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C O O K I N GSTOVESANDSP ACEHEATING
IN T H E

PEOPLE'SREPUBLIC OF CHINA

BY

H A N GZHU
REPORT NUMBER THA/CDT 8 3 / 1

V A Y ) 1 9 8 3

W A S H I N G T O N - UN V P L
SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI 6 3 1 3 0

D E P A R T M E N TOFT E C H N O L O G YANDH U M A NAFFAIRS A N D C E N T E RFORDEVELOPMENTTECHNOLOGY W A S H I N G T O NUNIVERSITY SAINT LOUIS ' M I S S MR I a y O U 6 3 1 3 0

ReportNumber THA/CDT -83/1

1983

C O O K I N GSTOVESANDSP ACEHEATING INTHE PEOPLE'SREPUBLIC OF CHINA

H A N GZHU

The m a t e r i a l s i n t h i s r e p o r t w e r e t a k e n f r o m a M a s t e r s t h e s i s e n t i t l e d Household Energy Consumption i n t h e People's R e p u b l i c of C h i n a b y Hang Zhu. C o n c l u s i o n s a n d v i e w s expressed i n t h i s report are those o f t h e author and do n o t necessarily represent t h o s e o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f Te c h n o l o g y a n d H u m a n A f f a i r s , t h e C e n t e r f o r D e v e l o p m e n t Te c h n o l o g y , o r W a s h i n g t o n U n i v e r s i t y .

PREFACE

This r e p o r t c o n t a i n s i n f o r m a t i o n o n cookstoves and space h e a t i n g i n t h e P e o p l e ' s Republic o f China w h i c h , to my knowledge, i s g e n e r a l l y n o t w i d e l y a v a i l a b l e e l s e where. H a n g Zhu was a b l e t o assemble t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n as p a r t o f h i s m a s t e r ' s t h e s i s s t u d y, "Household Energy Consumption i n t h e People's R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a . " O t h e r portions o f t h i s t h e s i s have been p u b l i s h e d i n Energy: The I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l . W e hope t h i s r e p o r t w i l l prove u s e f u l t o t h o s e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e t o p i c as w e l l as t h o s e who seek t o f o s t e r good r e l a t i o n s between t h e people o f China and t h e people o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I t was i n t h i s s p i r i t t h a t t h e s t u d y was undertaken.

Robert P. Morgan Director Center f o r Development Technology

Copyright 0

b y Hang Zhu

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES vi

Chapter I. STOVE DESIGNS FOR COOKING I N URBAN AREAS 1.1 B i t u m i n o u s Coal Cookstoves 1.2 B r i q u e t Cookstoves 1.3 Comb-Shaped Coal Cookstoves 1.4 I m p r o v e d Comb-Shaped Coal Cookstoves 1.5 Medium-Btu Town Gas Cookstoves References and Footnotes 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 1 5 6 4 8 4 9 8 8 9 6 2 4 5 3 8 1 1 3 2 1

I I . STOVE DESIGNS FOR COOKING I N RURAL AREAS 2.1 A g r i c u l t u r a l Residue Cookstoves 2.2 F i r e w o o d Cookstoves 2.3 S o l a r Cookstoves 2.4 B i o g a s Cookstoves References and Footnotes

I I I . HOUSEHOLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION FOR SPACE HEATING 3.1 Space Heating i n Urban Areas 3.2 Space Heating i n Rural Areas 3.3 S o l a r Heated Homes and S o l a r Water Heating Systems 5 References and Footnotes 6 4 5

LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 T h e r m a l E f f i c i e n c y Te s t R e s u l t s o f Improved Comb-Shaped Coal Cookstoves 1 3.1 T h e Results o f a Comparison o f Steam-Boiler and Water B o i l e r Systems 5 2 Page

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 Bituminous CoalCookstove Iron Sheet B r i q u e t Cookstove Comb-Shaped Coal Cookstove A Simple Mechanical Device f o r Making Comb-Shaped Coal Improved Comb-Shaped Coal Cookstove w i t h Downward Combustion Improved Comb-Shaped Coal J801 Type Improved Comb-Shaped Coal Cookstove Medium-Btu Town Gas Cookstove A g r i c u l t u r a l Residue Cookstove Firewood Cookstove Improved Chinese Firewood Cookstove with a B e l l o w Box Solar Cookstoves Manufactured i n Shanghai No. 1 5 Radio Manufacturing P l a n t Recent Chinese Biogas D i g e s t e r Designs f r o m the P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c o f China Diagram o f Chinese Small-Scale Biogas D i g e s t e r Used i n t h e Rural Household Earthen Biogas Cookstove w i t h M i x i n g Groove Biogas Cookstove Used i n Chinese Rural Household Safety Pressure Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 4 6 9 1 1 14 17 20 22 28 30 32 34 37 39 41 42 44 55 57

Cast I r o n Coal Cookstove Used i n t h e W i n t e r f o r Heating Structure o f Chinese Bed - - Kang w i t h a Stove a t i t s Base

Figure 3.3 S t r u c t u r e o f Chinese Kang w i t h a n Improved Heating System 5 8

Page

3.4 C l o s e d Loop S o l a r Water Heating System U t i l i z i n g Antifreeze 6 3 3.5 S o l a r Water Heating System ( 3 0 0 m 2 f o r Supplying H o t Water f o r 1,000 People t o ) w i ttake h Showers C a p a c i t y 3.6 S o l a r Water Heating System Used i n Apartment Buildings 6 5 6 6

3.7 S o l a r Bathhouse i n Linmingying Production Brigade o f Changziying Commune Daxing County, B e i j i n g

CHAPTER I STOVE DESIGNS FOR COOKING I N URBAN AREAS A f t e r h i s t r i p t o China, Marco P o l o n o t o n l y n o t i c e d t h e Chinese noodle, w h i c h he l a t e r made i n t o s p a g h e t t i , b u t he a l s o spoke o f t h e e x t e n s i v e use o f a k i n d o f b l a c k s t o n e dug f r o m mountains and burned l i k e f i r e w o o d a l l o v e r Cathay. S t o n e c o a l was i n u s e i n China b e f o r e t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a . A f t e r two thousand y e a r s , t h e Chinese a r e s t i l l u s i n g i t as t h e major f u e l a t home. Barring medium-Btu c o a l g a s and comb-shaped c o a l , which supply 10 p e r c e n t and 31 p e r c e n t o f urban households w i t h cooking fuel r e s p e c t i v e l y, a b o u t 3 7 . 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e urban households s t i l l use bituminous c o a l f o r cooking; 1 5 p e r c e n t use c o a l b r i q u e t t e s . The e f f i c i e n c i e s o f c o a l s t o v e s used i n t r a d i t i o n a l ways have n o t increased s i g n i f i c a n t l y through t h e y e a r s . T o maximize t h e o v e r a l l e f f i c i e n c y o f cooking f u e l u t i l i z a t i o n , t h e thermal e f f i c i e n c y o f a cookstove i s an i m p o r t a n t parameter. T h e o v e r a l l e f f i c i e n c y o f f u e l u t i l i z a t i o n i s a l s o c l o s e l y associated w i t h t h e c h o i c e o f f u e l used in t h e s t o v e , and t h e s p e c i f i c h e a t o f t h e m a t e r i a l o f which t h e cookers a r e made. O v e r t h e p a s t t h i r t y y e a r s , t h e Chinese have attempted t o improve t h e o v e r a l l e f f i c i e n c y o f f u e l u t i l i z a t i o n through t h e improvement o f cookers, u s i n g aluminum i n s t e a d o f c a s t iron t o make cookers and pressure cookers, b y changing t h e cooking patterns and b y improving t h e thermal e f f i c i e n c i e s o f cookstoves.

2 Because o f the way i n which f u e l i s u t i l i z e d i n the coal cookstoves, requiring about 30 percent o f f u e l t o bank up the f i r e between cooking times and through the n i g h t , t h i s attempt did not reach the desired goal t o increase the end-use e ff i c i e n c y g r e a t l y. Most o f the designs and technical improvements o f cookstoves in China over the past t h i r t y years were based on the following requirements: . 1) t h e need t o use available local f u e l ; 2) t h e need t o increase the thermal e ff i c i e n c y o f cookstoves; 3) t h e need t o manufacture cookstoves a t low cost; 4) t h e need t o popularize the stoves e a s i l y. The improvement o f the thermal e ff i c i e n c y o f a cookstove deals only w i t h one aspect o f the problem and does n o t address t h e e n t i r e problem o f maximizing the overall e f f i c i e n c y o f f u e l u t i l i z a t i o n . Also, because o f economic l i m i t a t i o n s , China was n o t able t o make rapid progress i n increasing t h e overall e f f i c i e n c y o f f u e l u t i l i zation by f u l l y developing medium-Btu coal gas o r by u t i l i z i n g some other f u e l instead o f coal i n the home. 1.1 Bituminous Coal Cookstoves A popular type o f bituminous coal cookstove i s usually b u i l t of bricks with a combustion chamber a t i t s t o p and an opening a t i t s base which serves t o provide coal breeze* drainage and a i r f l o w.

*A substance l e f t when coke o r charcoal i s burned, used as a f i l l e r for concrete, e t c .

Normally i t i s located i n the kitchen and the chimney o f the stove goes through the kitchen r o o f t o the outside. F u e l i s added from the top opening o f the combustion chamber, and coal breeze and ashe are drained from the opening a t the base o f the stove. ( S e e Figure 1.1) Because the bituminous coal has a lower energy content than the a n t h r a c i t i c coal and the design o f the bituminous coal stove has not been brought to a stage o f high e ff i c i e n c y, almost twice as much f u e l i s used i n a bituminous coal cookstove as i s used i n a briquet cookstove. Among all coal cookstoves, t h e bituminous coal stove has the lowest thermal efficiency, about 15 percent. ( 1 ) T h i s low e ff i c i e n c y i s p a r t l y associated w i t h the 30 percent o f fuel used f o r banking up the f i r e between cooking times and through the n i g h t . The Chinese have l i t t l e experience i n converting bituminous coal i n t o coke o r other forms a t s u f f i c i e n t l y low cost t o be used f o r cooking i n households. F o r t h i s reason, bituminous coal cookstoves are s t i l l used q u i t e extensively i n urban households, especially i n the northeastern and central p a r t s o f China, where bituminous coal is used as t h e major f u e l f o r cooking i n households. A 1981 survey
of 44 urban households conducted i n Shenyang o f L i a o n i n g p r o v i n c e as p a r t o f t h i s s t u d y i n d i c a t e d t h a t bituminous c o a l consumption f o r cooking i n t h e s e households ranged f r o m 150 k g t o 275 k g p e r

month. 1.2 B r i q u e t Cookstoves The Chinese have used briquettes f o r several decades. A b o u t 45 years ago, an American scholar, Rudolf P. Hommel returned from China and wrote a book cal led China A t Work, i n which he described

Figure 1 . 1 . B i t u m i n o u s c o a l cookstove

how the Chinese were making briquettes and using them a t t h a t time. ( 2 ) "The Chinese solved i n t h e i r own peculiar way the p r o blem o f how best t o use t h i s f u e l , as I had many opportunities t o notice i n Chekiang and Kiangsi. T h e powdered coal i s mixed w i t h clay and with t h e addition o f water the whole mass i s formed i n t o a paste. I n t h i s moist condition i t i s p u t upon a woodfire where i t r e a d i l y i g n i t e s . I t burns very slowly with a red glow and gives o f f a powerful heat. I n some places, notably i n Kweichow, Szechuan and Peking, a s i m i l a r mixture i s placed i n t o molds whence i t issues as briquettes i n the shape o f truncated cones. These a f t e r being d r i e d i n the sun are ready t o be used for f u e l . " Today, t h e Chinese s t i l l use the same concept t o make briquettes with d i f f e r e n t machinery. B r i q u e t t e s are usually made o f a n t h r a c i t i c coal. Powdered anthracite i s sent t o a mixer with water and c l a y then i t i s transported t o a briquet-forming machine. A f t e r the b r i q u e t t e s are formed, they are delivered t o a d r i e r using b e l t machines. T h e final s t e p i s t o d i s t r i b u t e them throughout coal shops t o d i f f e r e n t residential areas f o r sale. The conventional b r i q u e t cookstove i s a non-bank-up f i r e type. I t has a shorter combustion chamber than t h a t o f a bank-up f i r e briquet stove. T h e combustion chamber has a tapered shape, w i t h a small opening a t t h e top and large opening a t the bottom. T h e body of the briquet cookstove i s made o f i r o n sheet and looks l i k e a paint can. A f t e r the f i r e i s s t a r t e d , i t usually takes 50 minutes t o one hour f o r the f i r s t t o be ready t o cook a meal. Because o f t h i s inconvenience o f using a non-bank-up f i r e briquet cookstove and because o f the depletion o f firewood i n the c i t y and subcity areas, these stoves are being replaced by bank-up f i r e briquet stoves. ( S e e Figure 1 . 2 ) These two kinds o f stoves are somewhat s i m i l a r. However,

:Ir ' s. --Figure 1.2 I r o n .--1 5 ?

