THE PAPAL-FRANKISH ALLIANCE

Benjamin Crenshaw Ms. Hoskins Medieval Europe 370 15 May 2009

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Over two hundred years after the fall of the Roman Empire, Europe was fragmented and weakened after centuries of decline, ruralization, civil wars, and foreign invaders. In the east, the Byzantine Empire continued to survive in a weakened state despite encroachments by the Umayyad Muslims. In the west, the papacy in Rome represented one of the last vestiges of the Roman Empire that had not yet fused with Germanic civilization. To the north of Rome, the Germanic tribe of the Lombards occupied a strip south of the Alps Mountains and created a buffer state between the papacy and the Frankish kingdom in Gaul. As the seventh century came to a close, the dawning of the eighth century witnessed a transfer of power in Gaul, as the Merovingian dynasty yielded to Carolingian rule over the Frankish provinces of Austrasia, Neustria, and Burgundy. The Merovingian kings, who had ruled since Clovis I (481-511 AD),1 had become mere figureheads, and much of their administrative and governmental power was inherited by the Mayor of the Palace.2 Between 715-741, Charles Martel of the Carolingian family held this position and was instrumental in conquering and uniting the Frankish provinces. It was his son, Pippin III, who in 751 would dispose the last Merovingian king, Childeric III, and officially rule as the first king of the Carolingian dynasty3 (see Appendix for chronology). Three years after Pippin IIIs crowning, an astonishing event changed the entire political and religious landscape of the western world. At the urgent request of Pope Stephen II, Pippin mustered his forces, crossed the Alps, and conquered the Lombards who were threatening papal land. This began what is known as the Papal-Frankish alliance, which brought greater stability and prosperity to Western Europe, strengthened the papacy and the Franks, and effectively broke western ties with Byzantium. The development and evolution of this alliance was the result of five interdependent and interacting variables: foreign and internal Christian missionaries to Gaul

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and Germany who were supported and encouraged by the papacy, religious and political monastic policies pursued by the Carolingian kings, Byzantiums deteriorating relationship with the West, aggressive Lombard expansion in Italy, and internal strife and discord within Rome. The alliances culmination in 800 AD saw the coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor of the Romans, the first such title given to a western king since the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 AD. The consequences of this alliance would touch every part of Europe and be felt throughout the remaining centuries of medieval history. The foundation of the PapalFrankish alliance centered around missionary activity and ecclesiastical reform in Francia during the first half of the eighth century. Reform was badly
Map 1: Europe around 750 AD. (Source: Barbara H. Rosenwein, A Short History of the Middle Ages, 2nd ed. (Canada: Broadview Press, 2004), 74.)

needed in the Frankish church at this point due to the corrupting influence of

nobles and aristocrats. Local families had taken control of bishoprics, monasteries, and churches, and many bishops hailed from the nobility, seeing the church only as a means of wealth.4 Many pagan beliefs and practices persisted in Gaul and especially in heathen areas like Saxony and Bavaria (see Map 1) and it did not help that many of the clergy were ignorant and poor.5 As a whole, the church was very disorganized, which led to irregular practices and

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negligence of the Christian faith. To combat these problems, a number of missionaries within Francia and from neighboring territories sought to unify the Frankish church and evangelize unreached areas. These missionaries had significant contact with the popes in Rome since the papacy was concerned to reform and reorganize the Frankish church and bring it under its jurisdiction and spiritual authority. To this end, the popes often commissioned, ordained, supported, and encouraged the missionaries in their work. Pirmin was a missionary from southern Aquitaine who ministered in Alamannia and founded many monasteries that became important cultural and religious centers.6 Corbinian, consecrated as a bishop by Pope Gregory II in 722, worked in Bavaria, a province just east of Alamannia.7 The most important and influential missionary of the eighth century was Boniface, an Anglo-Saxon who served in Frisia, Saxony, and Bavaria. His efforts were key to bringing reform to the Frankish church as he worked with the existing church, the papacy, and the Carolingian kings Charles Martel and Pippin III. In 718 Boniface undertook a pilgrimage to Rome and was commissioned by Pope Gregory II to engage in missionary work east of the Rhine;8 and later, in 722, the pope consecrated him as a missionary bishop along with Corbinian.9 By 732, Pope Gregory III had appointed him as organizer of the entire Frankish church and metropolitan10 of
St. Boniface. (Source: http://www.sai ntbonifacesf.or g/tour_lower_ windows.htm)

