELURUHAN 129

Jadual 2: Taburan penggunaan strategi kesantunan dalam kritikan Mentor 5

Berdasarkan Jadual 2 didapati bahawa strategi yang paling kerap digunakan oleh pengkritik ketika
menyampaikan kritikan, ialah strategi kesantunan positif, diikuti dengan strategi kesantunan negatif
dan struktur sandwich.
8.1 Strategi Kesantunan Positif
Strategi kesantunan positif ialah strategi melakukan tindakan ancaman muka dengan cara
menyelamatkan air muka atau menjaga muka positif lawan tutur. Strategi ini memperlihatkan
penutur menyampaikan kritikannya secara langsung tetapi dengan beberapa penyesuaian seperti
yang dianjurkan oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987) dalam Rajah 1. Analisis kajian telah
menunjukkan bahawa lapan teknik telah digunakan oleh pengkritik yang mempraktikkan strategi
kesantunan positif ketika menyampaikan kritikan, iaitu teknik mengambil berat, optimis, memberi
fakta, memberi tawaran, menghargai, memotivasi, meminta alasan dan menunjukkan kesamaan.
Berdasarkan Jadual 1 teknik yang paling kerap digunakan pula ialah menghargai, iaitu sebanyak 25
ujaran, diikuti dengan sikap mengambil berat sebanyak 17 ujaran dan optimis sebanyak 16 ujaran.
8.1.1 Menyatakan penghargaan
Teknik menyatakan penghargaan sangat digemari oleh pengkritik dalam rancangan Mentor 5 ketika
memberikan kritikan. Hal ini kerana teknik ini dapat menunjukkan kepada protege dan pendengar
lain bahawa pengkritik menyenangi, menyetujui dan menghargai apa yang dilakukan oleh protege
tersebut. Penghargaan tersebut diluahkan oleh pengkritik dengan cara memberi pujian yang diiringi
dengan kata-kata seperti tahniah, syabas, terbaik, dan sebagainya seperti yang terdapat dalam
contoh ujaran di bawah.
M5(4):U16(ZZ) Dari segi penyampaian anda ada cara tersendiri, I love it.
M5(9):U116(NI) Lagu kedua Aiman nampak Aiman enjoy sangat dengan
persembahan ya, syabas!
M5(10):U157(JF) Persembahan malam ini persembahan terbaik Ayish setakat ini.
8.1.2 Mengambil berat
Teknik mengambil berat ini digunakan untuk menggambarkan sikap pengkritik yang memberi
perhatian terhadap minat, keinginan, sikap, perbuatan atau apa-apa yang dimiliki oleh peserta atau
dalam rancangan ini dipanggil protege. Dalam hal ini, kritikan-kritikan yang diujarkan oleh
pengkritik, menggambarkan rasa suka, minat, simpati dan kecewa pengkritik terhadap prestasi
persembahan para peserta. Dengan cara ini rasa keterancaman muka dapat dikurangkan kerana apa
yang diujarkan menggambarkan bahawa pengkritik bukan sahaja mengkritik malah mengambil
berat terhadap persembahan para protege yang terlibat. Berikut ialah contoh teknik mengambil
berat yang digunakan oleh pengkritik:
M5(4):U18(DR) Saya sebenarnya kesian kat awak tau.
M5(4):U29(DR) Last week kan saya dah cakap pasal melodi ni tau, tapi minggu ini
you still you punya melodi bukan tepat tau.
M5(8):U90(DR) Kamu sangat-sangatlah berbeza daripada dua minggu lepas ya,
good.
8.1.3 Bersikap optimis
Sebagai seorang pengkritik yang diamanahkan untuk menilai dan memberi kritikan, seseorang
pengkritik harus optimis dan berkeyakinan terhadap kemampuan protege-protege yang bertanding.
Secara tidak langsung, dengan cara sebegini pengkritik dapat mengurangkan rasa keterancaman
muka seterusnya mengelakkan terjadinya konflik kerana penutur dapat memenuhi muka positif
lawan tutur. Misalnya dalam contoh berikut, ungkapan boleh menyanyi, boleh berlakon dan ada
bakat semula jadi menunjukkan bahawa pengkritik cenderung untuk mempercayai keupayaan dan
keistimewaan protege.
M5(10):U149(JF) Ratnah bukan sahaja boleh menyanyi tapi saya rasa Ratnah boleh
berlakon juga.
M5(11):U166(DR) Saya dapat rasa kamu ada bakat semula jadi daripada Tuhan which
is boleh besarkan lagi.
8.1.4 Memberi motivasi
Hasil analisis juga telah menunjukkan bahawa teknik memberi motivasi telah digunakan oleh
pengkritik ketika menyampaikan kritikan sebagai salah satu cara untuk mengurangkan rasa
keterancaman muka. Teknik ini dipilih oleh pengkritik kerana pengkritik ingin memberikan
kepuasan terhadap muka positif protege. Terdapat 10 ujaran kritikan yang telah dikenal pasti
menggunakan teknik ini antaranya, ialah seperti berikut:
M5(8):U91(DR) Saya harap kamu boleh kejar kedudukan kamu lebih lagi.
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M5(14):U228(AZ) Menang atau kalah lain cerita tapi perjuangan harus diteruskan.
8.1.5 Menunjukkan kesamaan
Teknik menunjukkan kesamaan dizahirkan oleh para pengkritik melalui penggunaan kata
panggilan yang menunjukkan keakraban seperti kak dan sayang dalam contoh ujaran di bawah.
Strategi ini digunakan untuk menunjukkan seolah-olah pengkritik dan protege berada dalam
kelompok yang sama dan sekali gus dapat mengecilkan jurang di antara mereka. Apabila jurang di
antara mereka dapat dikecilkan maka kritikan dapat diterima oleh protege dengan hati yang terbuka.
Ini bermakna rasa keterancaman muka dapat dikurangkan seterusnya dapat mewujudkan situasi
bebas konflik dalam komunikasi tersebut.
M5(4):U14(ZZ) Kak Ziana nak komen pasal dressing. Its good, kena dengan lagu
you.
M5(7):U88(MI) Saya suka pakaian, kostum tapi kalau boleh selaraskan dengan
vokal sayang.
8.1.6 Memberikan fakta
Analisis kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa pengkritik menggunakan teknik memberi fakta ketika
melontarkan kritikan. Ujaran-ujaran kritikan yang diiringi dengan fakta atau prinsip pengkritik
dapat memperkukuh hujah pengkritik yang sekali gus dapat mengurangkan rasa keterancaman
muka pada lawan tutur. Oleh yang demikian, maka protege dapat mempercayai dan menerima
kritikan dengan hati yang terbuka. Contoh ujaran M5(10):U137(DR) di bawah menunjukkan
bahawa pengkritik memberikan fakta tentang tatacara menyanyi dengan betul. Sementara contoh
M5(7): U89(MI) pula menunjukkan pengkritik berusaha menyampaikan kritikan dengan lebih
santun melalui pernyataan prinsipnya.
M5(10):U137(DR) Menyanyi tak boleh sumbang ya memang diharamkan.
M5(7): U89(MI) Saya suka ya muzik apa sahaja saya appreciate apa juga yang nak
disampaikan cuma perlu selaraskan dengan kemampuan vokal ya.
8.1.7 Memberi tawaran
Salah satu usaha pengkritik untuk mengekalkan kesantunan dalam kritikannya, ialah dengan
menggunakan teknik memberi tawaran. Tawaran yang dimaksudkan dalam kajian ini ialah cabaran
misalnya dalam contoh M5(11):U167(DR) di bawah.
M5(11):U167(DR) Next week kalau kamu masuk semifinal saya nak dengar kamu
punya intelektual dalam singing which is direction yang kamu nak
pergi.
8.1.8 Meminta alasan
Teknik meminta alasan pula digunakan oleh pengkritik untuk mendapatkan sebab-musabab sesuatu
itu berlaku. Kritikan yang diujarkan oleh pengkritik disertai dengan permintaan alasan agar
kelihatan lebih santun. Ujaran berikut merupakan contoh penggunaan teknik meminta alasan oleh
pengkritik:
M5(8):U94(CF) Saya tak tau kenapa awak dekat 78 markah je. Saya tak tau kenapa
sebab saya tengok awak punya persembahan pertama tadi nampak
outstanding.

8.2 Strategi Kesantunan Negatif
Brown dan Levinson (1987) menjelaskan bahawa strategi kesantunan negatif ialah strategi
menyelamatkan muka negatif lawan tutur untuk mempertahankan kebebasan bertindak lawan tutur.
Dalam strategi ini, penutur mengakui dan menghormati muka negatif lawan tuturnya. Merujuk
kepada kajian ini, didapati bahawa strategi kesantunan negatif ini memperlihatkan bagaimana
penutur, iaitu pengkritik menyampaikan kritikannya secara langsung tetapi dengan beberapa
penyesuaian. Situasi ini berlaku kerana pengkritik mahu melindungi air muka positif dirinya yang
telah diberi tanggungjawab untuk menggalas peranan sebagai juri dan pengkritik pilihan pihak
penerbit rancangan untuk memberi penilaian dan penjurian. Pengkritik menganggap bahawa
sesetengah kritikan itu perlu disampaikan secara lebih telus, untuk membantu peserta membuat
persembahan yang lebih berkualiti pada masa akan datang.
Sehubungan itu, pengkritik harus menyampaikannya dengan cara yang lebih berkesan dan masih
mahu melindungi air muka lawan tutur dengan berbasa-basi menggunakan kata-kata pelunak,
menunjukkan rasa hormat, mengutarakan pertanyaan, bersikap pesimis dan memohon maaf terlebih
dahulu sebelum menyatakan kritikannya. Analisis kajian telah membuktikan bahawa lima teknik
kesantunan negatif telah dipraktikkan oleh para pengkritik ketika memberi kritikan dalam
rancangan Mentor 5.

8.2.1 Menggunakan kata-kata pelunak

Teknik yang paling kerap digunakan ialah strategi menggunakan kata-kata pelunak. Menurut
Marlyna Maros (2011) kata-kata pelunak merupakan strategi kesantunan negatif yang dapat
melembutkan niat pengucapan tindakan ancaman muka. Penggunaan kata-kata pelunak diperoleh
dari kehendak untuk tidak mengandaikan dan tidak memaksa pendengar, contohnya seperti
memulakan kritikan dengan ungkapan saya rasa, saya fikir, menurut saya, mungkin dan
sebagainya. Kata-kata pelunak tersebut mampu memberikan kesan lembut atau bertindak sebagai
pelapik dalam sesuatu penyampaian ujaran yang mengancam air muka lawan tutur seperti ujaran
kritikan. Contoh-contoh ujaran di bawah menunjukkan penggunaan kata-kata pelunak, iaitu
ungkapan menurut saya , dan bagi saya dalam ujaran kritikan yang digunakan oleh para
pengkritik dalam Mentor 5.

M5(6):U69(RO) Lagu yang kedua menurut saya kamu membawakan lagu dengan
sangat indah.
M5(10):U141(JF) Bagi saya minit pertama tadi memang memukaulah.
8.2.2 Menggunakan pertanyaan
Teknik pertanyaan digunakan oleh pengkritik untuk mengurangkan rasa keterancaman muka para
peserta dan pendengar yang mendengar kritikan tersebut. Pertanyaan tersebut adakalanya berbentuk
penyataan retorik, iaitu pertanyaan yang tidak perlu dijawab oleh si lawan tutur.Contoh di bawah
menunjukkan kritikan disampaikan oleh penutur dengan strategi bertanya. Pertanyaan tersebut
sebenarnya merupakan kritikan penutur terhadap rupa paras rambut lawan tutur yang dianggap
kurang menarik dan perlu dipotong. Penutur tidak secara langsung memberitahu lawan tutur
bahawa rambutnya tidak elok dan perlu dipotong sebaliknya menggunakan pertanyaan untuk
menunjukkan rasa hormat kepada lawan tutur sekaligus mengurangkan rasa keterancaman muka.

M5(6):U61(RO) Abang Noh bolehkah dia dibawa potong rambut sedikit dong?
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8.2.3 Menyatakan rasa hormat
Di samping penggunaan kata-kata pelunak sebagai strategi kesantunan, pengkritik juga
menggunakan kata-kata yang menunjukkan rasa hormat, seperti ucapan salam, selamat dan sapaan.
Contoh-contoh di bawah menunjukkan ujaran kritikan pengkritik yang didahului dengan ucapan
salam, selamat dan sapaan. Ucapan salam dan sapaan ini memberikan gambaran bahawa penutur
dan lawan tutur saling mengenali dan secara tidak langsung dapat mewujudkan situasi yang lebih
santai seterusnya tidak terlalu memaksa lawan tutur untuk terus mendengar kritikan yang
dilontarkan.
M5(11):U172(MM) Assalamualaikum Abang Rahim. Sama-sama kacak atas stage ya.
M5(4):U5(DR) Hai Shiha, kamu ada banyak masalah dari segi feel kamu ya.

8.2.4 Memohon maaf
Teknik memohon maaf diungkapkan oleh pengkritik dalam kritikan sebagai tanda menghormati
lawan tuturnya iaitu protege yang terlibat. Dalam contoh di bawah, kata maaf digunakan oleh
pengkritik bagi mengelakkan timbulnya rasa marah dan perselisihan faham pada pihak lawan tutur
apabila mendengar kritikan yang dilontarkannya. Secara tidak langsung strategi ini dapat
mewujudkan situasi bebas konflik dalam situasi tersebut.
M5(14):U224(ZZ) Second song tu saya nampak macam Faizal Tahir over shadow
sikit, maaf jangan marah ye.
8.2.5 Bersikap pesimis
Sikap pesimis merupakan lawan kepada optimis. Ini bermakna pengkritik cenderung melihat
sesuatu itu dari sudut keburukannya seperti dalam contoh berikut:
M5(11):U175(MM) Rasa masih kekok sikit la awak atas stage, awak cuba nak perform
tapi awak masih kekok, itu menampakkan kelemahan lagi.
8.3 Struktur Sandwich
Struktur Sandwich digunakan oleh pengkritik ketika menyampaikan kritikan negatif. Seperti yang
diperjelaskan oleh Dohrenwend, A. (2002) bahawa sesuatu penyataan negatif sukar untuk
disampaikan tetapi dengan menggunakan struktur Sandwich menjadikannya lebih mudah dan
efektif. Di samping itu, strategi ini dapat membantu penutur menyampaikan kritikannya dengan
lebih selesa dan tidak mengancam air muka orang yang dikritik.
Dlugan, A. (2008) berpendapat bahawa penyataan positif dalam strategi ini seharusnya bukanlah
terhad kepada pujian semata-mata dan penyataan negatif juga bukanlah hanya merujuk kepada
kecaman sahaja, malah positif juga merujuk kepada apa-apa bentuk penyataan yang
menggembirakan dan menyenangkan seperti penghargaan, persetujuan, penyataan suka, cadangan,
nasihat, kata-kata semangat dan penyelesaian masalah. Sementara penyataan negatif pula dirujuk
sebagai penyataan yang khusus tentang sesuatu perkara atau tindakan yang perlu dibaiki, penyataan
kekurangan dan kelemahan, ketidaksetujuan dan rasa tidak puas hati penutur terhadap sesuatu atau
seseorang yang dikritik atau dinilai. Hasil analisis mendapati bahawa 2 bentuk pola struktur
Sandwich yang telah digunakan oleh pengkritik. Pola- pola tersebut, ialah seperti berikut:
Positif + negatif + positif
Negatif + negatif + positif

8.3.1 Pola positif + negatif + positif
Pola positif+negatif+positif ialah pola yang mengapitkan penyataan negatif dengan penyataan
positif agar kelihatan lebih halus dan santun. Pola ini sangat digemari oleh pengkritik, buktinya
terdapat 14 ujaran menggunakan pola tersebut dalam kajian ini. Antaranya, ialah ujaran berikut:
M5(11):
U168(MM)
Ok apa yang Iqa buat malam ni dah fokus nampak apa yang nak
dibuat semua menjadi,cuma bila terlalu fokus anda terlupa dekat
orang depan yang dekat bawah ni, jangan ya.
Penggunaan struktur Sandwich dalam contoh M5(11): U168(MM) ditafsir seperti berikut:
Penyataan positif: Iqa buat malam ni dah fokus nampak apa yang nak dibuat semua
menjadi
Penyataan negatif: bila terlalu fokus anda terlupa dekat orang depan yang dekat bawah
ini
Penyataan positif: jangan ya
Berdasarkan analisis, dalam contoh di atas pengkritik telah membuat kecaman terhadap protege
yang terlibat. Namun begitu, untuk mengurangkan rasa ketidakselesaan pada protege dan pengkritik
maka pengkritik telah mendahului kritikannya dengan penyataan pujian dan mengakhirinya dengan
peringatan. Strategi ini secara tidak langsung dapat mengurangkan rasa keterancaman muka kerana
pengkritik berusaha untuk menghormati muka positif lawan tutur dengan mengungkapkan
penyataan positif di awal dan di akhir kritikan.
8.3.2 Pola negatif + negatif + positif
Berbeza dengan pola di atas pola negatif + negatif + positif ini agak kurang santun kerana
penyataan negatif mendahului penyataan positif. Tambahan pula dalam pola ini terdapat dua
penyataan negatif. Hasil analisis mendapati bahawa hanya satu ujaran struktur Sandwich yang
menggunakan pola ini, iaitu seperti di bawah:
M5(4): U12(DR) Kamu semua meremehkan melodi, melodi tak betul tak cukup tinggi
banyak flat so perlu tumpu bagi betul tumpu yang dekat melodi tu.
Penggunaan struktur Sandwich dalam contoh di atas boleh ditafsir seperti berikut:
Penyataan negatif: Kamu semua meremehkan melodi
Penyataan negatif: melodi tak betul tak cukup tinggi banyak flat
Penyataan positif: perlu tumpu bagi betul tumpu yang dekat melodi tu

9.0 KESIMPULAN
Berdasarkan analisis yang dijalankan dapatlah disimpulkan bahawa dalam rancangan realiti
televisyen Mentor 5 ,pengkritik sentiasa berusaha menyampaikan kritikan dengan sempurna dan
berkesan di samping mengekalkan kesantunan agar dapat diterima oleh penerima kritikan dan
pendengar. Pengkritik bukan hanya menjalankan amanahnya sebagai seorang juri dan pengkritik
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malah masih mempunyai sikap ambil peduli terhadap keharmonian dalam komunikasi. Jurang yang
wujud di antara pengkritik dan protege telah cuba dikecilkan oleh pengkritik dengan
mengaplikasikan strategi kesantunan dalam menyampaikan kritikannya. Walaupun kritikan
diujarkan secara langsung atau terang-terangan oleh pengkritik, namun penyesuaian telah dilakukan
oleh pengkritik seperti yang telah dicadangkan oleh Brown dan Levinson (1987) dalam model
kesantunannya. Analisis telah menunjukkan bahawa pengkritik paling kerap menggunakan strategi
kesantunan positif, iaitu sebanyak 78 ujaran berbanding dengan strategi kesantunan negatif, iaitu 36
ujaran. Sementara 15 ujaran telah dikenal pasti mengaplikasikan struktur Sandwich sebagai salah
satu strategi untuk menyampaikan kritikan negatif. Terdapat dua bentuk pola struktur Sandwich
yang digunakan oleh pengkritik untuk menyampaikan kritikan dalam rancangan Mentor 5, iaitu i)
pola positif + negatif + positif dan ii) pola negatif + negatif + positif. Hasil kajian juga
menunjukkan bahawa struktur Sandwich yang dipraktikkan oleh pengkritik dalam rancangan
Mentor 5 ini sebenarnya merupakan hasil gabungan teknik-teknik kesantunan yang dicadangkan
oleh Brown dan Levinson(1987) dalam model kesantunannya.

BIBLIOGRAFI
Asmah Hj. Omar. (2007). Kesantunan bahasa dalam pengurusan pentadbiran dan media. Kuala
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Brown, P. & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness some universals in language usage. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Levinson, S. C. (1985). Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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in Hinger Education, 32 (4). Hlm. 511-526.

Manaf. (1999). Strategi kesantunan berbahasa Indonesia kaum wanita penutur bahasa Indonesia
yang berlatar belakang bahasa Minangkabau dalam tindak tutur memerintah. Humanus, 11 (1).

Marlyna Maros. (2011). Strategi kesantunan Melayu dalam membuat teguran. Jurnal Elektronik
Jabatan Bahasa & Kebudayaan Melayu. (3).hlm. 7-20.
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Nor Fariza Mohd. Nor & Jamaluddin Aziz. (2010). Discourse Analysis of Decision Making
Episodes in Meetings: Politeness theory and Critical Discourse Analysis. 3L The Southeast Asian
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etnik Minangkabau moden. Tesis PhD Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Yanti Haryati.(2010). Strategi narasumber dalam mengkritik dan merespons tuturan dalam acara
Apa Kabar Indonesia Pagi TV One. Tesis Sarjana Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia.
Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Mengajar Prinsip Kesantunan Linguistik Dalam Budaya Melayu Kepada Pelajar Asing.

Zaitul Azma Binti Zainon Hamzah, PhD
Ahmad Fuad Mat Hassan.
Jabatan Bahasa Melayu
Fakulti Bahasa Moden dan Komunikasi
Universiti Putra Malaysia
43400 Upm Serdang
zaitulazma@yahoo.com

Abstrak
Prinsip Kesantunan dibangunkan oleh masyarakat untuk mengurangkan pergeseran dan
mengelakkan konflik dalam interaksi. Konsep 'wajah' Brown dan Levinson (1987,1978) telah
ditemui tidak adil, dan didapati berbeza dengan konsep 'wajah' dalam prinsip kesantunan budaya
Melayu, (Asmah Haji Omar, 2007). Dalam budaya Melayu, 'wajah' mempunyai makna yang lebih
mendalam daripada 'wajah' dalam budaya barat. Perbezaan ini telah menunjukkan wujudnya
kekangan dan perbezaan konsep dan amalan kesantunan antara budaya barat dengan budaya
Melayu yang seterusnya turut menimbulkan persoalan hierarki dan kuasa. Melalui konsep
kesantunan dalam budaya Melayu, penutur disyorkan mempratikkan kesantunan untuk
menyerlahkan nilai kebaikan, ihsan, tingkah laku yang baik, pemikiran yang baik serta perbualan
yang baik bagi mengelakkan konflik dan pergeseran. Dengan itu, tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk
mengenal pasti perbezaan konsep 'wajah' Brown dan Levinson dengan konsep 'wajah' dalam
budaya Melayu yang menimbulkan pergeseran kepada pelajar asing, kedua, menjelaskan prinsip
kesantunan dalam bahasa dan budaya Melayu sebagai satu pendekatan dalam pengajaran bahasa
Melayu sebagai bahasa asing dan kedua. Data dikumpul daripada data teks, soal selidik, rakaman
dan temu bual. Seramai 100 orang responden telah dipilih untuk mewakili institusi dan masyarakat.
Hasil kajian ini dapat menentukan prinsip kesantunan dan ketidaksantunan dalam budaya Melayu
dalam usaha meningkatkan kecekapan berbahasa dalam kalangan pelajar di samping memantapkan
pendekatan pengajaran bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa asing.

Kata kunci: Kesantunan, budaya Melayu, bahasa Melayu, konsep muka.
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Pengenalan.

Prinsip Kesantunan dibangunkan oleh masyarakat untuk mengurangkan pergeseran dan
mengelakkan konflik dalam interaksi. Konsep 'wajah' Brown dan Levinson (1987,1978) telah
ditemui tidak adil, dan didapati berbeza dengan konsep 'wajah' dalam prinsip kesantunan budaya
Melayu, (Asmah Haji Omar, 2007). Dalam budaya Melayu, 'wajah' mempunyai makna yang lebih
mendalam daripada 'wajah' dalam budaya barat. Perbezaan ini telah menunjukkan wujudnya
kekangan dan perbezaan konsep dan amalan kesantunan antara budaya barat dengan budaya
Melayu yang seterusnya turut menimbulkan persoalan hierarki dan kuasa. Melalui konsep
kesantunan dalam budaya Melayu, penutur disyorkan mempratikkan kesantunan untuk
menyerlahkan nilai kebaikan, ihsan, tingkah laku yang baik, pemikiran yang baik serta perbualan
yang baik bagi mengelakkan konflik dan pergeseran.
Perbezaan unsur-unsur budaya dan bahasa terbukti turut mempengaruhi amalan kesantunan
seseorang. Unsur-unsur budaya bersifat ekstrinsik, manakala unsur-unsur bersifat intrinsik. Justeru
di samping unsur-unsur gramatikal, cara merealisasikan pertuturan yang tampak santun menjadi
sesuatu yang inheren dengan gagasan bahasa sebagai alat berkomunikasi.

Sementara itu, dalam Beebe, Takahashi, dan Ullis-Weltz (1990) didapati terdapat perbezaan antara
orang Jepun dengan orang Amerika dalam mempraktikan kesantunan berbahasa ketika memohon
maaf. Kajian Beebe, Takahashi, dan Ullis-Weltz (1990) mendapati orang Jepun sering kali tidak
menggunakan ungkapan maaf ketika mereka menolak sebuah undangan daripada seseorang
pendengar. Selain itu, orang Jepun lebih memperlihatkan status seseorang daripada
memperlihatkan unsur keakraban ketika membuat penolakan. Hal ini berbeza dengan orang
Amerika yang lebih menggunakan ungkapan maaf dan menitikberatkan unsur keakraban.

Demikian juga dalam kajian Ito (1989). Kajian Ito menunjukkan adanya perbezaan dalam
pertuturan menolak yang dilakukan oleh orang-orang Jepun apabila dibandingkan dengan orang
Amerika. Justeru, Dengan berlandaskan prinsip kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987), Ito
mendapati orang Jepun lebih suka menggunakan kesantunan negatif dengan strategi yang samar-
samar menunjukkan penolakan, sementara orang Amerika lebih suka mengatakan tidak dengan
kesantunan positif. Cara-cara yang sama yang dilakukan oleh orang-orang Jepun ini juga
ditemukan oleh kajian para sarjana lain seperti Tickle, Izuno, dan Epson (1991), Kinjo (1987),
Ikoma dan Shimura (1994).

Strategi samar-samar ketika membuat penolakan juga ditunjukkan oleh orang Thailand
(Deephuengton, 1992). Menurut Deephuengton, orang Thailand cenderung menggunakan cara
yang sangat konvensional dalam menolak, iaitu kesantunan negatif, kesantunan positif, dan strategi
samar-samar. Kesantunan positif ditunjukkan dengan cara menunda atau menghindari jawapan
langsung dan melembutkan ungkapan. Sementara itu, kesantunan negatif diwujudkan dalam
ungkapan yang tidak menunjukkan komitmen, mengemukakan pertanyaan dan sebagainya.
Menurut Deephuengton, kenyataan tersebut menunjukkan bahawa orang Thailand merupakan
pemakai bahasa yang tidak mahu menimbulkan sebarang pergeseran ketika membuat penolakan,
sebaliknya ingin menjaga keharmonian dan menghindari konflik personal.
Strategi samar-samar ketika membuat penolakan juga dilakukan oleh orang Sunda, (Aziz 1996,
2001). Dengan yang demikian, orang Sunda lebih memilih kesantunan negatif daripada kesantunan
positif ketika berhadapan dengan suatu situasi yang akan memaksa mereka membuat penolakan.
Selain itu, masyarakat Sunda adalah sama seperti masyarakat Thailand yang sangat
mempertimbangkan keharmonian masyarakat dan hubungan interpersonal, justeru mereka cuba
mengelak daripada membuat penolakan secara langsung dalam setiap pertuturan menolak yang
mereka buat.

Sama seperti masyarakat Thailand dan Sunda, masyarakat Melayu juga disyorkan mempratikkan
kesantunan berbahasa untuk menyerlahkan nilai tingkah laku yang baik, pemikiran yang baik serta
cuba menghindari konflik dan pergeseran dalam pertuturan terutama apabila terdapat perbezaan
penggunaan strategi kesantunan antara masyarakat timur dengan masyarakat barat. Oleh itu satu
pendedahan tentang prinsip kesantunan linguistik perlu diajarkan kepada pelajar asing supaya
mereka dapat berkomunikasi dengan santun ketika berinteraksi dengan masyarakat tempatan demi
berlangsungnya komunikasi yang wajar di antara mereka.