I I sheet briquet cookstove

the bank-up f i r e b r i q u e t s t o v e has a l o n g e r combustion chamber which can h o l d more f u e l t o keep t h e c o a l s h o t throughout t h e n i g h t . T h e chamber o f a bank-up f i r e b r i q u e t s t o v e i s u s u a l l y 25 centimers (cm) in d e p t h , 9 cm i n d i a m e t e r a t i t s t o p end o f t h e chamber and 23 cm in diameter a t i t s bottom end. T h e main body o f t h e bank-up f i r e briquet s t o v e i s made e i t h e r o f i r o n s h e e t o r c a s t i r o n w i t h a l o n g chimney p i p e . T h e i r o n s h e e t b r i q u e t s t o v e i s used s o l e l y f o r cooking, w h i l e t h e c a s t i r o n , w i t h t h e l o n g chimney p i p e , c a n b e used b o t h f o r cooking and space h e a t i n g i n w i n t e r. T h e i n s u l a t i o n material u s e d between t h e w a l l o f t h e chamber and t h e main body i s clay mixed w i t h r i c e husks. T h e opening a t t h e bottom o f t h e s t o v e serves a s t h e p r i m a r y a i r i n l e t and t h e o u t l e t f o r c o a l a s h d r a i n a g e . The c o s t o f t h e i r o n s h e e t b r i q u e t s t o v e i s a b o u t 5 yuan ( $ 3 U . S . ) and t h e c o s t o f t h e c a s t i r o n one i s about 10 yuan ( $ 6 U . S . ) . T h e iron s h e e t b r i q u e t stoves a r e u s u a l l y used i n southern r e g i o n s o f China, w h i l e t h e c a s t i r o n ones a r e used i n n o r t h e r n and c e n t r a l parts. A c c o r d i n g t o t e s t s u s i n g a quench f i r e method performed by Yang Fuqiang, t h e bank-up f i r e b r i q u e t s t o v e has a thermal e f f i c i e n c y o f about 2 0 . 5 p e r c e n t . ( 3 ) Briquettes have l e s s c o n t a c t s u r f a c e w i t h t h e f i r e t h a n comb-shaped c o a l s . T h e y a r e p i l e d i n t h e combustion chamber i n such a way as t o b l o c k t h e a i r f l o w d u r i n g t h e b u r n i n g process. T h i s causes incomplete combustion, a n d p r o h i b i t s t h e conversion o f harmful carbon monoxide i n t o carbon d i o x i d e . A f t e r b u r n i n g , t h e b r i q u e t ash s t i l l h a s 1 , 2 0 0 t o 1,500 k c a l / k g energy c o n t e n t . T h i s i s one o f the m a j o r reasons why t h e thermal e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e b r i q u e t cookstove is s t i l l l o w.

A 1981 s u r v e y o f 67 urban households i n Shanghai a s p a r t of t h i s s t u d y revealed t h a t b r i q u e t consumption i n these households ranged f r o m 25 k g t o 100 k g p e r month. O n a n average, t h e households which used b r i q u e t t e s a s cooking f u e l consumed 31 p e r c e n t l e s s f u e l than an urban household u s i n g bituminous c o a l n o t i n b r i q u e t f o r m . 1.3 Comb-Shaped Coal Cookstoves Except f o r t h e combustion chamber, t h e comb-shaped c o a l cookstove i s v e r y s i m i l a r i n design t o t h e b r i q u e t s t o v e . T h e chamber of t h e comb-shaped c o a l s t o v e i s n o t t a p e r e d , b u t i s c y l i n d r i c a l i n shape, a b o u t 25 cm i n depth and 12 cm i n d i a m e t e r. B e c a u s e t h e formed shape o f t h e c o a l l o o k s l i k e a honeycomb w i t h 1 2 h o l e s , t w o l i n e s o f f o u r - h o l e s a t middle and two l i n e s o f t w o a t each s i d e , i t is c a l l e d comb-shaped c o a l . A p i e c e o f comb-shaped c o a l n o r m a l l y weighs a b o u t one pound; t h r e e o r f o u r pieces a r e enough f o r a f a m i l y to cook one d a y ' s meals. T h e f u e l shape p e r m i t s a i r t o move e a s i l y through t h e s m a l l h o l e s , a l l o w i n g t h e f u e l t o b u r n more completely and i n c r e a s i n g i t s thermal e f f i c i e n c y o v e r b r i q u e t s t o v e s . A comb-shaped c o a l s t o v e has a b o u t a 2 8 p e r c e n t thermal e f f i c i e n c y as measured by Yang. ( 4 ) A f t e r b u r n i n g , t h e ash o f comb-shaped c o a l h a s a s l i t t l e as 200 t o 300 k c a l / k g energy c o n t e n t . I t m i g h t s t i l l b e p o s s i b l e t o reduce t h i s amount f u r t h e r and i n c r e a s e t h e thermal e f f i c i e n c y b y enlarging t h e c o n t a c t s u r f a c e o f a p i e c e o f comb-shaped c o a l b y making more h o l e s i n i t . B e c a u s e o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y h i g h thermal e f f i c i e n c y o f comb-shaped c o a l , many urban households have s h i f t e d f r o m u s i n g b r i q u e t cookstoves t o comb-shaped c o a l s t o v e s d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 1 (See F i g u r e 1 . 3 ) B r i q u e t t e s now account f o r about 30 p e r c e n t , and s . comb-shaped c o a l s account f o r 70 p e r c e n t o f c o a l f u e l p r o d u c t s .

Figure 1 . 3 . Comb-shaped-coal cookstove

10

In addition t o the higher thermal e ff i c i e n c y o f a combshaped coal cookstove, making comb-shaped coal requires less energy in t h e manufacturing process than f o r briquettes. M o s t o f energy consumed i n the manufacturing process f o r comb-shaped coal i s required t o make a powder from the a n t h r a c i t i c coal. T h e forming process can be done by hydro-pressure, which requires l i t t l e energy, and the drying process can u t i l i z e sunlight o r normal room temperature. Comb-shaped coal can be even made a t home by two types o f simple mechanical devices. O n e o f these w i l l now be described. A simple mechanical device f o r making comb-shaped coal consists o f f o u r parts: 1 ) base p l a t e - a piece o f steel p l a t e with 12 steel bars extending upwards; 2 ) sleeve - a length o f steel tubing t h a t f i t s over the 12 bars, t h e sleeve has two handles on either side, and a l i t t l e c i r c u l a r shoulder i n s i d e a t t h e bottom; 3) bottom washer - a round s t e e l p l a t e with 12 holes t h a t match the 12 bars; 4 ) t o p washer assembly - round steel p l a t e comparable t o the bottom washer, t o which an impact nut has been welded on t h e top. ( S e e Figure 1.4) W i t h t h i s device, i t i s easy t o make combshaped coal a t home. F i r s t s e t the base p l a t e on t h e f l a t ground and cover the 12 bars w i t h the sleeve; then place the bottom washer into t h e sleeve, which r e s t s on t h e l i t t l e c i r c u l a r shoulder a t t h e bottom inside o f the sleeve. T h e n , p u t the well mixed anthracite powder i n t o the sleeve, cover with t h e top washer assembly and h i t the impact nut w i t h a hammer. A f t e r the coal i s formed, l i f t the sleeve by the handles. T h i s l i f t s t h e bottom washer and formed coal from the bars o f the base p l a t e . T u r n the sleeve 45 degrees such

1 1

3) bottom washer

4) t o p washer assembly

I) base p l a t e

2) s l e e v e

Figure T.4. A simple mechanical device f o r making comb-shaped coal

12 that the s o l i d p a r t o f the bottom washer r e s t s on the 12 bars, and push the sleeve down. T h i s forces t h e comb-shaped coal from the sleeve. Survey results from t h i s study indicate t h a t a combshaped coal stove usually consumes 10 t o 15 percent less cooking fuel than a b r i q u e t cookstove. Because comb-shaped coal stoves have a simple structure, a r e convenient t o operate with inexpensive f u e l , have a f a i r l y high thermal e f f i c i e n c y, and are easy t o make a t home w i t h simple devices, comb -shaped coal stoves might be suitable f o r other t h i r d world countries i n which people u t i l i z e coal as cooking f u e l a t home and have anthracite coal available. According t o tests by Yang, t h e thermal e f f i c i e n c y o f a briquet stove i s about 20 percent and a comb-shaped coal stove has 28 percent thermal e f f i c i e n c y. However, i n a c t u a l l y d a i l y use, t h e f i r e i s banked several times a day; therefore, t h e d a i l y average efficiency o f coal cookstoves i s much lower than t e s t r e s u l t s . According t o t e s t s made by the B o i l e r Hot-Working Teaching and Research Section i n Shanghai Mechanical Engineering I n s t i t u t e , t h e actual e f f i c i e n c y o f coal use i n a bank-up f i r e coal cookstove i s generally reduced by 30 percent from i t s t e s t i n g e f f i c i e n c y. ( 5 ) Although the f u e l used f o r banking up the f i r e could contribute t o heat the room i n the w i n t e r, i t i s s t i l l wasted i n t h e other three seasons. F u r t h e r improvements o f coal cookstoves s t i l l have two c r i t i c a l problems t o solve: 1) t o eliminate t h e f u e l used t o bank-up the f i r e ; 2) t o reduce pollutants generated from the coal combustion.