Germany,11 a position he held until his martyrdom in 754. Boniface was replaced by the Frankish bishop Chrodegang who carried on the Englishmans work at a larger scale and sought to more completely align the Frankish church to Rome.12

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While the papacy sought to impose spiritual authority and jurisdiction over the church in Francia, it was incapable of providing adequate protection for the missionaries. This task fell to the Carolingian kings who discovered that it was within their favor to work with and protect these reformers. When Pippin III inherited the Frankish kingdom from his father, Charles Martel, in 741,13 he was faced with the daunting tasks of defeating his political enemies, conquering rebellious provinces, consolidating his power, and forming a loyal administration to support him. To be successful against these challenges, Pippin pursued a monastic policy that used the existing church structure and network in Francia as a foundation for building his political and military power. This policy was successful in bringing internal reform and organization to the church, as well as discipline and religious observance. In this way monastic policies not only served the kings best interests, but also greatly benefited the Frankish church.14 The first thing Pippin III set out to do was remove the aristocratic priests and prelates who were a threat to his power since they were from strong noble families that opposed a central monarchy. His anti-Episcopal campaign (which was not an anti-church campaign) sought to win the loyalty of the clergy, and replaced certain bishops and archbishops with non-ecclesiastical officials who were loyal to him. Pippin would seize church property and redistribute it, effectively reduced the bishops wealth and limiting their authority to strictly spiritual responsibilities, considerably weakening their power.15 Over time the king gained very loyal and trusting secular and ecclesiastical servants who constituted the basis of his power. Pippin III also worked with missionaries and church reformers to strengthen the existing church and evangelize new territories, which opened them up for conquest and incorporation into Francia. St. Boniface worked closely with Pippin to reorganize the Frankish church,16 and Pippin provided protection

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for him, Pirmin, Corbinian, and others as they founded monasteries and witnessed in nonChristian areas.17 By sending missionaries into unconquered lands to build monasteries and gain Christian converts, Pippin was able to gain a spiritual foothold and loyalty from some of the Saxons, Bavarians, and other heathens. This made it much easier to both conquer these territories (monasteries had a colonizing effect in the areas they were located) and organize and administer them afterwards.18 For example, Bonifaces work in Bavaria helped set the foundation for Charlemagne (Pippins son) to incorporate the region into the Frankish kingdom.19 Also, if monasteries or churches in a new area were threatened, the Carolingian kings used this as a reason to invade and conquer. It is difficult to accurately judge the motives of Pippin III and Charlemagne as they both implemented this monastic policy. Was there only pious religious intent to reform and grow the church, or were there possibly political motives as well? It seems that both are legitimate factors, although Pippin probably had more political motives since he was working hard to bring Gaul and Germany under his control. Charlemagne, who extended the Frankish empire to its territorial height, ruled during a more stable and peaceful time; he was also a more devout Christian than Pippin20 as he promoted the rule of St. Benedict and was concerned to Christianize the pagans for their own well-being. Charlemagne used similar monastic policies as his father, which were especially effective in aiding in his conquest of Saxony.21 The monastic policies of the Carolingian kings and the close working relationships they had with missionaries and reformers brought the Frankish royal administration into contact with the papacy well before the alliance in the mid eighth century. This was especially true as Carloman (Pippins older brother), organized and held the first of many reforming church synods

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in 742 that involved all parties concerned and sought to address and fix some of the most pressing issues.22 The spiritual jurisdiction of the papacy and the political jurisdiction of the king overlapped, forcing the two sides into contact and cooperation; this familiarity eventually blossomed into a mutually beneficial relationship. Certainly, each side had different goals and purposes for reforming the church and ensuring the success of the missionaries, although at times they did share some common pursuits. Rosamond McKitterick, in his book The Frankish Kingdom Under the Carolingians: 751-987, states that an association between the Papacy and the Franks had, however, been formed in the ecclesiastical sphere, largely due to the work of the Englishman Boniface and Frankish reform councils of the 740s.23 This association led Pope Zacharias to sanction Pippin IIIs anointing by St. Boniface in 751 as the last Merovingian king was removed and Pippin became the first king of the Franks in the Carolingian line.24 The foundation for an open alliance had been laid, and all that was needed was a reason to establish a close bond. By the middle of the eighth century, the papacy in Rome found itself in a precarious situation. The papacy, along with the Exarchate of Ravenna,25 had eventually come under the influence and protection of the Byzantine Empire after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. However, a series of events in the late seventh and eighth centuries polarized the allies. In 692 the eastern emperor Justinian II decreed a series of laws that the church was expected to follow; yet the pope of Rome, Sergius I, rejected some of the laws because they compromised Roman church law (clerical marriage and fasting during Lent). Justinian, livid at being defied, sent officials to arrest the pope, but they failed when local Italian armies rose up and defended the papacy.26 Later, after the turn of the eighth century, the Byzantine emperor Leo III the Isaurian increased papal taxes in an attempt to raise revenue for wars against the Arabs; a tax