Objektif

Tujuan kertas kerja ini adalah untuk mengenal pasti perbezaan konsep 'wajah' Brown dan Levinson
dengan konsep 'wajah' dalam budaya Melayu yang menimbulkan pergeseran kepada pelajar asing,
kedua, menjelaskan prinsip kesantunan dalam bahasa dan budaya Melayu sebagai satu
pendekatan dalam pengajaran bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa asing dan kedua.

Metodologi

Data dikumpul daripada soal selidik, rakaman dan temu bual. Seramai 100 orang responden telah
dipilih untuk mewakili institusi dan masyarakat. Teori kesantunan Brown dan Levinson (1987)
dijadikan teori yang mendasari kajian ini.

Dapatan Kajian dan Perbincangan

Hasil kajian ini dapat menentukan prinsip kesantunan dan ketidaksantunan dalam budaya Melayu
dalam usaha meningkatkan kecekapan berbahasa dalam kalangan pelajar di samping memantapkan
pendekatan pengajaran bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa asing.


Skala 4 Sangat perlu Lebih 80 %
3 Perlu 60 % - 79 %
2 Kurang perlu 40 % - 59 %
1 Tidak pasti Kurang daripada 39%

Pendedahan aspek kesantunan kepada pelajar/
pekerja asing

N=102 Min SP
Peratusan %
Tidak
Pasti
Kurang
Perlu
Perlu Sangat
perlu
1 Menyapa, majikan, rakan sejawat , dan pelanggan 0 0 47.1 52.9 3.53 0.514
2 Membuat permohonan/permintaan 5.9 5.9 47.1 41.2 3.24 0.831
3 Memberi peringatan / amaran 0 29.4 11.8 58.8 3.29 0.920
4 Meminta kebenaran untuk bercakap/ menyatakan 5.9 5.9 35.3 52.9 3.35 0.862
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360

pendapat dalam mesyuarat
5 Memberi komen atau tidak setuju terhadap
pendapat/idea/seseorang/rakan sejawat/pelanggan
0 11.8 41.2 47.1 3.35 0.702
6 Memberi arahan 5.9 17.6 23.5 52.9 3.24 0.970
7 Membuat desakan 11.8 23.5 35.3 29.4 2.82 1.015
8 Menolak permintaan seseorang 11.8 17.6 41.2 29.4 2.88 0.993
9 Memberi alasan tidak hadir mesyuarat 23.5 11.8 29.4 35.3 2.76 1.200
10 Mengaku kesilapan/kesalahan yang telah
dilakukan
0 11.8 41.2 47.1 3.24 0.970
11 Membuat pesanan/tempahan 5.9 23.5 41.2 29.4 2.94 0.899
12 Permohonan maaf 0 5.9 29.4 64.7 3.59 0.618
13 Melahirkan rasa tidak puas hati/komplain 5.9 5.9 58.8 29.4 3.12 0.781

Hasil kajian mendapati 64.7% responden menyatakan cara menyatakan permohonan maaf sangat
perlu didedahkan kepada pelajar asing, iaitu dalam skala lebih 80%. Aspek kesantunan seterus yang
sangat perlu (skala lebih 80%) didedahkan kepada pelajar asing ialah cara memberi peringatan /
amaran ( 58.8), menyapa, majikan, rakan sejawat , dan pelanggan (52.9%), meminta kebenaran
untuk bercakap/ menyatakan pendapat dalam mesyuarat (52.9%), dan memberi arahan yang
masing-masing (52.9%). Selain itu cara memberi komen atau tidak setuju terhadap
pendapat/idea/seseorang/ rakan sejawat/pelanggan (47.1%) dan mengaku kesilapan/kesalahan yang
telah dilakukan juga didapati sangat perlu didedahkan (47.1%).

Aspek kesantunan yang perlu didedahkan dengan skala 60%-79% ialah membuat
permohonan/permintaan (47.1%), membuat desakan (35.3 %), Membuat pesanan/tempahan
(41.2%) dan melahirkan rasa tidak puas hati/complain (58.8%).

Rumusan daripada dapatan soal selidik ini menemukan permohonan maaf menjadi aspek
kesantunan yang sangat perlu didedahkan kepada pelajar asing. Hal ini memperlihatkan ada
hubungan dengan pergeseran atau konflik dalam pertuturan antara pelajar tempatan dengan pelajar
asing. Hal ini turut dibukti melalui temu bual dengan responden. Sebanyak 83% responden yang
mengaku sering berlaku pergeseran dan konflik dalam pertuturan ini antara pelajar asing dengan
pelajar tempatan apabila pelajar asing tidak tahu menghormati budaya setempat seperti yang
terungkap dalam pepatah Masuk kandang kambing, kambing mengembek, masuk kandang kerbau,
kerbau menguak. Pergeseran dan konflik ini sering berlaku apabila pelajar asing tidak tidak pandai
untuk memohon maaf ketika mereka melakukan kesilapan, ketika mereka datang lewat ke kelas
dan ketika mereka menolak permintaan pelajar lain.

Perbincangan

Daripada kajian ini beberapa dapatan dapat ditemukan dalam membentuk prinsip kesantunan yang
perlu didedahkan kepada pelajar asing. Dengan berorientasi pada konsep 'muka', Brown dan
Levinson, prinsip kesantunan linguistik yang ingin dibentuk perlu mengambil kira diri pendengar
dikaitkan dengan faktor-faktor seperti status sosial, usia, kedekatan, tempat atau lokasi dan situasi.
Sungguhpun konsep 'muka', Brown dan Levinson dibahagi kepada dua kategori, iaitu: kesantunan
positif (KP) dan kesantunan negatif (KN) namun kedua-dua kategori ini digabungkan supaya
prinsip yang dibentuk dapat memperlihatkan solidariti ( solidarity), dan menunjukkan perhormatan
(showing respect).

Prinsip Kesantunan itu melibatkan penggunaan bahasa yang berikut;

Prinsip hormat dan akrab

1)menggunakan kata gelaran dan panggilan bersama nama depan (first name) untuk menyapa
seseorang bagi memperlihat darjat sosialnya (hierarchical relation) Contoh Prof. Tuan, Puan.
'Dr' dan sebagainya.

2. Menggunakan pakai kata ganti nama diri yang sesuai dan santun seperti 'saya', anda 'dia',
beliau dan mereka'.

Prinsip menjaga perasaan

Penutur dapat pertimbangkan perasaan pendengar sebagaimana kita mengharapkan orang lain
pertimbangkan perasaan kita sendiri. Justeru penutur diharap menggunakan Bahasa yang dapat

1) memberi pujian mengikut konteks dan situasi yang sesuai,

2). menggunakan bahasa yang dapat menunjukkan nilai keakraban dan hormat.

Prinsip bekerjasama dan toleransi.

1. Menggunakan bahasa yang memperlihatkan hubungan tidak langsung iaitu dari segi struktur dan
fungsi komunikatif.

2) sentiasa memberi pilihan kepada pendengar untuk berkata sesuatu tanpa menyinggung perasaan
seseorang.

3) mengguna bahasa yang memperlihatkan unsur kerendahan hati, tolak ansur dan permohonan
maaf (apologetic language),

4) menggunakan nada dan tekanan suara yang rendah supaya dapat mengurangi risiko salah faham
dan konflik dalam penyampaian ujaran.

Dengan adanya pendedahan terhadap prinsip kesantunan dan ketidaksantunan dalam budaya
Melayu ini usaha untuk meningkatkan kecekapan berbahasa Melayu dalam kalangan pelajar dapat
dicapai selain dapat menyemai nilai-nilai budaya Melayu dalam kalangan pelajar asing di Malaysia.
Tanpa dinafikan, dalam pengajaran bahasa asing, pengetahuan tentang prinsip-prinsip kesantunan
dalam sesuatu masyarakat bahasa yang dipelajari penting bagi meningkatkan kemampuan
komunikasi yang baik dalam bahasa tersebut. Selain itu, pelajar dapat meningkatkan kompetensi
komunikatif yang mencakup tiga macam kompetensi lain iaitu kompetensi gramatikal (grammatical
competence), kompetensi sosiolinguistik (sociolinguistic competence) yang berkaitan dengan
pengetahuan sosial budaya bahasa tertentu, kompetensi wacana (discourse competence) dan
kompetensi strategik (strategic competence) yang berkaitan dengan kemampuan pengungkapan
gagasan melalui beragam gaya yang berlaku khusus dalam setiap bahasa.


ILCC 2013
362

Kesimpulan

Kesantunan berbahasa adalah prinsip atau kesepakatan yang harus dipatuhi di antara dua belah
pihak yang berkomunikasi, oleh penutur dan pendengar. Kesantunan berbahasa pada hakikatnya
adalah upaya untuk mengurangi dampak negatif pada khalayak, atau hak dan kewajiban dalam
mengeratkan hubungan sosial dalam suatu percakapan, terutama dalam kalangan pelajar asing yang
baru hendak mengenali Budaya di negara ini. Disebabkan perbezaan budaya, pelajar asing sering
ditemu mengemukakan ujaran yang mencetuskan konflik dan pergeseran. Justeru aspek
permohonan maaf dinyatakan sangat perlu didedahkan kepada pelajar asing. Pendedahan aspek
permohonan maaf ini perlu didedahkan dalam prinsip kesantunan linguistik yang dapat
mengeratkan hubungan, serta dapat menunjukkan nilai keakraban dan hormat akan budaya
tempatan.


Bibliografi


Beebe, L.M. dan T. Takahashi. 1989. Do you have a bag? Social status and patterned variation in
second language acquisition. Dalam S.M. Gass, C. Madden, D. Preston, dan L. Selinker (ed).
Variation in second language acquisition vol I: sociolinguistic issues. Clevedon: Multilingual
Matters.

Beebe, L.M., T. Takahashi dan R. Ullis-Weltz. 1990. Pragmatic transfer in ESL refusals. Dalam
R.C. Scarcella, E.S. Anderson, dan S.D. Krashen (ed). Developing communicative competence in a
second language. NY: Newbury House.

Brown, P. dan S. C. Levinson. (1987). Politeness: some universals in language usage. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Clyne, M. 1983. Communicative competence in contact. Dalam L.E. Smith (ed). Readings in
English as an international language. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Deephuengton, P. 1992. Politeness in Thai: strategies of refusing and disagreeing. Disertasi Ph.D.
tidak diterbitkan. University of Kansas.

Faerch, C. dan G. Kasper. 1984. Pragmatic knowledge: rules and procedures. Applied Linguistics. 5,
3, hal. 214-225.

Goffman, E. 1967. Interaction rituals. Garden City: Double Day.

Grice, H. P. 1975. Logic and conversation. Dalam P. Cole dan J.L. Morgan (ed). Syntax and
semantics 3: speech acts. NY: Academic Press.

Hymes, D. 1972. Models of the interaction of language and social life. Dalam J.J. Gumperz dan D.
Hymes (ed). Directions in sociolinguistics: the ethnography of communication. NY: Holt, Rinehart
& Winston.

Ikoma, T. dan A. Shimura. 1994. Pragmatic transfer in speech act of refusal in Japanese as a second
language. Journal of Asian and Pacific Communication, 2, 1-2, hal. 105-129.

Ito, Y. 1989. Strategies of disagreement: a comparison of Japanese and American usage. Sophia
Linguistica, 27, 193-203.

Kartomihardjo, S. 1982. Ethnography of communicative codes in East Java. Canberra: Pacific
Linguistics.

Kinjo, H. 1987. Oral refusals of invitation and requests in English and Japanese. Journal of Asian
Culture, 11, hal. 83-106.

Lakoff, R.T. 1975. Language and womens place. NY: Harper Colophom.

Leech, G.N. 1983. Principles of pragmatics. London: Longman.

Tickle, A., J. Izuno, dan S. Epson. 1991. Japanese refusals in a business setting. PALM, 6, 2, hal.
84-108.



























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364


Serangga Dalam Peribahasa Melayu Sebagai Pelengkap Kehidupan.


Oleh
Ahmad Fuad Mat Hassan
Prof. Madya Dr. Zaitul Azma Zainon Hamzah
Universiti Putra Malaysia
ahmadfuad_mh@yahoo.com
zaitulazma@yahoo.com

Abstrak

Peribahasa Melayu mempunyai kaitan yang rapat dengan kehidupan dan pemikiran orang Melayu. Sebagai
salah satu daripada puisi tertua yang memaparkan akal budi masyarakat Melayu lama, penciptaan
peribahasa sangat terikat dengan adat istiadat Melayu dan alam sekelilingnya. Justeru penelitian terhadap
peribahasa Melayu secara tidak langsung dapat diketahui falsafah hidup dan struktur sosial masyarakat
Melayu lama. Segala kepercayaan dan ideologi yang dipegang oleh masyarakat Melaui digambarkan melalui
unsur alam, flora dan fauna. Melalui unsur serangga, peribahasa Melayu turut memaparkan penghayatan
orang Melayu terhadap perlakuan manusia dari segi sosiopolitik, sosioekonomi dan sosiobudaya. Justeru,
kertas kerja ini akan membincangkan unsur serangga dalam kehidupan manusia dari segi sosiopolitik,
sosioekonomi dan sosiobudaya, dan membincangkan hubungan sifat serangga dengan alam kehidupan serta
pemikiran orang Melayu dahulu kala. Data kajian yang terdiri daripada peribahasa-peribahasa yang
menggunakan unsur serangga akan dianalisis secara kuantitatif dan kualitatif menggunakan Hipotesis Sapir
Whorf dan teori pragmatik.

Pengenalan

Peribahasa Melayu adalah salah satu daripada pusaka dan warisan nenek moyang bangsa Melayu yang unik
kerana mempunyai maksud yang mendalam dan tersirat. Sebagai salah satu daripada puisi tertua yang
memaparkan akal budi bangsa Melayu, penciptaan peribahasa sangat terikat dengan adat istiadat Melayu
lama. Menerusi peribahasa dapat dikaji struktur sosial bangsa Melayu lama, sikap, aktiviti kehidupan serta
falsafah hidup yang mereka anuti, (Zaitul Azma & Ahmad Fuad, 2011).


Penciptaan peribahasa adalah berdasarkan pengalaman orang-orang Melayu dahulu terhadap kejadian atau
fenomena alam di sekeliling kehidupan mereka sehari-hari lalu disimpulkan dalam bahasa yang indah dan
kreatif dengan tujuan untuk dijadikan pengajaran dan teladan kepada generasi seterusnya. Dengan demikiran
tanpa diragui, peribahasa merupakan projeksi watak dan cara hidup masyarakat Melayu. Malah peribahasa
juga merupakan pertuturan atau perintah yang dipegang dan dianuti oleh masyarakat Melayu yang terdiri
daripada beberapa patah perkataan sahaja tetapi mampu memberi pengertian yang luas dan mendalam.
Pendek kata, dalam peribahasa terdapat banyak pengajaran dan pedoman yang boleh diikuti bertujuan untuk
membentuk peribadi dan perlakuan manusia berdasarkan pengalaman yang sudah ditempuhi.


Peribahasa menggambarkan kehidupan masyarakat Melayu lama dari segi perasaan, tingkah laku, kegiatan
budaya, pola fikir dan lain-lain yang berkaitan dengan geobudaya bangsa Melayu. Bangsa Melayu
menjana pengetahuan yang diperoleh hasil daripada interaksi dengan alam sekeliling dalam mencipta
peribahasa dan maknanya. Unsur alam sekeliling yang dijadikan sumber dalam penciptaan peribahasa
termasuklah unsur alam semula jadi, alam benda, alam flora dan alam fauna. Dengan kata lain alam
sekeliling amat mempengaruhi bahasa dan kepercayaan orang Melayu. Sejajar dengan itu, menerusi
peribahasa dapat dikaji struktur sosial bangsa Melayu lama, sikap, aktiviti kehidupan serta falsafah hidup
yang mereka anuti.

Falsafah yang tersirat dalam peribahasa Melayu menunjangi kehidupan bangsa Melayu khasnya dan
masyarakat Malaysia amnya. Segala sistem nilai termasuk hati budi orang Melayu dan perwatakan serta
sifat-sifat orang Melayu juga dapat diketahui daripada peribahasa Melayu, (Wilkinson, 1907). Malah
peribahasa berperanan sebagai hukum adat dan nasihat moral dalam mengawal tindak tanduk anggota
masyarakatnya. Penciptaannya yang berdasarkan fenomena sebenar kehidupan masyarakat, (Hamilton, 1947)
turut menyerlahkan pemikiran bangsa Melayu tentang alam kehidupan yang mereka tempuhi.

Permasalahan Kajian

Disebabkan keunikan dan kekreatifan bahasa serta kandungan falsafah bangsa Melayu yang tersirat di dalam
peribahasa maka peribahasa telah banyak dikaji oleh para sarjana sejak dahulu lagi. Selain sarjana barat,
sarjana tempatan juga telah banyak menjalankan Kajian tentang peribahasa namun kajian terdahulu lebih
tertumpu kepada aspek bahasa dalam peribahasa itu sendiri. Antaranya kajian Indirawati Zahid (1997) yang
mengkaji tentang penggunaan simbol dalam peribahasa, kajian Norashikin Mohamed (1998) yang melihat
aspek diksi dalam Peibahasa Melayu, kajian Bahiyah Dato Hj Abdul Hamid dan Hafriza Burhanudeen
(1998), yang membincangkan aspek gender dalam peribahasa. Kajian tentang peribahasa Melayu tidak
terhenti setakat itu malah dalam abad ke-21, kajian terhadap peribahasa diteruskan oleh sarjana temapatan
yang lain. Antaranya Zaidah Ahmad Rosly (2001) yang menjalankan kajian yang bertajuk, Semantik dan
Pragmatik Metonomi dalam Peribahasa Melayu, Jyh Wee Sew (2009) menjalankan beliau yang bertajuk
Gila-gila dalam Peribahasa Melayu dan Humor dalam Peribahasa Melayu, Zaitul Azma Zainon Hamzah
& Ahmad Fuad Mat Hassan (2011) dengan kajian yang bertajuk Bahasa dan Pemikiran dalam Peribahasa
Melayuk dan Imran Ho Abdullah, (2011) telah menjalankan kajian yang bertajuk. Pembentukan Model
Kognitif yang Tercermin dalam Peribahasa Bersumberkan Haiwan. Daripada kajian-kajian terdahulu
didapati unsur serangga dalam peribahasa Melayu belum diterokai lagi. Justeru perlulah dijalankan penelitian
terhadap penggunaan serangga dalam peribahasa Melayu bagi mengetahui mesej tesirat yang cuba
disampaikan selain untuk menjelaskan hubungan serangga dengan kehidupan orang Melayu dahulu kala.

Metodologi

Data peribahasa diteliti daripada buku Peribahasa Melayu: Penelitian Makna dan Nilai, (Zaitul Azma &
Ahmad Fuad, 2011). Data yang diperoleh dianalisis secara kuantitatif dan kualitatif. Peribahasa yang
mengidentifikasikan serangga dipilih dan dianalisis menggunakan teori Hipotesis Sapir Whorf dan teori
pragmatik


Hipotesis Sapir-Whorf (1921), didasari oleh teori relativiti linguistik, menyatakan bahawa terdapat
hubungan antara bahasa, budaya dan pemikiran manusia. Dengan perkataan lain, tanggapan atau fikiran dan
tindakan seseorang itu bergantung kepada struktur dan kosa kata dalam bahasa yang digunakan oleh penutur
untuk berfikir dan menanggapi sesuatu. Dengan yang demikian bahasa turut mempengaruhi tingkah laku
penuturnya. Penekanan the structure of the languages we speak affects the way we perceive the world about
us menjelaskan bahawa struktur sesuatu bahasa menggambarkan cara penutur memandang dunianya dan
bagaimana budaya mempunyai hubungan dengan bahasa, (Jufrizal, Zul Amri dan Refnaldi : 2007).

Hipotesis Sapir-Whorf (1921) yang dipelopori oleh Boas, Sapir dan Whorf ini turut menyatakan bahawa
bahasa tidak hanya menentukan kebudayaan tetapi juga menentukan jalan fikiran penuturnya. Hubungan
antara bahasa dan kebudayaan yang begitu erat terjadi dalam kehidupan lahiriah dan batiniah. Hal ini dapat
dikaitkan oleh penulis dengan penciptaan peribahasa Melayu.

Seterusnya, teori Relevans yang menekankan tiga gagasan utama, iaitu konteks, kesan konteks dan usaha
memproses maklumat diterapkan dalam menganalisis peribahasa Melayu. Tiga gagasan ini kadangkala
dibantu oleh subgagasan seperti pengayaan, pemilihan rujukan dan penyahtaksaan maklumat bagi
melicinkan penginterpretasian makna. Hal ini bersesuaian kerana pragmatik ditakrifkan sebagai bidang
bahasa yang mengkaji cara suatu ujaran itu mendapat makna apabila digunakan dalam konteks tertentu.
Pendekatan pragmatik mengutamakan penginterpretasian makna ujaran yang ada hubungannya dengan
konteks situasi, tujuan penutur itu menghasilkan ujaran, dan cara pendengar menerima dan memahami
ujaran itu. Dengan kata lain, bidang pragmatik cuba menyerlahkan penggunaan bahasa dan fungsi bahasa
mengikut konteks. Justeru kajian pragmatik tidak mengutamakan struktur bahasa dalam menginterpretasi
ILCC 2013
366

makna ujarannya tetapi lebih kepada hubungan antara struktur bahasa dengan peraturan perlakuan para
penggunanya. Oleh itu kerelevanan sesuatu ujaran adalah bergantung pada konteks, kesan konteks ataupun
kognisi dan usaha pemprosesan maklumat antara penutur dan pendengar, (Zaitul Azma Zainon Hamzah,
2002).

Dapatan Kajian

Daripada 5461 peribahasa Melayu yang dijadikan bahan penelitian, didapati 1.23% peribahasa yang ada
menggunakan serangga. Hasil penelitian juga mendapati serangga lebih banyak digunakan dalam
penciptaan bidalan, iaitu sebanyak 46.3%, diikuti oleh perumpamaan sebanyak 35.8%, pepatah sebanyak
11.9%, dan simpulan bahasa sebanyak 6%. Setakat ini, didapati tiada unsur serangga dalam penciptaan kata-
kata hikmat, (Sila rujuk Jadual 1)


Jadual 1: Jumlah Peribahasa yang menggunakan serangga

Peribahasa Jumlah Semua Serangga
Simpulan bahasa 1087 4
Perumpamaan 851 24
Bidalan 2567 31
Pepatah 956 8
Kata-kata Hikmat 0 0
Jumlah 5461 67 (1.23%)
Sumber : Zaitul Azma dan Ahmad Fuad (2011).

Dari segi kekerapan penggunaan serangga dalam peribahasa, didapati serangga lalat dan langau serta
belalang adalah yang paling banyak, iaitu sebanyak 16.4%. Serangga tebuan mencatat jumlah kedua banyak,
iaitu sebanyak 10.4%, diikuti oleh serangga kumbang, semut, kutu dan tuma yang masing-masing adalah
sebanyak 9.0%. Serangga lain ialah lipas (7.5%), nyamuk (6.0%), anai-anai (4.5%), lebah (3.0%), pijat
(3.0%), kelip-kelip (1.5%), rama-rama/kupu-kupu (1.5%), tungau (1.5%) dan bubuk (1.5%) (Sila rujuk
Jadual 2).

Jadual 2: Jenis serangga dalam Peribahasa Melayu

Jenis Serangga Serangga
Jumlah %
Lalat dan Langau 11 16.4
Belalang 11 16.4
Tebuan 7 10.4
Kumbang 6 9.0
Semut 6 9.0
Kutu dan Tuma 6 9.0
Lipas 5 7.5
Nyamuk 4 6.0
Anai-anai 3 4.5
Lebah 2 3.0
Pijat 2 3.0
Kelip-kelip 1 1.5
Rama-rama/Kupu-kupu 1 1.5
Tungau 1 1.5
Bubuk 1 1.5
Jumlah 67 100

Penggunaan serangga dalam peribahasa adalah berdasarkan ciri, sifat dan kehidupan serangga dalam
memberikan makna kepada tingkah laku dan gaya hidup manusia secara tersurat dan tersirat. Pendek kata,
melalui unsur serangga, peribahasa Melayu turut memaparkan penghayatan orang Melayu terhadap
perlakuan manusia dari segi sosiopolitik, sosioekonomi dan sosiobudaya.

Unsur serangga dalam kehidupan manusia dari segi sosiopolitik, sosioekonomi dan sosiobudaya

Seterusnya hasil penelitian, mendapati rujukan dari segi penggunaan perkataan atau istilah serangga yang
terdapat dalam peribahasa Melayu adalah ditentukan oleh pengalaman manusia yang pelbagai dan
berhubungan erat antara pemikiran dan budaya berbahasa masyarakat Melayu yang sekali gus diasosiasikan
dengan kehidupan manusia dari segi sosiopolitik, sosioekonomi dan sosiobudaya. Hal ini tergambar dalam
contoh peribahasa yang berikut;


Data Peribahasa Makna Serangga Tema

Lain padang, lain
belalang
Setiap negeri mempunyai adat
yang berlainan
Belalang Sosiopolitik
Seperti langau di ekor
gajah
Orang yang selalu menurut
kemahuan atau mengikut
orang yang berkuasa
Langau/
Gajah
Sosiopolitik
Ada padang ada
belalang
Ada negeri tentulah ada
rakyatnya
Belalang Sosiopolitik

Serangga belalang dijadikan perlambangan untuk manusia atau rakyat. Penyalinan belalang sebagai rakyat
dianggap relevan apabila padang dilambang sebagai tanah air atau negeri. Begitu juga dengan langau dan
gajah. Langau, serangga yang bersaiz kecil dan dan berbunyi berdengung-dengung dianggap mempunyai
perhubungan dengan sifat manusia yang riuh-rendah. Manakala gajah yang bersaiz besar disimbolkan
sebagai pemimpin. Dalam peribahasa Melayu, unsur penyalinan objek alam dengan bahasa serta diberikan
makna rujukan berlaku kerana setiap orang berbicara dengan cara yang berbeza dan berfikir dengan cara
yang berbeza. Dengan yang demikian, bahasa juga menawarkan cara mengungkapkan makna tentang dunia
persekitaran mereka dengan cara yang berbeza (Sapir-Whorf, 1921). Dengan demikian, bahasa tergambar
menerusi penggunaan perkataan-perkataan itu dengan lebih meluas dan penutur cuba memaksimumkan
fungsi sesuatu perkataan untuk mengungkapkan idea yang hendak disampaikan seperti halnya dalam
peribahasa Lain padang, lain belalang, Ada padang ada belalang dan Seperti langau di ekor gajah.


Data Peribahasa Makna Serangga Tema

Ada gula ada lah semut Di tempat yang mudah
memperoleh rezeki, di situlah
orang berkumpul
Semut Sosioekonomi
Bagai lebah
menghimpun madu

Orang yang rajin bekerja dan
tekun berusaha, akhirnya
terlaksana cita-citanya
Lebah Sosioekonomi
Seperti anai-anai makan
kayu
Melakukan sesuatu kerja
dengan teliti dan tekun
Anai-anai Sosioekonomi
Bagai lalat cari puru Membuat sesuatu pekerjaan
dengan cepat dan ghairah
Lalat Sosioekonomi
Lipas kudung Orang yang selalu bergerak
dengan cepat atau bekerja
dengan pantas dan cekap
Lipas Sosioekonomi

Begitu juga dengan peribahasa 4 hingga 8 menunjukkan penggunaan serangga semut, lebah, anai-anai, lalat
dan lipas yang menggambarkan perihal sosioekonomi masyarakat Melayu. Penggunaan serangga dalam
peribahasa Ada gula ada lah semut menunjukkan perkongsian persepsi yang terbina pengalaman yang
menyaksikan sifat dan ciri semuat dalam persekitaran. Sifat semut yang mengerumuni gula sama-sama
ILCC 2013
368

menghasilkan pemahaman kepada tingkah laku manusia yang bertumpu ke tempat-tempat yang mudah
memperoleh rezeki. Justeru peribahasa ini adalah lambang perkongsian persepsi sesuatu komuniti yang
dizahirkan melalui kata-kata yang kreatif. Berdasarkan konteks, kita dapat menerima penggunaan peribahasa
berserta makna secara logic. Begitu juga dengan penggunaan serangga lebah, anai-anai, lalat dan lipas.
Berdasarkan sifat dan ciri serangga ini, objek serangga ini digunakan dalam peribahasa Melayu untuk
menggambarkan sikap orang yang rajin, pantas, teliti, dan tekun melakukan kerja yang diamanahkan kepada
mereka. Pengalaman manusia bertembung dengan lipas yang kudung yang berjalan dan bergerak laju
dipetakan dengan seseorang yang pantas melakukan sesuatu pekerjaan dengan cekap.