13 1_4 Improved Comb-Shaped Coal Cookstoves Since t h e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 1 with downward combustion have been developed i n China. S u c h stoves s, i the m pf u r eo v e d i s used t o bank up t h e f i r e between cooking eliminate l which c o m b times and s throughout h a p ethe d night i n the t r a d i t i o n a l comb-shaped coal c o a cookstoves. T h e y also provide a possible way t o u t i l i z e l i g n i t e and l c coal o at o s u fk bituminous f i c i e n t l y low cost and generate less p o l l u t i o n s t o v s coal cookstoves. Improved comb-shaped coal cookstoves than any eother have a f a i r l y high thermal e f f i c i e n c y o f between 45% and 54%. ( 6 , 7 ) According t o L i u Bo and Mang Huixin, these improved stoves use 15% t o 20% less f u e l than t h a t used i n conventional comb-shaped coal cookstoves ( 8 ) , w h i l e according t o Wang Zhihao, t h e y use 40% t o 50% o f f u e l l e s s than t h a t used i n conventional stoves. ( 9 ) (See Figure 1.5) The improved comb-shaped coal cookstove looks very s i m i l a r to t h e conventional one from the outside, b u t several c r i t i c a l improvements have been made: 1 ) e i g h t secondary a i r i n l e t s are u t i l i z e d t o the improved comb-shaped coal stove which are equally dispersed a t the top p a r t o f the combustion chamber. T h e s e secondary a i r i n l e t s provide oxygen which converts carbon monoxide generated from the combustion i n t o carbon dioxide through continuous burning. 2) A thermal focusing p l a t e i s added a t t h e top opening o f the chamber. T h i s thermal focusing p l a t e i s made o f cement w i t h e i g h t small holes dispersing equally around a large hole a t t h e middle of t h e p l a t e . I t serves two functions: f i r s t , when a f i r e i s started a t the top i g n i t i o n l a y e r o f a piece o f comb-shaped c o a l , t h e door o f the primary a i r i n l e t i s closed, t h e thermal focusing p l a t e covers t h e top opening o f the chamber and provides a i r flowing from top t o bottom o f the chamber. T h i s makes downward combustion

t6r04i.t ftr xt t r

Top view o f the improved comb-shaped-coal cookstove

Figure 1 . 5 . I m p r o v e d comb-shaped-coal cookstove with downward combustion. ( 1 0 )

15

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Figure 1 . 5 . I m p r o v e d comb-shaped-coal cookstove with downward combustion. ( 1 0 ) (continued)

16

possible. Second, a f t e r the f i r e burns t o the coal l a y e r a t the bottom o f a piece o f comb-shaped coal, t h e primary i n l e t w i l l be open and provides the a i r flowing from the bottom t o the t o p o f the chamber. A t t h i s time, t h e thermal focusing p l a t e i s used t o prevent harmful monoxide emissions to the a i r and makes i t burn with oxygen supplied from the secondary a i r i n l e t s . 3 ) The combustion chamber o f the improved stove i s about 15 cm which i s shorter than that o f a conventional comb-shaped coal cookstove. B e t t e r insulation materials are employed i n the improved stove. T h e r e f o r e , t h e temperature outside the stove body i s reduced from 230C i n conventional comb-shaped coal stoves t o 90C i n t h e improved one. ( 11 ) These technical improvements c e r t a i n l y help t o increase the thermal e ff i c i e n c y o f the improved stove, b u t t h e major step o f increasing the overall e ff i c i e n c y o f f u e l u t i l i z a t i o n i s associated with improvement o f the comb-shaped coal which makes i t possible t o eliminate the f u e l used f o r banking up f i r e , and which increases the overall e f f i c i e n c y o f f u e l u t i l i z a t i o n by a t l e a s t 30%. Improved comb-shaped coal i s made by combining t h e i g n i t i o n material, t h e material t o k i n d l e the f i r e and the coal i t s e l f a l l i n one piece. Normally, a piece o f improved comb-shaped coal consists o f three layers; t h e i g n i t i o n l a y e r a t the t o p , t h e kindling l a y e r a t the middle and the coal l a y e r a t the bottom. ( S e e Figure 1.6) B u t i t can be also b u i l t w i t h two layers - - the i g n i t i o n l a y e r and coal l a y e r -- o r even w i t h one l a y e r. T h e size, shape and weight o f a piece o f improved comb-shaped coal i s almost the same as t h a t o f conventional comb-shaped coal. T h e c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r i s t h e i g n i t i o n l a y e r ; no matter what kind o f combustion-supporting material o r how many layers are used, t h e content o f v o l a t i l e components i n t h e i g n i t i o n layer must be between 30% t o 40%. T h e combustion temperature o f

17

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Figure 1 . 6 I m p r o v e d comb-shaped c o a l s

18

this l a y e r must reach from 220C t o 240C and the moisture content must be less than 3%. ( 1 2 ) There i s no u n i f i e d formula f o r manufacturing improved combshaped coals. T h e materials used f o r making such coals should be those which are l o c a l l y available. Sawdust, carbonized sawdust, residues o f petroleum products, wax and r o s i n can be used as combustion-supporting materials. Bituminous c o a l , a n t h r a c i t i c coal and l i g n i t e can also be used. Wang Zhihao made improved comb-shaped coal i n Jiangxi province with 19 holes contained 30 percent o f powdered bituminous coal, 40 percent o f powdered a n t h r a c i t i c coal, 14 percent o f c l a y, 15 percent o f sawdust and 1 percent o f lime. These materials were mixed with some lime water i n t o a kind o f paste. After t h e coal was formed, i t was waxed with about 15 grams o f wax. (13) T h i s comb-shaped coal w i t h 19 holes has been experimentally used i n the J801 t y p e o f improved comb-shaped coal stove. I t showed f a i r l y h i g h thermal e ff i c i e n c y o f between 50.6 percent t o 61.4 percent. T h e average thermal e ff i c i e n c y was about 54.43 percent (see Table 1 . 1 ) . J 8 0 1 t y p e o f improved comb-shaped coal stove has another advantage i n t h a t secondary a i r i n l e t s are located outside o f the combustion chamber wall and upward along the chamber wall t o the top o f the chamber. T h i s pre-heats t h e a i r i n the secondary a i r inlets and allows t o burn the coal completely i n t o carbon dioxide. (See Figure 1.7) T h e cost o f such an improved comb-shaped coal stove is about f i v e yuan, which should be widely affordable.

19

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20

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Figure 1 . 7 . J 8 0 1 Ty p e improved comb-shaped coal cookstove. ( 1 5 )

21 1.5 Medium-Btu Town Gas Cookstoves China s t a r t e d t o produce medium-Btu town gas a t t h e end o f t h e 1940 1 holds i n t e n l a r g e c i t i e s was l e s s t h a n 4 0 m i l l i o n c u b i c meters. s. A By 1980 t h e production o f medium-Btu town gas reached 1,955 m i l l i o n t t cubic meters s u p p l y i n g cooking f u e l f o r households i n s i x t y l a r g e h and a medium s i z e c i t i e s . To w n gas i s u s u a l l y produced f r o m c o k i n g t plants o r from v e r t i c a l c o n t i n u o u s c a r b o n i z i n g r e a c t o r s . A b o u t 500 t i B t u / f t 3 o f town gas has an energy v a l u e o f up t o 4,455 k c a l / m 3. m e Besides town gas, t h e r e a r e about 590 m i l l i o n c u b i c meters o f n a t u r a l , gas and 290 thousand m e t r i c t o n s o f l i q u i f i e d petroleum gas which a r e t h used f o r cooking f u e l each y e a r. To g e t h e r , t h e s e t h r e e forms o f gas e t supply 1 6 . 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e cooking f u e l f o r urban households i n o t China, m o s t l y i n t h e concentrated, c e n t r a l c i t y areas. a A t y p i c a l Chinese town gas cookstove i s b u i l t w i t h t w o gas l a burners s i d e b y s i d e , p l a c e d on t o p o f a c a b i n e t . T h e body p a r t o f n n the gas s t o v e i s e l l i p t i c a l i n shape and i s made e i t h e r o f c a s t i r o n u a or o f ceramics. ( S e e F i g u r e 1 . 8 ) T h e d e n s i t y o f town gas i s a b o u t l 0.59 k g / m s 3 a t u pressure s t a n o f town gas i n t h e gas b u r n e r i s between 8 0 mm and 120 mm o f p d a r d p water. ( 1 7 ) T h e gas s t o v e has a thermal e f f i c i e n c y o f about 50 lt e m p e r ( 1 8 ) S u r v e y r e s u l t s o f 82 urban households, conducted i n y percent. a o t u Guangdong p r o v i n c e , a s p a r t o f t h i s s t u d y i n d i c a t e t h a t e fr Guangzhou, ta nmedium-Btu town gas consumption f o r cooking i n t h e s e households o d w ranged between 9 c u b i c meters t o 102 c u b i c meters each month. p r n e g s a s r fu e , o ( r 1 h

22

Figure 1 . 8 . Medium-Btu town gas cookstove

23

One process o f i n t e r e s t f o r possible f u t u r e development over the next twenty years i s t h e gasification o f coal. C o a l g a s i f i c a t i o n is o f i n t e r e s t because i t may prove t o be an e ff e c t i v e way o f producing a r e l a t i v e l y clean cooking f u e l , employing poor q u a l i t y coals and increasing the overall e ff i c i e n c y o f f u e l u t i l i z a t i o n . Whether costs will prove t o be low enough remains t o be seen. I n 1964, a demonstration s i z e gasification p l a n t was b u i l t i n Shenyang, Liaoning province. The g a s i f i e r i s 1 . 4 meter i n diameter, operating a t conditions o f 20 t o 25 kg/cm2 pressure, 850 t o 1050C temperature, and a g a s i f i c a t i o n throughput o f 1000 t o 1600 kg/m2- h r. T h i s g a s i f i e r consumes 20 t o 36 metric tons o f north Shenyang l i g n i t e coal a day, which i s poor in q u a l i t y with 22.2 percent o f moisture and 21.8 percent o f ash, b u t satisfactory r e s u l t s have been obtained through t h i s practice. Table 3 . 6 shows t h e components o f products gas from pressurized gasification o f north Shenyang l i g n i t e . (19) The Chinese view gasification t o produce town gas as essential for improving people's l i v e l i h o o d , f o r increasing the e ff i c i e n c y o f coal u t i l i z a t i o n and protecting the environment. A t the present stage, t h e medium-BTU town gas cookstove has t h e highest thermal efficiency among a l l t h e cookstoves used i n t h e urban areas, over 50%.