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revolt ensued that was led by the pope.27 These events showed that Byzantiums imperial power was waning over Italy as the pope gained greater ability to rule the Italian states. Another very important incident which led to deteriorating relations between Constantinople and Rome occurred over conflicting
Map 2: the Byzantine Empire and Italy in the eighth century. (Source: Barbara H. Rosenwein, A Short History of the Middle Ages, 2nd ed. (Canada: Broadview Press, 2004), 109.)

theological beliefs of the veneration of church icons. The Iconoclastic Controversy flared up between 726-729 when Leo III (of Byzantium), issued a number of decrees outlawing the veneration of religious icons and images.28 When Pope Gregory II opposed these measures, a firestorm of controversy began between the Eastern Orthodox and Western Catholic churches. Each successive pope had to deal with iconoclasm in one form or another and this effectively ruptured their relationship with Byzantium and distanced the two states from each other.29 In more practical terms, Byzantium was incapable of protecting the papacy from increasing threats from the Lombards who occupied northern Italy. The Eastern Empire was being threatened itself as it fended off attacks by the Umayyad Muslims in Anatolia. The relationship breach left the papacy vulnerable, without a supporter or a protector. The Lombards were a Germanic tribe that had settled in Italy after the fall of Rome and ruled the northern territories from 568-774.30 They were originally Arian Christians31 and so the popes opposed them; however, over time they were gradually converted to Catholic belief.32 Early in the eighth century, the Lombards began aggressive attempts to conquer the Duchy of

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Spoleto and Benevento, territories to the east and south of Rome (see Map 3, page 7). Had they been successful in these attempts, the papacy would have been surrounded. Finding that it was being increasingly pressured and threatened by Lombard expansion, and realizing that Byzantium was too weak to offer any assistance, the papacy began to call upon the aid of the Franks. In the late 730s, Pope Gregory III wrote a number of letters to the Carolingian Mayor of the Palace, Charles Martel, asking him in the name of St. Peter to obey our commands to defend the church of God and his chosen people.33 However, Charles Martel chose not to respond to the popes requests since the Lombards had earlier allied with the Franks to defeat Arab incursions. Gregory IIIs successor, Pope Zacharias, spent much of his pontificate in diplomatic relations between the Lombards, Byzantium, and the Franks. Zacharias was able to successfully persuade the Lombard kings Liutprand and Rachis34 from taking the Exarchate of Ravenna and Rome itself.35 Four months after Pope Zacharias died and Stephen II was elected to replace him, the Lombard king Aistulf attacked Rome, intent upon ruling the entire Italian peninsula.36 When Aistulf ignored Stephens attempts to convince him to break off the attack, Stephen traveled across the Alps
Map 3: Italy in the eighth century. (Source: Italy. In Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed. Vol. 22. (Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2005), 190.)