Dalam aspek sosiobudaya, peribahasa Melayu juga digambarkan mempunyai kaitan yang rapat dengan
kehidupan dan sifat serangga seperti anai-anai, lebah, semut dan pijat. Persepsi terhadap satu sifat penting
serangga ini, contohnya anai-anai yang hidup dalam kumpulan mewujudkan pemahaman dalam kalangan
masyarakat Melayu yang seterusnya dizahirkan melalui peribahasa Bagai anai-anai bubus. Dengan kata lain
penciptaan peribahasa yang menggunakan serangga adalah lahir melalui perkongsian persepsi sesuatu
masyarakat linguistik terhadap persekitaran mereka dengan serangga yang menjadi sebahagian daripada alam
kehidupan mereka.

Data Peribahasa Makna Serangga Tema

Bagai anai-anai bubus Perihal yang menunjukkan
ramainya orang yang
berhimpun untuk melihat atau
mendengar sesuatu
Anai-anai Sosiobudaya
Seperti lebah, mulut
membawa madu,
buntut membawa
sengat
Orang kaya yang murah hati
tetapi suka menyindiri
Perempuan yang cantik tetapi
buruk perangainya
Lebah Sosiobudaya
Mati semut kerana gula Orang akan terpedaya atau
terpengaruh dengan pujukan
atau kata-kata yang manis
Semut Sosiobudaya
Pijat-pijat telah
menjadi kura-kura
Kerana pengaruh wang dan
harta dunia, orang yang
bodoh dan hina pun akan
menjadi mulia
Pijat Sosiobudaya
Semut dipijak tak mati,
antan dilanda patah
tiga
Cara berjalan seorang
perempuan yang baik, tidak
terlampau lambat dan tidak
pula terlampau cepat tetapi
kuat dan tetap
Semut Sosiobudaya


Hubungan sifat serangga dengan alam kehidupan serta pemikiran orang Melayu dahulu kala

Serangga adalah sebahagian daripada alam kehidupan manusia. Dengan demikian kehadiran serangga dalam
beberapa bentuk spesies telah banyak memberikan pilihan dan pengalaman kepada masyarakat Melayu untuk
memeta dengan baik hubungan linguistik dengan serangga sehingga membentuk peribahasa yang bermakna.
Persepsi dan pengalaman terhadap persekitaran serangga memberikan interpretasi tingkah laku kepada
masyarakat Melayu untuk mencipta peribahasa yang relevan dengan fenomena dan konteksnya.

Sebagai rumusan, alam serangga turut menjadi sebahagian daripada derivatif dalam pembentukan peribahasa
Melayu. Hal ini berlaku apabila orang Melayu bertembung dengan sesuatu organisma (tumbuh-tumbuhan,
haiwan, serangga dan benda-benda hidup yang lain) dan perlakuan manusia, maka akan berlaku interaksi
melalui sistem saraf dengan objek, organisma dan perlakuan manusia lalu mereka membentuk makna
pemikiran dan diungkapkan dalam bentuk peribahasa. Misalnya pertembungan dengan serangga anai-anai
yang rajin dan bekerjasama dalam melakukan sesuatu pekerjaan disamakan rujukannya dengan seseorang atau
sekumpulan yang melakukan sesuatu pekerjaan dengan tekun dan teliti.

Di samping itu, peribahasa Melayu menonjolkan perkongsian makna pemikiran bangsa Melayu yang
bersifat interaktif. Hal ini menyokong hipotesis Sapir-Whorf yang menyatakan bahawa struktur bahasa yang
dilahirkan adalah bukti yang mempengaruhi cara seseorang itu berfikir dan berperilaku. Bahasa dapat
dikatakan sebagai bahagian integral, iaitu yang perlu atau yang menjadi sebahagian daripada hidup manusia
dan bahasa menyerap dalam setiap fikiran dan cara penutur memandang dunia sekelilingnya.

Kesimpulan

Spesies serangga yang hidup dalam persekitaran hidup masyarakat Melayu telah memberikan
pengalaman dan perkongsian persepsi kepada masyarakat Melayu untuk mencipta peribahasa yang
mewakili tema sosiopolitik, sosioekonomi dan sosiobudaya. Dengan kata lain daripada pengamatan
masyarakat Melayu terhadap kehidupan, ciri sifat serangga telah mempengaruhi kepercayaan dan
perkongsian pengalaman mereka untuk menzahirkan peribahasa yang relevan dengan konteks dan alam
kehidupan manusia. Penggunaan serangga dalam peribahasa Melayu turut menonjolkan kebijaksanaan
masyarakat Melayu membina peribahasa dan makna berdasarkan pengalaman dan interaksinya dengan alam
sekeliling.

Rujukan

Bahiyah Dato Hj Abdul Hamid & Hafriza Burhanudeen. (1998). Men and women in
Malay proverb: An analysis of Malay gender ideology. Dlm. Sharifah Zaleha Syed
Hassan & Rashila Ramli (pnyt.). Kedudukan dan citra wanita dalam sumber-
sumber tradisional Melayu (hlm. 148-158 ). Bangi: Institut Alam dan
Tamadun Melayu, UKM.

Brown, C.C. (1951). Malay sayings. Singapore: Graham Brash (pte) Ltd.

Edwar Djamanis. (1985). Memahami dan menghargai peribahasa. Dewan Bahasa, 29(5), 338-344.

Effendy Kadarisman. (2009) Karya dosen. (Atas Talian). Telah dimuat turun 4 Februari 2011, dari
http://karya-ilmiah.um.ac.id/index.php/karya-dosen-fs/article/view/3689

Gumperz, John J. (1996). Introduction to part IV: The social matrix, culture, praxis, and discourse. Dlm. J. J.
Gumperz, & S. Levinson, C. Rethinking linguistic relativity (hlm. 359-73). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

Hamilton A.W. (1947). Malay proverbs. Singapore: Eastern Universiti Press Ltd.

Indrawati Zahid. (1998). Peribahasa Melayu: Satu klasifikasi yang tiada penentu. Jurnal Dewan Bahasa,
42(11), 978-984.

Imran Ho Abdullah. (2011). Analisis Kognitif Semantik Peribahasa Melayu Bersumberkan Anjing. GEMA
Online
TM
Journal of Language Studies, 11(1), 125-139.

Jyh Wee Sew. (2009). Gila-gila dalam peribahasa Melayu dan humor dalam peribahasa Melayu. Kuala
Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Malaya.

Jufrizal Zul Amri & Refnaldi. (2007). Hipotesis Sapir-Whorf dan struktur informasi klausa pentopikalan
bahasa Minangkabau. Jurnal Linguistika, 14(26), 1-22.

Kamus Dewan. (2005). ed. ke-4. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Kramsch, C. (2001). Language and culture. UK: Oxford University Press.
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Lavandera, B. (1988). The social pragmatics of politeness forms. In U. Ammon and N. Dittmar (Eds.),
Sociolinguistics: An international handbook of the science of language and society vol 1. (hlm. 1196-1205)
Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

Sapir, E. (1921). Language: An introduction to the study of speech. London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
Publishers.

Slobin, D. I. (1996). From thought and language to thinking for speaking. Dlm J. J. Gumperz, & S. C.
Levinson (pnyt.), Rethinking linguistic relativity. (hlm. 70-96). Cambridge: University Press.

Shellabear, W. G. & Guru Sulaiman Muhammad Nor (1964). Kitab kiliran budi. Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka
Antara

Wilkinson, R. J. (1907). Papers on Malay subject 1: Malay literature. London: Luzac & Co.

Winstedt, R. O. (1950). Malay proverb. London: John Murray.

von Humboldt, W. (1767). From thought and language to thinking for speaking. Dlm J. J. Gumperz, &
S.C. Levinson (pnyt.), Rethinking linguistic relativity. (hlm. 70-76). Cambridge: University Press.

Zaitul Azma Zainon Hamzah dan Ahmad Fuad Mat Hassan. (2011). Peribahasa Melayu: Penelitian Makna dan
Nilai Serdang: Penerbit UPM
































Analisis Kesalahan Umum Struktur Ayat Majmuk oleh Pelajar Asing

Oleh:
Arina Johari
arinajr@ iium.edu.my
Mohd. Zuber Ismail
Zuber77@iium.edu.my
Divisyen Bahasa Melayu
Pusat Bahasa dan Pembangunan Akademik Pra-Universiti
Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia (UIAM)

Ayat Majmuk
Menurut Tatabahasa Dewan Edisi Ketiga, ayat majmuk ialah ayat yang dibina dengan menca
ntumkan dua ayat tunggal atau lebih, dan percantuman ayat-ayat itu disusun mengikut cara tertentu
sehingga menjadikannya ayat baharu. Terdapat tiga jenis ayat majmuk, iaitu ayat majmuk gabungan
, ayat majmuk pancangan dan ayat majmuk campuran.
1
Menurut Abdullah Hassan (2003), kebanyak
an ayat yang diucapkan dan dituliskan terdiri daripada jenis ayat majmuk. Penyataan ini jelas menu
njukkan bahawa penggunaan ayat majmuk adalah sangat meluas dalam bahasa Melayu, tidak kira sa
ma ada dalam pertuturan harian, formal mahupun penulisan.
Ayat majmuk gabungan adalah ayat yang terdiri daripada dua ayat atau lebih yang disatukan denga
n cara menggabungkan atau mencantumkan ayat-ayat tersebut dengan kata hubung seperti dan, atau, tetapi, da
n sebagainya. Abdullah Hassan (2003) membahagikan ayat majmuk gabungan kepada dua jenis; gabungan ber
susun dan gabungan bertentangan.

Manakala ayat majmuk pancangan merupakan ayat yang dibentuk oleh klausa yang tidak setara
. Ini bermakna dalam ayat berkenaan terdapat satu klausa bebas atau ayat utama, dan satu atau lebih
klausa tak bebas atau ayat kecil. Ayat majmuk pancangan ini pula terbahagi kepada tiga jenis; ayat
majmuk relatif, ayat majmuk komplemen dan ayat majmuk keterangan.
2

Ada ayat majmuk terdiri daripada beberapa ayat yang kedudukan antara ayat itu tidak sama.
Dalam ayat majmuk gabungan terdapat dua ayat atau lebih yang bersifat sama taraf, yakni masing-
masing dapat berdiri sendiri. Sebaliknya, dalam ayat majmuk pancangan terdapat satu ayat utama at
au ayat induk dan satu atau beberapa ayat kecil lain yang dipancangkan di dalam ayat induk dan me
njadi sebahagian daripada ayat induk.
Abdullah Hassan (2006) mendefinisikan ayat majmuk campuran sebagai hasil gabungan aya
t majmuk gabungan dan ayat majmuk pancangan.
3


1
Abdullah Hassan, Seri Lanang Jaya Rohani, Razali Ayob, Zulkifli Osman. 2006. Sintaksis: Siri Pengajaran dan
Pembelajaran Bahasa Melayu. hlm. 46.
2
Abdullah Hassan. 2003. Tatabahasa Bahasa Melayu: Morfologi dan Sintaksis untuk Guru dan Pelajar. Pahang: PTS
Publications & Distributor Sdn. Bhd. hlm. 309.
3
Abdullah Hassan, Seri Lanang Jaya Rohani, Razali Ayob, Zulkifli Osman. 2006. Sintaksis: Siri Pengajaran dan
Pembelajaran Bahasa Melayu. hlm. 47.
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372

Contoh-contoh ayat majmuk gabungan, ayat majmuk pancangan dan ayat majmuk campuran
adalah seperti berikut:
1) Ayat majmuk gabungan
- Sanah, Milah, Jenab, Semek, Liah, Lebar, dan Kiah berada di tanah bermain masak- masak
nasi pasir dan periuk tempurung.
2) Ayat majmuk pancangan
2.1) Ayat majmuk relatif
- Rumah yang baru dibina itu sudah dijual.
2.2) Ayat majmuk komplemen
- Dia mengetahui bahawa Ahmad telah bersara.
2.3) Ayat majmuk keterangan
- Anak itu menangis kerana ia lapar.

3) Ayat majmuk campuran
- Gadis itu mengalihkan baldinya yang satu lagi bagi menempatkan baldi kecil kanak-ka
nak itu.
Berdasarkan definisi ayat majmuk di atas, maka jelaslah bahawa ayat majmuk merupakan st
ruktur ayat paling kompleks yang sering digunakan dalam penulisan bagi penyampaian sesuatu idea
dengan lebih berkesan. Kesalahan dan kesilapan dalam penggunaan bentuk ayat majmuk akan menj
ejaskan makna sesuatu ayat yang diungkapkan. Maka, kajian ini akan meneliti dan mengkaji keselur
uhan aspek kesalahan dalam penggunaan ayat majmuk oleh pelajar asing di UIAM dalam penulisan
esei mereka.

Kajian Literatur

Awang Sariyan (1980) mengatakan bahawa kesalahan bahasa tulisan pelajar berkisar dari m
asalah kesalahan ejaan hingga kepada masalah morfologi (kata) dan sintaksis (ayat).
4
Oleh itu, untu
k menganalisis kesalahan penggunaan ayat majmuk dalam kalangan pelajar asing, satu kajian analis
is data dari aspek sintaksis perlu dilakukan. Kajian sintaksis ini dapat menghuraikan peraturan dala
m penggunaan tatabahasa yang betul untuk mengungkapkan idea-idea khusus dan tertentu dalam se
suatu bahasa. Namun begitu, hakikat yang perlu diterima oleh pengkaji ialah, terdapat banyak kajia
n mengenai aspek ini dilakukan untuk melihat kesalahan dalam pemerolehan bahasa pertama (B1) o

4
Awang Sariyan. 1980. Pencemaran Bahasa dari Perspektif Budaya. Dewan Masyarakat, jil. 18, bil. 3, hlm. 3-4.
leh penutur jati dan pemerolehan bahasa kedua (B2) oleh penutur asing yang tinggal di Malaysia iai
tu kaum Cina dan India, tetapi belum ada kajian dilakukan terhadap penutur asing yang mempelajar
i bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa asing atau pemerolehan bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa ketiga (B3)
setakat ini. Maka, sorotan kajian ini akan mengambil contoh-contoh kajian terhampir yang telah dil
akukan oleh pengkaji-pengkaji luar dan tempatan terhadap kesalahan ayat majmuk yang dilakukan
oleh pelajar tempatan dan pelajar asing dalam karangan mereka.
Kajian Luar Negara mengenai analisis kesalahan ayat
Corder (1973) mengkategorikan empat kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh pelajar dalam pembel
ajaran bahasa kedua, iaitu pengguguran unsur-unsur yang perlu, penambahan unsur yang tidak perlu
atau tidak tepat, pemilihan unsur yang tidak tepat dan penyusunan unsur yang salah. Walau bagaim
anapun, Corder mengatakan bahawa kategori-kategori tersebut belum mencukupi untuk menjelaska
n kesalahan-kesalahan bahasa yang berlaku dan beliau akhirnya telah menyertakan kesalahan bagi
peringkat-peringkat linguistik seperti morfologi, sintaksis dan leksikon.
Selain itu, Wyatt (1973) telah menjalankan satu kajian tentang analisis kesalahan dalam kara
ngan yang dihasilkan oleh pelajar 4C di Afrika Timur. Alat kajiannya ialah 52 buah buku karangan
yang ditulis oleh pelajar sejak mereka Tingkatan Tiga. Sebanyak 14 jenis kesalahan telah ditinjau d
an dikira kekerapannya. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa kesalahan ejaan adalah yang paling ti
nggi iaitu 18.4%, manakala kesalahan struktur ayat (16.6%), penggunaan kata nama dan kata kerja
masing-masing berjumlah 16.0%.
Hoh (1973) telah menganalisis tujuh jenis kesalahan bahasa berdasarkan karangan yang ditu
lis oleh pelajar prauniversiti aliran Cina di Singapura. Hasil kajian mendapati bahawa daripada 4813
kesalahan, terdapat 1188 kesalahan penggunaan kata kerja, 767 kesalahan ejaan, 694 kesalahan kat
a nama bilangan, 656 kesalahan leksikal, 634 kesalahan fungsi kata, 463 kesalahan struktur ayat dan
411 kesalahan artikel.
Schacter (1974: 205-214) telah membuat kajian tentang analisis kesalahan, khususnya untuk
kesalahan yang disebabkan oleh pemindahan bahasa. Schacter menganalisis beberapa buah karanga
n yang ditulis oleh dua kumpulan pelajar dewasa yang mempelajari bahasa Inggeris sebagai bahasa
kedua. Kumpulan yang pertama terdiri daripada penutur jati bahasa Parsi dan bahasa Arab. Kumpul
an kedua pula terdiri daripada penutur jati bahasa Cina dan bahasa Jepun. Bahasa Cina dan bahasa J
epun menunjukkan sifat yang berbeza dalam pemakaian klausa-klausa relatif dan struktur ayat deng
an bahasa Inggeris. Dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan bahasa pelajar-pelajar kumpulan pertama meng
gunakan klaus-klausa relatif dalam ayat dua kali ganda banyaknya berbanding pelajar-pelajar kump
ulan kedua. Ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa kumpulan pelajar tersebut cuba mengelakkan penggunaa
n sesuatu bahasa yang tiada, atau berlainan daripada bahasa pertama mereka dalam bahasa yang me
reka pelajari kemudian. Kesalahan yang dilakukan daripada percubaan menggunakan bentuk bahasa
ILCC 2013
374

pertama telah menunjukkan manifestasi wujudnya pemindahan bahasa.
Selain itu, seorang pengkaji dari Brunei Darussalam, iaitu Pengiran Mahmud Pengiran Dami
t (1992: 232) telah menjalankan kajian tentang kesalahan tatabahasa dan tanda baca ke atas 200 ora
ng pelajar tingkatan dua sekolah Menengah Daerah Brunei/Muara dan Daerah Tutong. Dapatan ini
menunjukkan bahawa pelajar paling kerap membuat kesalahan yang ada hubungan dengan struktur
ayat, iaitu 35.9 peratus daripada keseluruhan kesalahan bahasa yang dilakukan. Daripada jumlah ini,
didapati pelajar paling banyak melakukan kesalahan tentang binaan ayat yang tidak lengkap, iaitu s
ebanyak 18.45 peratus.
Manakala dalam kajian Arpan Shahbudin Latip (1998) terhadap 186 orang pelajar Melayu th
anawi(menengah) lima pada tahun 1996 di dua buah sekolah menengah Arab di Negara Brunei Dar
ussalam. Dapatan kajian membuktikan bahawa pelajar lelaki dan perempuan didapati lemah dalam
menggunakan kemahiran membina ayat majmuk.
5
Kajian mendapati kelemahan pelajar membentuk
ayat-ayat majmuk kerana mereka gagal menggunakan kata hubung, kata tugas dan lemah dalam me
mancangkan beberapa ayat kecil ke dalam ayat induk dengan kemas dan teratur.
6

Kajian mengenai kesalahan bahasa dalam pembelajaran bahasa kedua tidak pernah putus ser
ta masih dilaksanakan oleh ramai pengkaji. Oleh itu, kajian dalam aspek ini diteruskan oleh Money
pada tahun 2004 terhadap karangan murid Tamil yang mempelajari bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa
kedua. Dapatan oleh Money ini sekali lagi membuktikan bahawa pelajar Tamil yang mempelajari ba
hasa Melayu sebagai bahasa kedua tersebut sering melakukan kesalahan tatabahasa dari aspek perka
taan, frasa dan ayat.
Kajian Tempatan Tentang Analisis Kesilapan Ayat Majmuk dalam Karangan Pelajar
Mohd. Sallehuddin (1983) membuat kajian terhadap karangan pelajar Tingkatan Lima di em
pat buah sekolah di Negeri Sembilan. Sampelnya terdiri daripada pelajar Melayu, Cina dan India da
ripada pelbagai aliran. Dapatan kajian mendapati bahawa empat kesalahan yang utama ialah ayat be
rkait (40.1%), ayat panjang yang tidak dapat ditentukan maknanya (20.4%), ayat saduran daripada a
yat Inggeris dan ayat aktif (10.5%). Kesalahan-kesalahan ini ialah 83.6% daripada jumlah kesalahan
yang dilakukan oleh mereka. Hasil kajian juga mendapati bahawa pelajar Cina kerap melakukan ke
salahan ayat berkait, diikuti dengan ayat-ayat panjang, dan struktur ayat yang memperlihatkan peng
aruh ayat bahasa Inggeris. Pelajar India pula banyak meakukan kesalahan ayat berkait dan ayat-ayat
panjang, di samping kesalahan ayat pasif.
Kajian Awang Mohammad Amin (1982: 18-22) mengenai kesalahan-kesalahan umum pengg

5
Arpan Shahbudin Latip. 1998. Tatabahasa Bahasa Melayu: Morfologi dan Sintaksis untuk Guru dan
Pelajar. hlm. 137.
6
Ibid 1998, hlm. 137.
unaan bahasa Melayu oleh penutur ekabahasa peringkat sekolah menengah atas mendapati bahawa j
umlah kekerapan kesalahan ayat dan jenis-jenisnya bagi keseluruhan sampel kajian ialah sebanyak
935 dengan purata setiap pelajar ialah 7.8%. Aspek kesalahan sintaksis yang dikaji ialah ayat selapis
aktif dan pasif, ayat berlapis, ayat kompleks, ayat berkait, ayat saduran, dan struktur ayat-ayat lain
serta jenis-jenis ayat yang dinyatakan. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa sampel kajian banyak
melakukan kesalahan berhubung dengan struktur ayat pasif. Selain itu, Awang mendapati bahawa k
esalahan-kesalahan kata ganti nama diri, kata ganti tunjuk, kata depan, kata bantu dan penggunaan k
ata asing merupakan kesalahan yang paling umum dilakukan oleh sampel kajian.
Supian (1994) pula mendapati bahawa kebanyakan pelajar Cina yang mempelajari bahasa
Melayu sebagai bahasa kedua melakukan kesalahan frasa kerja transitif, frasa kerja tak transitif, fras
a kerja pasif pelaku diri pertama, kedua dan ketiga. Kajian beliau membuktikan bahawa kesalahan f
rasa kerja transitif merupakan kesalahan yang paling banyak dilakukan oleh pelajar berbanding kesa
lahan frasa kerja yang lain.

Abdullah Hassan (2006) mengatakan bahawa kesalahan dalam penggunaan ayat-ayat teruta
manya ayat kompleks seperti ayat majmuk, dan sebagainya merupakan kesalahan yang banyak dike
san dan diperolehi oleh para pengkaji bahasa. Kesalahan ini terjadi disebabkan penggunaan kata hu
bung yang tidak tepat atau kesalahan dalam ayat. Kekerapan kesalahan dalam penggunaan ayat maj
muk oleh para pelajar dan pengguna bahasa yang lain dapat dilihat dalam kajian yang dilakukan ole
h ramai pengkaji lain.
7

Berhubung dengan kesalahan ayat bahasa Melayu yang diambil daripada susunan ayat bahas
a asing, para pengkaji bersepakat bahawa ayat yang terdapat kesalahan padanya ialah kesan pengaru
h daripada bahasa Inggeris, bahasa daerah, bahasa ibunda atau bahasa seharian.
8

Selain itu, kesalahan-kesalahan lain yang sering dilakukan oleh pelajar dalam penulisan akib
at ketidakfahaman peraturan dalam binaan ayat termasuk kesalahan dalam binaan subjek dan predik
at. Kesalahan tersebut ialah:
9

a) Kesalahan struktur ayat tunggal
b) Kesalahan struktur ayat majmuk gabungan. Antara kesalahan yang sering dilakukan ialah
kesalahan menggunakan kata hubung, kesalahan kerana mengulang subjek yang sama dan
kesalahan kerana mengulang kata kerja yang sama.
c) Kesalahan struktur ayat majmuk relatif

7
. Wan Mohd Norudin Wan Kadir. 2006. Analisis Kesilapan Tatabahasa dalam karangan Bahasa Melayu: Satu Kajian
Kes. hlm .46.
8
Ibid. 2006. hlm. 47.
9
Wan Mohd Norudin Wan Kadir. 2006. Analisis Kesilapan Tatabahasa dalam karangan Bahasa Melayu: Satu Kajian Kes.
hlm. 62-63.
ILCC 2013
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d) Kesalahan struktur ayat majmuk komplemen. Kesalahan yang biasa dilakukan dalam
penulisan ayat majmuk komplemen ialah ayat tiada penanda (kata) komplemen iaitu
bahawa dan untuk.
e) Kesalahan struktur ayat majmuk keterangan. Ayat majmuk keterangan ialah ayat majmuk
yang terdiri daripada satu ayat induk dan satu ayat kecil atau lebih yang berfungsi sebagai
keterangan kepada predikat. Kesalahan yang sering dilakukan dalam penulisan ayat
majmuk ini ialah: tiada kata hubung yang berfungsi sebagai kata keterangan, penggunaan
kata hubung yang berfungsi sebagai penanda keterangan yang salah.
f) Kesalahan struktur ayat aktif
g) Kesalahan struktur ayat pasif
Wan Mohd Norudin (2006) seterusnya menyimpulkan bahawa, terdapat perbezaan kecil dala
m kekerapan kesalahan ayat antara pelajar lelaki dengan pelajar perempuan di Sekolah Menengah K
ebangsaan Seri Nering, Jerteh, Besut, Terengganu. Dapatan kajian beliau menunjukkan bahawa pela
jar lelaki lebih banyak melakukan kesalahan tatabahasa dalam aspek ayat tunggal dan ayat majmuk
(24.7%) berbanding dengan pelajar perempuan (21.7%).
Ahmad Shahril (1996) pula mendapati pelajar bahasa pertama melakukan kesalahan dari asp
ek perkataan, frasa dan ayat. Dapatan beliau membuktikan bahawa kesalahan aspek perkataan yang
paling banyak dilakukan oleh pelajar, diikuti kesalahan aspek frasa dan ayat.

Secara keseluruhannya, kajian-kajian yang diberikan di atas telah menggunakan kaedah anal
isis kesalahan dan memperlihatkan dapatan dalam bidang-bidang yang lebih terperinci seperti daera
h-daerah kesalahan, kekerapan jenis kesalahan dan penentuan punca-punca kesalahan. Berpandukan
kepada kajian-kajian tersebut, maka kajian ini cuba meninjau beberapa aspek kesalahan bahasa de
ngan penekanan kepada kesalahan ayat majmuk yang dilakukan oleh pelajar-pelajar asing dalam pe
nulisan karangan mereka.

Soalan Kajian
Kajian ini akan menganalisis dan meneliti jawapan bagi soalan-soalan kajian seperti berikut:
1. Apakah aspek kesalahan penggunaan ayat majmuk gabungan yang dilakukan oleh pelajar
asing dalam karangan mereka?
2. Apakah aspek kesalahan penggunaan ayat majmuk pancangan relatif yang dilakukan oleh
pelajar asing dalam karangan mereka?
3. Apakah aspek kesalahan penggunaan ayat majmuk pancangan komplemen yang dilakukan
oleh pelajar asing dalam karangan mereka?
4. Apakah aspek kesalahan penggunaan ayat majmuk pancangan keterangan yang dilakukan
oleh pelajar asing dalam karangan mereka?
5. Apakah aspek kesalahan penggunaan ayat majmuk campuran dalam karangan bahasa
Melayu pelajar asing?