24 CHAPTER I REFERENCES AND FOOTNOTES

1) H a n Xiaowo, "Developing Coal Processing I s a n I m p o r t a n t P o l i c y of Energy Conservation i n Coal I n d u s t r y " , Energy, No. 3 , June 25, 1981, P. 2 . ( I n Chinese) 2) R u d o l f P. Hommel, China a t Work, a n I l l u s t r a t e d Record o f t h e P r i m i t i v e I n d u s t r i e s o f C h i n a ' s Mass, Whose L i f e I s T o i l , and Thus an Account o f Chinese C i v i l i z a t i o n , The John Day Company, New Yo r k , 1937, p p . 275-276. 3) Ya n g Fugiang, "Thermal E f f i c i e n c y Te s t s f o r t h e Cookstoves Used in t h e Rural Areas o f China", E n e r g y, No. 3 , June 2 5 , 1981, p . 4 7 . (In Chinese) 4) I b i d , p . 4 7 . 5 ) 6) I L i u Bo and M a n g H u i x i n , " A n I n t r o d u c t i o n o f Downward-Combustion Comb-Shaped Coals and Improved Comb-Shaped Coal Cookstoves", b Environmental P r o t e c t i o n , No. 6 , 1981, p . 1 0 . ( I n Chinese) i d 7) Wang Zhihao, " A n I n t r o d u c t i o n o f Improved Comb-Shaped Coal , Stove and Downward-Combustion Comb-Shaped Coals w i t h 1 9 H o l e s " , p Energy, No. 6 , December 25, 1 9 8 1 , p . 3 8 . ( I n Chinese) . 8) 4 L i u Bo and M a n g H u i x i n , o p . c i t . , p . 1 0 . 8 9 . ) 10) W L i u Bo and Zhang H u i x i n , o p . c i t . , p p . 9 - 1 0 . a 11) I b i d . , p . 1 0 . n g I b i d . , p. 8. 12) Z 13) h Wang Zhihao, o p . c i t . , p . 3 7 . i 14) h I b i d . , p. 38. a 15) I b i d . , p . 3 7 . o , J i a Wunyu, " T h e A p p l i c a t i o n o f Aim J e t Without Blaze Gas B u r n e r, " 16) o Energy, June 2 5 , 1981, No. 3 , p . 4 1 . ( I n Chinese) p 17) . Ibid. c 18) B r i a n Ta y l o r, L e Feure's Domestic U t i l i z a t i o n o f Gas, E r n e s t Benn i Limited, London, 1973, p p . 195-197. t 19) . Wang Y i n r e r , " S t a t u s o f Coal G a s i f i c a t i o n Research i n China and R & D Outlook f o r 1 9 8 0 ' s " , I n Proceedings o f t h e 1981 I n t e r n a t i o n a l , Gas Research Conference, September 28 - October 1 , 1981. p (In Chinese) . 3

CHAPTER I I STOVE DESIGNS FOR COOKING I N RURAL AREAS There has been r a p i d and d ra ma t ic development o f small h y d r o e l e c t r i c power p r o j e c t s and s m a l l - s c a l e c o a l mines i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s which have had s i g n i f i c a n t impacts on i r r i g a t i o n , a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o ducts manufacturing, s m a l l i n d u s t r i e s and t h e economy i n t h e r u r a l areas. H o w e v e r, o v e r t h e p a s t t h i r t y - t w o years t h i s development has contributed v e r y l i t t l e t o household cooking f u e l consumption i n r u r a l a r e a s . M o s t o f t h e households s t i l l u s e f i r e w o o d , c h a r c o a l and a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s i d u e s which have been used f o r cooking f u e l s f o r hundreds o f thousands o f years i n China. C o a l used as a cooking f u e l in t h e r u r a l households c o n t r i b u t e s about 1 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l . Biogas accounts f o r about 1 p e r c e n t . ( 1 ) S o l a r energy u t i l i z e d f o r cooking represents a b o u t 0.008 p e r c e n t ; t h e r e f o r e , a b o u t 8 8 p e r c e n t o f the cooking f u e l comes f r o m a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s i d u e s and f i r e w o o d . According t o Chinese s t a t i s t i c s , t h e t o t a l household f u e l consumption i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s d u r i n g 1979 was some 3 . 2 x 1 0 8 m e t r i c tons o f coal e q u i v a l e n t ( i n c l u d i n g c o a l , f i r e w o o d , a g r i c u l t u r a l residues, and animal and human wastes). ( 2 , 3 ) P e r c a p i t a consumption in t h a t y e a r on t h e average was about 0 . 3 m e t r i c t o n s o f c o a l e q u i valent. T h o u g h t h e amount o f f u e l consumed i s s u b s t a n t i a l , people i n many r u r a l a r e a s o f China s t i l l need t o c o l l e c t firewood and l e a v e s in o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r d a i l y f u e l consumption. I n some r e g i o n s , 25

26

people lack cooking f u e l f o r h a l f o f the year. T h e low thermal e f f i ciency o f cookstoves i s one o f the major reasons f o r the f u e l shortage in the r u r a l areas o f China. 2.1 A g r i c u l t u r a l Residue Cookstoves There are many kinds o f agricultural residue cookstoves currently i n use i n China, t h e e ff i c i e n c i e s o f which vary w i t h stove design and f u e l type. G e n e r a l l y, e ff i c i e n c i e s o f agricultural residue cookstoves range from 10 t o 15 percent, which i s much lower than t h a t o f the stoves used i n t h e urban areas. I n t h i s section several o f the most popular types o f a g r i c u l t u r a l residue cookstoves w i l l be examined. In Rudolf P. Hommelrs book, China A t Work published i n 1937, the author describes a kitchen stove which i s s t i l l popularly used in t h e southeastern portion o f China today. ( 4 ) T h i s stove i s r e l a t i v e l y large, about 1.6 meters long and 0.8 meters wide, w i t h two large cast i r o n woks b u i l t side by side a t the top surface o f the stove. A wall i s b u i l t t o separate the f r o n t p a r t o f the stove, which people use t o do t h e i r cooking, from the back part o f the stove, where the f u e l i n l e t i s located. T h i s type of stove does n o t have an a i r opening; normally f i r e - t o n g s are used t o put the f u e l a t the bottom o f the stove and t o s t i r e the fuel t o l e t the a i r go through. Compared t o the present design o f kitchen stoves, t h e r e are only s l i g h t differences, b u t the changes which have been made c e r t a i n l y do improve the thermal e f f i c i e n c y o f the stove. F i r s t , one o f the woks i s now o f a small s i z e , and i s

27 usually used t o do the d a i l y cooking. Second, a cast i r o n water pot is b u i l t i n t o the stove between two woks near the back edge o f the wall. T h e r e f o r e , t h e remaining heat o f the stove can be used t o warm the water r a t h e r than being released from the combustion chamber t o the chimney. N o r m a l l y, a kitchen stove requires two people t o do t h e cooking; one prepares t h e meal a t the f r o n t p a r t and the other one sits a t the back t o tend the kitchen f i r e . I t takes about 20 t o 30 minutes t o cook a meal. Results o f a survey as p a r t o f the study o f 44 r u r a l households which use t h i s s p e c i f i c design o f kitchen cookstoves in Wansui Commune, Jiangsu province reveal t h a t a g r i c u l t u r a l residue consumption used i n these households f o r cooking ranged from 798 t o 3027 kg a year, which represents t h e highest cooking fuel consumption among a l l t h e survey data. The agricultural residue cookstove used i n t h e northern
and c e n t r a l p a r t s o f China i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e design o f the k i t c h e n s t o v e described above. T h e m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t the f u e l a n d a i r i n l e t o f t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s i d u e cookstove i s located i n t h e f r o n t p a r t o f t h e s t o v e and i n many cases o n l y one wok i s b u i l t a t t h e t o p o f t h e s t o v e . ( S e e F i g u r e 2 . 1 ) A c c o r d i n g

to Yang, t h e s p e c i f i c design o f the agricultural residue stove which

he used f o r h i s thermal e f f i c i e n c y t e s t has a n a i r and f u e l i n l e t

of 29 cm i n height and 21 cm i n width. ( 5 ) T h e b i g wok weighs 9.8 kg and the small one i s 6.65 kg i n weight. T h e chimney o f t h i s type of stove i s usually connected t o the kahg which i s a Chinese bed

28

Figure 2.1. A g r i c u l t u r a l residue cookstove.

29 b u i l t with bricks and wood frame a t the t o p . T h e r e f o r e , t h e rejected heat from the stove can be used t o heat the kang during t h e winter time. Regardless o f the rejected heat from the stove used f o r heating, i t only has a thermal e ff i c i e n c y between 9 . 4 and 10 percent. ( 6 ) 2.2 Firewood Cookstoves About 7 percent o f r u r a l households are using firewood as cooking f u e l . T h e s e r u r a l households are mostly located i n mountain areas such as i n Fujian province, Xizang autonamous region, Anhui province and Heilongjiang province. T h e r e are varieties o f firewood cookstoves used i n r u r a l areas o f China. I n what follows, two popular types o f firewood cookstoves w i l l be discussed. T h e t r a d i tional firewood cookstove used i n China looks l i k e a p a i n t can without chimney pipe attached t o the body o f the stove. T h e body o f the stove i s made o f c l a y. A t the base o f the stove, there i s an opening which serves both f o r f u e l i n g the stove with firewood and as an a i r i n l e t . T h e top opening f i t s a wok. T h i s type o f firewood cookstove requires firewood which should be dry; therefore, i t generates less smoke. T h e design o f the t r a d i t i o n a l firewood stove i s much simpler than many o f the designs o f improved firewood cookstoves which have been used i n China o r i n other developing countries. However, t h e thermal e ff i c i e n c y o f t h i s type o f stove i s usually only about 10 percent. ( 7 ) ( S e e Figure 2.2) The improved firewood cookstove i s usually employed with a bellow box which i s used t o supply a i r t o support combustion. T h e

30

Figure 2 . 2 . Firewood cookstove

31 bellow box i s made o f wood w i t h a handle a t t h e f r o n t and a r u b b e r v a l v e at t h e back. ( S e e F i g u r e 2 . 3 ) T h e handle moves i n a h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n . W h e n t h e handle i s p u l l e d , t h e r u b b e r v a l v e i s opened and a i r enters; when i t i s pushed, t h e r u b b e r v a l v e c l o s e s and a i r i s i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e bottom o f t h e combustion chamber through t h e p i p e connecting the b e l l o w box t o t h e s t o v e . T h i s t y p e o f s t o v e i s used i n many r u r a l households i n China because i t has a thermal e f f i c i e n c y o f about 20 percent. ( 8 ) A c c o r d i n g t o Yang Fugiang, t h e f i r e w o o d cookstove w i t h bellow box which he t e s t e d f o r thermal e f f i c i e n c y i n B e i j i n g , h a s a n opening f o r f i r e w o o d f u e l o f about 28 cm i n h e i g h t and 2 0 cm i n width. T h e t o p opening o n which t h e wok r e s t s i s a b o u t 66 cm i n diameter. ( 9 ) Improved f i r e w o o d cookstoves have p r o v i d e d a f e a s i b l e way o f increasing t h e thermal e f f i c i e n c y o f b u r n i n g f i r e w o o d and r e p r e s e n t one o f t h e o p t i o n s o f easing f u e l s h o r t a g e i n r u r a l a r e a s . W i t h research and development on f i r e w o o d cookstoves i n C h i n a , t h e thermal e f f i c i e n c i e s o f t h e improved f i r e w o o d s t o v e s have been t r i p l e d . F o r instance, Gan* No. 1 and No. 2 improved wood s t o v e s and improved wood stoves No. 1 , N o . 2 , and No. 3 developed i n t h e N o r t h Coast o f Anhui province have thermal e f f i c i e n c i e s o f f r o m 30 t o 35 p e r c e n t . ( 1 0 ) 2.3 S o l a r Cookstoves Research o n s o l a r cookstoves and s o l a r ovens was s t a r t e d more than t w e n t y years ago i n China, b u t t h e r a p i d development o f s o l a r cookstove a p p l i c a t i o n s i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s has been t a k i n g p l a c e s i n c e the mid-1970's. B e c a u s e o f l a c k o f cooking f u e l c o u p l e d w i t h good s u n l i g h t , most s o l a r cookstoves a r e c u r r e n t l y u t i l i z e d i n Xizang and Gansu p r o v i n c e i n t h e southwest p a r t o f China.

*Gan i s t h e s h o r t f o r m f o r J i a n g x i p r o v i n c e .