in early 754 and met Pippin III at the village of Quierzy-sur-Oise in northern

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Gaul.37 There, Pippin promised to restore to the papacy any lands they had lost at the hands of the Lombards. This promise, known as the Donation of Pippin (which was later written down), marked the beginning of the Papal-Frankish alliance.38 While Stephen stayed in France during the winter of 754, he re-anointed Pippin at the Abby of St. Denis in Paris as Patrician of the Romans, validating his claim to the Frankish throne he had taken in 751.39 Through this act, the papacy reaffirmed its support of the Carolingians, submitted to the protection of the Franks, and set the precedent of kingship anointing that would lead to Charlemagnes coronation in 800.40 To make good on his promise, in the summer of 754 Pippin mustered his forces, crossed the Alps into northern Italy, and defeated the Lombards in a fierce battle. He forced Aistulf to return papal cities and lands that had been taken, pay tribute, and make an oath never to attack Rome again.41 Aistulf did not keep his word, however, and two years later in 756 he once again attacked the papacy and besieged Rome for three months, laying waste to the surrounding countryside. Once again, Pope Stephen II sent a message to Pippin informing him of the events, and once again Pippin came down to Italy with his army and defeated the Lombards. 42 The Lombards had taken the Exarchate of Ravenna, which still belonged to Byzantium, but after defeating the Lombards it passed into Frankish hands. While he was besieging the Lombard capital of Pavia, Pippin received an envoy from Constantinople asking that Ravenna and the Exarchate be return to the Eastern Empire. In a telling move, Pippin ignored their request and instead awarded the territory to the pope, creating the Papal States, and further fulfilling his promise from 754 (Donation of Pippin).43 Byzantium protested, but was unable to do anything about it. To justify this act, Pippin used a document known as the Donation of Constantine to assert that he was simply restoring land that rightfully belonged to Rome.44 Later, in 1439, Lorenzo Valla exposed

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this document to be a forgery. The most probably theory is that it was written by the Roman Curia45 in 756 with the popes approval in order to acquire the Exarchate of Ravenna from Byzantium.46 The result of the 756 campaign was that the Franks created strong political ties with the papacy, and Rome found the supporter and protector it desperately needed.47 The relationship between the Carolingians and Byzantium understandably deteriorated as the Franks had usurped Byzantiums role in Italy. Aistulf never again threatened the papacy as he died later in 756 and was replaced by Desiderius, the duke of Tuscany.48 Pope Stephen II died the following year and Pope Paul I was elected in his place. Although Pippin III ruled until his death in 768, he never again campaigned in Italy.49 McKitterick sums up the situation after 756, saying that while the Papacy became increasingly independent of the Eastern Empire, it became ever more familiar with the reality and effectiveness of Frankish power in Italy and the protection afforded the Pope himself by the Franks.50 The favorable relationship between the Franks and the papacy would continue under Pippins son Charlemagne, while FrankishByzantine relations worsened. Pippin III died in 768 and was buried at the Abby of St. Denis in Paris. His kingdom was divided between his two sons, Charles and Carloman. The division was not very clear since there was some overlap between the territories given to them and confusion as to who would control what provinces of Gaul and Germany.51 Specifically, the province of Aquitaine was
Charlemagne, King of the Franks, 768-814. (Source: http://www.americanpictures.com/genealogy/descent /Charlemagne.htm).

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disputed, and to add to their difficulties, rebellious dukes and counts made trouble for the Carolingian kings. When Carloman refused to aid Charles in his conquest of Aquitaine in 769, the relationship between the brothers soured considerably.52 It has been speculated that Desiderius, king of the Lombards, took advantage of this rift between the co-Frankish kings to ally with Carloman against Charlemagne and the pope.53 What makes this theory very plausible is that when Carloman died in 771, his wife Gerberga and her sons fled to Lombardy to seek protection from Desiderius because they feared Charlemagne.54 To add to Charlemagnes worries, Pope Stephen III had accepted an alliance with the Lombards in 771.55 Desiderius took advantage of the situation and tried to use Carlomans sons to undermine Charlemagne by pressuring the new pope, Hadrian I (Stephen III had died in 772), to appoint one of Carlomans sons as king of the Franks over the territory Carloman had ruled. When Hadrian refused, Desiderius attacked Rome in 773. Hadrian called upon Charlemagne for help, and so in early 774 Charlemagne gathered his forces and marched to Italy, just as his father had done eighteen years earlier.56 Charlemagne had multiple reasons for his Italian campaign in 774. First, the papacy was threatened and the Frankish king wished to continue supporting Rome as his father had done.57 Second, when Carloman died, Charlemagne had become sole ruler of all Frankish territories; therefore, Desiderius efforts to crown a new Frankish king in place of Carloman threatened Charlemagnes position as supreme Carolingian king. Charlemagne laid siege to the Lombard capital of Pavia, and Desiderius surrendered quickly. Afterwards, Charlemagne made Lombardy a separate kingdom and claimed himself to be King of the Franks and the Lombards.58 He also returned captured lands (such as Ravenna) back to the papacy. This action was important as it strengthened Charlemagnes ties with the papacy and involved the Franks even more in Romes