Batasan Kajian
Kajian ini akan dibataskan dengan menganalisa dapatan berdasarkan aspek kesalahan berikut:
1. Ayat majmuk gabungan
2. Ayat majmuk pancangan relatif yang menggunakan kata hubung yang
3. Ayat majmuk pancangan komplemen yang menggunakan kata hubung bahawa dan
untuk
4. Ayat majmuk pancangan keterangan
5. Ayat majmuk campuran

Analisis Dapatan Kajian dan Perbincangan

Berdasarkan analisis yang dijalankan terhadap 41 sampel karangan daripada pelajar-pelajar
asing, didapati bahawa sebanyak 597 ayat tunggal dan ayat majmuk telah dihasilkan dalam karanga
n tersebut. Daripada jumlah tersebut, 316 atau 52.9 peratus terdiri daripada ayat majmuk. Hal ini
menunjukkan bahawa pelajar-pelajar asing mempunyai kebolehan membina ayat majmuk dan kera
p menggunakan ayat tersebut dalam penulisan karangan mereka. Kajian mendapati kesemua jenis a
yat majmuk telah dihasilkan oleh pelajar asing dengan kekerapan yang berbeza-beza seperti yang di
kategorikan dalam Jadual 1 di bawah.

Jadual 1 Ayat Majmuk yang dihasilkan oleh Penutur Asing dalam Karangan

Jenis Ayat Jumlah Ayat Jumlah Kesalahan
(%) (%)

Ayat Majmuk Gabungan 160 156
(50.6) (50.9)

Ayat Majmuk Campuran 74 70
(23.4) (22.8)

Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Keterangan 63 62
(19.9) (20.2)

Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Relatif 18 17
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(5.6) (5.5)

Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Komplemen 1 1
(0.3) (0.3)

JUMLAH KESELURUHAN 316 306
(100) (100)

Berdasarkan Jadual 1, kajian mendapati walaupun pelajar asing didapati kerap menghasilkan
ayat majmuk dalam karangan mereka namun dalam masa yang sama, kekerapan kesalahan yang dit
emui dalam setiap ayat majmuk berkenaan juga adalah tinggi. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa
sebanyak 306 atau 96.2 % daripada 316 ayat majmuk yang dihasilkan oleh pelajar asing mengalami
kesalahan daripada pelbagai aspek. Perbezaan dalam kekerapan membentuk ayat majmuk mengikut
jenis juga didapati selari dengan dapatan perbezaan kekerapan dalam kesalahan yang dilakukan me
ngikut jenis ayat majmuk tersebut. Kajian mendapati faktor utama yang menyebabkan pelajar asing
gemar membentuk ayat majmuk gabungan adalah disebabkan proses pemajmukannya yang mudah.
Ayat majmuk campuran pula yang kedua kerap dibentuk oleh pelajar asing dengan peratus kekerapa
n sebanyak 23.4%, ayat majmuk keterangan sebanyak 19.9% dan ayat majmuk pancangan relatif se
banyak 5.26%. Namun begitu, kajian mendapati hanya satu sahaja ayat majmuk komplemen dihasil
kan daripada 41 sampel yang dikaji dan dapatan ini diperolehi daripada sampel ketiga (S3) dalam p
enulisan ayat ketiga (A3) dengan peratus kekerapan sebanyak 0.3%.

Abdullah Hassan (2006) menggunakan pendekatan tatabahasa pedagogi dalam kajiannya ten
tang sintaksis bahasa Melayu. Beliau berpendapat bahawa kesalahan sintaksis bermaksud pembentu
kan ayat yang menyalahi atau menyimpang daripada rumus-rumus struktur ayat yang betul dan sesu
ai dengan sesuatu bahasa. Kesalahan ayat ini mencakupi kesalahan klausa, dan ayat. Kesalahan ayat
juga terjadi akibat daripada ketidaktepatan dalam penggunaan bentuk-bentuk kata dan frasa tertentu
yang mendokong kegramatisan dalam binaan sesebuah ayat. Berdasarkan penyataan di atas, kesala
han pembentukan ayat majmuk oleh pelajar asing dalam kajian ini telah dianalisis dan dikelompokk
an ke dalam beberapa aspek kesalahan. Antaranya ialah:
a. kekeliruan /ketidakjelasan struktur ayat
b. penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat
c. penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat
d. Ejaan
e. penggunaan kata saduran
f. Ortografi (tanda baca dan huruf besar)
g. Pemilihan kosa kata yang tidak tepat/sesuai

Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Gabungan

Jadual 2 Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Gabungan

Jenis Kesalahan Kekerapan Peratusan

Kekeliruan/ketidakjelasan struktur ayat 42 15.6

Penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat 38 14.2

Penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat 46 17.1

Ejaan 72 26.1

Ortografi 36 14.4

Penggunaan kata saduran 15 5.5

JUMLAH 249 100

Soalan kajian yang pertama akan dapat dijawab berdasarkan data-data yang telah dianalisis
dalam Jadual 2 di atas. Setelah dianalisis kesemua 156 ayat majmuk gabungan yang didapati menga
lami kesalahan, kajian mendapati terdapat sekurang-kurangnya dua kesalahan dalam setiap ayat ber
kenaan malah terdapat juga ayat yang mengandungi antara empat hingga lima kesalahan. Kesalahan
yang paling kerap ditemui ialah aspek ejaan dengan peratus kekerapan tertinggi sebanyak 26.1%.
Kebanyakan ayat majmuk gabungan yang dihasilkan juga didapati mengandungi kesalahan kata ker
ja seperti tidak mengandungi penanda pasif atau aktif (imbuhan), tidak sesuai malah ada juga ayat y
ang langsung tidak mempunyai kata kerja sehingga mencatat kesalahan kedua tertinggi dengan pera
tus kekerapan sebanyak 17.1%. Kesalahan dari aspek struktur ayat pula mencatat kesalahan ketiga t
ertinggi iaitu 15.6%, apabila kebanyakan ayat majmuk gabungan yang dihasilkan mengalami kecela
ruan susunan antara menggabungkan unsur subjek/predikat ayat utama dengan subjek/predikat ayat
ke-2 dan ke-3 sehingga menjejaskan makna ayat secara keseluruhan.

Pelajar asing juga didapati tidak dapat menguasai makna kata hubung dan konteks penggun
aannya yang sebenar dan hal ini menjadi faktor yang menyumbang kepada kesalahan memilih kata
hubung yang sesuai dengan konteks ayat. Oleh sebab itu, kesalahan kata hubung mencatat peratus k
ekerapan sebanyak 14.2%. Aspek kesalahan ortografi (14.4%) memperlihatkan pelajar asing gagal
menggunakan tanda koma dan tanda nokhtah pada tempat yang sepatutnya di dalam ayat majmuk m
anakala aspek kesalahan kata saduran (5.5%) dikenal pasti apabila pelajar menggunakan secara lang
sung perkataan-perkataan dalam bahasa asing terutamanya bahasa Inggeris.

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Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Gabungan
Jadual 3 : Contoh Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Gabungan
Sampel Contoh Ayat Pembetulan
S15
(A5)
Di situ banyak barang dan makanan
jual antaranya, beg, kasut, pakaian,
buah-buahan, sayur-sayuran dan
macam-macam lagi.
Barangan serta makanan banyak dijual di
situ seperti beg, kasut, pakaian, buah-
buahan, sayur-sayuran dan sebagainya.
S23
(A17)
Tetapi saya membeli setiap hari di kafe
saya.
Harga makanan itu mahal tetapi saya tetap
membelinya di kafe setiap hari.
S23
(A5)
Nasi goreng di Kantin saya sangat sedap
dan sangat pedas.
Nasi goreng di kantin saya sangat sedap
tetapi sangat pedas.
S25
(A7)
Antaranya, nasi goreng kampung dan
nasi goreng ayam,
Antara makanan tersebut ialah nasi
goreng kampung dan nasi goreng ayam.
S25
(A14)
Sini, kamu makan setiap hari, nasi putih
dan ikan pedas dan daging.
Kami makan nasi putih, ikan pedas dan
daging di sini setiap hari.

Berdasarkan Jadual 3, contoh kesalahan bagi sampel ke-15 dalam ayat kelima (A5),
pengulangan kata hubung setara dan yang membawa makna yang sama dalam ayat berkenaan.
Mengikut Tatabahasa Dewan Edisi Baharu (2004), jika kata hubung dan telah digunakan untuk kali
pertama dan ingin menggunakannya lagi dalam ayat yang sama, maka kata dan tersebut perlu
digantikan dengan kata serta untuk menunjukkan tujuan yang sama. Selain itu, kesalahan-
kesalahan lain seperti tidak mempunyai penanda pasif untuk kata kerja jual dan kesalahan susunan
struktur ayat juga berlaku dalam ayat ini.

Kesalahan ayat 17 dalam sampel ke-23 dan ayat 14 dalam sampel ke-25 pula, kesalahan
struktur ayat menyebabkan kedua-dua ayat majmuk tersebut tidak gramatis. A17 tidak mempunyai
subjek dan predikat ayat utama serta dimulai dengan kata hubung tetapi. Pengkaji mendapati hal ini
berlaku disebabkan ayat utama (Harga makanan itu mahal.) telah ditulis sebagai ayat tunggal di
dalam ayat sebelumnya. Maka, pembetulan A17 dilakukan dengan memasukkan unsur berkenaan
supaya pembentukan ayat majmuk gabungan tersebut lebih tepat dan gramatis. A14 pula mengalami
kesalahan struktur atau susunan ayat yang agak mengelirukan. Proses penyongsangan atau
pendepanan predikat serta penggunaan kata nama juga tidak tepat. Berikut diberikan pecahan ayat
yang betul bagi ayat majmuk A14:
Ayat utama: Kami makan nasi putih di sini setiap hari.
Ayat ke-2: Kami makan ikan pedas di sini setiap hari.
Ayat ke-3: Kami makan daging di sini setiap hari.

Ayat majmuk gabungan - penyongsanan separa predikat: Setiap hari kami makan nasi putih, ikan
pedas dan daging di sini.

Ayat majmuk -penyongsangan penuh predikat: Di sini setiap hari kami makan nasi putih, ikan
pedas dan daging.

Sampel ke-23 dalam ayat kelima (A5) pula dikesan mengandungi kata hubung dan yang
tidak tepat kerana kata hubung dan bertujuan menunjukkan keadaan setara. Dalam hal ini, kata
hubung tetapi yang merujuk keadaan pertentangan adalah lebih tepat digunakan bagi mendukung
makna dalam konteks ayat berkenaan.

Kesalahan tanda baca (koma) dikesan terdapat dalam ayat ketujuh (A7) bagi sampel ke-25
yang menunjukkan bahawa tanda baca seperti koma sangat penting dalam pembentukan ayat
majmuk gabungan. Ini disebabkan terdapat juga tanda koma yang boleh menggantikan kehadiran
kata hubung (yang digugurkan) dalam ayat majmuk. Bagi ayat A7, tanda koma yang pertama tidak
perlu diletakkan dan lebih gramatis digantikan dengan kata pemeri ialah manakala tanda koma yang
kedua pula sepatutnya digantikan dengan tanda nokhtah. Kesalahan lain ialah penggunaan kata
ganti nama kamu dan kesalahan predikat yang tidak tepat.
Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Relatif
Jadual 4 Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Relatif

Jenis Kesalahan Kekerapan Peratusan

Kekeliruan/ketidakjelasan struktur ayat 8 17.2

Penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat 4 8.5

Penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat 5 10.6

Ejaan 7 14.8

Ortografi 8 17.2

Penggunaan kata saduran 2 4.2

Pemilihan kosa kata yang tidak tepat/sesuai 13 27.6

JUMLAH 47 100

Data-data yang diperoleh dalam Jadual 4 di atas akan menjawab soalan kajian yang kedua.
Kajian mendapati sebanyak 47 kesalahan ayat majmuk pancangan dilakukan oleh pelajar asing dan
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kesalahan tertinggi ialah aspek pemilihan kosa kata yang tidak tepat atau sesuai dengan maksud
ayat dengan peratus kekerapan sebanyak 27.6%. Kesalahan struktur ayat dan ortografi pula
kesalahan kedua kerap dilakukan dengan peratus kekerapan kedua-duanya ialah 17.2%. Hal ini
diikuti oleh kesalahan aspek ejaan (14.8%), penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat (10.6%),
penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat (8.5%) dan kesalahan penggunaan kata saduran sebanyak
4.2%. Dapatan ini menunjukkan bahawa pelajar agak kurang menggunakan ayat jenis relatif ini
berbanding ayat majmuk gabungan yang berkemungkinan disebabkan oleh proses pemancangannya
yang agak kompleks. Hal ini dapat dilihat apabila kesilapan pemilihan kosa kata yang tidak
tepat/sesuai sebagai kata tugas menyebabkan ayat-ayat kecil tidak dapat dipancangkan dengan tepat
ke dalam ayat induk menggunakan penanda relatif yang.
Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Relatif
J adual 5 : Contoh Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Relatif
Sampel Contoh Ayat Pembetulan
S6
(A1)
Suaku hari dalam kehidupan saya yang
saya sangat gembira ialah hari yang saya
pergi berkila di pantai dengan keluarga
saya.
Hari yang sangat gembira dalam hidup
saya adalah berkelah di tepi pantai dengan
keluarga.
S7
(A10)
Saya akan makan tengah hari pukul 2.00
dengan kawan-kawan saya di baru Kafe
di Azman Hashim Kompleks di dalam
university islam Antarabangsa Malaysia.
Saya akan makan tengah hari pada pukul
dua petang dengan kawan-kawan di kafe
baharu yang terletak di Kompleks Azman
Hashim, Universiti Islam Antarabangsa
Malaysia.
S8
(A9)
Kita maka Nasi Goreng Ayam Kunyit,
itu sangat lazat.
Kami makan nasi goreng ayam kunyit
yang sangat lazat itu.

Berdasarkan Jadual 5, ayat majmuk relatif (A1) yang ditulis oleh sampel keenam (S6) pula
dikesan mengandungi kesalahan utama dari aspek pengulangan subjek (nata nama) saya yang
sepatutnya digugurkan apabila memancangkan ayat kecil ke dalam ayat induk. Bentuk sebenar ayat
tersebut setelah dibetulkan adalah seperti berikut:
Ayat induk: Hari itu saya pergi berkelah di tepi pantai dengan keluarga.
Ayat kecil: Hari itu sangat gembira dalam hidup saya.
Ayat majmuk relatif: Hari yang sangat gembira dalam hidup saya adalah pergi berkelah di tepi
pantai dengan keluarga.
Ayat bergaris dalam contoh di atas ialah ayat kecil yang dipancangakan ke dalam ayat induk
setelah subjek digugurkan. Kesalahan lain yang dikesan ialah pengulangan penanda relatif yang.
Sampel ketujuh (S7) dalam ayat ke-10 (A10) pula, dikesan mengandungi kesalahan
ketiadaan kata hubung pancangan yang untuk memancangkan ayat kecil. Bentuk asal A10 setelah
dibetulkan adalah seperti berikut:
Ayat induk: Saya akan makan tengah hari pada pukul dua dengan kawan-kawan di kafe baharu.
Ayat kecil: Kafe baharu itu terletak di Kompleks Azman Hashim, Universiti Islam Antarabangsa
Malaysia.
Ayat majmuk relatif: Saya akan makan tengah hari pada pukul dua petang dengan kawan-kawan di
kafe baharu yang terletak di Kompleks Azman Hashim, Universiti Islam
Antarabangsa Malaysia.
Bagi kesalahan ayat relatif A15 dalam karangan sampel kelapan (S8) pula, didapati
mengandungi kesalahan ketiadaan kata hubung serta kesalahan tanda koma sehingga
menjadikannya ayat tergantung. A15 akan menjadi lengkap dan gramatis apabila kata hubung yang
diletakkan selepas ayat induk. Contoh pecahan A15 adalah seperti berikut:
Ayat induk: Kami makan nasi goreng ayam kunyit itu.
Ayat kecil: Nasi goreng ayam kunyit itu sangat lazat
Ayat majmuk relative: Kami makan nasi goreng ayam kunyit yang sangat lazat itu.
Berdasarkan contoh-contoh kesalahan aspek relatif ini, kajian dapat mengenal pasti bahawa
proses pemancangan ayat kecil kepada ayat induk yang agak rumit dalam pembentukan ayat
majmuk pancangan relatif telah menyebabkan pelajar asing sering keliru dalam membuat susunan
yang tepat dan betul. Mereka juga didapati kurang memahami maksud kata hubung relatif dan gagal
menggunakannya dalam konteks pemancangan relatif yang sebenar.
Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Keterangan
Jadual 6 Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Keterangan

Jenis Kesalahan Kekerapan Peratusan

Kekeliruan/ketidakjelasan struktur ayat 21 20.1

Penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat 17 16.3

Penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat 11 10.5

Ejaan 23 22.1

Ortografi 14 13.4

Penggunaan kata saduran 7 6.7

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Pemilihan kosa kata yang kurang tepat/sesuai 11 10.5

JUMLAH 104 100

Seterusnya, soalan kajian yang ketiga akan dijawab oleh data-data yang ditunjukkan dalam
Jadual 6 di atas. Kajian menunjukkan bahawa kesalahan aspek ejaan ialah kesalahan tertinggi
dalam pembentukan ayat majmuk keterangan oleh pelajar asing dengan peratus kekerapan sebanyak
22.1%. Kesalahan aspek struktur ayat pula ialah kesalahan kedua kerap dilakukan (20.1%), diikuti
oleh kesalahan penggunaan kata hubung (16.3%), Ortografi (13.4%), kesalahan kata kerja dan
pemilihan kosa kata yang tidak tepat/sesuai dengan peratus kekerapan yang sama (10.5%) serta
penggunaan kata saduran sebanyak 6.7%. Kajian turut mendapati pelajar asing lebih banyak
menggunakan ayat majmuk keterangan dalam penulisan karangan terutama pancangan keterangan
waktu seperti apabila, setelah, ketika dan semejak; pancangan keterangan tujuan (untuk),
keterangan musabab (kerana) dan keterangan syarat (jika).
Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Keterangan
Jadual : Contoh Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Pancangan Keterangan oleh Pelajar Asing
Sampel Contoh Ayat Pembetulan
S2
(A9)
Bila habis buat alyer-layer dalam periut,
kamu mesti masukan lasagna dalam
oven dalam masa 45 min.
Lasagna hendaklah dimasukkan ke dalam
ketuhar selama 45 minit setelah anda
selesai membuat lapisan di dalam periuk.
S11
(A12)
Saya keluar bilik saya, saya pergi ke
kullyyah untuk kelas pagi.
Saya keluar dari bilik untuk ke kelas pagi
di kuliyyah.
S13
(20)
Apabila sudah saya membaca buku
sampai waktu.
Saya membaca buku apabila selesai
makan petang.
S24
(A6)

Jika saya tindak ada kelas, saya sebagai
untuk ke perpustakaan.
Saya akan ke perpustakaan sekiranya
tidak ada kelas.
S26
(A14)
Ibu saya rasa baik sebab ingin datang. Ibu saya sangat baik kerana mahu datang.

Berdasarkan Jadual 7 di atas, kajian mendapati kesalahan utama yang terdapat dalam ayat
majmuk keterangan bagi sampel kedua (S2) dalam ayat kesembilan (A9) ialah penggunaan kata
tanya bila yang digunakan sebagai kata hubung. Kata hubung yang sepatutnya digunakan ialah
setelah. Selain itu, terdapat beberapa kesalahan lain yang turut dikesan dalam A9 seperti:
1. pemilihan kata tugas habis dan mesti yang kurang tepat. Perkataan tersebut harus
digantikan dengan selesai digantikan dengan hendaklah
2. penggunaan kata ganti nama kamu yang kurang tepat dan sepatutnya digantikan dengan
kata ganti nama anda
3. ortografi contohnya ejaan perkataan periut yang sepatutnya ialah periuk
4. kata saduran daripada bahasa kedua (bahasa Inggeris) seperti oven digantikan dengan
ketuhar dan min sebagai minit.
Maka, pemajmukan yang tepat bagi ayat ini adalah seperti berikut:
Ayat Utama: Anda telah selesai membuat lapisan di dalam periuk.
Ayat kecil: Anda hendaklah memasukkan lasagna ke dalam ketuhar selama 45 minit.
Bentuk aktif: Anda hendaklah memasukkan lasagna ke dalam ketuhar selama 45 minit setelah
selesai membuat lapisan di dalam periuk.
Bentuk pasif: Lasagna hendaklah dimasukkan ke dalam periuk selama 45 minit setelah anda
selesai membuat lapisan di dalam periuk.
Pengulangan subjek (kata ganti nama saya) dalam ayat kecil yang tidak digugurkan dalam
proses pemancangan menyebabkan pembentukan A11 yang ditulis oleh sampel ke-11 (S11) tidak
gramatis. Kesalahan lain ialah penggunaan tanda koma yang digunakan sepatutnya digantikan
dengan kata hubung tertentu. Dalam hal ini, kata hubung untuk digunakan untuk menunjukkan
tujuan di bahagian pembetulan ayat supaya dapat memberikan ketepatan makna bagi ayat tersebut.

Ayat keterangan A20 yang dibentik oleh sampel ke-13 pula mengalami kesalahan dari
aspek struktur ayat apabila kata hubung apabila hanya menerangkan predikat yang tidak lengkap
iaitu sudah. Dalam hal ini, ayat sebelumnya yang ditulis oleh pelajar dalam karangan yang dikaji
telah dirujuk untuk memperoleh maklumat bahagian predikat supaya pembetulan ayat dapat
dilakukan. Kajian mendapati bahawa predikat sudah dalam A20 merujuk predikat makan petang.
Maka, pembetulan ayat dibuat dengan memancangkan predikat makan petang ke dalam ayat induk.
Sementara bagi frasa sampai waktu pula, pengkaji tidak dapat mengesan makna sebenar yang
ingin disampaikan oleh pelajar dalam A20. Maka, frasa ini digugurkan dalam pembetulan ayat.

Begitu juga dengan sampel ke-24 dalam ayat keenam (A6) dan sampel ke-26 ayat kesepuluh
(A10) yang dibentuk menggunakan kata hubung yang kurang tepat. Kata hubung jika dianggap
tidak tepat kerana fungsinya yang menunjukkan maksud kemungkinan. Oleh itu, kata hubung yang
sesuai menggantikan jika ialah kata hubung sekiranya bagi menunjukkan keterangan syarat. Dalam
hal A10 pula, penggunaan kata sebab dianggap tidak tepat kerana perkataan tersebut tergolong ke
dalam jenis kata nama serta tidak boleh berfungsi sebagai kata hubung. Kata hubung yang sesuai
menggantikannya ialah kerana. Kata sebab hanya boleh digunakan sebagai kata hubung jika
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disertai dengan kata sendi oleh yang apabila digabungkan menjadi oleh sebab. Kata
hubung kerana pula tidak boleh digabungkan dengan kata oleh menjadi oleh kerana disebabkan
kata tersebut memang jenis kata hubung. Selain itu, kata oleh sebab juga tidak boleh dijadikan
sebagai kata hubung di awal ayat kerana kata tersebut tidak terdapat dalam Bahasa Melayu.
Analisis aspek kesalahan ayat majmuk keterangan ini mendapati pelajar asing kerap
membina ayat majmuk keterangan dengan pendepanan separa predikat serta mengutamakan kata
kerja tanpa imbuhan. Faktor ini disebabkan oleh pemindahan bahasa daripada bahasa pertama iaitu
bahasa ibunda serta bahasa kedua (bahasa Inggeris) yang menjadi gangguan dalam proses penulisan
karangan tersebut.
Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Campuran
J adual 8 : Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Campuran

Jenis Kesalahan Kekerapan Peratusan

Kekeliruan/ketidakjelasan struktur ayat 18 13.2

Penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat 22 16.1

Penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat 26 19.1

Ejaan 27 19.8

Ortografi 14 10.2

Penggunaan kata saduran 8 5.8

Penggunaan kosa kata yang tidak tepat/sesuai 21 15.4

JUMLAH 136 100

Soalan kajian yang keempat akan dijawab berdasarkan data-data kajian yang diperoleh dala
m Jadual 8 di atas. Jadual 8 menunjukkan kesalahan aspek ejaan masih dikenal pasti sebagai aspek
kesalahan yang tertinggi iaitu dengan peratus kekerapan sebanyak 19.8% dalam pembentukan ayat
majmuk pancangan keterangan oleh pelajar asing. Selain itu, kesalahan aspek kata kerja yang kedua
tertinggi (19.1%) apabila pelajar gagal memberikan penanda imbuhan pasif kepada kata kerja yang
digunakan dalam ayat majmuk pancangan keterangan pasif. Hal ini diikuti oleh kesalahan aspek kat
a hubung (16.1%), kesalahan kosa kata yang tidak tepat/sesuai (15.4%), kesalahan struktur ayat (13.
2%) dan kesalahan ortografi (10.2%). Pengkaji mendapati, pelajar asing mempunyai kecenderungan
menggunakan ayat majmuk campuran yang mempunyai bentuk paling kompleks dalam bahasa Mel
ayu dan hal ini menunjukkan satu pencapaian yang agak membanggakan walaupun kekerapan kesal
ahan turut dikesan dalam setiap ayat yang dihasilkan.

Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Campuran
Jadual 9 : Contoh Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Campuran
Sampel Contoh Ayat Pembetulan
S10
(A9)
Saya sembahyang Suhur di masjid dan
saya pergi ke kulliyah saya untuk belajar
bahasa Arabic.
Saya pergi ke kuliyah untuk belajar
bahasa Arab setelah bersembahyang
Zohor di masjid.
S30
(A11)
Saya rindu makanan ibubanyak kerana
bila saya datang pelajar sini dan saya
tidak telah makan makanan dari pada
ibu.
Saya rindu akan makanan yang dimasak
oleh ibu kerana tidak pernah lagi
merasainya semenjak belajar di sini.
S38
(A4)
Kedua saya suka roti canai, sebab ini
makan sama roti di negri saya, ini roti,
saya hari hari makan sebab saya tak
mahu lupar negri, dan lagi, roti ada
banyak nama-nama, misalnya roti boom.
Roti canai mempunyai pelbagai nama
seperti roti bom, dan saya suka
memakannya setiap hari supaya tidak
melupakan negara saya kerana makanan
itu juga terdapat di sana.

Proses pembentukan ayat majmuk campuran dalam bahasa Melayu agak rumit kerana ayat i
ni mengandungi lebih daripada satu jenis ayat, iaitu terdiri daripada campuran ayat tunggal dengan
ayat majmuk atau deretan berbagai-bagai-bagai jenis ayat majmuk. Oleh sebab pembentukannya ya
ng agak rumit, kecenderungan melakukan kesalahan dalam pembinaan ayat tersebut oleh pelajar asi
ng adalah tinggi. Dalam Jadual 9 di atas, ayat kesembilan (A9) bagi sampel kesepuluh (S10) menun
jukkan kesalahan utama yang berlaku dalam ayat majmuk campuran tersebut adalah pemilihan kata
hubung yang tidak tepat. Terdapat juga kesalahan-kesalahan lain yang dikesan dalam A10 iaitu kata
kerja yang tidak lengkap sepserti sembahyang yang digantikan dengan kata kerja tidak transitif ber
sembahyang, pengulangan subjek kata ganti nama saya yang sepatutnya digugurkan apabila ayat ke
cil dipancangkan ke dalam ayat induk, kesalahan ejaan kata Suhur dibetulkan menjadi Zohor dan
kata saduran bahasa Inggeris Arabic yang sepatutnya dieja sebagai Arab.