32

m I p o r v e d C h n i e s r f w o d w e v t s k o c w o l e b a h t i x o b

33

The f i r s t series o f 1,000 small parabolic s o l a r cookstoves was manufactured i n Shanghai No. 15 Radio Factory i n 1974, and was used experimentally by peasants i n the communes and by people o f prospecting teams where there was not enough cooking f u e l o r there was no constant cooking f u e l supply. (11) T h i s type o f s o l a r cookstove with a parabolic concentrating c o l l e c t o r can b o i l 3 l i t e r s o f water i n twenty minutes and cook one kilogram o f r i c e i n f i f t e e n minutes, having b e t t e r performance than t h a t o f a small coal cookstove. A f t e r several years o f research and development, t h i s f a c t o r y developed a new type o f s o l a r cookstove with rectangular shaped parabolic concentrating c o l l e c t o r made o f calcium-containing p l a s t i c i n 1978. ( S e e Figure 2 . 4 ) This calcium-containing p l a s t i c s o l a r collector i s easy t o manufacture. In Lasa, Xizang, research on t i l t e d s o l a r cookstoves and ovens is being carried out a t t h e Xizang Solar Energy Research Department. The t i l t e d s o l a r oven uses two pieces o f parabolic c o l l e c t o r s a t i t s bottom and t o p f o r focusing and r e f l e c t i n g t h e s u n l i g h t t o t h e i n s i d e bottom and top o f the oven. A c c o r d i n g t o the t e s t s , even i n January the temperature i nsi de the s o l a r oven can reach as high as 240C. I t can bake 2.5 kilograms o f cake withon one hour. (12) A s o l a r stove developed i n Losa, s i m i l a r t o the s o l a r oven s t r u c t u r e , can b o i l t e n pounds o f water i n 40 t o 60 minutes. ( 1 3 ) T h e materials used t o build these s o l a r ovens and stoves a r e very common ones l i k e glass, wood board, i r o n sheet and aluminium-plated polyester f i l m . T h e costs f o r building them are between 30 yuan and 50 yuan, which i s between 20 t o 30 U.S. d o l l a r s . (14) A f t e r mass production o f these solar cookers, t h e cost w i l l l i k e l y be reduced.

34

Figure 2 . 4 . S o l a r cookstoves manufactured i n Shanghai No. 1 5 Radio manufacturing p l a n t . (16)

35 In Jiangsu, a broad new type o f s o l a r cookstove has been developed very recently a t the Yancheng D i s t r i c t New Energy Research I n s t i t u t e . T h i s cookstove uses a f i l m negative pressure structure principle i n which a f i l m bag i s used as t h e cover over the s o l a r collector. D u e t o t h e difference i n pressure between the two edges of the f i l m bag, t h e r e f l e c t i n g surface assumes t h e desired shape. The temperature a t the focusing p o i n t o f the s o l a r cookstove can reach 500 t o 700C. ( 1 5 ) T h i s s o l a r stove has a c o l l e c t o r 1 . 6 meters in diameter and weighs only 10 kilograms. I t was exhibited a t the World's F a i r i n Knoxville, Tennessee, t h e United States, i n 1982. Research i n t o s o l a r cookstoves i s n o t l i m i t e d only t o the solar research i n s t i t u t e o r the u n i v e r s i t y ; i t has been carried on i n many o f the r u r a l areas i n China. T h e most e x c i t i n g development o f solar cookstoves i s i n Yongjing county, Gansu province where w i t h i n a year from the s t a r t i n 1980, h a l f o f the households i n Yongjing county, some 12,000 households, have been using s o l a r stoves. T h e solar stove developed there uses cement concrete t o b u i l d t h e s o l a r collector base and s i l v e r - p l a t e d glass on the top as r e f l e c t i n g material. T h e thermal output o f the s o l a r stove i s comparable t o that o f a one k i l o w a t t e l e c t r i c range. T h e cost o f the cement concrete s o l a r stove i s about 50 yuan t o 80 yuan. (17) 2.4 B i o g a s Cookstoves I t i s w e l l known t h a t biogas i s normally produced by allowing organic matter o f various kinds t o ferment i n oxygen-poor conditions; i t i s i d e n t i c a l t o the marsh gas o f freshwater wetlands. A n y wasted organic matter containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen may be a s u i t a ble material f o r biogas production. U n d e r the action o f n a t u r a l l y

36 occurring bacterial f l o r a o f various kinds, t h e very long organic chains containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, together with some other compounds - i n p a r t i c u l a r nitrogen - are disassociated f i r s t i n t o t h e i r constitutent sugars and then transformed by another set o f bacteria into various alcohols and acids. F i n a l l y , some o f these alcohols and acids a r e converted i n t o methane, carbon dioxide and other trace gases with the energetically useful p a r t - methane - t y p i c a l l y accounting for 60 t o 70 percent o f the t o t a l biogas content. T h e biogas, therefore, has a f a i r l y high content per volume, between 600 t o 700 Btu p e r cubic f o o t . ( 1 8 ) Since 1975, t h e small-scale biogas digesters have been rapidly developed. A c c o r d i n g t o data published i n 1981 in China, about 8.5 m i l l i o n small-scale biogas digesters have been b u i l t i n r u r a l households since 1975. (19) A t y p i c a l small-scale biogas digester has a volume o f 6 x 10 cubic meters. I t i s made o f bricks and cement and can be e i t h e r i n semicircular shape, i n circular shape o r i n e l l i p t i c a l shape. ( S e e Figure 2 . 5 ) The design of a Chinese biogas digester i s r e l a t i v e l y simple; i t combines t h e fermentation u n i t and the biogas storage i n t o one and uses water as a material f o r covering t h e biogas without additional pressure cont r o l . T h e organic material i n l e t i s usually connected w i t h a p i g s t y and p l a s t i c pipe i s used t o d e l i v e r biogas t o the stove i n t h e kitchen. ( S e e Figure 2 . 6 ) The a t t r a c t i o n s o f the Chinese drumness design o f the biogas digester are as follows: i ) r e l a t i v e l y low t o t a l c o s t f o r b u i l d i n g a digester ( l e s s than $100 U.S.) (20); i i ) e l i m i n a t i o n o f the problem o f steel corrosion;

37

100 a l 0 0 OUTLET

S E M I C I R C U L A R Skilled Labour Labour Cement Sand Gravel Bricks 1 4 1 1 4 0 0 0 0 5 5 0 0 0 0 kg kg kg no 8

Concrete R a t i o 1 : 2 3 (2004) ,Yoluma 3 8 m

C I R C U L A R Skilled Labour Labour 1 0 0 0 5 5 0 0 0 0 kg kg kg no Cement 4 Sand 1 0 Gravel Bricks 9 1 3

Concrete R a t i o 1 : Z : 3 (Z00 , volume 8 m 1 3

Figure 2 . 5 R e c e n t Chinese Magas D i g e s t e r Designs f r o m the People's Republic o f China ( 2 1 )

3-8

E L L I P T I C A L S k i l l e d Labour Labour Cement Sand Gravel Bricks 1 9 1 4 0 ' 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 3 15 kg kg kg so

Concrete R a t i o 1 1 2 : 3 (200 , : ) Volume 3 8 m

Figure 2 . 5 . R e c e n t Chinese Magas D i g e s t e r Designs f r o m the People's Republic o f China ( 2 1 ) (continued)

39

40

i i i ) improvement i n s a n i t a t i o n ;
i v ) p r o v i s i o n o f more o r g a n i c f e r t i l i z e r t o f a r m l a n d ;

v) i n c r e a s e d end-use e ff i c i e n c y o f f u e l Because o f these a t t r a c t i o n s , biogas digesters have been rapidly popularized i n r u r a l households since 1975, especially i n southern parts o f China. F o r instance, 5 m i l l i o n biogas digesters have been b u i l t i n one southwest province, Sichuan. A l t h o u g h simple in design and low i n cost, Chinese digesters also have some s h o r t comings. F i r s t , these digesters mainly r e l y upon t h e outdoor temperature; therefore, t h i s l i m i t s t h e use o f the digesters i n the colder northern and central p a r t s o f China. Second, t h e r e i s no device t o control t h e gas pressure used i n the digester. T h i r d , there i s a l s o an operation and maintenance problem. T h e s e three major problems certainly need t o be solved i n f u t u r e research and development f o r digesters. Biogas i s a high q u a l i t y f u e l which contains about 60 t o 70 percent o f CH 4 requires a good burning vessel t o have a complete combustion. T h e , 4 0 p e rstructure c e basic o f biogas stoves and burners a r e s i m i l a r ; common n t elements o f are a nozzle, an a i r i n l e t , and a mixing chamber and t h e C O f i r e sieve p l a t e . T h e r e are many kinds o f biogas stoves o r burners 2 used i n n Chinese r u r a l households. B a s i c a l l y, these stoves and a d burners are e i t h e r made o f clay which are usually called earthen 2 tbiogas stoves, o r made o f steel p i p e which l o o k l i k e any other kind o of t h e gas b u r n e r s . (See Figures 2 . 7 and 2 . 8 ) 4 p e To make the earthen biogas stove, yellow mud, red mud o r r c e n white clay are usually employed, mixed with a s u i t a b l e amount o f s a l t t water and r i c e h u l l ash. T h e s e materials help t h e stove t o withstand H 2 heat and prevent cracking. , a n

41

Fine sieve plate

mi x in g c h a m b e r

Biogas inlet

A i r inlet

Earthen biogas cookstove

Biagi's spurt holes

A i r inlet

Biogas-air

mixing groove

Biogus-airiMet

Figure 2 . 7 . E a r t h e n biogas cookstove w i t h mixing groove ( 2 3 )

0 1 1

42

Steel p i p e biogas b u r n e r

Figure 2 . 8 .

Biogas cookstove used i n Chinese Rural Household ( 2 9 )

43 The nozzle i s a hollow tube made o f bamboo, glass, o r plastic. T h e nozzle hole i s t h e size o f a needle p o i n t ( 0 . 5 mm i n diameter), s o t h a t the biogas can spurt out under the high pressure. The biogas and a i r must be mixed i n a c e r t a i n proportion t o enable the flame t o blaze and produce a powerful heat (normally 1:10 i n volume). ( 2 4 ) Because no device t o control t h e gas pressure i s used in t h e biogas digester, a safety pressure gauge i s usually used with biogas stoves. ( S e e Figure 2.9 ) T h e safety pressure gauge i s a simple device made o f two glass tubes and a hose i n a U-shaped tube f i l l e d with colored water. T u b e A i s connected t o the gas o u t l e t o f the biogas digester through a Y-shaped tube, and tube B i s open t o the atmosphere. T h e heights o f the water columns of the pressure gauge vary when pressure i s created by the p r o duction o f biogas i nsi de t h e biogas p l a n t . (25) Most o f the designs and technical improvements o f biogas cookstoves i n China over the past f i v e years were based on the following requirements: 1) t o increase the thermal e f f i c i e n c y ; 2) t o burn i n a stable condition; 3) t o reduce emission o f monoxide t o less than 0,05 percent i n t h e smoke; 4) t o reduce the cost o f biogas cookstoves. According t o national t e s t s o f thermal e ff i c i e n c y o f biogas stoves, i t has been found t h a t two-thirds o f the biogas stoves

44

Connected to the gas pipe

Usable biogas

Figure 2 . 9 . S a f e t y pressure gauge ( 2 6 )

45

used i n r u r a l households have a thermal e f f i c i e n c y o v e r 55 p e r c e n t , but o n l y a f e w o f them have met t h e standard formonoxide emission (0.05 p e r c e n t ) . ( 2 7 ) C u r r e n t l y , more and more r u r a l households use the biogas s t o v e s made o f e i t h e r c a s t i r o n o r ceramic. Y a n g Fuoiang did thermal e f f i c i e n c y t e s t i n g o f biogas cookstoves made o f c a s t iron and ceramic i n Shun Y i C o u n t y, B e i j i n g . T h e t e s t s showed t h a t these biogas s t o v e s had a thermal e f f i c i e n c y between 51% and 59,1%.(28)

46 CHAPTER I I REFERENCES AND FOOTNOTES

1) V a c l a v S m i l , "Energy Development i n China, The Need f o r a Coherent P o l i c y " , Energy P o l i c y, June 1981, p . 1 2 4 . 2) W u Zhonghua, " T h e Way t o Solve t h e Energy C r i s i s a s Seen f r o m Energy Science and Technology", Guang Ming D a i l y, September 1 , 1981, p . 2 ( I n Chinese). 3) Y e J i a n , "Some Issues o f t h e P o s i t i o n , C u r r e n t S i t u a t i o n and Technical Improvement o f Coal U t i l i z a t i o n f o r t h e Domestic Sector", E n e r g y, No. 3 , June 2 5 , 1981, p . 3 ( I n Chinese). 4) R u d o l f P. Hommel, China a t Work, a n I l l u s t r a t e d Record o f t h e P r i m i t i v e I n d u s t r i e s o f China's Mass, Whose L i f e i s T o i l , and Thus an Account o f Chinese C i v i l i z a t i o n , t h e John Day Company, New Yo r k , 1 9 3 7 , p p . 148-149. 5) Y a n g Fuoiang, "Thermal E f f i c i e n c y Te s t s f o r t h e Cookstoves Used i n t h e Rural A r e a s o f C h i n a " , E n e r g y, No. 3 , June 2 5 , 1981, p . 4 7 .

