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The City: Suggestions for the Investigation of Human Behavior in the City Environment Author(s): Robert E.
Park Reviewed work(s): Source: American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 20, No. 5 (Mar., 1915), pp. 577-612 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2763406 . Accessed: 23/07/2012 12:18
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THE AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY
VOLUME XX
MARCH
I9I5
NUMBER 5
THE CITY: SUGGESTIONS FOR THE INVESTIGATION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT
ROBERT E. PARK of Chicago University
forthe point of view proposedin this It will be convenient of persons and paper to regardthe city,not as a merecongeries socialarrangements, but as an institution. to Sumner, An institution, consistsof a "concept according defines as "an and a structure."By concept, whichhe further he meansorganized supidea,notion, doctrine, interest," attitudes sentiments."The structure," he adds, ported by their appropriate or perhaps of func"is a framework, or apparatus, onlya number in prescribed tionaries set to co-operate waysat a certain juncture. theinstrumentalities and furnishes The structure holdstheconcept of facts in a way to serve into the and action forbringing it world theinterests ofmenin society."' is a section ofcorporate human The pointis thatan institution and theinstrumentalities nature which plus themachinery through nature thathuman operates. ofan institution we can think of thecity, Withthisconception thatis to say, the place and the people,withall the machinery, and administrative devicesthat go withit, sentiments, customs,
' Sumner,Folkways: A Study oftheSociological Importance ofUsages, Manners, Customs, Mores, andMorals, p. 54. 577
578
THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY
theindividual manand thetools and street railways, publicopinion more entity. We thana mere collective thathe uses,as something mechanismmay thinkof it as a mechanism-apsychophysical find corporate and political interests whichprivate in and through the what ordinarily regard as we Much of city-its expression. streetrailways, and so formalorganization, buildings, charters, it is onlywhen forth-is,or seemsto be, mereartifact. However, use and wont, connect themthrough and in so faras thesethings, selves,like a tool in the hand of a man, with the vital forces the thattheyassume and in thecommunity in individuals resident institutional form. As the wholethe cityis a growth. It is the of the laborsofsuccessive ofmen. generations product undesigned
I. THE CITY PLAN AND LOCAL ORGANIZATION
the modern American one The city,particularly city,strikes oftheartless ofnature a product processes at first blushas so little to recognize itsinstitutional character. thatitis difficult and growth for is a checkerexample, cities, plan ofmostAmerican The ground is theblock. This geometrical form board. The unitof distance which suggeststhat the city is a purelyartificial construction, again,like a be takenapart and put together conceivably might houseofblocks. that the cityis rootedin the habitsand The factis, however, is that customsof the people who inhabitit. The consequence as a moral as well and organization, physical the citypossessesa in characteristic interact ways to mold and these two mutually ofthecitywhich one another. It is thestructure impresses modify but thisstructure has its and complexity, us by itsvisiblevastness is in of which an it expression. basis,nevertheless, humannature, whichhas arisenin On the otherhand, this vast organization onceformed, itself impresses to theneedsofitsinhabitants, response in them,in turn, fact,and forms upon themas a crudeexternal interests it which and incorporates. accordance withthe design The cityplan.-It is becausethe cityhas whathas herebeen is a limitto the thatthere character as its institutional described it is possibleto makein its physical which modifications arbitrary and its moralorder. structure
HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT
579
The city plan, for example,establishes metes and bounds, in a general fixes way thelocation and character of thecity'sconstructions, and imposesan orderly within the city arrangement, area, upon the buildings which are erected by privateinitiative as well as by public authority.Withinthe limitations prescribed, however, theinevitable processes ofhumannature proceed to give theseregions a character and these which it is lesseasyto buildings control. Underour system of individual forinstance, ownership, it is not possibleto determine in advancetheextent of concentration of population in any givenarea. The city cannotfixland forthemostpart,the values,and we leave to privateenterprise, task of determining the city'slimitsand the locationof its residentialand industrial districts. Personaltastesand convenience, vocational and economic tendto segregate infallibly and interests, thus to classify the populations of greatcities. In thisway the whichis neither nor concity acquiresan organization designed trolled. Physical geography, natural advantages,and the means of determine transportation in advance the generaloutlines of the urban plan. As the city increasesin population,the subtler of sympathy, influences rivalry, and economic necessity