Ayat A11 bagi sampel ke-30 dan ayat A4 bagi sampel ke-38 dikenal pasti mengandungi kes
alahan utama dari aspek struktur ayat selain turut mengalami kesalahan-kesalahan lain iaitu penggu
naan kata hubung yang tidak tepat iaitu kerana, bila (kata tanya) serta dan yang tidak dapat member
i makna sebenar terhadap ayat yang hendak disampaikan selain kesalahan aspek ejaan seperti ibuba
nyak (sepatutnya dieja secara terpisah) , roti boom (sepatutnya roti bom) dan akhir sekali kesalahan
tanda baca (koma) yang terlalu banyak dan ketara. Tanda koma tersebut sepatutnya digantikan deng
an kata hubung dan, supaya serta kerana untuk memberikan maksud sebenar ayat dan lebih gramati
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s. Ayat A38 dicerakinkan dan dibentuk semula untuk tujuan pembetulan seeperti berikut:
Ayat Asal: Terdapat pelbagai jenis roti canai seperti roti bom.
Ayat majmuk: Saya suka makan roti canai setiap hari supaya boleh mengingati negara saya kerana
makanan itu juga terdapat di sana.
Ayat majmuk campuran: Roti canai mempunyai pelbagai nama seperti roti bom, dan saya suka
memakannya setiap hari agar tidak melupakan negara saya kerana
makanan itu juga terdapat di sana.
Kekeliruan susunan struktur ayat A38 dikenal pasti berpunca daripada aspek pemindahan
bahasa oleh sampel dengan mengambil bentuk susunan yang terdapat dalam struktur bahasa ibunda
serta bahasa kedua mereka iaitu bahasa Inggeris. Contohnya penekanan keterangan sebab kepada
subjek dalam frasa ...sebab ini makan sama roti di negri saya, penekanan aspek kata tunjuk di
hadapan kata nama dalam frasa ...ini roti, penekanan keterangan subjek di hadapan kata nama
dalam frasa ...saya hari hari makan sebab saya tak mahu lupar negri, penekanan kata hubung
lewah dalam frasa ...dan lagi, serta kesalahan penanda jamak dalam frasa ...roti ada banyak nama-
nama, dan kesalahan kata saduran iaitu roti boom.

Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Secara Keseluruhan
Jadual 10 Aspek Kesalahan Ayat Majmuk Secara Keseluruhan

Jenis Kesalahan Kekerapan Peratusan

Kekeliruan/ketidakjelasan struktur ayat 89 15.9

Penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat 102 18.3

Penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat 88 15.7

Ejaan 129 23.1

Ortografi 72 12.9

Penggunaan kata saduran 32 5.7

Pemilihan kosa kata yang kurang tepat/sesuai 45 8.0

JUMLAH 557 100

Berdasarkan Jadual 10, secara keseluruhannya kajian mendapati bahawa kekerapan kesalaha
n yang dilakukan oleh pelajar asing dalam pembentukan ayat majmuk ialah sebanyak 557 kali darip
ada 156 ayat majmuk yang telah dikenal pasti sebagai salah. Aspek kesalahan yang paling kerap dil
akukan ialah kesalahan aspek ejaan dengan kekerapan sebanyak 129 atau peratus kekerapan sebany
ak 23.1%. Kesalahan kedua tertinggi pula ialah kesalahan aspek penggunaan kata hubung yang tida
k tepat dalam ayat majmuk yang dihasilkan dengan kekerapan sebanyak 102 kali atau 18.3%, kesala
han aspek struktur ayat (15.9%), penggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat (15.7%), kesalahan ortogra
fi (12.9%), pemilihan kosa kata yang tepat /sesuai (8.0%) dan kesalahan menggunakan kata saduran
sebayak 5.7%. Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa setiap ayat mengandungi lebih daripada s
atu kesalahan dan purata kesalahan tersebut ialah tiga kesalahan bagi setiap satu ayat.

Perbincangan
Kajian yang telah dijalankan terhadap 41 sampel karangan yang ditulis oleh pelajar asing ya
ng mengambil kursus Bahasa Melayu II untuk Pelajar Asing (LM 1011) ini mendapati bahawa mere
ka telah melakukan kesalahan ayat majmuk gabungan, ayat majmuk pancangan relatif, pancangan k
eterangan dan ayat majmuk campuran. Kesalahan yang mengandungi kekerapan paling tinggi ialah
ayat majmuk gabungan diikuti oleh ayat majmuk keterangan, ayat majmuk campuran, dan pancanga
n relatif manakala hanya satu sahaja bentuk ayat majmuk komplemen ditemui dalam penulisan kara
ngan tersebut. Dapatan ini selaras dengan kajian yang telah dilakukan oleh Money (2004), Arpan S
hahbudin Latip (1998) dan Wan Mohd Norudin Wan Kadir (2006).

Kajian telah mengenal pasti beberapa aspek kesalahan ayat majmuk yang terdapat dalam kar
angan pelajar asing iaitu kesalahan aspek struktur ayat, penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat, p
enggunaan kata kerja yang tidak tepat, ejaan, ortografi, kata saduran dan pemilihan kosa kata yang t
idak tepat/sesuai. Kesalahan-kesalahan tersebut telah menyebabkan kebanyakan ayat majmuk yang
dihasilkan mempunyai sifat tergantung atau tidak lengkap serta mempunyai makna yang sukar untu
k ditanggapi oleh pengkaji. Aspek ejaan pula telah dikenal pasti sebagai kesalahan utama dalam kes
emua jenis ayat majmuk yang dihasilkan oleh pelajar asing dan menjadi punca utama ayat tersebut t
idak boleh dianggap gramatis. Dapatan yang sama pernah diperoleh oleh Wyatt (1973) berhubung k
esalahan aspek ejaan. Hal ini disebabkan sesuatu ayat yang gramatis haruslah mematuhi hukum-huk
um tatabahasa yang telah ditetapkan dan perkara tersebut termasuklah ejaan yang lengkap, tepat da
n betul. Begitu juga dengan kesalahan aspek penggunaan kata hubung yang tidak tepat. Pelajar asin
g didapati gagal memahami makna kata hubung serta konteks penggunaannya dalam ayat sehingga
menyebabkan masalah ini berlaku. Aspek-aspek kesalahan yang diperoleh dalam kajian ini selaras d
engan dapatan kajian oleh Corder (1973) dan Pengiran Mahmud Pengiran Damit (1992: 232).

Tafsiran selanjutnya yang dapat dibuat berdasarkan analisis kesalahan ayat majmuk oleh pel
ajar asing dalam penulisan karangan mereka ialah pelajar asing lemah dalam kemahiran membina a
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yat majmuk yang kompleks bentuknya. Kajian juga mendapati kegagalan menanggapi makna dan k
onteks penggunaan kata hubung menjadi penyebab kepada kecelaruan serta kekeliruan penyusunan
struktur ayat majmuk. Pelajar asing lemah dalam membentuk ayat majmuk kerana mereka gagal me
mancangkan beberapa ayat kecil dengan teratur selain kesalahan pemilihan kata tugas yang betul, p
enggunaan kata jamak yang tidak sesuai dan pemilihan kata kerja dengan penanda pasif atau aktif.
Kelemahan aspek ini selaras dengan dapatan kajian Awang Mohd Amin (1982), Supian (1994) dan
Arpan Shahbudin Latip (1998).

Pelajar asing juga didapati kerap melakukan kesalahan dalam aspek pembentukan ayat maj
muk ini disebabkan proses pembentukan ayat majmuk yang mengikut struktur pembentukan ayat da
lam bahasa ibunda serta bahasa kedua (bahasa Inggeris) mereka. Kesalahan tersebut dikenal pasti m
elalui pengguguran aspek imbuhan dalam kata kerja, penekanan frasa kerja, dan pengulangan kata n
ama (subjek) yang menyamai struktur pembentukan ayat dalam bahasa Inggeris iaitu noun+verbs. .
Hal ini berbeza dengan pembentukan ayat dalam bahasa Melayu kerana wujudnya pola-pola ayat (4
pola) yang perlu diikuti untuk membentuk ayat-ayat dasar dan ayat majmuk yang gramatis. Selain i
tu, penggunaan kata hubung relatif yang mana juga dikenal pasti hasil saduran daripada versi Ingger
isnya iaitu which is. Hal ini menunjukkan bahawa berlakunya pemindahan bahasa oleh pelajar asing
yang menggunakan pengetahuan dalam bahasa kedua mereka (bahasa Inggeris) untuk membentuk
ayat majmuk berkenaan. Dapatan ini mempunyai persamaan dengan dapatan kajian oleh Schacter (1
974: 205-214) tentang pemindahan bahasa yang berlaku dalam kalangan penutur bahasa kedua dan
Mohd. Sallehuddin (1983).
Kesimpulan
Kajian tentang analisis kesilapan ayat majmuk oleh pelajar asing boleh dikatakan satu aspek
kajian bahasa yang agak mencabar kerana ayat majmuk itu sendiri mempunyai kepelbagaian bentuk
dan struktur binaannya yang agak kompleks serta rumit. Penelitian yang mendalam diperlukan bagi
memastikan kajian ini dapat mencapai tujuan atau matlamatnya. Secara jelas, pengkaji mendapati
bahawa kajian ini telah berjaya memberikan gambaran mengenai penggunaan ayat majmuk serta
kesalahan-kesalahan yang berlaku dalam pembentukan ayat tersebut dalam kalangan penutur asing
yang mempelajari bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa asing di UIAM. Walaupun terdapat batasan
dalam kajian ini, diharapkan dapatan yang diperoleh boleh memberikan sumbangan kepada institusi
pendidikan tinggi tempatan yang menawarkan kursus bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa asing terutama
tenaga pengajar bahasa Melayu yang bakal mengajar tentang proses-proses pembentukan dan
penggunaan ayat majmuk kepada pelajar-pelajar asing di dalam kelas. Dapatan ini dianggap sangat
berguna dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran kerana aspek kelemahan pelajar asing telah
dikenal pasti dan pelbagai pihak boleh mencari jalan penyelesaian untuk mengatasi daerah
kelemahan tersebut bagi meningkatkan penguasaan pelajar asing dalam aspek pembentukan ayat
majmuk pada masa depan. Pengkaji berharap agar kajian-kajian seperti ini dapat diteruskan dari
semasa ke semasa untuk memberikan pendedahan lebih lanjut bagi meningkatkan dan
memantapkan penguasaan aspek tatabahasa dalam kalangan pelajar asing yang sedang mengikuti
kursus bahasa Melayu di negara ini.

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. Tesis sarjana yang tidak diterbitkan. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya.

Lim, S. N. (2001). An error analysis of the use past tense in French by Malay students. Tesis sarjana yang tidak diterbitk
an. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya.

Loi, Chek Kim. (2001). An error analysis of English prepsitions in the written work of upper secondary Malay students.
Tesis sarjana yang tidak diterbitkan. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya.

Maicusi, T., Maicusi, P. & Lopez, M.J.C. (2000). The error in the second language acquisition. Encuento Revista de Inv
estigacion Innovacion en la Clase de Idiomas, 11, pp. 168-173.

Marzalina Mansor. (2004). Stail pembelajaran bahasa melayu sebagai bahasa asing di kalangan pelajar luar negara. Tesi
s sarjana yang tidak diterbitkan. Serdang: Universiti Putra Malaysia.

Md. Daud Taha. (1992). Masalah penguasaan bahasa Melayu di kalangan pelajar Melayu di tingkatan menengah atas di
negara Brunei Darussalam. Tesis sarjana yang tidak diterbitkan. Serdang: Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Moghimizadeh, R. P. (2008). The study of syntactic avoidance on the written production of persian university students
majoring in teaching english as a foreign language. Disertasi tidak diterbitkan. Pulau Pinang: Universiti Sains
Malaysia.

Mohd Shahril Rajain. (1996). Analisis kesalahan bahasa Melayu di kalangan pelajar-pelar Tingkatan Enam di sekolah m
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Money, J. N. J. S. (2004). Kesalahan bahasa dalam karangan murid Tamil yang mempelajari bahasa Melayu di sekolah
menengah. Tesis PhD. yang tidak diterbitkan. Serdang: Universiti Putra Malaysia.

Muhammed Salehudin Aman. (1993). Analisis kesalahan tatabahasa bahasa Melayu di kalangan pelajar sekolah meneng
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Najeeb, Z. M. (2007). An error analysis of spelling mistakes of English at Baghdad University. Tesis sarjana yang tidak
diterbitkan. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya.

Nik Safiah Karim, Farid M. On, Hashim Hj. Musa & Abdul Hamid Mahmood. (2003). Tatabahasa dewan edisi baharu.
Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

ILCC 2013
394

Nik Safiah Karim, Farid M. Onn, Hashim Haji Musa, Abdul Hamid Mahmood. 2009. Tatabahasa
Dewan Edisi Ketiga. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

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an.

Saw, K. L. (1997). Kesilapan sintaksis dalam pembelajaran bahasa Mandarin di kalangan dewasa Melayu. Tesis sarjana
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Soh, B. K. (1996). Frasa nama bahasa Melayu dan bahasa Mandarin: satu analisis kontrastif dan analisis kesilapan. Tesi
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Supian Mohamad Noor. (1994). Analisis kesalahan penggunaan frasa kerja bahasa Melayu di kalangan pelajar tingkatan
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Wan Mohd Norudin Wan Kadir. 2006. Analisis Kesilapan Tatabahasa dalam karangan Bahasa
Melayu: Satu Kajian Kes. Petaling Jaya: Universiti Malaya.

Xu, J. (2008). Error theories and second language acquacition. US-China Foreign Language. (1) 6: 35-42.

Zainor Said. (2011). Universiti, kolej di Malaysia banyak kelebihan berbanding negara lain untuk tarik pelajar asing. Di
peroleh pada 15 Mac 2011 daripada

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Aid Asuraya Md & Wan Zah Wan Ali. (2009). Metacognition and Motivation in Mathematical
Problem Solving. 2009. The International Journal of Learning 15 (3): 121-132.
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ILCC 2013
424

Ablard K. E. & Lipschultz, R. E. 1998. Self-Regulated Learning in High-Achieving Students:
Relations to Advanced Reasoning Achievement Goals and Gender. Journal of Educational
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Bandura A. 1982. Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist 37: 122-147.
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Inefficacy. American Psychology 41 (12): 1389-1391.

Gottfried A. E. 1990. Academic intrinsic motivation in young elementary school children. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 82: 525-538.

Habibah Elias; Rahil Mahyuddin; Nooreen Noordin; Maria Chong Abdullah. (2009). Self-Efficacy
Beliefs of At-Risk Students in Malaysian Secondary Schools. The International Journal of Learning 16
(4): 201-210: http://ijl.cgpublisher.com/product/pub.30/prod.2149. (30 November 2009).

Miles J. R. Elizabeth A. L. & Stine-Morrow. 2004 .Adult Age Differences in Self-Regulated
Learning from Reading Sentences. Psychology And Aging. 19 (4): 626-636.

Muhammed Yusuf. 2010. Self-Efficacy, Achievement Motivation, and Self-Regulated Learning
Strategies of Undergraduate Students and their Impact on Academic Achievement. Selangor: UKM-
EDU.

Muhammed Yusuf. 2010. Psychometric Analysis of Self-Efficacy Encouragement (ENGLISH
VERSION) Science Direct and Scopus, ALSO, Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences.

Muhammed Yusuf. 2011. Investigating relationship between self-efficacy achievement motivation
and self- regulated learning strategies of undergraduate Students: a study of integrated motivational
models. Science Direct and Scopus, ALSO, Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences( publication in
progress).

Ng Lee Yen. Kamariah Abu Bakar. Samsilah Roslan. Su Luan. Petri Zabariah Megat Abd
Rahman. 2005. Predictors of self-regulated learning in Malaysian smart schools International
Education Journal 6 (3): 343-353. Shannon Research Press. http://iej.cjb.net 343.

Pajares F. & Johnson M. J. 1996. Self-efficacy beliefs in the writing of high school students: A path
analysis. Psychology in the Schools 33 :163-175.
Rahil mahyuddin; habibah elias; loh sau cheong; muhd fauzi muhamad; nooreen noordin; maria
chong abdullah. 2006. The relationship between students' self efficacy and their english language
achievement. Jurnal pendidik dan pendidikan, jil. 21: 6171.

Simpson S. M; Licht, B. G; Wagne, R. K. & Stader, S. R. 1996. Organization of children's academic
ability-related self-perceptions. Journal of Educational Psychology 88: 387-396.

shah Parilah Mohd. 1999. Perceptions of Malaysian ESL low achievers about English language
learning. The University of Connecticut, (online) http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb? 210 pages; AAT
992629. (Oct 1999).
translate.google.com
Wong Mary Siew-Lin. 2005. Language Learning Strategies and Language Self-Efficacy: Investigating
the Relationship in Malaysia. A Journal of Language Teaching and Research 36 (3): 245-269.


( 3 )

Umrah 91 Allah 1
Haji 69 Nabi muhammed 2
Musim 26 Nabi 3
Ziarah 23 Malaikat 4
Tahlil 24 Jin 5

Syukur 65 Quran 6
Fiqah 26 Kitab 7
Wajib 27 Ayat-ayat 8
Darurat 28 solat 9
Sunat 29 Solat hajat 10
- Hadis riwayat 30 Qiamullail 11
ILCC 2013
426

Sahih 31 a naz 12
Halal 32 iqamah 13
haram 33 Imam 14
Rezeki 34 Kiblat 15
Rezeki halal 35 Sujud 16
Ustaz 36 Rukuk 17
Ustazah 37 Tarawih 18


Ijab kabul 57 Tazkirah 38
Nikah 58 doa 39
Air + mani 59 Masalah 40
Rahim 60 Syukur 41
Hamil 61 Usrah 42
Darah + haid 62 Aurat 43
Darah + nifas 63 ) ( salam 44
Aqiqah 54

maaf 45
Anak+soleh 65 Zahir 46
Solehah 66 Batin 47
Ummi 67 Adab 48
Abi 68 Aidilfitri 49
Dakwah 69 Mustahil 50
Maksiat 70 Makmal 51
Umur 71 Masjid jamek 52
Sebab 72 Musolah 53
Takdir 73 Shurah 54
Syahadah 74 akhlak 55
Nafas 75 Jiran 56



Wilayah 97 mati 76
Daulat 98 Arwah 77
Siasah 99 Kiamat 78
Tadbir 100 Jenazah 79
Rakyat 101 Kubur 80
/ Adil 102 Dunia 81
Hormat 103 Saat 82
Dewan 104 Syaitan 83
Sijil 105 Iblis 84
Daftar 106 Nasihat 85
Mahkamah 107 Amal 86

Hukuman 108 + Amal jariah 87

Hikmah 109 Redha 88
Yakin 110 Ikhlas 89
Dakwah 111 Hakikat 90
ILCC 2013
428

Khidmat 112 Islam 91
Per+khid matan
hijrah
113 Asli 92
Khidmat masyarakat 114 Rasmi 93
Masyarakat 115 Sultan 94
Musyawarah/mesyu
arat
116 Hakim 95
Majlis 117 Muktamad 96


Muflis 142 Muamalat 118
Qurban 143 Iktiraf 119
Awam 144 muafakat 120
Umum 145 Izin 121
Khas 146 Wakil 122
Yakin 147 Watikah 123
Badan 148 Ikrar 124
wajah 149 Hak 125
Ain 150 Hak milik 126
Ilmu 151 Akibat 127
Maklumat 152 Alam bina 128
Falsafah 153 bina 129
Fikir 154 Alamat 130
Jumud 155 Sihat 131
Dalil 156 Kuat 132
Rujuk 157 Sah 134
Kuliah 158 Takaful 135
Jadual 159 Zakat 136
+ pen pensyarah 160 Bait Azakat 137
Bayan 161 Baitulmal 138
faham 162 Yatim 139
Maksud 163 Fakir 140
Istilah 164 Miskin 141


Amanah 183 Makna 165

Nahas 184 Kamus 166

Aduan 185 Rumus 167
Fitnah 186 Khabar 168
Syarikat 187 Sifat 169
Rukun 188 Jumlah 170
Asas 189 Dorib 171
Hadiah 190 Hasil 172
Iktibar 191 Rules Kaedah 173
Tabir 192 Soal jawab 174
Tahniah 193 Soal 175
Tahiyat 194 jawab 176
Martabat 195 Majalah 177
ILCC 2013
430

Syura 196 Ijazah 178
Mashur 197 Makmur 179
Isytiharah 198 Nikmat 180
Istiadat 199 Selamat 181
)( Ahli ahli 200 Aman 182


Nasib 201
) (

Laju 202
Isnin 203
Selasa 204
Rabu 205
khamis 206
Jumaat 207
Sabtu 208
Ahad 209
Solat sunat istiskah 210
Akidah Ummah
Islam
211
Maksud syariah 212

Tamat 213
Hadirin hadirat 214
" " Akhir (last) 215
Akhir kalam 216
Wabillahi taufiq wal
hidayah
217
Wassalamu alaikum
warahmatulahi
wabarakatuh
218















ILCC 2013
432

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ed). Upper Saddle River, Nj: Merrill.
Ibrahim, Suliman . (2010) Integrating internet in teaching Arabic language: a new approach of
teaching Arabic language. Ph.d dissertation, Saabrucken :Lap Lambert Academic Publishing and
distributed by Amazon in UK and USA.

LeLoup, J, W and Ponterio,R. (Sept 2003). Volume seven , No 3. Pp 4-14. ON THE
NET|Interactive and Multimedia Techniques in Online Language Lessons:
A Sampler. Language Learning & Technology at URL: http://llt.msu.edu/vol7num3/pdf/net.pdf
ILCC 2013
450


Appendix
Questionnaire

Your Faculty
Your department
Sex Male
Female


1 The listening lesson fulfills my need.
agree strongly agree neutral Disagree strongly disagree

2 I could repeat the conversation many time
Agree strongly agree neutral Disagree strongly disagree

3 I would be able to pause the listening video according to my appropriate peed.
agree strongly agree neutral Disagree strongly disagree

4 I benefit from the listening lesson.
agree strongly agree neutral Disagree strongly disagree

Part Two:
The vocabulary:
5 The new vocabulary helps me to improve my Arabic.
agree strongly agree neutral Disagree strongly disagree

6 The list of word that appeared in the previous lesson is useful.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree

Part Three:
I believe that the following questions are suitable to me:
7 The image combined the list of word illustrate the meaning

agree strongly agree Neutral disagree strongly disagree
8 The vocabulary exercise helps me a lot in improving my Arabic.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree

Part Four:
Grammatical structure:
9 The table used for functional grammar helps me to differentiate between singular and plural.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree

10 The color used for functional grammar help me to differentiate between masculine and
feminine.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree

11 The vocabulary is suitable to me.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree


Part Five:
Listening Comprehension:
12 I would be able to choose the right image to suit the dialogue.
ILCC 2013
452

agree strongly agree Neutral disagree strongly disagree

13 I would be able to control the video to my appropriate peed.
agree strongly agree Neutral disagree strongly disagree

Part Five:

The Speaking
14 There is chance for me to speak
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree

15 I would be able to chat with my friend about the unit topic
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree


Part Six:
I believe that the following questions are suitable to me:
16 I would be able to follow a link with a supplementary material.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree

17 Communication in Arabic would help me to improve my Arabic
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
18 Part Seven : The Reading
Reading comprehension questions are useful
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
19 Reading comprehension help me in improving my Arabic
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
20 Part eight : The Writing
Complete the word with appropriate letter help me to recognize the Arabic letter.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree

21 By writing exercise I would be able to recognize how Arabic letter are written in different
location.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree

22 After studying the reading comprehension I would be able to construct sentence.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree

23 I would be able to rearrange the word to become a sentence.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree

24 After studding the reading comprehension I would be able to construct sentence.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
25 After studying the reading comprehension I would be able to construct sentence.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
26 The feedback of the exercise help s me to correct my mistakes.
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
27 The programme is user friendly
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree
28 The guides given help me in browsing the programe
agree strongly agree neutral disagree strongly disagree

ILCC 2013
454

Any Suggestions:
________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
The researchers


The impact of Interactive Arabic

















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1. Harris. T. L. et al : A Dictionary of reading and related Terms, International
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2. Partor, Clifford H. and Celece-Murcia, Marianne. 1979. An outeline of language
teaching approaches. In Celce- Murcia and Mclntosh 1979.
3. Savignon, Sandara J. ,Communicative; Theory and classroom Practice. Reading,
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1. Brown, J. The Construction of Diagnostic Test of Listening Comprehension, An

Abstract of Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Colordo.
2. Kimble, Greory A. and Gramezy , Norman. 1963. Principles of General Psychology.
Second Edition. New York: Thr Ronald Press Company.
3. Richards, Jack C. and Rodgers , Theodore S. 1986. APPRACHES AND Methods in
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ILCC 2013
612

COLONIAL IMPACT ON THE SOCIO-COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTIONS OF ARABIC
LANGUAGE IN NIGERIA: AN OVERVIEW

ALFA MUHAMMED SALISU
DR. HANAFI DOLLAH
DR. ABUBAKAR SALISU ABDULLAHI

Abstract
Before the advent of the colonialist in Nigeria, Arabic language was used as the official language
of communication and of daily intercourse. Historical records also confirmed that for about three
centuries between 17
th
and 19
th
centuries Arabic documents remained the only source of
information for European writers on western and central Sudan. A large number of these scholarly
works were written by native West African authors in Arabic language, or in their native languages
using Arabic scripts. However, the scramble for West African countries by the Europeans in the 19
th

century brought about the occupation of the areas by the imperialists. This led to change in socio
cultural life of the people of the regions including the Muslims, which in turn has a spillover effect
on the communicative functions of Arabic language. Thus, this paper intends to trace a brief history
of Arabic in Nigeria, its functions as the language of communication and its subsequent subversion
by the European colonialist. Special attention is giving to the present status of Arabic language in
Nigeria and the subsequent implications.
Introduction: Advent of Arabic Language in Nigeria

Historically, Arabic language and Islamic religion came to this part of the world known as Nigeria
today through the North African States of Egypt, part of the Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco, etc. (Adam
2003:170). This process was heralded through commercial contacts that connected these states and
the south of Sahara as far back as before 11
th
century. It is not easy, however to state precisely when
this commercial contacts began between the Arab world and their counterparts in the south of
Sahara (Kanem Borno And some Hausa lands). But opinions are unanimous on the fact that Islam
came to these parts of the globe (Kanem Borno and Kano Hausa states) between 11
th
and 14
th

centuries respectively. Therefore, the history of Arabic language is not far from this because the
Arab traders who were sometimes the preachers of Islam introduced their language to their trade
counterparts and converts for easy communication.

It is believed that with the expansion of Islam, Arabic also spread and eventually became the
official language of government and correspondence in some of the defunct kingdoms as far back as
13
th
century. It is also very important to mention that in the south western part of Nigeria such as
Ibadan a lot of Arabic heritage were discovered most of which were letters from the traditional
rulers and Ulama (scholars) to their counterparts in other places in Yoruba land of Nigeria
(Ogunbiyi 2005:6). This is a clear testimony that Arabic has also served as the language of
communication in this part of the country.

Arabic scholarship in Nigeria, however, started in Borno and other Hausa States and from
there spread to other places like Yoruba land where its learning was given a sense of belonging
because the Muslims converts then-and up till today- considered Arabic learning as an integral
aspect of their religion-Islam. The reason being that some ritual acts in the religion must be
observed in Arabic language, among these acts are call to prayers (Al-Adhan), the recitations of
Quran in prayers which are key aspects of Islam

The system of learning Arabic and Islam in Nigeria then was through traditional system as
stated by Galadanci (1993), the system where the schools were established by Muslim scholars,
who vary in their educational qualifications. Some of who may be graduates of Quranic schools
and others with a higher degree of Islamic and Arabic knowledge. Without specific curriculum,
knowledge then was whole some and not compartmentalized. Muslim scholars were champions of
value laden knowledge. A learned Muslim scholar for instance, was a jurist, expert in medicine,
astronomy, astrology, philosophy, science etc. Graduates of these schools were teachers and most of
the times preachers of Islam (Alfa and Abubakar 2011:204).