6) 7)

Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid.

8) 9)

10) Ya n g J i - k e , " T h e Proposals f o r S o l v i n g Energy Problems i n Rural Areas o f C h i n a " , Guang Ming D a i l y, March 7 , 1982, p . 3 .

1 1 )

Vacav S m i l , " C h i n a ' s Energy Technology", i n C h i n a ' s F o u r Modernizations, The New Technological R e v o l u t i o n , e d i t e d b y Richard Baum, Westview Press, B o u l d e r, Colorado, p . 2 2 6 .

12) Z h o u Wen B i n , "Developing S o l a r Energy i n T i b e t Should b e Encouraged", Guang Ming D a i l y, J u l y 1 3 , 1980, p . 3 ( I n Chinese). 13) Z h o u Wen B i n , o p . c i t . , p . 3 . 14) I b i d .

47

15) Z i a o Kuan-ken, " S o l a r Cookstove", P e o p l e ' s D a i l y, December 2 7 , 1981, P. 3 . 16) " C h i n a ' s P i c t u r e " , No. 1 , January 1978, p . 4 4 . 17) H e Dong J i u n , " T h e S e c r e t a r y o f t h e County P o p u l a r i z i n g S o l a r Cookstoves", P e o p l e ' s D a i l y, February 2 8 , 1982, p . 3 . 18) E l i z a b e t h C e c e l s k i , J o y Dunkerley, and W i l l i a m Ramsey, Household Energy and t h e Poor i n t h e T h i r d World, Resources f o r t h e F u t u r e , Washington, D . C . , Research Paper F - 1 5 , 1979, p p . 3 5 - 3 6 . 19) a ) S i m a Chen, " F u l l y Develop Biogas i n China t o Solve Energy Problems i n Rural A r e a s " , E n e r g y, August 2 5 , 1981, p . 3 9 . (In Chinese) b) F u l l y P o p u l a r i z e Biogas i n China w i t h a Good P l a n n i n g , " Guang Ming D a i l y, J u l y 1 3 , 1980, p . 3 . ( I n Chinese) 20) L i Nian-guo, t h e respondent o f PRC, " W i l l t h e Energy S i t u a t i o n in t h e Developing World Get B e t t e r o r Worse i n t h e Years Ahead?," VITA News, J u l y 1981, Maryland, USA, p . 5 . 21) S . L . Maskey, " B i o g a s Research Center a t Shanghai, C h i n a , " Biogas N e w s l e t t e r, No. 1 0 , Autumn 1980, N e p a l , p . 5 . 22) " P r o b l e m s i n P o p u l a r i z i n g Biogas Program i n N e p a l , " Biogas Newsletter, No. 2 , Autumn, 1978, N e p a l , p . 1 . 23) M i c h a e l G . McGarry and J i l l S t a i n f o r t h ( E d i t o r s ) , Compost, F e r t i l i z e r and Biogas P r o d u c t i o n from Human and Farm Wastes in t h e People's Republic o f China, Ottawa, Canada, 1978, p p . 69 and 9 3 . 24) I b i d . , p . 6 8 . 25) I b i d , p . 6 3 . 26) I b i d . 27) Z h a n g R o n g l i n , " T h e Designs o f Biogas Stoves and I n c r e a s e o f t h e Thermal E f f i c i e n c y, " Energy, No. 4 , August 2 5 , 1 9 8 1 , p . 3 9 . (In Chinese) 28) Ya n g Fuciang, o p . c i t . , p . 4 6 . 29) a ) S . L . Maskey, o p . c i t . , p . 4 . b) " C h a n g e Wastes I n t o Treasures and t h e Harmful I n t o B e n e f i c i a l , " Biogas N e w s l e t t e r, NO. 1 0 , Autumn 1980, p . 2 .

CHAPTER I I I

SP ACE HEATING

3 . Household energy consumption used f o r space h e a t i n g accounts 1 S f o r 58 x 106 m e t r i c t o n s o f coal e q u i v a l e n t o r about o n e - h a l f o f t h e p ta o t a l c o a l consumption i n t h e household s e c t o r i n China ( 1 ) , one c the e l e a s t e f f i c i e n t and most p o l l u t i n g o f f u e l c o n v e r s i o n s . U p H to e now, o t h e r sources o f f u e l used f o r r e s i d e n t i a l space h e a t i n g , a such as e l e c t r i c h e a t i n g o r gas h e a t i n g have been almost n e g l i g i b l e . t i There a r e no space h e a t i n g systems a v a i l a b l e on a commercial b a s i s n other than s t e a m - b o i l e r systems. W h i l e o n l y a f e w s t u d i e s have g i been done on t h e s u b j e c t o f r e s i d e n t i a l space h e a t i n g o v e r t h e p a s t n U three decades, s e v e r a l i n t e r e s t i n g papers have appeared r e c e n t l y. r b Using a f e w such works and o t h e r a v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l s , we w i l l p r o a ceed t o examine t h e space h e a t i n g problem. n A China's l a t i t u d i n a l p o s i t i o n corresponds a l m o s t e x a c t l y w i t h r te h a t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T w o m a j o r r i v e r s t h e Ye l l o w R i v e r a s (Huanghe) and Yangtze (Changjiang) t r i s e c t China i n t o t h r e e major b e l t s : I ) t h e r e g i o n t o t h e n o r t h o f t h e Ye l l o w R i v e r from l a t i t u d e 35'N t o 50'11 . River , 2 ) spanning t h e l a t i t u d e s 4 0 ' N t o 3 0 h e t the s o u t h t o t h e 28'N l a t i t u d e . T h e Chinese N ; eYangtze 3g ) i Rti v e hr extending e r r e o n o n g i has government designated t h e n o r t h e a s t r e g i o n , t h a t i s , t h e area s o u t h b e t o w e ef 48 n t h e Y e

49 north o f the Yellow River, as a "winter heated region." I n addition, winter heating i s allowed i n most o f the region between the Yellow and Yangtze r i v e r s . T h e region south o f the Yangtze River i s c l a s sified as a "non-heated region", even i n the winter. According t o the above government s t i p u l a t i o n s , t h e additional funds required f o r heating and f u e l w i l l be provided by the government through various i n s t i t u t i o n s , such as f a c t o r i e s , u n i v e r s i t i e s and other government enterprises t o each individual household i n t h e winter. F e e s f o r household heating vary with the region and the period o f winter when heat needs t o be provided. I n northermost Heilongjiang province, t h e government supplies each government employee t h i r t y yuan per month f o r the s i x month period from 10th October t o 10th A p r i l . I n Shanxi province, t h e government only gives each government employee f o u r yuan p e r month on a three month basis. In some other regions, t h e government provides additional coal d i r e c t l y t o government employees f o r heating purposes. T h e coal consumption f o r heating t h e household space varies w i t h the mechanism by which heat i s provided. F o r instance, a medium-size f a m i l y o f five t o s i x people i n northerly Heilongjiang province, using a bituminous coal stove, could consume as much as 1 . 5 t o 2 metric tons of coal i n the winter. I n general, t h e funds o r f u e l a r e given only to households which do not use central heating systems. A great many households i n t h e c i t y areas are provided heat d i r e c t l y i n t h e winter through central heating systems; e i t h e r steam-boiler systems or waterboiler systems.

50 The s t e a m - b o i l e r h e a t i n g system, which has a g e n e r a t i n g capac i t y o f t h e one o r l e s s t h a n one m e t r i c t o n o f steam a h o u r, i s u s u a l l y used f o r s u p p l y i n g h e a t t o about 500 households depending upon t h e needs and p h y s i c a l l o c a t i o n s o f t h e households. C u r r e n t l y , t h e r e a r e about 150,000 s t e a m - b o i l e r s i n use i n China. ( 2 ) T h e therm e f f i c i e n c y of t h i s k i n d o f s t e a m - b o i l e r i s about f i f t y p e r c e n t . T h e i n t e r m i t t e n t heating method i s o f t e n used f o r supplying h e a t , t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f which would b e 10 t o 2 0 p e r c e n t l o w e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e c o n s t a n t heating method, ( 3 ) because i n t e r m i t t e n t h e a t i n g r e q u i r e s m u l t i p l e heating o f w a l l s . V e r y o f t e n t h e room temperature f a i l s t o reach the d e s i g n - r e q u i r e d p o i n t . U s u a l l y , t h e room temperature a f t e r heating i s a b o u t 16C t o 18C ( 6 0 F t o 6 4 bo noc t reuse w a t e r, t h e r e j e c t e d h e a t F ) i.l e r ( h e 4a t i)n g does B e a u condensed s e s t e a m accounts f o r more t h a n o n e - t h i r d o f t h e h e a t i n p u t . M o r e o v e r, because t h e s t e a m - b o i l e r h e a v i l y p o l l u t e s t h e surrounding environment, i t has t o be b u i l t some d i s t a n c e away f r o m t h e areas t o b e heated, thus i n c r e a s i n g h e a t l o s s f r o m t h e p i p e l i n e s . T o overcome t h i s problem, p i p e l i n e i n s u l a t i o n would b e an i m p o r t a n t means t o p r e v e n t heat l o s s . A c c o r d i n g t o t e s t s conducted i n China on two p i p e l i n e s i n the same area u s i n g d i f f e r e n t i n s u l a t i o n methods, t h e h e a t l o s s o f one p i p e l i n e was o n l y 1 . 2 p e r c e n t , w h i l e t h e l o s s i n t h e o t h e r was about 7 . 7 p e r c e n t . ( 5 ) F r o m t h i s i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t p i p e l i n e i n s u l a t i o n can b e a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r i n t h e conservation o f household heating f u e l . The w a t e r - b o i l e r h e a t i n g system i s a l s o an o p t i o n f o r use i n r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s . U s u a l l y , w a t e r - b o i l e r h e a t i n g systems a r e d i v i d e d