tend to control thedistribution ofpopulation. Business and manufacturing seek advantageous locations and drawaroundthema certain of the population. Therespring portion up fashionable residence quarters from thepoorer which classesare excluded becauseof the increased value of theland. Then there growup slumswhich are inhabited by greatnumbers of the poorerclasseswho are unable to defend themselves from association withthederelict and vicious. In thecourse oftimeevery section and quarter ofthecitytakeson of the character and qualitiesofits inhabitants.Each something separatepart of the city is inevitably stainedwiththe peculiar sentiments ofitspopulation. The effect ofthisis to convert what was at first a meregeographical into a neighborhood, expression thatis to say,a locality with sentiments, traditions, and a history of its own. Within thisneighborhood thecontinuity ofthehistorical processes is somehow maintained. The past imposesitself upon the present and the lifeof everylocality moveson witha certain
580
momentumof its own, more or less independentof the largercircle of lifeand interestsabout it. environment ofthecity, thecharacter oftheurban The organization bythesizeof which it imposes, is finally determined andofthediscipline within thecityarea. and distribution thepopulation, its concentration ofcities, to comto study thepopulations Forthisreason it is important in thedevelopment populations.Someof of city paretheidiosyncrasies we wantto know are: sources therefore, thefirst aboutthe city, things distribution of popuand natural growth; of population; immigration i.e., land,values, by (a) economic, lationwithin the city as affected ofthe growths interests, race, vocation, etc.; comparative (b) sentimental bybirthdifferent portions ofthecityarea,as affected population within anddeath-rates, marriage anddivorce, etc. and neighborlycontact are the The neighborhood.-Proximity basis for the simplest and most elementaryform of association with which we have to do in the organizationof city life. Local interests and associations breed local sentiment,and, under a system which makes residence the basis for participationin the becomesthebasis ofpoliticalcontrol. government, theneighborhood In the social and political organizationof the city it is the smallest local unit. "It is surely one ofthemostremarkable ofall socialfacts that, coming thatthe from untold be this instinctive down should understanding ages,there hishome manwhoestablishes beside to havea claim uponyour yours begins is a socialunitwhich, senseofcomradeship . The neighborhood .... by its of outline, its innerorganic clear definition its hair-trigger completeness, as functioning considered likea socialmind..... reactions, maybe fairly of the city autocratic he maybe in thelarger The localboss,however sphere theneighborhood, must thepower he getsfrom be in andofthe with always careful notto try to deceive thelocalpeople so faras people; andhe is very are concerned. It is hardto foola neighborhood about local interests their itsownaffairs.", The neighborhood exists without formal organization. The local improvementsociety is the structureerected on the basis of the spontaneous neighborhoodorganization and exists for the purpose of givingexpressionto the local sentiment. of the citylifewhat may be called Under the complexinfluences the normal neighborhoodsentimenthas undergonemany curious
I Robert A. Woods,"The Neighborhood in Social Reconstruction," Papersand AnnualMeeting Proceedings ofthe Eighth ofthe American Sociological Society, 1913.
58I
and produced and interesting oflocal changes, manyunusualtypes communities.More than that,thereare nascentneighborhoods inprocess ofdissolution. Consider, andneighborhoods for example, FifthAvenue,New York,which neverhad an improveprobably in the Bronx, mentassociation, and compare withit I35th Street thenegro is probably moreconcentrated (where population thanin is rapidly anyother single spotin theworld) which a very becoming intimate and highly organized community. to knowwhatare theforces It is important which tendto break up thetensions, and sentiments interests, which giveneighborhoods theirindividualcharacter. In generalthesemay be said to be and everything that tends to renderthe population anything and concentrate attentions unstable, to dinvde upon widelyseparatedobjectsof interest.
liveinhotels, andtenements? Howmany people apartments, ownhomes? Howmany peopleowntheir ofthepopulation ofnomads, What consists proportion hobos, gypsies ?
What partof the populationis floating? Ofwhatelements, i.e., races,classes,etc.,is thispopulation ? composed
On the otherhand, certainurbanneighborhoods suffer from isolation. Efforts have been made at different timesto reconand quicken thelifeof cityneighborhoods struct and to bring it in of thecommunity.Suchis in part interests touchwiththelarger the purposeof the social settlements.These organizations and to reconstruct are attempting others which citylifehave developed forstimulating certainmethods and a technique and controlling local communities. We should study,in connection with the of theseagencies, thesemethods and thistechnique, investigation sinceit is just the methodby whichobjectsare practically controlledthat reveals theiressentialnature,that is to say, their 1 character predictable (Gesetzmdssigkeit).