Hence, Muslims learning Arabic then was primarily for proper understanding of their
religion. It was equally observed that in Nigeria Arabic was studied to serve Islam. This explains
why greater percentages of Arabic works of Nigerian Authorship were concentrated on Islamic
subjects. And in cases where other subjects were discussed Islamic terminologies were often used.
Example of the situations could be observed from literary works of scholars like Abdullah b. Fudi,
Uthman b. Fudi and other great writers of the 19
th
century.

The community of the Nigerian Islamic revivalists of the 19
th
century was established on
Islamic principles subjected to the canons of Islamic Law, which necessitated thorough knowledge
before application. Hence, the scholars wrote many texts on Islamic tradition of reforms, as regards
politics, ethnography, sociology, education, economy and urbanization, historiography, law,
jurisprudence as well as administrative organization. All these subjects were in Arabic. they also
produced numerous titles in prose and poetry on subjects that cut across disciplinary boundaries
such as history and medicine, apart from the traditional religious themes of Islamic jurisprudence,
Quranic exegesis and different aspects of the Arabic language itself, including its
grammar.(Ogunbiyi 2005:6; ALA 2:2)

Before the defeat of the Sokoto Caliphate and the colonization of the Northern region, there
existed a very viable culture of learning and scholarship. The founder and leader of the Sokoto
Caliphate, Usman dan Fodio and his brother, Abdullahi dan Fodio, and son, Muhammad Bello,
were great scholars who had written hundreds of books on the subjects mentioned above. The
scholarly contributions of the founding fathers undoubtedly helped the Caliphate to be an important
centre for Islamic and Arabic education. Arabic learning in Nigeria in this spirit has exclusive
process which has tremendously shaped the destiny of the scholars emotion and thoughts as
manifested in their literary productions


Arabic Language and Socio-Communication in Nigeria before Colonialism
The term social refers to a characteristic of living organisms as applied to populations
of humans and other animals. It always refers to the interaction of organisms with other organisms
and to their collective co-existence, irrespective of whether they are aware of it or not, and
irrespective of whether the interaction is voluntary or involuntary (Morrison, 2009).
Communication, on the other hand, is the exchange and flow of information and ideas from one
person to another; it involves a sender transmitting an idea, information, or feeling to a receiver
(U.S. Army, 1983). Communication (from Latin "communis", meaning to share) is the activity of
conveying information through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech,
visuals, signals, writing, or behavior. When it come to normal human communication, we can find
two main parts of communication channels. One is verbal communication and the other is non
verbal communication. If we think of communication based on style and purpose, however, it can
be categorized into two, formal and informal communication. Considering the two main parts of
ILCC 2013
614

channels of communication, verbal communication is also divided into two parts, oral and written
communication. Oral communication takes place when two or more parties communicate verbally
with words. The other type is written communication. This can happen through normal letter
writing or any other form of documented writing. Letters can, however, be formal or informal
(Bizymoms, 2013).
Looking at the aforementioned definition and other elements of communication, Arabic
language has served as the language of communication before the arrival of the colonial masters to
Nigeria, as mentioned before. Since the Jihad of Sheikh Uthman bin Fudi of the 19
th
century,
Arabic has become widespread and means of communication in West Africa. Previously it had been
the written language of the educated elite and of the government for nearly 500 years.
For the fact that Arabic predated any other foreign languages in Nigeria in particular and
Africa in general, the language was used officially in administration with which chancery prose,
official letters, other materials were documented. Indeed, it then served as the earliest exclusive
means of vast record keeping, literature as well as historical record in many centuries before the
coming of the Europeans to Nigeria. It remained the first imported language used as the official
language of education and of daily intercourse (oral communication) in West Africa and it has
contributed a great deal to the reconstruction of the African history. A renowned scholar of
history, Professor Dike, commented on the role Arabic had played in Nigerian history thus;
The Arabic scholars of the present, drawing upon the writing s of the Arabic scholars
of the past, will be able to bring before us the events and happenings of the past ages
of Nigeria, and so help us to write a history we may rightly call our own.(Ogunbiyi,
2005:11)
He added;
As a historian myself , I have taken the keenest interest in this development for it is
through the aid of these Arabic documents, and these written in Arabic languages in
the Arabic script that the scholar will be aided in his task of unlocking the secrets of
African past. It has been a revelation to the whole world of scholarship to realize
for the first time that Africa before European penetration, so far from being a dark
continent was in fact a continent of where the light of scholarship shone brilliantly,
as the Arabic work now being discovered bear testimony (R.A. Raji,2002:10).
From the statement above it could be deduced that the history of Nigeria would be incomplete
without the contribution of the Muslim scholars and their knowledge of Arabic language. This
implies that no one can glean the understanding of the true history of Nigeria without the
understanding of the original source language which is Arabic.
It was the first language used in recording historical events as it was used during the old
Empires such as Ghana, Songhai, Borno etc.(Ogunbiyi 2005:6) this is further corroborated by the
early Nigerian Historians that Nigeria is greatly indebted to Arabic for its tremendous role played to
disprove the notion that Africa was a dark continent- without history. Historians further affirmed
that West African history would be incomplete without reference to those Arabic scripts by the
Arab scholars as stressed above by Professor Dike. (Smith 1989:142-143) also stressed that:
All government in western Sudan (that is, including those territories that later
formed part of Nigeria) used Arabic for correspondence, and the indication is that
written documents played a large part of their administration.
According to Hunwick (1970), Almaghilis letter (in Arabic) to Sultan Ibrahim of Katsina is dated
1492, and in archives of Istanbul (Turkey) a letter from the Ottoman Sultan there to the ruler of
Borno, in Kanem Born Empire dated 16
th
century. In Sokoto, according to Malami (1989) Sarkin
Musulumi, Hassan and the Emir of Gwandu Haliru wrote to Fedrick Lord Lugard, acknowledging
him of a visit accorded them to England by the Colonial Officers, all in Arabic language. In the
same vein, it was mentioned by Ogunbiyi, as quoted above that in the south western part of Nigeria
such as Ibadan a lot of Arabic heritage were discovered most of which were letters from the
traditional rulers and Ulama (scholars) to their counterparts in other places in Yoruba land of
Nigeria. Other works of the Jihadists that cover the Northern Nigeria and some parts of south
western Nigeria were all testimony of the service of Arabic language in Nigerian long before the
advent of the Europeans. Works on biography such as Muhammad Bello`s infaaqul maysuur
contains biographical materials on scholars before the 19
th
century. Sheikh Abdullah b. Fudi on the
other hand has texts like Tazyinul waraqat in which he discussed the brief history of the revivalist
movement, the intellectual and military as well as the political concept of the author. (Ogunbiyi,
1976:26-37, al-Iluri, 1971:33)

On the intellectual plane Sokoto Jihad succeeded partly because of an effective method of planning
in the used of this language as a vehicle of communication. Arabic has in no small measure helped
in the growth of local languages such as Hausa, Kanuri, Kiswahili, and Fulfulde. It also became one
of the local languages of part of todays Borno State of Nigeria spoken by over two million
indigenes of Nigerians.

In the South western Nigeria, particularly among the Yoruba Muslim scholars Arabic
became the medium of literary communication and flourished well alongside the precedence of
Islam before the advent of the colonialist. In Ibadan, for example, Arabic served as a secondary
means of verbal communication after the efflorescence of its literary activities in early 20
th
century.

British Colonial Rulers and the Issue of Arabic

If one looks at the activities of the Colonial Rulers in Nigeria from the surface,-especially
the Northern part- he would have no option than to be lured into praising them for their positive
contributions to the development of Arabic language. Some researchers have done so because of the
establishment of the school of Arabic studies, Kano and the introduction of centers of learning such
as the universities wherefrom Arabic flourished and a lot of scholarly works are produced. But the
fact remains that, prior to the conquest of the Fulani Sokoto Caliphate by the British in 1903 and the
subsequent establishment and consolidation of colonial rule, an Islamic educational system, which
had Arabic as the language of instruction already existed. A renowned historian on the Sokoto
Caliphate, Murray Last (2005), acknowledges the existence of a thriving and broad-based Islamic
educational system that also incorporated the teaching of European languages and new sciences in
its core curricula. The Caliphate recruited teachers, educational advisors and planners from Egypt,
Tripoli and Ottoman Turkey, to help in teaching and reforming the Islamic system of education.
This enduring legacy of Arabo-Islamic education from the Sokoto Caliphate continued before and
after the advent of colonialism. Scholars established Quranic schools and for so many centuries up
to the colonial period, Islamic schooling was the formal educational system in northern Nigeria
(Lemu, 2002). In the Northern Protectorates, when Lord Lugard came to take over as the Governor
of northern Nigeria in 1914, he found over 25,000 Quranic schools with a total enrolment of
218,618 pupils (Fafunwa, 1991; Paden, 1973). These Quranic schools known as Tsangaya and
their students called Almajirai from the Arabic word, Almuhjir or an immigrant, later enrolled in
more advanced theological schools, or madrasahs where they studied Islamic Jurisprudence,
Theology, History, Philosophy, Arabic Grammar and the Sciences (Umar, 2012).

Under the British colonial administration, the system of Quranic schools was maintained in
order to avoid destroying the social fabric of the Islamic North. While the children of the
aristocracy were educated in the elite schools, the majority of the rural population was able to send
their children to Quranic schools (Giroaurd, 1909). Lugard, in the first instance, not only
ILCC 2013
616

acknowledged their existence, but also accorded them official status by paying monthly stipends to
the teachers. However, things began to change after the consolidation of British colonial rule in
northern Nigeria, with the introduction of colonial education.
The British era, however, witnessed a decline in the fortune of Arabic language as the
Colonial rulers and the Missionaries decided to confront the two entrance doors of the Arabic
language, the Emirates of Northern Nigeria administered by the Caliphate of Borno and Sokoto
which were first attacked and conquered by the British. Infact, the strength of Arabic in these part
of the world was because of the relationship that existed between them and Egypt to the extent that
a hostel was said to be established in Cairo for Borno students, especially in Al-Azhar University
between 1242 and 1252 (Raji, 2002:18). With the conquest of the Northern Nigeria, some of the
Emirs who posed stiff resistance to the situation were either killed or deposed. These Emirs were
replaced by people who were prepared to be puppets or who the European rulers thought would
compromise and serve under the colonial rule (Abubakar, M, 2001:2, Raji, Op Cit).
The British Rulers, however, later deposed and exiled some of the Emirs who replaced their
fellow Muslims in the first instance. With this situation, the role of Northern Emirs changed from
the custodian of Arabic and Islamic legacies which had earned them privilege; honour, integrity and
influence, manipulated and swept into oblivion by the colonial masters (Raji, op.cit:19).

As a cover-up, the British established the Northern Provinces law school in 1934 which later
metamorphosed into school of Arabic studies, Kano. This school was established when the religio-
political propaganda against the interest of the British in Northern Nigeria became imminent. It was,
besides teaching the Islamic law which was apparent, to serve the interest of the European and to
contain the inflow of "subversive" elements, ideas and cultures into the region from Sudan, Egypt,
and the Maghrib (Abubakar, M, op.cit.). They, therefore, put a barrier between the region and the
relationship that existed between them and the Arab world of Sudan, Egypt, Maghrib and Ottoman
Turkey. The introduction of English language and its literature into the school of Arabic studies
Kano as well as employment of some British lecturers like Mr. C.E.J. Whitting, and Mr. M. Hisket
to help in the design and implementation of the curriculum mark the beginning of a campaign and
propaganda to discredit Al-Azhar University, Egypt. As rightly pointed at, Al-Azhar University
used to be a great centre of learning for the scholars of the region. The propaganda was launched
and sponsored by Mr. Whitting who called on the Government to make a tour of Educational
institution to Egypt and Maghrib. Mr. Whitting was mandated to do the job and submit a report. His
assessment report, according to Raji (2002) in 1947 reads thus:

It will be folly to give any Government support to sending any of our student to
Al-Azhar or other of the Egyptian institutions of Higher Education. They only come in
contact with the crudest and extremist forces of Nationalism
and 'anti-British propaganda, and so much working time is lost through
disturbances, students' strikes and the like, that many courses have only a nominal
value. The Sudan were reaping the bitter political harvest of having used the
Egyptian facilities for her education, and the retiring Director of Education told him
that Bahrain had withdrawn its pupils from Egypt for the above reasons.

The Colonialists became instrumental to the stagnation of Arabic because it was denied of the
privilege of full administrative support which it has enjoyed throughout the preceding century.
Although the British colonial authority adopted a system of indirect rule that initially preserved the
pre-1903 administrative structure for purposes of local administration, the loss of political
paramountcy by the Muslim rulers in the caliphate and the introduction of western education
marked the beginning of the decline in multifaceted functions of Arabic earlier identified. The
decline was further reinforced in 1914 when the northern and southern protectorates were merged to
form what is now known as Nigeria. With the objective of evolving a language policy that will
gradually replace Arabic with English. The educational policy not only shifted from religious to
secular, but also structured in such a way as to favour Western education. Traditional Islamic
education in the form of the Quranic school system became marginalized and teachers who taught
in the traditional Islamic method were either disregarded or forced to adopt the new system. There
were other obstacles, too, one of which was finance. The Quranic Arabic schools were left on their
own with very little or no support from the government. They relied on the support of parents which
was normally meager as well as on charity which rarely came. Quranic school teachers resorted to
sending their pupils to beg for food and money. This tarnished the image of the schools and
undermined the integrity of the teachers as well as their pupils up till today. However, despite the
limited means of finance, the Quranic schools thrived because the teachers of such schools were
dedicated. Not only did they consider their mission as a divine injunction, they were also convinced
that their efforts would be worthy of being rewarded in the hereafter. Both strong faith and goodwill
helped to sustain the Quranic school system. There was no doubt that these schools served a useful
purpose especially from the social, educational and religious perspectives during the period of
transition from traditional Islamic education to dual educational system introduced by the British.
One of recorded achievements of these Quranic schools, as mentioned above, was that they had an
enrolment of approximately a quarter of a million pupils. In addition, Umar 2012 stressed that:
These Quranic schools had produced a literary class known as Mallamai, learned in
Arabic and the teachings of Quran and commentaries, from whose ranks the officers of the
Native Administration, the judges of the Native Courts and the exponents of the creed of
Islam were drawn. They are a very influential class, some of them very well read in Arabic
literature and law, and deeply imbued with the love of learning
Galadanci observed the situation of Arabic during this period in the following words
The colonial authorities realized the importance of the Arabic language in the north
as the language of administration and the language of culture and thus tried
everything within their power to replace it with their own language. They therefore
made English the official language so that government offices and registries the
Sharia courts would use English instead of Arabic.
Even the local languages such as Hausa and Fulfulde which were already being written in Arabic
script known as Ajami scripts, were now been taught in formal schools in Latin scripts. The same
situation was found in the southwest in the formal schools established by Muslim Organizations in
response to the challenge posed by Christian schools. Their orientation was largely dictated by the
fact that the opportunities for employment in the colonial civil service, in commerce and industry
were only open to those literate in English language (Ogunbiyi2005:7-8, al-Ilori1971:151)

Present status of Arabic Language in Nigeria

Arabic language has faced a lot of challenges in Nigeria over time despite the tremendous services
it has rendered as a communication tool in Africa before the Colonialist. The teaching and learning
of which ought to be given the topmost priority it deserve especially because of the historical and
religious significant but the reverse has always been the case. This is because of political antecedent
of the colonialist that had made English the official languages of education, administration, politics
and diplomacy in Nigeria.
In recent time, the government policy on language in Nigerian educational sector has made
it further complicated. This is for the fact that the policy continues to relegate Arabic to the
background as French is given priority to be studied as "second official language".
Government appreciates the importance of language as a means promoting social
interaction and national cohesion, and preserving cultures. Thus every child shall
learn the language of the immediate environment. Furthermore, in the interest of
ILCC 2013
618

national unity it is expedient that every child shall be required to learn one of the
three languages: Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. For smooth interaction with our
neighbours, it is desirable for every Nigerian to speak French. Accordingly,
French shall be the second official language in Nigeria and it shall be
compulsory in schools.

Looking at the aforementioned policy, Arabic language has no place with the Government.
Therefore, no provision is made to develop the language. However, in the National Policy on
Education published in 1977 (revised 1981, 1988 etc) and the governments views on
implementation of committees Blueprint on the document, Arabic is given explicit mention only
in relation to its link with Islam. At the primary school level, the Blueprint states that where
Arabic is the medium of instruction in Religion and moral instructions, it will continue to be used
(Akinnaso & Ogunbiyi 1990:6)
From the above, Arabic is only relevant when it comes to "Islamic Religion and moral
instruction.

Conclusion

The transition from traditional and Arabo-Islamic educational and administrative system
from under the Sokoto Caliphate to the modern and secular British system of governance in Nigeria
had a tremendous impact on the issue of Arabic language. The British colonial policy of indirect
assistance to the Christian missionary at the expense of Islamic education has left an indelible mark
on the later until the present time. In summary, of all the non-Nigerian languages, none has more
claims to our attention and recognition than the Arabic language. That Arabic is unparalleled by any
other language in its role as a communication tool and as a written medium in which much of the
Nigerian and African history is recorded; the past thus preserved in this medium is a common
national heritage and not a sectional or religious one. That Arabic language is ignorantly
misconceived most of the times for Islamic studies by many Nigerians, including the educated elite.
These misconceptions as well as religious bias are what had led Arabic to its present state of
negligent in the country where some scholars of Arabic feel inferior to their counterparts in other
fields.
If these misgivings are not corrected and the glory of Arabic restored- to some extent, the
future generation might consider it irrelevant to be studied as a school subject. Therefore, causing
more harm to Islam in Nigeria. Conferences and workshops can be organised regularly by scholars
and Islamic organizations to improve the present status of Arabic language. This can be achieved
through agitations to Government and issuing of communiqu to revise the present status of Arabic
in Government schools, at least to feature as one of the elective subjects if not compulsory.


REFFERENCES


Abubakre, R.D. (2002). Survival of Arabic in Difficult Terrain. 58
th
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Switching For a Reason: The Socio-Psychological Reasons for
Code Switching to English in Malayalam Literary Texts
Tania Mary Vivera
Assistant Professor, Dept of English, St. Teresas College, Kerala, India
taniavivera@gmail.com
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract Humans are capable of constructing many changes, and language being an overused tool, it is
only natural that we model and remodel it to confirm to our tastes. In this reconstruction process, switching
and mixing other languages with our own is an elementary task. But what is the rationale that drives speakers
to select one linguistic variety over another? Are the societal norms engineering the choice or is code
switching a reflection of the psychological constructs of the speaker/speech act?

Code switching has become a common phenomenon in bilingual and multilingual communities. In Kerala, a
southern state in India, the official language is Malayalam. English is widely used as a language of wider
communication next in status to Malayalam and the digital acquiescence has made it an absolute necessity to
have at least communicative knowledge in English. Thus, it is only natural that English becomes one of the
obvious choices for code switching.

The objective of the study is to analyze the sociological / psychological reasons behind the act of code
switching in Malayalam and the choice of English as the other code. The data is procured from thirty seven
literary texts of Malayalam literature. The emotional/mental states and a conscious or unconscious effort of
the speaker/hearer decide the code use. Various psychological motivations like anger, sympathy, inhibitions,
empathy, formal, informal, superiority, intimacy, alienation, etc. are considered in the analysis. The
sociolinguistic approach to this study examines the choice of code in relation to the various social aspects
like economic status of the speaker/hearer, education level, social background, generation differences,
family/non family relations, taboo words, euphemistic expressions, modern lifestyle, prestige, value, etc.

Keywords: Bilingualism, Sociolinguistics, Psycholinguistics, code switching.
Introduction
No language exists in isolation. Just as a biological organism, languages also need to evolve for their
survival. And their evolution greatly depends on the surroundings in which they exist and are used.
Languages, whether geneologically or typologically related, have a tendency to connect to other languages
that are geographically contiguous to them. Studies on various phenomena which occur when languages are
in contact -convergence, interference, borrowing, pidginization, code-mixing, code switching, etc. - have
been conducted widely (Weinreich 1953, Annamalai 1986, Sridhar 1981). Code switching (CS) is a natural
faculty of persons who are comfortable with more than one language as in the case of bilinguals and
multilinguals. Code switching can be defined as the use of more than one language in a single conversation,
which has its why in the socio-psychological make-up of the bilingual/multilingual speaker/hearer and its
how in the structural set up of the matrix language and the embedded language (Scotton 1993). People who
code switch are not only expected to have the ability to use (at least minimally) either of the two languages
or language varieties but also the ability to mix the two languages, without normally defying the grammatical
system rules of both the languages. There are possibly two extremes to this switching faculty (Weinreich
1953), one is a rigid adherence to one language which restricts code switching as an effective communication
strategy and the second is an abnormal proneness to switching, resulting from an insufficient adherence to
one language, which can result in humor.
E.g. skue pha vannappa n smkue
mautt ne hn k ks cytu
Samkutty's-father-came-i-Samkutty's-mouth-my-hand-with-closed
When Samkutty's father came, I closed Samkutty's mouth with my hand
C-Annie to Joy

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A similar characteristic (abnormal proneness) is found in the constructions of bilingual children (Tracy
1995). It has been found that in bilingual child speech the code switching might occur at the morpheme level
where the language is switched alternately at morpheme boundaries. This feature raises the doubt whether
the child has learnt to distinguish between the two languages or whether he/she has instead developed one
single, fused system which has shared features of both languages.

E.g. Ich cover mich(-)self up. (H.2; 4)
I..... my.....

The social and psychological reasons behind code switching have been discussed by many. Grosjean
(1982) discusses the phenomenon of the most available word at the moment. If the speaker patiently
searches he/she will get the equivalent word in the host language, and the discovery is proved when they use
the appropriate native word the second/third time they use it in their speech.
E.g. 1) The use of the native word nraamaa at the third attempt in the Text 9.
2) The use of the English word koyinsians followed promptly by its Malayalam equivalent in Text 11
Certain topics also trigger a switch as the switched language might be the language frequently used in that
particular domain. The various registers like scientific, mechanical, official, etc. ensure a switch. In their
study of Mexican Americans, Valdes Fallis (1976) and Lance (1979) had noticed that there is often a switch
from Spanish to English where money matters are concerned. Greetings-meeting and parting, discourse
markers, politeness markers, etc. are mostly code switched. E.g. Please, yes, ok, all right, thank you, sorry,
but, then, so, etc.

Gumperz (1970, 1976a) stresses that switching at a particular moment conveys semantically significant
information. Gal (1979) adds on by stating that listeners scrutinize code switching as an indicator of the
speakers momentary attitudes, state of mind, communicative intents and emotions. Anger is considered as a
strong motivation for a code switch. Gumperz (1970) also notes that switching emphasizes varying degrees
of speakers involvement ranging from intimacy to detachment. This feature is specially investigated in the
analysis of Text 1 in this study.

Hoffman(1991) and Saville- Troike (1986) catalogs the reasons for code switching as talking about a
particular topic, quoting somebody else, being emphatic about something, interjection, repetition used for
clarification, and intention of clarifying the speech content for interlocutor, which are reaffirmed by the
results of this study. Code switching may also be seen as evidence of solidarity, exclusion, confidentiality,
authority, expertise, disagreement, annoyance, etc.
Conceptual Framework
Code is a set of symbols and rules intended to carry information. Through an extension of this definition
all written and spoken languages are codes. Wardhaugh (1986) defines code as the particular language or
dialect used on any given occasion. Thus, if two languages are used in a certain utterance, both of them are
codes and the speaker alternates between the two codes in the conversation. Code switching is an aspect of
bilingualism which has been studied from various perspectives. Interest on the social aspects of code
switching and its definitions began with Weinreich (1953) who had written about a switch in the language
depending on the situation. The coinage of the term is attributed to Haugen (1956).

Gumperz (1982) defines conversational code switching as the juxtaposition within the same speech
exchange of passages of speech belonging to two different grammatical systems or subsystems. According
to him the major functions of conversational code switching are as follows a) quotations, b) addressee
specification, c) Interjections, d) reiteration, e) message qualification and f) personalization vs.
objectivization. Around the same time, Grosjean (1982) came up with a simpler definition of code switching
as the alternate use of two or more languages in the same utterance. Poplack (1980)used code switching as
cover term I have been using the term code-switching here to refer to the alternate use of two codes in a
fully grammatical way, in the same discourse and even in the same sentence.
In the purview of this study, code switching is considered as a cover term including intersentential
and intrasentential shifts and the distinction is not accentuated. Code switching boundaries are signaled in the
data by a change of font from regular to italics or vice-versa. A gloss and an informal translation accompany
each sentence, if the translation happens to be identical to the gloss the latter is not repeated.
Background and Objectives
Code switching has become a common phenomenon in bilingual and multilingual communities. In the
southern Indian state Kerala, the official language is Malayalam. The language shows a high influence of
Sanskrit. Malayalam is used by 95.99% of people in Kerala and the percentage of Bilinguals are 28.75% and
trilinguals are 16.6%. The percentage of Malayalam-English Bilinguals are 21.24% as compared to
Malayalam-Hindi bilinguals 3.12% (2001 Census). The languages which are used in Kerala other than
Malayalam are English, Tamil and Kannada. English is widely used as a language of wider communication
next in status to Malayalam. English has jumped up the ladder as the language of the Information
Technology era and considering the rapid pace at which enormous amount of information is getting
transferred digitally, it becomes an absolute necessity to have at least communicative knowledge in English.
English is introduced as second language at the primary level of education in Kerala. The teaching of English
in schools has turned out to be a sponsored, institutional arrangement and it is the phase of Sponsored
bilingualism (Mallikarjun 2004). In this scenario it is only natural that English becomes one of the obvious
choices for code switching. This study does a qualitative analysis of the socio-psychological reasons behind
the act of code switching to English while using Malayalam language.
Data collection and Methodology
The data is procured from a range of literary texts of Malayalam literature. A random selection of various
genres of works including novels, short stories, novellas, memoirs, etc. was chosen for the study.
Heterogeneity was maintained in the selection of authors to aid further sociolinguistic research on the topic.
The author and texts used for the analysis are schematically represented are as follows.
Table 1: The author & texts index
Sl.
no
Authors name Gender Religion Works Text.No.
for analysis
Total
Works
M F Hindu Mus Chr Short
story
novel novella memoir
1 M.T Vasudevan
Nair
x x 3 1-3 3
2 N.S. Madhavan x x 4 4-7 4
3 M.Mukundhan x x 1 8 1
4 Vinu Joseph x x 1 9 1
5 Nirmala x x 10 10 10
6 Sara Thomas x x 1 11 1
7 Sakariya x x 1 12 1
8 Arshad Bathery x x 5 13 5
9 Madhavikutty x x 10 14 10
10 Punathil
Kunhabdulla
x x 1 15 1
Total works 37

500 code switched sentences were collected from the above sources and only primary data is used in the
study. A total of 37 texts were selected, and these are the creative works of 10 major authors of Malayalam
literary field. The texts are in Malayalam and were published in Kerala between 1994-2006. Only the newest
editions of the works were considered for the study. All the authors are native speakers of Malayalam. No
particular conceptual model, proposed by scholars of bilingualism/code switching, was chosen for the
present analysis of data. Though the authors of the literary texts have been chosen from various social
backgrounds like religion, gender, etc. the variations in their use of code switching is not studied. Literature
is considered as a reflection on the societal language use and analysed for its characteristics rather than the
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medium of delivery. The socio-psychological reasons for code switching-which were determined in this
study- are not arranged in their order of preference, further research should be applied to this area.
Literature Review
Researchers focused on code switching as it embodies not only variation, but the link between linguistic
form and language use as social practice. Psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic perspectives of code
switching have been studied since the turn of the century. The psycholinguistic perspective has focused on
understanding the nature of the systematicity of code switching, as a way of revealing linguistic and
potentially cognitive processes. Research on the psychological and social dimensions of code switching has
largely been devoted to answering the questions of why speakers code switch and what the social meaning of
code switching is for them. Current research focuses more on code switching aspects in different domains
music, books, advertisement, mass media, and computer mediated communication, etc.