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administration and function. Charlemagne actually paid a personal visit to Pope Hadrian I at Rome during the siege of Pavia. On Easter day, 774, the king and pope celebrated the holiday together at St. Peters Basilica, and later Charlemagne visited the holy sites. It was while he was in Rome that Charlemagne affirmed Pippin IIIs promise of protecting the Papal States, and just as his father had done, Charlemagne justified his actions using the Donation of Constantine.59 Charlemagnes campaign in 774 brought the Lombard kingdom (and threat) to an end, but it also more effectively severed Italys relationship with Byzantium as Charlemagne now claimed to be king of the peninsula. Not only were papal-Byzantine and Frankish-Byzantine relationships strained, but Charlemagne increasingly played a role in influencing and directing papal relations with Byzantium and other powers in the second half of the eighth century.60 Two examples of Charlemagnes influence in Italy happened in 781 and again in 787. In 781 Charlemagne was again in Italy and had Pope Hadrian I anoint his sons as sub-kings: Louis was to reign over Aquitaine and Carloman over Lombardy (Charlemagne subsequently changed Carlomans name to Pippin).61 This continued the precedent of papal kingship anointing set by Stephen II and it signaled Charlemagnes intent to rule Italy, which displeased Byzantium. Then in 787, a more serious incident occurred that shut the door once for all on Byzantiums claims in Italy. Arichis, the duke of Benevento (refer to Map 3 on page 7), in an attempt to maintain his independence from the papacy, sought an alliance with Constantinople. Arichis was afraid of Frankish intervention so he sent an embassy to Charlemagne swearing his loyalty but asking him to stay out of Benevento.62 Charlemagne ignored the dukes request, campaigned in Italy, and upon Arichis death in 787, made his son Grimoald duke of Benevento. Byzantium had sent an army to protect Constantinoples claims on Sicily and the provinces of Venetia and Dalmatia (in

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present day Croatia) against Charlemagne. A combined Lombard and Frankish army led by Grimoald defeated the Greeks and dashed their territorial ambitions. Most interestingly, Charlemagne did not give the duchy of Benevento to the papacy, but allowed the province to retain its own autonomy. Although Pope Hadrian I was not happy about this,63 Charlemagne was clearly looking after his own interests and had the power and influence to do what he desired.64 Charlemagne showed that he was just as committed to Rome as Pippin had been as he continued his fathers policy of supporting and protecting the papacy during the late eighth century. His oversight and influence of papal relations with Byzantium continued to distance Italy from the Eastern Empire. In a sense, Charlemagne was setting the stage for a bigger event, although he did not know it was coming. McKitterick sums up Charlemagnes involvement in Italy by saying, his conquest of Lombardy in 774 in particular set the seal on Pippin IIIs campaigns in Italy. It established the close Frankish involvement in Italian and papal affairs which was to lead to the symbolic triumph of Charlemagnes coronation as Emperor, and remain an intermittent but vital factor in Frankish policies for the next century.65 The culminating event of the Papal-Frankish alliance occurred in Rome on Christmas day, 800 AD. Five years earlier Pope Leo III had been elected to replace Hadrian I, and he, like his predecessor, was opposed by strong Roman aristocrats. Internal discord and tension in the city came to a head in the spring of 799 when Leo was attacked by a mob who attempted to blind him and cut his tongue out in order to disqualify him from being pontiff.66 Leo was able to escape with his life and he fled to Saxony, meeting Charlemagne at Paderborn; the Frankish king was getting ready to launch a campaign in the region so he sent an envoy to escort Leo back to Rome.67 Later, Charlemagne himself traveled south, reaching Rome by late November, 800.

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Leos trial began on December 1, and ended after he had taken an oath that acquitted him of the perjury and adultery charges. The pope was restored to his pontificate and his political enemies were arrested and deported.68 On December 25, Leo, Charlemagne, his son Louis, and a large crowd attended a ceremony at St. Peters Basilica to consecrate Louis as heir to the Frankish throne. There, before the anticipatory throng, Leo surprisingly crowned Charlemagne as Emperor of the Romans and gave him the title of Augustus.69 This marked the restoration of an emperor in the West, the first in three hundred and twenty four years since the
The coronation of Charlemagne, 800. (Source: http://pirate.shu.edu/~wisterro/cdi/0800a_ coronation_of_charlemagne.htm).

removal of Romulus Augustulus in 476 AD. In one bold move the papacy bound itself even

more closely to the Franks and sought to assert its authority to bestow imperial power.70 Although it was an honorary and glorious gesture with significant implications, practically, the coronation did not immediately change the political situation in Italy or Francia. It did not affect Charlemagnes rights, ability as king, or his power; it simply added a prestigious title to his position as king.71 It did, however, further polarize the papal-Byzantine split as there was once again a western emperor to oppose the eastern emperor. It is also questionable as to how much the individuals involved in the coronation understood the relevance of imperial dignity and responsibility since the memory and importance of a western emperor had faded.