51 i n t o high-temperature and low-temperature h o t w a t e r. C u r r e n t l y , t h e r e are about 30,000 w a t e r - b o i l e r s i n use i n China, most o f which a r e used in i n d u s t r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . ( 6 ) T h e w a t e r - b o i l e r uses t w e n t y t o t h i r t y p e r c e n t o r sometimes even f i f t y p e r c e n t l e s s f u e l t h a n t h a t used i n t h e s t e a m - b o i l e r. T h e w a t e r temperature i n w a t e r - b o i l e r heating systems u s u a l l y reach 9 5 / 7 0 0 in *China. maximum o f t h e Chinese design standard f o r C , 1 0T 0h /e 7 0 C temperature , 1 3 0 / 8 0 C the w a t e r - b o i l e r a t t h e h o t w a t e r s u p p l y s i d e i s 150C, b u t i n most o f o r 1 5 the cases t0 h e a/c t u a9 l w a t0 e r temperature i n factories o r residential C practices i s l o w e r t h a n 100C. ( 7 ) B e c a u s e t h e w a t e r - b o i l e r h e a t i n g system i s a c l o s e d - l o o p system, l o s s o f r e j e c t e d h e a t i s r e l a t i v e l y small. I n t h e middle 1 9 6 0 1 of s h ie f t e d f r o m s t e a m - b o i l e r h e a t i n g systems t o w a t e r - b o i l e r s , China s o m f a c t o r i e s heating systems w i t h good r e s u l t s i n f u e l s a v i n g s and improvement i n i n theatingh q u a l i te y. T a b l e 3 . 1 shows t h e r e s u l t s o f a comparison o f t h e n o r t h e a s t steam-boiler h e a t i n g system and t h e w a t e r - b o i l e r h e a t i n g system i n p a r northeast China. A l t h o u g h t h e c l o s e d - l o o p w a t e r - b o i l e r h e a t i n g system t has g r e a t advantages o v e r t h e s t e a m - b o i l e r h e a t i n g system, i t i s s t i l l n o t v e r y much used f o r h e a t i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s i n Chinese r e s i d e n t i a l areas. Studies o f methods t o a p p l y r e j e c t e d h e a t f r o m thermal power plants t o p o t e n t i a l h e a t i n g space have l a t e l y taken on g r e a t i m p o r tance. M a n y proposals and suggestions have been r e p o r t e d f o r several

*The f i r s t number i n d i c a t e s t h e h o t w a t e r s u p p l y s i d e temperature, t h e second number represents t h e temperature o f recovered h o t w a t e r, a f t e r i t i s used i n t h e r a d i a t o r s .

52

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53 areas and r e g i o n s i n China. I n B e i j i n g , t h e B e i j i n g No. 1 and No. 2 Thermal Power P l a n t s s u p p l y h e a t t o 1 4 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l m u n i c i p a l construction space i n w i n t e r. ( 9 ) S i m i l a r a p p l i c a t i o n s have occurred in Buxin c i t y , L i a o n i n g p r o v i n c e i n 1981. T h e Buxin P l a n t i s a l a r g e - s i z e power p l a n t w i t h an annual p r o d u c t i o n o f 45 x 1 0 8 kwh o f e l e c t r i c i t y. I n t h e p a s t , v a s t amounts o f h e a t were released f r o m the p l a n t and s e r i o u s l y p o l l u t e d t h e surrounding environment. I n 1981, t h e municipal Committee o f Buxin c i t y proposed b u i l d i n g a heating system and u s i n g t h e r e j e c t e d h e a t a s t h e w i n t e r h e a t i n g source. T h e p r o j e c t was budgeted f o r about 9 . 1 m i l l i o n yuan. T h i s p r o j e c t was f i n i s h e d two and h a l f months b e f o r e t h e a r r i v a l o f w i n t e r in 1981. To d a y , t h e t o t a l p i p e l i n e system measures 5 6 k i l o m e t e r s in l e n g t h and b r i n g s " r e j e c t e d h e a t " t o heat 560,000 square meters of c o n s t r u c t i o n space i n c l u d i n g 50,000 households and 160 government enterprises. A s a r e s u l t , 1 3 5 small b o i l e r s p r e v i o u s l y used f o r space h e a t i n g have been s h u t down. T h i s saves a n estimated 50,000 metric t o n s o f c o a l each w i n t e r. ( 1 0 ) Recovered h e a t f r o m thermal power p l a n t s would b e i n s u f f i c i e n t to s u p p l y a l l t h e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s i n China. I n t h e suburbs, t h e households which a r e f a r removed f r o m t h e h e a t i n g systems u s u a l l y r e l y on c o a l s t o v e s f o r h e a t i n g . T h e s e c o a l s t o v e s a r e designed f o r both cooking and h e a t i n g . T h e y can b e f u e l e d b y bituminous c o a l , briquettes o r comb-shaped c o a l a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r combustion chambers. Such stoves a r e u s u a l l y made o f c a s t i r o n , w i t h l o n g chimney p i p e s attached t o r e l e a s e smoke and carbon d i o x i d e o u t s i d e t h e house. U s e of c o a l s t o v e s b o t h f o r a l l - y e a r cooking and h e a t i n g i n t h e w i n t e r

54 maximizes t h e thermal e f f i c i e n c y o f the stove; nevertheless i t s t i l l has lower thermal e f f i c i e n c y than the steam-boiler o r waterboiler used s o l e l y f o r space heating. Furthermore, these coal stoves produce large amounts o f coal ash, coal dust and carbon dioxide, SO 2 controlling such pollutants. F i g u r e 3.1 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e cast i r o n p o l l u t icoal n gstove used f o r space heating and cooking i n ordinary households t h in China. e a i Recently newer means o f household heating have been introduced r . to the P r c i t y areas, such as long-wave i n f r a r e d heaters and e l e c t r i c e s heaters, b u t these s t i l l account f o r only a very small amount o f the e n t ltotal y space , heating applications. t h 3.2 Space Heating I n Rural Areas e r Most o f the r u r a l areas i n China need heating i n the winter e itime, except i n areas l i k e Guangdong and Guangxi i n the Extreme south s and Shanghai i n the southeast. T h e f u e l used f o r space heating i n n the r u r a l areas i n China are a l l drawn from l o c a l sources. T h e o m government provides neither funds o r f u e l f o r space heating i n r u r a l e a households. I n general, t h e required fuels a r e supplied by t h e local n production teams according t o the numbers i n the given household. s o The f a c i l i t i e s f o r heating are therefore t i e d t o the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f f fuels i n the various regions and are used i n t h e simplest ways f o r heating purposes such as kangs*, cookstoves w i t h chimnies and even

*Kang i s a bed made o f bricks w i t h a wood frame a t the t o p , and a small stove b u i l t a t i t s base f o r heating the kang i n t h e w i n t e r.

55

Figure 3 . 1 . C a s t i r o n c o a l cookstove used i n the w i n t e r f o r h e a t i n g

56

open-fires. T h e f u e l consumption f o r h e a t i n g i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s o f China v a r i e s according t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e r e g i o n o r t h e area. T h e survey data f o r t h i s s t u d y, i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n t h e extreme northern r u r a l a r e a s o f H e i l o n g j i a n g p r o v i n c e , a f a m i l y o f t h r e e t o four people consumes 1 . 5 m e t r i c t o n s o f wheat s t r a w f o r h e a t i n g i n a w i n t e r w h i l e a f a m i l y w i t h s i x t o seven members would consume a t l e a s t 2 . 5 m e t r i c t o n s o f wheat s t r a w. I n some r e g i o n s , t h e household heating f u e l consumption i s a s much as t h e annual household cooking fuel consumption. B e c a u s e o f t h e f u e l s h o r t a g e i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s , heating i s sometimes l i m i t e d t o o n l y p a r t o f t h e house, t h e bed o r small d e v i c e s used f o r warming hands and f e e t . The kang i s t h e major d e v i c e used i n t h e r u r a l households o f China, e s p e c i a l l y i n n o r t h e a s t o r c e n t r a l p a r t s o f China. F i g u r e 3 . 2 shows t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e conventional Chinese b e d , t h e kang which has been used i n China f o r c e n t u r i e s , b u t has r a p i d l y disappeared wherever modern c i t i e s developed owing t o i t s i n s u i t a b i l i t y f o r t h e new c o n d i t i o n s o f urban l i f e . T h e kang i s a bed made o f b r i c k s and wood frame a t t h e t o p , b u t h o l l o w i n s i d e . A kang i s about 3 meters long, 2 . 5 meters i n w i d t h and 2 . 5 f e e t h i g h , and i s o f t e n b u i l t under the window f a c i n g s o u t h . I t used t o be heated f r o m a small s t o v e at i t s base, b u t now i t i s more commonly heated b y means which u t i l i z e s t h e waste heat f r o m t h e cookstove. T h e chimney p i p e f r o m t h e cookstove i n t h e k i t c h e n i s b u i l t t o pass through t h e kang i n a horizontal d i r e c t i o n b e f o r e r i s i n g through t h e r o o f . I n o r d e r t o reduce t h e h e a t l o s s o f t h e chimney p i p e , t h e cookstove i s u s u a l l y as n e a r t o t h e kang a s p o s s i b l e . F i g u r e 3 . 3 i s a diagram o f t h e

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Figure 3 . 2 . S t r u c t u r e o f Chinese bed - - kang with a small s t o v e a t i t s base

58

S u r tc u te ro C fh n i e s w g a k h t i m a m y s g n i t a e h d v o r p

59 improved h e a t i n g system o f a kang. T h e b r i c k s o f t h e kang a r e a b l e to absorb a l a r g e amount o f waste h e a t f r o m t h e cookstove i n t h e kitchen, p r o v i d i n g a warm p l a c e t o s i t d u r i n g t h e day and a warm place t o s l e e p a t n i g h t . A s a method o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e o v e r a l l e f f i c i e n c y o f f u e l u t i l i z a t i o n i n t h e household, t h e kang re p re s e n t s a r a t h e r ingenious i n v e n t i o n o f t h e Chinese people. 3.3 S o l a r Heated Homes and S o l a r Water Heating Systems China s t a r t e d s o l a r energy research and i t s a p p l i c a t i o n s i n the l a t e 1 9 5 0 s , d u r i n g which t i m e a t t e n t i o n was l i m i t e d t o s o l a r cookstoves. N o w China has 150 s o l a r energy research i n s t i t u t i o n s and u n i v e r s i t i e s a t v a r i o u s l e v e l s w i t h more t h a n 1 , 0 0 0 s c i e n t i s t s and t e c h n i c a l s p e c i a l i s t s working f o r t h e development o f t h i s new energy source f o r a v a r i e t y o f a p p l i c a t i o n s . ( 11 ) Solar energy research and development i n China ranges f r o m highly t e c h n i c a l s t u d i e s t o p r a c t i c a l development and a p p l i c a t i o n . In t h e f i r s t c a t e g o r y a r e p h o t o v o l t a i c improvements, p r i m a r i l y i n s i n g l e c r y s t a l s i l i c o n c e l l s , S e l e c t i v e s u r f a c e a p p l i c a t i o n s on glass and m e t a l s , and evacuated t u b u l a r c o l l e c t o r design and f a b r i cation. I n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n a r e a a r e improvements i n s o l a r water heaters, a c t i v e and passive h e a t i n g development, t h e s o l a r s t i l l f o r d i s t i l l a t i o n o f sea w a t e r and s o l a r cookstoves. I n commercial production and use a r e s o l a r w a t e r h e a t i n g c o l l e c t o r s , b i o g a s digesters and small p h o t o v o l t a i c power u n i t s f o r communication and s i g n a l i n g . O t h e r s o l a r research and development a c t i v i t i e s i n c l u d e