Though code switching has been investigated from various dissimilar angles, the number of languages
chosen for the research remains a dewdrop in the world languages. Universally recognized languages
(English, Spanish, Chinese, etc.) are analyzed more often and less popular languages are left to speculations.
The wide variety of topics in terms of their relation to code switching are interesting and can be explored to
cover various areas of psychology, anthropology, genealogy, history/comparative studies, information
technology, computer mediated corpus and others. Dravidian languages including Malayalam have not been
researched extensively regarding their code switching behaviour and the psychological and sociological
analysis of Malayalam literary corpus in this study is an attempt at decoding the switching phenomenon in
Malayalam.
Analysis
Code switching to English in Malayalam is a natural phenomenon in the evolution of Malayalam
language. Malayalam chose one of its closest spatial companions, to assist in its convergence process and the
phenomenon has been very productive, in terms of vocabulary. 500 code switched sentences were collected
from 37 Malayalam literary texts and analyzed thoroughly for the socio-psychological motivations behind
code switching.
A sample text analysis of Text 1 by Perumazayude Pittenn by M. T. Vasudevan Nair is given below:
Characters: Protagonist/father/Son/taxi-driver

Taxi-driver: Uses airport register in English to exhibit his knowledge of the situation /surroundings. Through
his assertiveness and his choice of vocabulary, he gains command/superiority over the protagonist.
ln ceytu, acumini biph aim (landed-five-minutes-before-time)

Protagonist/father: Code switches only to son and not to the taxi-driver though the latter is well versed in
English. This maybe because there is a lack of social/emotional motivation between them (protagonist and
taxi driver). The father uses the English language to bond with his son and daughter-in-law. The motivation
here is to establish emotional bonding. The father is desperate to build a rapport with his son and
code switches in his replies to the son's queries. The code switched sentences are simple in structure and this
reflects the awkwardness/diffidence of the protagonist in reaching out to his son as well as in the use of
'new' language between them. The father is slightly disoriented after meeting and interacting with his
daughter-in- law. He is confused with the choice of the farewell greetings.
vlkka? gu u s y? a nais u hv m y? (welcome? good to see you? or is it nice to have met you?)

Son: He is an ardent code switcher, and CS is employed for mainly two purposes, to establish his
US-employed status and to pin down the emotional as well as individualistic differences between father and
son. The language choice ( English) is a barrier to their bonding. And it accentuates the emotional distance
which is otherwise present between them. Even an intimate matter like his marriage is code switched, and
this makes the exchange very formal and solemn. The son's ease with English is evident from his choice of
words and his frequency and complexity of CS constructions.

Summary: Two contrasting motivations are behind the use of CS between father and son. The son is
employing CS to draw emotional/ psychological/linguistic line between him and his father, while the father
is engaging the same to bridge the gap that years of separation had brought between them. In this case, the
motivations are that of alienation and de-alienation. The significance of linguistic choice is evident when at
the end of the story, the daughter-in-law (Canadian, Mother Tongue is French) uses the Malayalam word
'accha'(Father in Malayalam) to address the father and seek his blessings. The use of the right code, even as
minimally as a single word could cross over years of cultural/emotional estrangement.
Research findings and Discussions
All 37 texts were analysed likewise for their code switching tendencies and these motivations can be
categorized as sociological, psychological and linguistic reasons. Some reasons belong to more than one
category, but are classified under one, for enumeration purposes.
Sociological reasons
natural to English/convent educated professionals/non-professionals,
as a declaration/indicator of economic rise,
for its euphemistic quality-code switching to English was preferred over words which are tabooed
and terms which carry negative connotations/vulgar/socially stigmatized words,
to symbolize urbanization/westernization/consumerism/materialism/nuclear
family/globalization/digitalization/trendy/fashionable and modern lifestyle,
social/linguistic affiliation- Anglo Indians are expected to be knowledgeable in English and are more
prone to code switching because of their linguistic affiliation to English,
as an mark of Communist sympathy/interest,
because of the prestige/high status value associated with English,
the loyal ( pun intended) English educated persons will understand matters only if they are in
English and refuse to understand if spoken to only in Malayalam,
to maintain professional distance between doctor-patient, superior-subordinate, manager/personal
secretary, etc.,
English is the language of mass media, information technology, advertisements and digital media,
influence of Hollywood, Bollywood cinema,
to define terms/ concepts unfamiliar to Indian culture, and
to indicate superiority of knowledge and the wisdom/seniority of age of the speaker.

Psychological reasons
to gain command/superiority over others,
to establish emotional bonding with the (English educated) younger generation-de-alienation,
used by the younger generation to widen the generation gap with elders-alienation/hostility,
the youth is more comfortable with English. It is the language of the youth, used so as not to
appear outdated/peer pressure,
to foster detachment and depersonalize/ impersonalize the subject,
to affect/fake mastery in English language,
because the English word is what is most available or what comes first to the speakers mind,
to appear informal/casual,
for implicit suggestion of matters,
when the language of deliberation is English,
to maintain subtleness, objectivity, casualness, coyness of matters,
for indirect sexual propositions,
to indicate cultural/linguistic crisis and personal/cultural estrangement,
as human relationships become more casual/ informal, kinship terms/relationship terms are
affected,
personal/economical freedom/independence extended to language use (switching codes), and
under the influence of alcohol.
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Linguistic reasons
used in various domains due to lexical deficiency/lack of equivalents in host language-sports,
insurance, real estate, income tax, shares, artistic, religious, official, scientific/mechanical, medical,
marketing/sales and publishing/print register. Among religions, Christianity is more prone to
switching to English because of its cultural affiliation to English,
defective semantic extension,
to reproduce the original English quotes/phrases and there by declare mistrust in the faithfulness of
translation,
for semantic depth/ semantic range-to reach the depths of meaning unrevealed/ unreached by native
terms,
to achieve stylistic, satirical and creative manipulation of language(s)-whole narrative strategy,
when a single English word acts as a trigger for switching codes, and
for character specifications/portrayal. ex: adventurous/ aloof.

The study of the sociological, psychological and structural reasons for code switching to English indicate the
following:
Western thoughts and values are transforming the ethnic value system, and the native tongue is considered
to be less appropriate at various conversational junctures. The language choice of English determines the
world view, but the societal constraints affixes the speakers to their ethnic culture, thus resulting in severe
identity/individualistic crisis.
For example in Text 10, the primary code switcher in the text is an educated professional. Her narration is
intercepted with numerous English verbs like to impress, adjust, save, etc. The phrase excuse me is
code switched to English. This usage has been more or less adapted to Malayalam language and is
comprehended by almost all monolingual speakers. It is another of the politeness phrase/term borrowed from
English. The child in the story is code switching while discussing her studies. The excessive prominence
given to English medium education, has forced the students to mostly mug up typical English phrases/terms.
There is a crisis of identity underlying the text. Though majority of the content words-nouns, verbs and
adjectives- ex: comments, slide, critic, dryer, etc. are in English the grammatical structure and word order is
that of Malayalam. Very less sentences are used without code switching to English, moreover, no pure
English sentences are used in this text. The narrator cannot do without English but cannot forego her native
mother tongue too. The word style is phonologically naturalized to the extent of unrecognition as in
ailan kamanaI. It may be because the word (another related word is fashion) has many decades of
adoption to Malayalam language behind it.

The professional distance and the knowledge superiority/prestige attained by the use of English is alien
to the family oriented, emotionally binding culture. The naturalness and natural properties/aspects which
enrich the native tongues are getting lost due to their being Englishized. In Text 9, the technological/digital
term switches, Stephens choice of an English poem, the doctors animated code switching, and the code
preference for sexual advances all suggest that the motivations for code switching to English are as varied as
subtility, objectivity, impersonation, alienation, taboo words, medical, educational, professional, lack of term
equivalents, religious preference, prestige, globalisation and digitalization. English being the language of
the mass media, digital media, media communication and cinema, native languages are left to fend for
themselves. Their growth and promotion to the digital realm is not adequately supported by the government
or the researchers. The economically forward class, fluent in their use of English does not require a native
substitute for English unlike the economically and socially backward class.
The linguistic strategies/techniques (marked choices) of code switching employed by the younger
generation to distance themselves or disrespect their parents hit their mark because, the language choice is
least expected at that particular situation and the parental adaptation is strenuous. E.g. text 1. Moreover, the
children can always escape the guilt by hiding behind the outlaw mask which says that its not really me
whos speaking. (Myers-Scotton 2001). The parents try to reach out and bridge the generation gap by
graduating to code switched utterances in English. The demands of the fast changing, westernized and
technologically advanced society has compelled the older generation to learn and use the new tongue so that
they can survive in their jobs and home. E.g. Text 1 and 10(5)
Text 10 (5)is a satire on the unhealthy addiction to consumerism, mass media and technology. The
protagonist declares that our lives are directed by TV remote clicks, channels and mega-serials and we are
the hungry consumers of ads/serials and War news. This has also changed our attitude towards language and
communication. The message in the answering machine is an example of this. It is impolite as well as rude,
and unwilling to make a connection. The language use has become more egoistic and people are becoming
lonely unconnected islands. The shrinking job market have brought in English terms like resume, bio data,
retirement, interview, performance, target, etc. His lack of technical knowledge (computer processing) has
forced the Protagonist Vinod to quit his job and this inability to be in tune with the demanding job market has
made him gibberish and mentally deranged. The accelerated upsurge of consumerism and information
technology had caught him unawares and left him feeling restless and feverish. He is forced to plead for a
job as well as use the language of the super power (English) to assist his search. English, the language of
globalization/information technology (the linguistic super power) and America, the global super power have
joined hands and is looting the whole world/world languages. His hallucination about the American Army
looting his hometown and declaring then, we can re-built the city is a true reflection of this state. The threat
in the text is not just personal but also global and linguistic in nature.
The educational institutions imparting English education have strongly advocated the use of English
for communication among students, and this has resulted in walled barriers between those who can speak
English nicely and those who cannot. Students who are unable to rise in their English proficiency are
subjected to peer group pressure and taunting. This social pressure prompts one to fake his/her mastery in
English by using set phrases/quotes and flaunt his/her half-baked knowledge of English. For example in Text
12, there are phrases like
ll kke kke (Everything ok, ok) and maamm vs yuva neyi? ka hiya ai lau y.(madam-
what-is-your-name? come-here-I-love-you) and n menan n menan (No mention, No mention).
The non-intimate, casual, unsympathetic, detached characteristics of code switched sentences are because
of the unfamiliarity and foreign nature of English. We cannot normally express intimate feelings through a
non-intimate language. But extensive use of English is slowly affected the way we think. The language of
our thoughts is graduating towards English and the strangeness of the language might prompt an inadequate
approximation of our thoughts, leading to misinterpreted actions and vice versa. The frequent use of English
terms, shrinks out the native semantic lexicon and what comes first will always be used the next time too.
There would be a repeated usage of the non native lexicon and the native lexicon diminishes as a result.
In Text 11, The two protagonists Appu and Nileena constantly code switch especially using politeness
terminology like sorry, please, thanks and greetings/wishes-good morning, good night, etc. They are the
epitomes of present generation youth who live a life of adventure, independence-financial and personal- from
a very early age. Their personal independence is reflected in the use of their language too. They cannot be
bound by linguistic or personal constraints. They possess the freedom to switch between codes as and when
they like, however it is interesting to note that they do not jump rules of either language. Code switching to
English comes natural to the educated youth and the motivations are sometimes indefinable. It is a regular
and effortless process. Nileena code switches at length to Appu using the phrase a sense of belonging. The
characters are very comfortable with English and it has been promoted to the level of belonging to the
speaker/hearer. Nileenas feelings are mostly expressed in code switched sentences. The yet undefined and
gathering intimacy between the couple is nurtured by the frequent code switching. The motivations for CS
are to maintain subtlety and casualness in the relationship. Nileena is thinking of giving a surprise to Appu,
another evidence of code switched thoughts. Malayalam equivalents carrying similar nuances of excitement
and spontaneity are not available. But later, Nileena in her communication with the old man/visitor is careful
with her speech. She is unconsciously aware that a switch is made when she uses the term coincidence and
is also aware that she might be speaking to a monolingual, so she promptly adds the Malayalam equivalent
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after the code switched term. The English term is what comes first or the most available word (Grosjean
1982) to her; she gets the Malayalam equivalent only on the second attempt.
Kinship terms have been vastly affected in Malayalam and this indicates an encroachment to the core of
the Malayalam language. The kinship terms of first generation and blood relations are altered more than
others. E.g. daddy, mummy, brother, cousin etc. This indicates that maybe the basic and unmarked terms are
affected first. This might be because of the frequency of use of these terms and the growing casual and
informal nature of all human relationships. The switch is mostly limited to the younger generation speech
addressing the older generation and less in the opposite direction. E.g. In text 10(4) the character addresses
her mother in the letter as 'dear mummy' but ends the letter by using the native term for 'daughter'. The use of
the code switched term godmother in Text 11, is another anglicized kinship term used. It is foreign to
Indian culture, and so has been adopted. The informal and objective characteristic of the non native language
supports this casualness which has become the hallmark of relationships nowadays.
Subjects that are tabooed in Indian culture or socially stigmatized such as sex, romance, politics, etc.
make use of the implicitness of the English language. The communication which was mainly signaled by
sign language or body language earlier is now replaced by the non-native language. This also gives the
impression that the person is hiding behind the mask of I didnt say it.
The lack of equivalents in the native languages especially in culturally and socially unrelated domains
like sports, insurance, real estate, income tax, shares, artistic, non-native religions, official,
scientific/mechanical, medical, marketing/sales and publishing have contributed much to the English code
switched vocabulary. Since no new words, are created, borrowing them from other languages is the only
choice. But sometimes, the code switched terms trigger a switch of the entire utterance. However, even if
equivalents are present for some registeral terms, English terms are preferred more because of ease of use
and structural complexities of the native terms.
The semantics of some English terms are sometimes (historically) extended incorrectly and are used in
their mistaken sense by Malayalam speakers, e.g. circuit, weight, power etc. Most of these words are
phonologically naturalized adding to their non-acceptance in English vocabulary. This may be due to
incorrect understanding of their original meaning. English quotations/phrases/idioms are code switched
maintaining their originality, taking into consideration the uniqueness of meaning and the fallacies of the
unfaithful translation. E.g. Text 8 and 9.
In Text 9, from the beginning, the narrator assumes that most readers are knowledgeable in English. He
prefers using original English words in his text, either in the original English script or English words in
Malayalam script. His main character Govindhan is prefixed with the word Go- to supplement the nature of
the character. His inclination towards the literary/stylistic features of English is apparent when he produces a
full-fledged English sentence on the initial page of his novel. The adjective ancient as well as the prefix
go is repeated throughout the novel and this is used as an effective stylistic strategy. The authors
comfortability with the second language is obvious. He also presumes his readers to be at a comfortable
competence level in English and expects them to understand and appreciate his stylistic manipulations. He is
aware of a transition in the nature of readers of Malayalam texts, their shift from monolingual competence to
an asymmetrical competence in Malayalam and English. The narrator is disappointed that Malayalam is
unable to produce an equivalent for the verb saiaikkuka(wink eyes). He is embarrassed about the
imperfections in his language and declares his unsatisfaction to his readers. His is very subtly remarking
about the unnatural dependence on English language.

Later, The author reproduces a philosophical quote about life from three great philosophers. The quote is
in the original English script. The author graduates from phrases that could be read but not understood by
monolingual speakers to phrases/quotes that can be neither read nor understood by those readers who are not
familiar with the language or script. This technique is also used to maintain the originality of the quote and it
should be specially noted that no translation or gloss is added to the quote to aid a monolingual reader. The
author tries to justify his use of English terms in the text (code switching) by giving two reasons a)
Lack of equivalent terms in Malayalam b)The linguistic domination of English has reached such an
extent that readers/speakers of Malayalam understand things better only if the matter is presented in English.
The authors view on using English is significant because these are some of the reasons why speakers code
switch to English while speaking Malayalam. His basic advice is be balanced in the use of a second
language. When equivalents are not available, there is no choice but to use English terms, but we should also
know that there would always be a limit to our competence of English, so excessive fascination for English
language/education is unhealthy. He also believes in maintaining the sanctity of the language and avoiding
inappropriate/unsuitable translations.
Conclusion
Viewing and constructing the world from one cultural point of view may appear to be more normative and
refined and therefore more conventionally accepted. The same constructs can be viewed, however, from two
or more world views in a rich bilingual/multicultural environment. In this case, one language might help the
other, and sometimes both together may create a new idea, image, thought, behavior, outlook, organization,
and adaptation, and thus move culture to new adaptive places in the dynamics of cross-cultural life.
Code switching to English, when looked at from a different perspective and foregoing the possibility of a
language shift, puts forward many factors which are advantageous to the Malayali community. Their mastery
of English and the ability to code switch is a passport to steady income, social recognition, ever-expanding
modern/western life style and international travel. The global nature of English has brought the world to the
doorstep of its speakers. The influx of social networking sites predominantly in English and their popularity
with the youth has led to code switching to English being the norm in communication. The transition is
witnessed in the code switched lyrics of Malayalam songs, movie screenplay, and Malayalam movie names
like Up and Down, Salt & Pepper, Cocktail, English, Bachelor Party etc. Code switching to English
is motivated by covert psychological salacity for power and dominance and an overt means to quick societal
recognition. Malayalam language, its connoisseurs and patrons has taken this transition in its stride and
seems to enjoy its changing yet unchanged linguistic individuality as well as the collateral privileges granted
to it by its universally code switched companion.
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Valdes-Fallis, G.(1976). Social interaction and code-switching patterns: A case study of Spanish-English
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Weinreich, U.(1953). Languages in Contact: Findings and problems. New York: The Linguistics circle of
New York.





















Cross-linguistic and Cross-disciplinary Variation of Lexical bundles in
Academic Writing


Hadi Kashiha
1
, Chan Swee Heng
2
,
and Helen Tan
3
1
Department of English, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
hadi.kashiha@yahoo.com

2
Department of English, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
shchan@fbmk.upm.edu.my

3
Department of English, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
helen@fbmk.upm.edu.my

Corresponding Author: Hadi Kashiha,

1
Department of English, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
hadi.kashiha@yahoo.com


Abstract
The present paper reviews lexical bundles in academic writing from two different viewpoints namely linguistic and disc
ipline, directed at how academic writers belonging to different disciplines or linguistic backgrounds construct their disc
ourses through lexical bundles. As cohesive devices, lexical bundles are an indispensible part of the text and play a cruci
al role in shaping propositions, evolving the text, guiding readers through the flow of information and gaining the writer
s proffered meaning. By using lexical bundles, academic writers are able to attain naturalness in their writings and creat
e a more reader-friendly approach to the unfolding text. Bearing the significance of lexical bundles in mind, this review
paper aims to examine the effect of disciplinary variation and linguistic differences on the use of lexical bundles in acad
emic writing. Most researchers believe that the frequency as well as the use of lexical bundles is different across discipli
nes and from one language to another language. Therefore, through a review of previous studies, there is a systematic in
vestigation of evidence to support the above claims. Possible limitations of previous studies are discussed and some imp
lications for further research is presented.

Keywords: Academic writing, linguistic variation, disciplinary variations, lexical bundle
1. Introduction
Language learners have always been interested in learning and using multi-word expressions to show that they have
a good command of the target language. These multi-word fixed expressions are one of the most important aspects of fl
uent linguistic production and play an important role in the process of language learning (Hyland, 2008). They also attra
ct many academic writers who use the language for specific or academic purposes.

With the arrival of computer technology, the calculation and analysis of word-combinations has become much easie
r (Jablonkai, 2012). The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (Biber et al., 1999) was the first corpus fra
mework for studying and calculating the frequency of longer word combinations. The next step was to introduce lexical
bundles as corpus investigation; they are, also known as clusters and chunks (Hyland, 2008) as a new term to differentia
te these recurrent word chains from other types of multi-word expressions (e.g. idioms). Biber and Conrad (1999) defin
e lexical bundles as multi-word expressions which occur frequently and with accidental sequences of three or more wo
rds (e.g. in the case of the, do you want me to) (p. 183). Bundles are actually frequently occurring series of unexpected
word forms that do not have any special sequence pattern and appear to come together by chance. Nonetheless, they pl
ay an important role in understanding the meaning of specific contexts and contribute significantly to the coherence of t
he text (Hyland, 2008). In addition, they are manifested differently according to the nature of the text. Phrases like what
I want to say or as far as I know would refer to group discussions and conversations while as it noted before or in accor
dance with would belong to an academic corpus.

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632

Recent studies (Biber et al., 1999; Wray, 2000; Biber, 2006; Cortes, 2002, 2004; Hyland, 2008) have witnessed the
significance of lexical bundles as a major cause of coherence in academic texts of different discourse communities. A
majority of the studies conducted on the notion of lexical bundles have focused on structural and functional analysis of
these recurring expressions (Hyland, 2008; Cortes, 2004; Strunkyt & Jurknait, 2008; Adel & Erman, 2012; Bal 2010;
Chen & Baker, 2010). Structural categorization of bundles was first introduced by Biber and his colleagues (1999).
They found lexical bundles structurally complex, usually incomplete and not fixed and they classified them into 8 broad
structural categories: noun phrase + of, other noun phrases, Prepositional phrase +of, other prepositional phrases,
passive + prep phrase fragment, anticipatory it + verb/adj, be + noun/adjectival phrase and others. (Biber, et al. 1999).
Accompanying the identification of the forms, there was also the need to have other frameworks for the analyzing o
f the functions or meanings of lexical bundles in a text. Biber, et al. (2004) identified three major discourse functions for
lexical bundles. Stance bundles, discourse organizer bundles and referential bundles. They define stance bundles as the
overt expression of an authors or speakers attitudes, feelings, judgments, or commitment concerning the message.
They argue that discourse organizer bundles try to indicate the general overview of the sentence, while, referential bu
ndles signalize and point out some important features of a unit to be important in a way (pp. 386-388).

Another framework was introduced by Hyland (2008) as a more refined version of Bibers classification. Hylands
classification identified three major discourse functions for lexical bundles and introduced sub-categories which specific
ally reflect the concerns of research writing. These are: Research-oriented bundles, text-oriented bundles and participan
t-oriented bundles. Research-oriented bundles help writers to structure their activities and experiences of the real world
. Text-oriented bundles have to do with the cohesion of the text and its meaning in the form of logical arguments and
Participant-oriented bundles focus on the writer or reader of the text. (p. 14)

In the last 20 years, many researchers have also branched into the issue of disciplinary variation while analyzing le
xical bundles (Cortes, 2004; Hyland, 2008; Jalali, Eslami Rasekh, Tavangar Rizi, 2008; Strunkyt & Jurknait, 200
8). Some other researchers have considered linguistic variation as a factor that influences the
use of lexical bundles (Karabacak & Qin, 2013; Adel & Erman, 2012; Rafiee, Tavakoli & Amirian, 2011; Chen
& Baker, 2010). Yet, in the existing studies, little research has been done on roles of linguisti
c and disciplinary variation on the use of lexical bundles in academic writing. Therefore, the p
urpose of this review is to shed more light on the notion of lexical bundles in academic writing
by focusing on two different perspectives, linguistic and disciplinary. The aim is to gather ev
idence that can explain how native and nonnative writers from different disciplinary and cultura
l backgrounds are influenced in the use of lexical bundles in order to contribute to the coherence in a
text, create a realistic academic voice and attain naturalness in their writings. Secondly, it is also concerned with the me
thod that enables the investigation.

2. Methodology of Review
In meeting the aim of the study, there were some steps taken in finding and synthesizing the reviewed articles relate
d to this study. First, different online websites were searched using key words such as lexical bundles, disciplinary varia
tion, cultural background, academic writing, functional and structural classification of bundles. Then, reading through re
ference sections of the findings introduced some new related articles. The databases and websites used for the search for
the related studies were primarily Google Scholar and Sciencedirect. The exploration included 35 published articles tha
t spanned the last 20 years and among them, 6 most related articles were picked out of this corpus. The reason for not se
lecting the remaining articles was because they were not straightforwardly or directly relevant to the focus of this study.
The method of the review in this study started by dividing the selected articles into two sections: disciplinary and studie
s that can be identified culturally in terms of being country specific (cross linguistically), on lexical bundles. Each articl
e then was reviewed on the basis of its topic, corpus, model, method, and findings. Then next step was to draw the attent
ion to positive and negative points and possible shortcomings in the survey. Finally, the last stage discussed those streng
ths, flaws, and limitations of the reviewed studies and put forwards some implications for future research.

3. Review of Related Studies on Lexical Bundles
Review of related studies was done on the basis of two main categories: 1) Cross-disciplinary studies, and 2) Cross-
linguistic studies. The most related studies in each category are reviewed and explained in detail.

3.1 Cross-disciplinary Studies
As mentioned, having control over lexical bundles or other multi-word expressions is one of the most important asp
ects in linguistic production that leads to fluency. These recurring expressions are also referred to as extended collocatio
ns that can help shape the meaning in context and building coherence in a text (Hyland, 2008). Therefore, they attract m
any EAP scholars but only scant attention had been paid to their difference in use across disciplines.

Hyland (2008) addressed this issue in his study. He analyzed the forms, structures and functions of 4-word lexical b
undles in 120 published papers comprising 30 in the leading journals of four disciplines including electrical engineering
and biology from the applied and pure sciences, and business studies and applied linguistics from the social sciences, fo
rming a 3.5 million word corpus from research articles, doctoral dissertations and Masters theses. The purpose was to c
alculate the frequency of lexical bundles to find out about the disciplinary variation. The results revealed that electrical
engineering articles have the greatest number of bundles, with 213 different bundles. Biology articles on the other hand,
have the smallest range of lexical bundles, 131 different bundles. He also found that the other three disciplines did not s
eem to use those bundles found in the engineering texts leading to the conclusion that engineering writers appear to hav
e more dependence on pre-fabricated structures compared to writers in other fields. To provide a reason for the phenom
enon is difficult, but speculatively it could be a consequence of the relatively abstract and graphical nature of technical
communication (p. 11). Both Biology and Electrical engineering appear to rely more on statistics and visual representat
ions to support their arguments. Hyland (2008) concluded that writers of different fields make use of a variety of ways t
o develop their arguments, establish their credibility and persuade their readers, with less than half of the top 50 bundle
s in each list occurring in any other list (p. 19).

Addressing the question, --to what extent fixed expressions are exclusive to particular registers and also as to the di
fference between disciplinary professional and beginner writing in relation to the use of frequent word combinations --.
Cortes (2004) conducted a study on the use of the most frequent four-word lexical bundles (called target bundles) in the
writing of university students of two disciplines, history and biology. Through a comparison of the published writings f
rom history and biology journals, the results showed some disciplinary differences in the use of epistemicimpersonal/p
robablepossible stance markers in Biology articles. To Cortes (2004), these bundles are used in a variety of ways to sh
ow the effect of an affirmation, or to make an affirmation or argument more tentative (p. 411) in the corpus of publish
ed biology writings. History writers, on the other hand, did not use these bundles frequently. The findings propose that i
n order for the history writers to communicate the same functions, they prefer to use much simpler vocabularies which
are probably shorter than those of the lexical bundles investigated.

The frequency of occurrence, and structural and functional analysis of lexical bundles are affected by the disciplina
ry variation. To affirm this contention, Strunkyt and Jurknait (2008) investigated the use of lexical bundles in research
articles in two disciplines: humanities, represented by research articles in linguistics and educology, and natural sciences
, represented by research articles in physics and astronomy. The research analyzed and compared structural and function
al types of lexical bundles in forty research articles (20 from each discipline). The findings revealed that writers in the h
umanities used a larger number of lexical bundles compared to those in natural sciences. They also employed more stru
ctural types of bundles which indicated that the language of humanities is more mixed and varied than the language of t
he research articles in natural sciences. As for the functional analysis and its subcategories, research articles in natural s
ciences resorted to more text organizing bundles in order to set up a communication with the reader. Stance and referent
ial bundles were more frequent in humanities than in natural sciences. However, the referential bundles included a highe
r level of transactional information, such as exemplification, relationship between topics, evaluations, qualifications in b
oth humanities and natural sciences.