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Even though Charlemagne still held the edge in might and influence in his relationship with the papacy, it is important to note that the coronation would not have been possible without the popes participation. There has been much debate throughout history as to Charlemagnes awareness of his impending coronation. Einhard, a servant of Charlemagne who wrote his biography, claimed that the move took the king by surprise: It was then that he received the titles of Emperor and Augustus, to which he at first had such an aversion that he declared that he would not have set foot in the Church the day that they were conferred, although it was a great feast day, if he could have foreseen the design of the Pope.72 However, historians have doubted this explanation of the event and postulate that Charlemagne and Leo discussed and decided the matter when they met at Paderborn in late 799.73 Charlemagne carried the title of emperor for fourteen years before his death in 814. Although the imperial title made its way onto a number of Charlemagnes coins and his seal, the task of discovering the further implications and power of the title was left to his son, Louis the Pious.74 The full significance of Charlemagnes coronation would only be seen after modern history had run its course and proven that the position of emperor and the power of an empire could rule the world.75 The Papal-Frankish alliance succeeded in completely altering the political and military status of the western medieval world in less than half a century. The alliance had developed early in the eighth century when the respective jurisdictions of the Franks and papacy overlapped as they worked together with missionaries and reformers to strengthen the church and consolidate political control. Each side needed the support and legitimizing power the other had to offer, and even though their purposes and goals were often different, they cooperated to form a strong bond. The alliance shifted European focus from the east to the west as the Byzantine

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Empire weakened and diminished and the Franks stepped in to take their place. Constantinople lost its claims on Italian and Adriatic coastal territories and it no longer had political, religious, or military influence over the papacy. The Lombard kingdom was brought to an end after two centuries of Italian existence. Rome itself was stabilized as a pro-Frankish party developed in the city and aristocratic opposition was broken by Charlemagne. The Franks under the Carolingians had evolved from disorganized and divisive provinces into a unified, powerful, and conquering empire under the emperor Charlemagne. The papacy was transformed from a weakened and vulnerable protectorate of the Eastern Empire into a secure and ever-growing authority in the Italian peninsula and the western Catholic Church. With the emergence of a new western emperor in 800, the alliance paved the way for the development of European states and monarchies. However, the close relationship between the king and pope did not last indefinitely as they clashed over the right to anoint bishops during the Investiture Conflict of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and fought over political and religious jurisdiction in the European heartland during the late medieval ages. The Papal-Frankish alliance had bound the popes and the kings of Europe in a fateful relationship that would direct the course of history for centuries to come.

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Appendix Chronology of Kings and Popes of the Eighth Century

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Sources Cited I. Primary Sources

Clark, Gillian, Margaret Gibson, and Christa Mee, eds. The Lives of the Eighth-Century Popes (Liber Pontificalis): The Ancient Biographies of Nine Popes from AD 715 to AD 817. Translated by Raymond Davis. Vol. 13. Trowbridge, England: Liverpool University Press, 1992. Einhard. The Life of Charlemagne. United States: The University of Michigan Press, 1964. Fordham University. Medieval Sourcebook, Carolingians: The Rise of the Carolingian Dynasty and Papal Support, Charles Martel. Pope Gregory III: Letter to Charles Martel, 739. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/g2-martellet.html (accessed April 18, 2009). Fordham University. Medieval Sourcebook, Carolingians: The Rise of the Carolingian Dynasty and Papal Support, Pepin. Annals of Lorsch: The Pope makes Pepin king. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/lorsch1.html (accessed April 18, 2009). Fordham University. Medieval Sourcebook, Carolingians: The Rise of the Carolingian Dynasty and Papal Support, Pepin. The Donation of Constantine, full text. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/donatconst.html (accessed April 18, 2009). II. Secondary Sources A. Books McKitterick, Rosamond. The Frankish Kingdom Under the Carolingians: 751-987. London: Longman Group Limited, 1983. Rosenwein, Barbara H. A Short History of the Middle Ages. 2nd ed. Canada: Broadview Press, 2004. B. Encyclopedia Articles Adrian I. In Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed. Vol. 1. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2005. Boniface. In Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed. Vol. 2. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2005. Carloman. In Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed. Vol. 2. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2005.