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drying o f v a r i o u s products w i t h s o l a r heated a i r , s o l a r r e f r i g e r a t o r s , non-convective s o l a r ponds and s o l a r h e a t s t o r a g e . Vast i n a r e a , China i s a c o u n t r y where t w o - t h i r d s o f i t s l a n d can have more t h a n 2,000 hours o f sunshine each y e a r. L a s a ( L h a s a ) , which i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d " s u n l i g h t c i t y " , t h e c a p i t a l o f Xizang ( Ti b e t ) , h a s an average o f 3,006 hours o f sunshine a y e a r. B e i j i n g has 2,700 hours o f sunshine each y e a r. I t would appear t h e r e f o r e t h a t t h e n o r t h e r n and northwestern p a r t s o f China and t h e Q i n g h a i Xizang p l a t e a u w i t h t h e i r d r y and c l e a r a i r have extremely good natural c o n d i t i o n s f o r harnessing s o l a r energy. The a p p l i c a t i o n o f s o l a r energy f o r space h e a t i n g purposes has made progress i n r e c e n t y e a r s , b u t most o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s have not y e t reached t h e commercial s t a g e . M o s t o f t h e s o l a r heated homes are b u i l t i n Quinghai p r o v i n c e and Gansu p r o v i n c e , b o t h i n t h e southwest p a r t o f China. A c c o r d i n g t o an a r t i c l e i n t h e P e o p l e ' s D a i l y, a r e s i d e n t i a l s o l a r h e a t i n g home was b u i l t i n Ounhuang c o u n t y, Gansu p r o v i n c e i n 1980 u s i n g a trombe-wall a i r - f l o w i n g p a s s i v e s o l a r space-heating system. A f t e r a month o f t e s t i n g , t h e r e s u l t s were f a i r l y s a t i s f a c t o r y. W h e n t h e o u t s i d e temperature was 8.26C, the maximum room temperature o f t h e s o l a r heated home reached 20C and minimum room temperature was 15C. T h e average room temperature was 16.77C. I n t h e Dunhuang county a r e a , t h e usual room temperature without h e a t i n g i n t h e w i n t e r t i m e was a b o u t 7.9C. A f t e r conventional heating, t h e room temperature c o u l d reach 16.3C, which was s t i l l 0.47C l o w e r than t h e average room temperature o f t h e s o l a r heated home. ( 1 2 ) T w o o t h e r s o l a r heated homes were b u i l t i n 1978 i n Gansu

61 province, which showed almost the same r e s u l t s as t h e room temperature in the Dunhuang experiment. Another published account o f a s o l a r heated home application is i n Xining c i t y, Qinghai province. T h e r e a 700 square meter portion of a f i v e - s t o r y o f f i c e building, t h e t o t a l f l o o r space o f which was about 3,000 square meters, was heated by s o l a r energy. A f t e r a year's use, t h e results were very good. ( 1 3 ) A p a r t from these experimental models, t h e f i r s t series o f p r a c t i c a l l y used passive solar heated homes, t o t a l l i n g f i f t e e n , have now been b u i l t i n Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Ginghai, Ti a n j i n , Shenyang, B e i j i n g and Shijiazhuang. These applications are being made both i n houses and f i v e - s t o r y building apartments. ( 1 4 ) U n f o r t u n a t e l y f u r t h e r information about these s o l a r heated homes, t h e materials used f o r building them, technical features, t h e cost and pay-back period i s s t i l l unavailable. I t i s possible t h a t s o l a r heated home applications can be expanded to many parts o f China, especially t o those r u r a l areas which require only a s l i g h t bolstering o f the heat supply i n winter. T h i s amount of heat can be provided through e i t h e r s o l a r heated homes o r the improvement o f insulation o f the windows, doors and walls o f the house. A sol ar water-heating system was f i r s t used i n Lasa, Xizang in the 1 9 6 0 1 Since then, more than 2,000 square meters o f s o l a r water-heating s, m o s t l have been b u i l t i n Lasa. ( 1 5 ) T h o s e solar collectors can collectors y raise f o the r water t o a maximum o f 70C. S o l a r water-heaters have also b a been i n s t a l l e d i n many hotels, bath houses, and barber shops i n t h h o u s e s a n

62 Xingjiang and B e i j i n g since the 1 9 7 0 1 People's i l y, s. A c D c ao r more d i n than g 100,000 square meters o f solar watert o collectors have a n b u i l t i n China, about h a l f o f which are heating been a r t i c l e in use i n Beijing. ( 1 6 ) ( S e e Figures 3.4 and 3 . 5 ) L o c a t e d a t 40 i n degrees north l a t i t u d e . A n average o f 1 square meter o f sunlight harnessed a t Beijing can heat 100 kilograms o f water d a i l y t o temperatures from 40C t o 60C. S o l a r water-heating collectors can be u t i l i z e d s i x t o seven months o f each year, and each square meter of solar c o l l e c t o r could save up t o 200 t o 300 kilograms o f coal annually. ( 1 7 ) The most s i g n i f i c a n t p o i n t o f such s o l a r water-heater applications i s t h a t they are beginning t o be used i n households i n rural as well a s urban areas. I n Daxing county, B e i j i n g , s o l a r water collectors have been b u i l t with t h e capacity t o supply 15,000 people with showers each day. A t t e n t i o n has a l s o been directed t o the Linmingying Production Brigade where every household has b u i l t a s o l a r bath house. ( 2 0 ) ( S e e Figure 3 . 6 ) S o l a r water-heaters have also been i n s t a l l e d i n some o f the apartment buildings i n B e i j i n g . (See Figure 3 . 7 ) T h i s type o f solar water-heater uses a closedloop system with a c o l l e c t o r area o f 1 square meter and water storage capacity o f between 70 t o 100 l i t r e s , s u f f i c i e n t f o r the hot water supply f o r a household. In recent years, Hebei and Henan provinces, and municipalities of Beijing and Shanghai have b u i l t many kinds o f s o l a r water-heaters. Now China has more than t h i r t y factor ies and companies i n f i f t e e n cities and provinces manufacturing d i f f e r e n t types o f solar

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Figure 3 . 4 . C l o s e d loop s o l a r water heating system u t i l i z i n g antifreeze. ( 1 8 )

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Figure 3 . 5 .

Solar water h e a t i n g system (300m2) with c a p a c i t y f o r s u p p l y i n g h o t water f o r 1,000 people t o t a k e showers. ( 1 9 )

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Figure 3 . 6 . S o l a r water heating system used in an apartment building. ( 2 1 )

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4.:4

Wrc . 0

v i g k

'

Figure 3 . 7 S o l a r bathhouse i n Linmingying Production Brigade o f Changziying Commune Daxing County, B e i j i n g . ( 2 2 )

67 water-heaters with an annual production capacity o f 50,000 square meters o f solar c o l l e c t o r s . ( 2 3 ) Although data on the cost o f these s o l a r water-heating systems i s scarce, t h e information available seems t o indicate t h a t the cost o f building s o l a r water-heaters i n China i s much lower than that i n t h e United States. G e n e r a l l y t h i s low cost r e f l e c t s the cheap l a b o r cost i n China and the selection o f inexpensive materials. A type o f shallow tank s o l a r water-heater without water storage was manufactured i n Nanjing. E a c h square meter o f s o l a r c o l l e c t o r consumes about 20 kilograms o f metal materials and costs about 40 yuan. ( 2 4 ) O t h e r information supplies clues t o t h e cost o f the s o l a r water-heating system i n the Beijing Science and Education Film Studio. T h i s studio uses a s o l a r water-heating system with vacuum tube c o l l e c t o r s , instead o f a conventional water b o i l e r fueled by petroleum, t o supply hot water. T h e pay-back period o f the investment for i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h i s s o l a r water-heating system (several t e n thousands o f yuan) i s only s l i g h t l y greater than one year. ( 2 5 )

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CHAPTER I I I REFERENCES AND FOOTNOTES

Author's e s t i m a t e d number o f 33.32 x 106 m e t r i c t o n s o f c o a l used f o r space h e a t i n g i n urban households obtained b y m u l t i plying t o t a l f l o o r space o f 833,000,000 square meters ( a ) i n north and c e n t r a l p a r t s o f China b y average annual f u e l c o n sumption o f 0 . 0 4 m e t r i c t o n s o f c o a l p e r square meter ( b ) . (a) Z h a n g Qinnan, "Energy Consumption and Conservation i n Construction S e c t o r i n C h i n a " , E n e r g y, No. 4 , August 25, 1 9 8 1 , p . 1 4 ( i n Chinese). (b) Z h a n g Qinnan, i b i d , p . 1 3 .

2) Q u L i n f a , "Proposal o n I n c r e a s i n g t h e O v e r a l l Thermal E f f i c i e n c y o f B o i l e r s Used i n I n d u s t r y " , Energy, No. 4 , August 2 5 , 1981, p. 3 6 ( i n c h i n e s e ) . 3) Z h a n g Qinnan, o p . c i t . , p . 1 4 . 4) I b i d . 5) I b i d . 6) Q u L i n f a , op. c i t . , p . 3 6 . 7) S u n Guangyi,"Some P r o p o s i t i o n s o f Wa t e r - B o i l e r Heating System and C e n t r a l i z e d Heating System", Energy, No. 4 , August 2 5 , 1981, p . 7 ( i n Chinese). 8) I b i d . 9) I b i d . 10) L i X i n y a n , " T h e Good Mayor Who Works f o r t h e I n t e r e s t s f o r t h e People", P e o p l e ' s D a i l y, Dec. 2 0 , 1981 ( i n Chinese). 11) " S o l a r Energy" i n t h e Background Readings o n Science, Technology and Energy R&D i n Japan and China, prepared b y t h e Committee on Science and Technology, U . S . House o f Representatives, N i n e t y Seventh Congress, F i r s t Session, S e r i a l A , U . S . Gvoernment P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , Washington, DC, January 1981, p . 4 1 7 . 12) " S o l a r Heated Home A p p l i c a t i o n s Used i n R e s i d e n t i a l Areas i n Dunhuang County", The Xinhua News Agency, 1981. 13) " S o l a r Energy", o p . c i t . , p . 4 1 6 . 14) T h e Xinhua News Agency, " F i f t e e n P r a c t i c a l l y Used Passive S o l a r Heated Houses and B u i l d i n g s i n Use i n C h i n a " , Wen Hui Bao, October 1 7 , 1981 ( i n Chinese).

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15) Z h o u Wen Bin, " S o l a r Energy U t i l i z a t i o n i n Ti b e t Must Be Put I n t o Agenda", Guang Ming D a i l , J u l y 30, 1980. 16) S h u Hongjun, " S o l a r Water Heating Systems Used i n B e i j i n g " , Guang Ming D a i l y, November 3 , 1981 ( i n Chinese). 17) I b i d . 18) I b i d . 19) I b i d . 20) 1 1 1 0 0 ,System U t i l i z e d i n China", Wen Hui Bao, October 17, 1981 0 0 0 (in Chinese). S 21) q S h u Hongjun, op. c i t . u a 22)e S h u Hongjun, op. c i t . r M 23) 1 e t System U t i l i z e d i n China", op. c i t . 1 0 0 e r , s 24) " S h a l l o w Tank Solar Water Heating System Has Been Developed", 0 0 0 People's D a i l y, August 10, 1981 ( i n Chinese). o S f 25) S h u Hongjun, op. c i t . q S u o a r l e a M r e C t o e l r l s e o c f t S o o r l s a o r f C W o a l t l e e r c H t e o a r t s