wir daher das Wort als einen in derWissenI "Wenn Terminus logischen [Naturl wirsagen so werden schaftslehre dassNaturdie Wirklichgebrauchen wollen, diirfen, keitist mitRiicksicht aufihren gesetzmlissigen Zusammenhang. Diese Bedeutung wirz. B. in demWorte finden wirdie Naturder Naturgesetz.Dann aberkonnen Dinge auch das nennen was in die Begriffe eingeht, oderam kuirzesten uns dahin mitRucksicht die Naturist die Wirklichkeit ausdriicken: aufdas Ailgemeine. So ersteinelogische gewinnt danndas Wort Bedeutung."-H.Rickert, Die Grenzen der p. 2I2. naturwissenschaftlicken Begriffsbildutng,
582
In many of the Europeancities,and to some extentin this hasgoneto thelength ofbuilding ofcitylife reconstruction country, run-down tenements unhealthful and or replacing garden suburbs, ownedand controlled by themunicipality. withmodelbuildings citiestheattempt has beenmadeto renovate evil In American of playgrounds and the introby the construction neighborhoods of variouskinds, of supervised including municipal sports duction dance halis. These and otherdeviceswhich dancesin municipal to elevatethemoraltoneofthesegregated are intended primarily in connection ofgreatcitiesshouldbe studied withthe populations in of the be They should general. neighborhood investigation fortheir not merely ownsake but forwhatthey in short, studied, and humannaturegenerally. can revealto us of humanbehavior areas.-In the city environment Coloniesand segregated the tendsto lose muchof the significance whichit posneighborhood and moreprimitive forms of society. The easy sessedin simpler and of transportation, whichenables means of communication theirattention and to live at the same to distribute individuals tendsto destroy thepermanency timein severaldifferent worlds, Furtherthan that, where and intimacyof the neighborhood. of the same race or of the same vocationlive together individuals sentiment to fuse tends insegregated together groups, neighborhood interests. and class racial with antagonisms distances reinforce each In thisway physicaland sentimental of local distribution of the population other,and the influences of class and race in the evolution withthe influences participate ofthesocialorganization.Everygreatcityhas its racialcolonies, of San Franciscoand New York, the Little like the Chinatowns types. In Sicilyof Chicago,and variousotherless pronounced vice districts, additionto these,mostcitieshave theirsegregated in Chicago, existed and their untilrecently rendezlikethatwhich ofvarioussorts. Everylargecityhas its occuvous forcriminals and its residence in Chicago, like the Stockyards pationalsuburbs has thesizeand the eachofwhich in Boston, likeBrookline suburbs or city,exceptthat ofa complete character village, separatetown, is a selectedone. Undoubtedly the mostremarkits population able of these citieswithincities,of whichthe most interesting
583
characteristicis that they are composed of persons of the same races but of the same social class, is race, or of persons of different East London, with a population of 2,000,000 laborers. "The people oftheoriginal East London havenow overflowed andcrossed overthemarshes andmeadows themselves theLea, andspread beyond. This newtowns which rural has created wereformerly population villages,West a population ofnearly Ham,with 300,000;East Ham,with go,ooo;Stratford, withits "daughters," overgrown. 15o,ooo;and other"hamlets"similarly wehavean aggregate ofnearly Including these new populations twomillions of is greater that orVienna, than ofBerlin people. Thepopulation orSt. Petersor Philadelphia. burg, full andplacesofworship, "It is a city ofchurches arenocatheyetthere or Roman; it has a sufficient of elementary drals,either Anglican supply butithasnopublic orhigh andithasnocolleges for schools, thehigher school, and no university; thepeopleall readnewspapers, education is no yetthere andlocalkind... ofthesmaller East London . In thestreets paperexcept seen any private there is no fashionable are never there carriages; quarter .. . .one meetsno ladies in the principal thoroughfares. People,shops, are stamped withthe unmistakable houses, conveyances-all seal together class. oftheworking of all is this: in a cityof twomillions "Perhapsthestrangest thing of ofcourse, arenohotels! Thatmeans, that there there arenovisitors."' people In the older cities of Europe, where the processesof segregation distinctions have gone farther, are likelyto be more neighborhood markedthan theyare in America. East London is a cityof a single class, but withinthe limitsof that city the population is segregated again and again by racial and vocational interests. Neighborhood sentiment,deeply rooted in local tradition and in local custom, exercises a decisive selective influenceupon city population and in a markedway in the characteristics shows itselfultimately of the inhabitants. What we want to know of these neighborhoods,racial communities,and segregatedcity areas, existingwithinor on the outer edge of great cities, is what we want to know of all other social groups. Whataretheelements ofwhich arecomposed ? they To whatextent arethey ofa selective theproduct ? process Howdo people thus formed? getin andoutofthegroup Whataretherelative andstability oftheir permanence populations?
I
Walter Besant, East London,pp. 7-9.