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Charlemagne. In Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed. Vol. 15. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2005. Gregory II, Saint. In Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed. Vol. 5. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2005. Gregory III, Saint. In Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed. Vol. 5. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2005. Italy. In Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed. Vol. 22. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2005. Leo III, Saint. In Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed. Vol. 7. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2005. Lombard. In Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed. Vol. 11. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2005. Pepin III. In Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed. Vol. 9. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2005. Pepin, Donation of. In Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed. Vol. 9. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2005. Ravenna. In Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed. Vol. 9. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2005. Stephen II (or III). In Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed. Vol. 11. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2005. Stephen III (or IV). In Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed. Vol. 11. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2005. Zacharias. In Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed. Vol. 12. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2005. C. Internet Sites Church Tour, Lower Windows. http://www.saintbonifacesf.org/tour_lower_windows.htm (accessed May 13, 2009). Dictionary.com definition of metropolitan. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/metropolitan (accessed May 14, 2009).

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The Coronation of Charlemagne. (Text adapted from Brian Tierney, The Crisis of the Church and State 1050-1300, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: 1964). http://www.americanpictures.com/genealogy/descent/Charlemagne.htm (accessed May 13, 2009).

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Endnotes
1. Barbara H. Rosenwein, A Short History of the Middle Ages 2nd ed. (Canada: Broadview Press, 2004), 79. (from here on referred to as Rosenwein, page.) 2. Einhard, The Life of Charlemagne (United States: The University of Michigan Press, 1964), 24. (from here on referred to as Einhard, page.) Einhard was a courtier and servant of Charlemagne who ended up writing the kings biography. 3. Einhard, 8. 4. Rosamond McKitterick, The Frankish Kingdom Under the Carolingians: 751-987 (London: Longman Group Limited, 1983), 41-42. (from here on referred to as McKitterick, page.) 5. McKitterick, 55. 6. McKitterick, 42. 7. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Gregory II, Saint. 8. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Boniface. 9. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Gregory II, Saint. 10. In the Eastern Church, a metropolitan was the position between bishop and patriarch who often served as the head of an ecclesiastical province. It was equivalent to an archbishop in the Roman Catholic Church (WordWeb and Dictionary.com). 11. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Gregory III, Saint. 12. McKitterick, 57. 13. At his death in 741, Charles Martel actually divided his kingdom in two, giving half to each of his two sons, Pippin and Carloman. Carloman ruled over Austrasia, Alamannia, and Thuringia, but only from 741-747, after which he entered monastic life. Pippin III then ruled the entire Frankish kingdom from 747-768. (Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Carloman.). 14. McKitterick, 53. 15. McKitterick, 43. 16. Einhard, 8. 17. McKitterick, 42. 18. McKitterick, 60. 19. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Boniface. 20. Einhard notes that the Christian religion and its principles had been impressed on Charlemagne from him birth and he took his faith seriously, worshipping every morning and evening at the Basilica Aix-la-Chapelle (Einhard, 54-55). 21. McKitterick, 61-63. It also seems that Charlemagne in part promoted the Christian faith because he felt that was his duty as a Christian king and ruler. The monastic policies of Pippin and Charlemagne actually weakened the political power of the king, the strength of the Frankish church, and diminished the quality of the clergy (McKitterick, 53, 60).