3.2 Cross-linguistic studies
In general, investigation and research in the area of second language acquisition has always been integrated by a co
mparison of different or similar aspects of language use among native and nonnative users. Comparing native and nonna
tive learners in terms of using combinations of words that carry out specific meaning in a text is also of a great interest i
n the area of academic writing. Adel and Erman (2012) compared L1 speakers of Swedish with British native-speakers i
n terms of using lexical bundles in advanced academic writing of undergraduate university students of linguistics. The i
nvestigation involved both quantitative and qualitative analysis of four-word lexical bundles in the Swedish local corpus
; Stockholm University Student English Corpus (SUSEC) which included 325 essays and over one million words. The r
esults revealed that native speakers in general, used more lexical bundles than the nonnatives, with 130 as compared wit
h 60. In terms of types of bundles, they also found some similarities and differences between native and nonnative learn
ers. Both native and nonnative speakers used bundles such as the result from the and can be used to, while bundles like,
as a result of, at the beginning of, the aim of this and to look at the were only more frequently found in the writing of na
tive speakers. Non native speakers, on the other hand, employed these bundles using different words that are not in the f
orm of lexical bundles (Adel and Erman, 2012).

Teaching both L1 and L2 apprentice writers to use lexical bundles in their writing could to a great extent play a cru
cial role in competent English academic writing (Karabacak & Qin, 2013). With this concern and on the basis of their h
ypothesis, they conducted a comparative study and looked at cross-cultural variations concerning the use of lexical bund
les in writings of Turkish (EFL), Chinese (EFL) and American (native speakers of English) university students. To this
end, 29,532 articles were collected from the New York Times and SF Gate newspapers as a corpus in order to extract targ
ILCC 2013
634

et bundles out of one million words. Then the students papers were analyzed to see the extent they had used such bundl
es in comparison. Results showed that there were some considerable differences between three groups of writers concer
ning the frequency of the types of bundles. American papers had the largest number of 5-word lexical bundles while the
number used is the lowest among the Chinese writers. Regarding target and reference bundles, the result showed that A
merican and Turkish students employed these bundles quite similarly. Again, Chinese students used a lower number of t
arget bundles, constituting only 3 per paper and about 1% of the whole paper as far as using reference bundles are conce
rned. They concluded that natural acquisition of some lexical bundles through simple exposure may be difficult even for
advanced English learners. Therefore, they need to be taught explicitly to hasten their acquisition process.

Analyzing the frequency of lexical bundles in journalistic writing would be a great help to both native and non-nati
ve academic authors and at the same time, guide readers to follow the information in the text and thus get a better under
standing of the point of the writer. In regards to this idea, Rafiee, Tavakoli and Amirian (2011) analyzed lexical bundles
to investigate the frequency and distribution of structural types of lexical bundles between English newspapers publishe
d in native and non-native contexts. To this end, a 3 million words corpus of four English newspapers, two published in
Iran (the Iran Daily and Tehran Times) and the two others published in England (The Times and Independent) from 1/1/
2009 to 15/1/2010 were used. Both groups of newspapers were compared with regards to the frequency and structural ty
pes of lexical bundles. Their first finding was in line with the findings of previous studies conducted by Biber et al. (199
9) and a few others, in that most of the bundles in their corpus were phrasal rather than clausal bundles. In fact, Biber et
al. (1999) made an important note in that the register of academic writing is distinguished from other modes such as con
versation, in that it includes more phrasal rather than clausal bundles.

The investigation showed marked similarities and differences between two groups of journalists in their use of lexi
cal bundles. Overall, Iranian journalists used more lexical bundles compared with native speaker journalists. To Rafiee,
Tavakoli and Amirian (2011), the reason for such tendency to use lexical bundles more among non-native writers could
be due to the fact that they have already been exposed to such word sequences several times in their prior readings of v
arious kinds of English literature and thus the ability to use these lexical bundles is well inculcated and influenced by t
his EFL experience (p.13). There was a remarkable inclination of using the structural types of lexical bundles among bo
th Iranian and English journalists. The analysis based on structural categorization of bundles showed that both Iranian a
nd English journalists used the same structural group of lexical bundles, probably showing the high degree of competen
ce needed in journalistic writing.

4. Summary of Findings
After reviewing the above related studies in regards to their methodology, total data, obtained results, explanation o
f ideas, discussion of findings and of course recommendation and implication, the researchers found that each of the abo
ve studies has its own strong and weak points. Both the research gap and the purpose of the study were fulfilled and des
cribed in all the reviewed studies. From the overlaps, frequency and corpus-based investigation of lexical bundles, many
researchers established that such word combinations are very text-dependent in academic writing. On the other hand, th
e nature of use of lexical bundles in oral discourse has yet to be firmly established, and this leads to growing interest am
ong researchers to study lexical bundles in spoken academic discourse. The supporters of studies on spoken discourse ar
gue that the distribution of lexical bundles could be dependent on the, genre and the mode. As Biber and Barbieri (2007)
pointed out, the extent to which a speaker or writer relies on lexical bundles is strongly influenced by their communica
tive purposes, in addition to general spoken/written differences. The explanation for the infrequent use of lexical bundle
s in the academic written registers (textbooks and academic prose) apparently lies in the restricted communicative goals
of those registersfocused on informational communicationrather than the written mode per se. (p. 273)

Concerning the discussion of findings, among the studies, Rafiee, Tavakoli and Amirian (2011) and Karabaca
k and Qins (2013) works suffered from the fact that they did not take draw on the explicit details from the examples an
d figures of their corpus while discussing their findings. In contrast, however, Hyland (2008), Cortes (2004), and Adel a
nd Erman (2012) supported their results by giving ample examples and explanations exploited from their analyzed data
and discussed them in a lucid and comprehensive way. Apart from these differences, almost all the studies have applied
the framework proposed by Biber et al. (1999, 2004) to analyze the frequency and distribution of structural types of lexi
cal bundles but concerning functional analysis, Hyland (2008) used his own taxonomy which was extended from Biber
s (Biber 2006, Biber et al., 2004). Studies conducted by Cortes (2004) and Strunkyt and Jurknait (2008) also made use
of functional categorization designed by Biber et al. (1999, 2004). Studies done by Rafiee, Tavakoli and Amirian (2011)
and Adel and Erman (2012) compared and contrasted their results with those of previous researchers but other studies d
id not compare nor contrast their findings with earlier studies. Points of comparison and contrast would have helped in e
stablishing greater credence to any findings. From the critique, it is also noted that Bibers framework stands out as the
dominant one in use and modifications are scarce.
In terms of the amount of data used in the related studies, findings showed that the corpora used in most of the studi
es such as those by Hyland (2008), Cortes (2004), Rafiee, Tavakoli and Amirian (2011), and Adel and Erman (2012), w
ere sufficiently large and could help in the generalization and representation of the results. Biber (2006) believes A cor
pus must be large enough to adequately represent the occurrence of the features being studied. The study by Strunkyt a
nd Jurknait (2008) were restricted in the number of disciplines studied leading to the use of a small corpus thus affectin
g the reliability of the claims made. Another study by Karabacak and Qin (2013) also lacked in number of adequate text
s (with only two American newspapers) as a reference corpus needed for representing written English in general and the
results in specific. For the genre in question, therefore, a larger corpus would be needed to discover lexical bundles wit
hin each sub-corpus which could serve as a point of departure for further research.

In comparing the findings to point out similarities or differences, some studies such as those by Adel and Erman (2
012) and Rafiee, Tavakoli and Amirian (2011) were quite lucid, comparing their findings to those of previous studies or
evoke similarities and differences between them, but such comparison could not be seen in those by Karabacak and Qin
(2013) and Strunkyt and Jurknait (2008) whose findings lacked comparison and related elaboration. Cortes (2004) com
pared the writing of university students of two disciplines, history and biology, with those of published writing from hist
ory and biology journals in terms of using lexical bundles but she actually discussed the differences in separate sections
under separate headings. Instead, she could have compared the use of target bundles in history and biology in one specif
ic section since she was conducting a disciplinary study.
Regarding recommendation and implication, Cortes (2004) and Hyland (2008) did not provide any recommendatio
ns for further research but identified some implications for their studies. Hyland (2008) addressed EAP practitioners and
course designers to relegate these multi-word units in their EAP courses through exposure and activities like item matc
hing and identification, and productive tasks such as consciousness raising which require learners to produce the items i
n their extended writing. Adel and Erman (2012), on the other hand, recommended researchers towards several issues in
design and methodology but did not talk about the implications of their findings. Karabacak and Qin (2013) also omitte
d these two factors. They neither direct researchers to make further studies nor provide any implications. A section on re
commendation and implication would be a great help to novice writers and could direct them to future research.




5. Conclusion
This paper aimed to look at the effects of disciplinary variation and linguistic differences on the use of lexical bundl
es in academic writing. In general, all the above mentioned cross-disciplinary and cross-linguistic studies have been con
ducted using different languages, context, frameworks, methodologies, analyses and points of view. However, all the res
earchers agree that lexical bundles are one of the most important aspects of fluent linguistic production and thus play an
important role in the process of language learning. Lexical bundles also help many academic writers who use the langu
age for specific or academic purposes. Scholars also attest to the fact that the manifestation of lexical bundles is restricte
d and conditioned by the disciplines public goals, norms, and conventions and writers native language writing culture.
It is suggested that more work needs to be done on this notion of lexical bundles cross-disciplinarily and cross-linguistic
ally, through other genres of academic writing. This includes textbooks, theses and dissertations in different disciplines.
Of some significance is the notion that lexical bundles should be extended in investigation with reference to its use in di
fferent genres and modes. As an extension, there is the possibility of giving more details to building a framework that de
als with spoken data thus widening the scope on the investigation of lexical bundles for such different text purposes.


References
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Subset-principle, Positive Linguistic Data and a Good Cue

Maryam Jalalifarahani
1,
Mohammadali Ghovehnodoushan
2

1 Taft Branch, Islamic Azad University, Taft, Iran

2 Taft Branch, Islamic Azad University, Taft, Iran

Corresponding Author: Maryam, Jalalifarahani, Taft Branch, Islamic Azad University, Taft, Iran, jal
ali@taftiau.ac.ir
________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract. The difference between L1 and L2 acquisition has spawned a lot of discussions in the field
s related to applied linguistics. Subset-principle guarantees L1 acquisition and setting parameters of
UG just by positive linguistic data (PLD). This principle is claimed to be inefficient in L2 acquisitio
n. Therefore, in some situations where PLD cannot stop some generalizations, negative evidence is
essential. This paper is to study the effects of different inputs on the acquisition of the allophones of
consonant /l/. For this purpose, 104 young foreign learners of English were chosen from Mehr Lang
uage School in Yazd (Iran). The subjects were put in two different input groups and received the tre
atment, and after that they were tested. The data were gathered and analyzed. The results show that
Subset-principle works properly in the presence of good cues when positive evidence is available, w
hereas in the absence of good cues negative evidence is more effective; therefore, Asymmetry Hypo
thesis is rejected.

Keywords: UG, PLD, allophones, consonants, subset-principle

Introduction

Learning second language phonology is not a matter of learning individual segments, but the ability
to put the individual segments together according to the constraints of the SL. Every sound segment
slightly varies according to the positions or the environments it happens in (Young-Sholton 1994).
Principles and parameters of UG are accessible to learners in learning L1 phonology, but cases like
Joseph Conrad Phenomenon (discussed in Scovel, 1969) raise this question that if the learners and e
specially adult learners have access to syntactic UG principles, can they have access to phonologica
l principles and parameters?

Recent studies on L2 phonology suggest that there is access at least to phonological principles, if no
t to UG parameters (see Young-Sholton, 1995). Different views were proposed which deal with the
availability or unavailability of UG for second language learners on syntax, and somehow it is tried
to generalize them to phonology [Clashen and Muysken (1986) and Schachter (1988a); Bley-Vroma
n (1989); and Clashen and Muysken (1989); Flynn (1987); White (1989b) and Schwartz (1993)]

Liquids are an interesting case to study in the phonology of different languages. A lot of research is
done on the acquisition of liquids by L1 learners, and their perception and acquisition by L2 learner
s, especially by Korean and Japanese learners [Sander (1972); Smith (1990) and Dodd (2003); Stoc
kman (2006); Brown (1998)].

Since there is a big difference between the articulation of the consonant /l/ in Persian and its counter
part in English, some learnability problems will occur for L2 learners whose first language is Persia
n.

The phoneme /l/ in English has three different allophones: clear [l], dark [] and syllabic []. Yarmoh
ammadi (2002) counts only two allophones for /l/ in Persian: [l] which appears after voiceless conso
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nants and clear [l] produced in other positions. To Yarmohammadi, the allophone [l] can be heard as
the initial sound in the word /la:ne/ nest. It can be said that for articulating this sound, which is
like the lateral in English, the tip of the tongue moves to touch the back of the alveolar ridge. But th
e other variant of /l/ in Persian is exemplified by Yarmohammadi (2002) as the final sound in the wo
rd [stl] bucket.

2. Main Divisions
2.1. Literature Review
2.1.1. Markedness and the Allophones of /l/

Eckman (1977) defines markedness (or typological markedness) as: A phenomenon A in some lang
uage is more marked than B if the presence of A in a language implies the presence of B; but the pre
sence of B does not imply the presence of A (p.60). According to this hypothesis, the allophones of
consonant /l/ in English can be ranked as follows:

/ l / Least marked
/ /
/ / Most marked
Fig 1: Contrast Hierarchy of the Allophones of English Consonant /l/

As the figure shows, syllabic [] is the most marked between the allophones of consonant /l/ in Engli
sh, and clear [l] is the least marked. In Persian the allophone [l] just occurs after voiceless consonan
ts. When the other positions are filled by clear [l] in Persian, for Persian-speaking learners of Englis
h clear [l] will be the only unmarked alternative for English dark [], which occurs after vowels in fi
nal position, and syllabic [], which occurs in unaccented syllables. It seems necessary to study the s
yllabification and theories about it in detail.

2.1.2. Theories of Syllabification
A lot of linguistic research has been done on interlanguage deletion and epenthesis and a majority of
cases have been within a typological framework. This framework searches for discrepancies in phon
otactics and markedness as the sources of deletion and epenthesis (see Eckman, 1977; Eckman, 198
6). Steele (2000) mentions following weaknesses for this kind of analysis. First, typological account
s have little to say about the nature of L2 learners grammatical knowledge. Second, they tend to ad
opt a linear conception of syllable structure. Finally, while they are descriptively and predicatively a
dequate, these accounts lack explanatory power; indeed, they offer no principled explanation or mot
ivation for IL deletion and epenthesis phenomena.
Steele (2000) presents an analysis according to the principles and parameters framework of UG (Ch
omsky, 1981). There are some principles which are relevant to word-final syllabification. They can
be grouped under two headings: a) prosodic constituency and b) constraints on syllable structure. H
owever, for the purpose of this study just the second group will be dealt with.
There are some principles which govern the constituent size on Sonority profile [Binary theorem (K
aye, 1990); Sonority Sequencing generalization (Selkirk, 1984); Syllable contact law (Vennemann,
1972); Sonority hierarchy (Clements, 1990); Sonority profile (Venneman, 1972)]. The ones which a
re very important for the purpose of this study are Sonority Hierarchy and Sonority profile.
The composition of onsets and codas gives us some information about the structure of syllables. Fur
thermore, it shows that the similarities among languages mostly come from the Sonority profile. Thi
s profile is as follows:



2.1.3. Sonority Profile:

The sonority of a syllable increases from the beginning of the syllable onwards, and decreases from
the beginning of the pick onwards.
Sonority which is related to overall acoustic energy of segments creates a hierarchy among speech s
ounds. This hierarchy, proposed by Clements (1990), distinguishes the classes of segments along th
e following dimension.
Sonority Hierarchy: obstruent < nasal < liquid < glide < vowel

As the hierarchy shows, the highest position is for the vowels as the most sonorant sounds, and the l
east is for obstruents. The remainder of the consonants takes place between these two dimensions ac
cording to their sonority as it was shown above. To add this to the process of syllabicity in English,
vowels, liquids and nasals can become the most prominent sonorous sound in a syllable, but obstrue
nts and glides cannot enter this group in English. In contrast, just vowels can take the place in nucle
us in Persian and be the most sonorant.

2.1.4. Learnability and Subset-principle

In L1 acquisition, the learnability problem for the learner to know if his/her language is in a subset
or superset position will be overcome by two possibilities. These two possibilities are: a) Markedne
ss values b) Subset-principle. The first possibility is that, the markedness values of parameters are
provided in UG. The value which provides a subset will be the unmarked one. In this possibility, Su
bset-principle just orders to use the unmarked setting first. The second possibility gives a more im
portant role to Subset-principle. In this case, Subset-principle is powerful enough to compute the p
ossibilities each time it is faced with input so as Wexler and Manzini (1987) propose, markedness
values should not be provided in UG. The role of UG is to list the parameter settings which are pos
sible for an item.
However, White (1989) asserts that the researchers show Subset-principle is not operating effectivel
y in SLA. The L2 learner will have the parameter setting available because of UG but he/she cannot
calculate the markedness values of these different settings, so it ends in some choices which have
the incorrect parameter for L2.
As she states, when the learners L1 grammar is in a superset position and L2 in the subset position,
it causes some overgeneralizations. According to her, when Subset-principle is not operating effecti
vely in SLA and positive input does not contain the right information to put an end to these generali
zations, fossilization will occur. To avoid this kind of generalization and fossilization, the learner ne
eds some negative evidence in L2.

2.1.5. The Role of the Evidence in L2 Acquisition

If Whites (1989) assertion about Subset-principle in L2 acquisition is accepted, L2 learners have to
rely on the evidence they receive by the environment. Therefore, the role of input in L2 acquisition
would become greater than before. In what follows Whites Subset-superset relationships will be ex
amined and the role of input in triggering the L2 acquisition will be studied.
Let us imagine the state where the learner adopts the L1 grammar and that grammar is subset to the
L2 grammar, which is in superset position. In the absence of Subset-principle, to move from subset t
o superset, positive evidence would be the triggering evidence. Since the input is full of evidence fo
r the learner to change the value to superset. The experiments done by White (1989a) show the L2 l
earners used positive evidence to change the setting value from subset to superset. For the state in w
hich some values should be replaced by each other, White (1989) also considers positive evidence a
s the triggering evidence. Since Subset-principle does not explain the ultimate attainment in L2 pho
nology, Young-Sholton (1994) proposes an asymmetric pattern of L2 phonological acquisition, whic
h tries to explain ultimate attainment. In this hypothesis, she rejects the usefulness of negative evide
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nce. According to her, Asymmetry Hypothesis will be as follows:

If the L1-L2 situation is such that positive evidence can affect acquisition, then acquisition will
ultimately take place.

If the L1-L2 situation is such that negative evidence is required, acquisition will not take place.
(p.201)

In what follows, it is tried to test the effects of different inputs on the acquisition of consonant /l/. T
he variants of this sound segment seem to be good cases, since there is a learnability problem in the
acquisition of these allophones by Persian-speaking learners of English. As it was put before, clear [
l] is existent in both languages. However, the variants of dark [] and syllabic [] are non-existent in
Persian, and according to subset-superset relationships, they can be matched to the first condition. It
means clear [l] in Persian is subset to and less marked than dark and syllabic [] in English, when th
ey occur in the same position. As it will be shown below, there is some good cue in syllabic [], whi
ch is not observed in dark []. It is predicted to see some differences in the acquisition of these two a
llophones by Persian-speaking learners of English. However, both allophones which are non-existen
t in Persian are in a superset position, and according to the abovementioned views, positive evidenc
e will trigger the acquisition. Therefore, it is interesting to check the effect of different inputs, test
Whites (1989) ideas about sufficiency of positive evidence and check the role of good cues in the a
cquisition. Syllabic [] contains some good cue, which seems to play a part on its acquisition. In the
following section, the characteristics of good cues and the alleged cue in syllabic [] will be dealt wi
th.

2.1.6. Characteristics of Good Cues
Steele (2001) defines acquisition as setting a parameter in the presence of positive evidence, which
contains good cues. White (2003) defines a cue or trigger as a kind of input, which is partially or ful
ly analyzed, and the one that determines which parameter setting is adopted.
Steele (2001) follows Dresher and Kayes (1990) Cue-based model of the acquisition of metrical ph
onology. He assumes a good cue should be both appropriate and robust. He defines the appropriaten
ess of a cue as being in a principled relation with its parameter. Introducing sonority which is releva
nt to syllabification, he asserts that an appropriate cue for a syllabification-related parameter may re
fer to sonority (e.g. manner, voicing). Therefore, when syllabification and sonority are interrelated, f
ollowing Steele (2001), we should try to find an appropriate cue, which refers to sonority. In his exp
eriment, Steele finds and shows that a phonetic property of the input, namely liquid devoicing cons
titutes a good cue for the resetting of Onset of an Empty-Headed Syllable (OEHS) Parameter (p.73
8). OEHS Parameter is the one, which makes the syllabic [] devoiced and branches it under onset. I
t seems that this devoiced liquid is the same as the allophone [l] in Persian.

2.1.7. Timing Tiers as a Good Cue
For the purpose of our study, we follow the arguments put forward by Gussenhoven and Jacobs (19
98) about the existence of skeletal tiers. One of their arguments is Compensatory Lengthening Phe
nomenon (CLP). They state that the loss of a segment is incomplete until the time it took before it
was deleted is preserved in a neighboring segment. This phenomenon always occurs in the case of s
egments deleted from the rime, but it never occurs in the case of segments which are deleted from o
nset.

In this case, CLP and the result, which is the time put on the neighboring segment (syllabic []), can
be a good cue, which is related to sonority. When the time is preserved in [] as the nucleus, the prob
lem of sonority is eliminated, so there is some increasing sonority towards the nucleus, which is syll
abic []. In other words, Persian [el] is replaced by []. Therefore, this cue, which refers to sonority,
can be a good cue for Persian-speaking learners of English to trigger the acquisition.
The second characteristic of a good cue, which was put in Steele (2001), is being robust. Steele state
s that, when a cue is not obscured by some language-specific rules or exceptions, it is robust. This c
ue can be called robust since it is not obscured by the input from English; above all, there is no exce
ption to it.
It is considered that the variants of consonant /l/ match whatever needed for this purpose. Ther
e is a common variant (clear [l]) which is the least marked. There are two more variants, which are r
anked higher on markedness hierarchy, and between these two allophones, one is the most marked (
syllabic []). Therefore, the order of these allophones on the markedness hierarchy would make the
m a good case to study Subset-principle and its efficiency in L2 acquisition.
According to White (1989), it can be hypothesized that when [el] is in subset and syllabic [] in supe
rset position, because of the good cue, the new value which is in superset position will be set by pos
itive evidence. However, in the case of dark [], since the learners do not receive such a good cue or
any good cue with the characteristics mentioned above, no value will be set and because of this, no
acquisition will be triggered.

2.2. Methodology
2.2.1. Participants:
One hundred and four 7- to 11-year old subjects participated in the experiment. They were 60 boys
and 44 girls (the role of sex is not observed in this experiment). They were attending Mehr Languag
e School in Yazd.

2.2.2. Procedures:
The teachers instructed the subjects differently in different input groups. Three preparatory session
s were allocated to teaching forty words in the experiment. In each 100-minute class, one hour was
allotted to teach the words to the subjects. The film episode took 10 minutes and it was repeated 6 ti
mes. The subjects were going to attend a twenty-session term, two sessions a week. The teaching ph
ase was done on the first three sessions. The teachers, who were controlling the positive evidence cl
asses, gave no repetition and took no action except running the syllabus. The teachers in negative ev
idence classes were supposed to control the class and provide some more information on the pronun
ciation of the words, more repetition and correction, and when it was necessary, the teachers provid
ed metacognitive information through explanation. The subjects were asked to memorize every wor
d and its correct pronunciation, because they were going to attend an exam on the fourth session. Th
e testing session was on the fourth session. In the testing session, just a naming task was used. The t
est aimed at checking the effect of evidence on the acquisition of the allophones of the consonant /l/
.

2.3 Findings

The data collected from the performance of the subjects were analyzed, and the following results Th
e data collected from the performance of the subjects were analyzed, and the following results were obtained.

Table 1: the Relative Frequency of Clear [l] Produced by the Subjects in all Levels










Levels Freque
ncy
Percentage
Neg. Ev
id
75/115 65.21
Pos. Evi
d.
92/105 87.61
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642





Table 2: the Relative Frequency of Syllabic [] Produced by the Subjects in all Levels









Table 3: the Relative Frequency of Dark [] Produced by the Subjects in all Levels




As the tables shows the highest fre quency belongs to the production o
f Clear [l] in both evidences. The relative frequency of the production of Syllabic [] is in the second rank, an
d for this allophone positive evidence group has a higher percentage. The lowest relative frequency of the pro
duction belongs to Dark [] for both evidences



Table 4: The Paired-Samples T-Test for all the Groups



1.7115 1.7218 .1688 1.3767 2.0464 10.137 103
.000
-1.2019 1.6213 .1590 -1.5172 -.8866 -7.560 103 .000
-2.9135 1.3942 .1367 -3.1846 -2.6423 -21.310 103
.000
syllabic L - dark L Pair 1
syllabic L - clear L Pair 2
dark L - clear L Pair 3
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean Lower Upper
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Paired Differences
t df
Sig.
(2-tailed)




As the tables shows the highest frequency belongs to the production of Clear [l] in both evidences.
The relative frequency of the production of Syllabic [] is in the second rank, and for this allophone
positive evidence group has a higher percentage. The lowest relative frequency of the production be
longs to Dark [] for both evidences


There was a significant difference in the scores for syllabic L - dark L (M=1.7115, SD=1.7218); t(1
03)= 10.137, p =.000 , for syllabic L - clear L (M=-1.2019, SD=1.6213); t(103)= -7.560, p =.000 ,
and dark L - clear L(M=-2.9135, SD=1.3942); t(103)= -21.310, p =.000.

In the following table, the allophones of the consonant /l/ are ranked according to the frequency of t
he subjects production.


Levels Frequency Percentag
e
Neg. Evid 27/115 23.47
Pos. Evid. 16/105 15.23
Levels Frequency Percentage
Neg. Evid 94/115 81.73
Pos. Evid. 103/105 98.09



Table 5: the Production of the Allophones of the Consonant /l/

N Frequency Percentag
e
Clear [l] 5 2
0
469 90.19
Syllabic [
]
5 2
0
326 62.27
Dark [] 5 2
0
160 30.80

As the table illustrates, the percentages are 90.19%, 62.27% and 30.80% respectively for clear, syll
abic and dark [].
The frequency of the production by a great number of the subjects in Positive evidence input group
shows that the requirements of Subset-principle are observed. The subjects have acquired an item ju
st through positive input and the most marked value is set. This evidence rejects Whites (1989) idea
about the inefficiency of Subset-principle in L2.
The data show that dark [] production percentage, among the variants of consonant /l/ and in all gro
ups of inputs, is the lowest. This part of experiment shows that Whites (1989) idea about Subset-pri
nciple is proved and the principle cannot act properly.
Following Steele (2001), we can find a good cue for syllabic []. In this case, it was discovered that t
he additional timing tier left from a deleted vowel could be a good cue for triggering the acquisition
of syllabic []. The results were reviewed and showed that whenever a good cue is present, Subset-p
rinciple works properly. Acquisition will be triggered through positive input only, and even the most
marked value will be set. However, in the absence of a good cue, the items cannot be acquired throu
gh positive input, and the most influential input would be the negative one. In this case, Subset-prin
ciple has chosen the least marked value. It shows that when the first possibility proposed by White (
1989) is accepted, Subset-principle plays its role properly in every situation, because when positive
evidence does not trigger acquisition, Subset-principle chooses the least marked value presented in
UG. Asymmetry Hypothesis by Young-Sholton (1994) is rejected, because in the situations where p
ositive evidence was not effective, negative evidence could trigger acquisition.

3. Acknowledgements
We would like to dedicate this research to our dear colleagues and students whose earnest request, s
uggestions, and encouragements made us search through extensive research materials.

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