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22. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Carloman. This was the first reform council in France in over 50 years. 23. McKitterick, 47. 24. Annals of Lorsch: The Pope makes Pepin king. 25. In 540 AD Ravenna was taken by the Byzantine king Belissrius and made into an imperial exarchate, a ruling administrative center that represented Byzantium in the West. (Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Ravenna.). 26. Rosenwein, 91. 27. Rosenwein, 92. 28. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Gregory II, Saint. 29. The Iconoclastic Controversy was not resolved until the Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea in 787. A compromise was reached between Pope Hadrian I (sometimes referred to as Adrian) and the patriarch in Constantinople that allowed the veneration of icons, yet distinguished it from worshipping God. (Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Adrian I.). 30. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Lombard. 31. Arian Christianity originated from the Alexandrian priest Arius (250-336) who believed that Christ was neither completely human nor completely divine. He was fiercely opposed by Saint Athanasius (295-373) and the First Council of Nicaea (325) (Rosenwein, 26-27). 32. Rosenwein, 90. 33. Pope Gregory III: Letter to Charles Martel, 739. Gregory III also mentions that St. Peters church was being despoiled and desolated by the Lombards, and that if Martel would help them he would be recognize for his faith and love and would attain lasting fame on earth and eternal life in heaven. Evidently, the papacy was under severe pressure and was using every coercive means available to convince the Franks to intervene. 34. Liutprand ruled the Lombards from 712-744; Rachis succeeded him and ruled from 744-749. (Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Lombard.). 35. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Zacharias.; McKitterick, 47. 36. Clark, Gillian, Margaret Gibson, and Christa Mee, eds., The Lives of the Eighth-Century Popes (Liber Pontificalis): The Ancient Biographies of Nine Popes from AD 715 to AD 817, trans. Raymond Davis, vol. 13 (Trowbridge, England: Liverpool University Press, 1992), 55; Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Stephen II (or III).; McKitterick, 47. 37. McKitterick, 47. Interestingly, Pippin III was returning from conquests in Saxony when he was informed that Stephen needed his help, so he quickly went to meet him. (McKitterick, 46). 38. McKitterick, 47; Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Pepin, Donation of. 39. McKitterick, 48; Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Stephen II (or III).; Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Pepin III. Not only did Stephen II anoint Pippin III as the rightful Frankish king, he also anointed his two sons, Charles and Carloman, as heirs to the Carolingian throne. 40. McKitterick, 49.

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41. McKitterick, 49; Einhard, 28-29. Pippin actually received internal opposition from his own party about invading Italy (Einhard, 28-29). Both Pippin and Charlemagne had to conduct campaigns in rebellious Aquitaine where strong dukes and counts opposed central Frankish authority (McKitterick, 50). 42. McKitterick, 49. 43. McKitterick, 49. 44. The Donation of Constantine, full text. 45. The Curia was the Roman church administrative organization. 46. McKitterick, 47-48. We actually do not know who wrote the Donation of Constantine, or when and where it was written. It is possible that a first draft was written shortly after 754 to help Pope Stephen II and Pippin III recover lost territories, and was later finalized during Charlemagnes reign. 47. McKitterick, 50. 48. McKitterick, 49. King Desiderius of the Lombards ruled from 756-774; he was disposed by Charlemagne in 774. 49. McKitterick, 49. 50. McKitterick, 70. 51. McKitterick, 53. 52. McKitterick, 64. 53. McKitterick, 65, 68. 54. Einhard, 26-27; McKitterick, 65. 55. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Stephen III (or IV). This alliance lead to the execution of many who were part of the Frankish party in Rome. Interestingly, after Stephen III died in 772, the Frankish party played a central role in electing Hadrian I as pope. This evidently shows that rival factions were active in Rome, either supporting the Franks or the Lombards. These factions would be instrumental in the coming years of increasing the close ties between Charlemagne and Pope Leo III. 56. Einhard, 28-29. 57. Charlemagne had been anointed as heir to the Frankish throne in 754 when Pope Stephen II had anointed his father, so he had good reason to be favorable inclined toward the papacy. 58. Einhard, 29-30; McKitterick, 68. 59. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Charlemagne.; McKitterick, 69. 60. McKitterick, 70. 61. Einhard, 47; McKitterick, 53, 65. 62. Einhard, 35; McKitterick, 69. 63. Even though Pope Hadrian I was supportive of the Franks, one source described his and Charlemagnes relationship as amicable rivalry. (Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Adrian I.). 64. McKitterick, 69. Einhard also mentions that after this incident Charlemagne stayed in Rome for a number of days and visited the holy sites, which evidenced his devotion (Einhard, 35). 65. McKitterick, 68.

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66. Einhard, 56-67; McKitterick, 70; Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Leo III. 67. McKitterick, 70; Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Leo III. 68. McKitterick, 70; Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Leo III. 69. McKitterick, 70; Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Leo III. 70. McKitterick, 70-71. 71. McKitterick, 71. 72. Einhard, 56-67. 73. McKitterick, 70-71. 74. McKitterick, 71. Einhard reports that at his death, Charlemagne crowed Louis as king of the Franks and passed on his imperial titles of Emperor and Augustus (Einhard, 58-59). 75. McKitterick, 71.