584
What about the age, sex, and social condition ofthepeople? What about the children ? How many of themare born,and how manyof themremain? What is the history of the neighborhood? What is therein the subor dimly remembered experiences-of consciousness-in the forgotten and attitudes? thisneighborhood whichdetermines its sentiments What is therein clear consciousness, i.e., what are its avowed sentiments, doctrines, etc.? What does it regardas matter of fact? What is news? What is the generalrun of attention? What models does it imitateand are these or without within the group? What is thesocial ritual, i.e., whatthings mustone do in theneighborhood in orderto escape beingregarded withsuspicionor looked upon as peculiar? Who are the leaders? What interests do they of the neighborhood in themselves and whatis thetechnique by whichtheyexercise incorporate ? control
II. INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION AND THE MORAL ORDER
a fortress, a place of refuge in The ancientcitywas primarily on thecontrary, is primarily timeofwar. The modern a concity, and owes its existence of commerce to the market place venience and the around which it sprang up. Industrialcompetition done mostto developthe of labor,whichhave probably division are possible ofthe latentpowersof mankind, onlyupon condition and other for ofmoney devices thefacilitation existence ofmarkets, of tradeand comnmerce. that"city air makesmenfree" An old German adage declares a reference to the days (StadtLuftmacht frei). This is doubtless when the freecities of Germany enjoyedthe patronageof the serf a free and lawsmadethefugitive man,ifhe succeeded emperor, could fora year and a day in breathing cityair. Law, of itself, in free. An open market have made thecraftsman not,however, incisell theproducts ofhis laborwas a necessary he might which and it was the applicationof the money dent of his freedom, the of masterand man that completed to the relations economy oftheserf. emancipation classesand vocational Vocational types.-The old adage which of the free man still thecityas thenaturalenvironment describes
585
holdsso faras theindividual in thechances, manfinds thediversity of interests and tasks,and in thevast unconscious of co-operation to choosehis own vocationand develop citylife,the opportunity his peculiarindividual talents. The cityoffers a market forthe special talentsof individual men. Personalcompetition tendsto select foreach special task the individual who is best suited to perform it.
"The difference of natural in different talents menis, in reality, much lessthanweareaware of; andthevery different genius which appears to distinguish menofdifferent professions, when grown up to maturity, is notupon many occasions so much thecause, as theeffect ofthedivision oflabour. The difference between themost dissimilar between a philosopher characters, anda common for street porter, example, seems to arise notso much from nature, as from habit, custom, and education.When they cameintotheworld, andfor thefirst sixoreight years oftheir existence, they were perhaps much very alike, and neither theirparents nor playfellows could perceive any remarkable difference. Aboutthat age, or soon after, theycome to be employed in different occupations.The difference oftalents comes then tobe taken notice tillat lastthevanity of,and widens by degrees, ofthephilosopher is willing to acknowledge scarceany resemblance. But without the disposition to and exchange, manmust truck, barter, haveprocured every to himself every and conveniency necessary oflifewhich he wanted. All must havehad the same duties toperform, andthesamework todo,andthere could havebeenno suchdifference ofemployment as couldalonegiveoccasion to anygreat differenceoftalent..... "As it is thepower of exchanging thatgivesoccasion to thedivision of so theextent ofthisdivision must be limited labour, always of by theextent thatpower, ofthemarket ... . Thereare or,in other words, by theextent even of the lowestkind, somesortsof industry, whichcan be carried on nowhere butin a great town."'Success, under conditions of personal competition, depends upon concentrationupon some single task, and this concentration exceptionalskill. Exceptional skill,while based on natural talent, requires special preparation, and it has called into existence the
thedemandforrational stimulates technical and methods, devices,
tradeand professional and finally bureausforvocational schools, or indirectly, guidance. All of these, eitherdirectly serve at once to selectand emphasize individual differences.
I AdamSmith, TheWealth ofNations, pp. 28-29.
586
trade and industry prepares Every device which facilitates to divisionof labor and so tendsfurther the way fora further their menfind vocations. thetasksin which specialize ofthis is to breakdownormodify theolder The outcome process of society,whichwas based on familyties, local organization and to substitute for on culture, it an caste,and status, associations, on vocational interests. based organization In the city,everyvocation,even that of a beggar,tendsto and the discipline which of a profession, assume the character withtheassociations in anyvocation that imposes, together success this tendency. emphasizes it enforces, and the division of laboris to proof thevocations The effect not socialgroups, but vocational types, instance, duce,in thefirst and the lumber-jack.The organizations, the actor,the plumber, menofthesametradeorprowhich likethetradeand laborunions, interests. In thisrespect form are based on common they fession like the neighborhood, of association forms whichare from differ and the common tiesof association, based on contiguity, personal trades and professions seem disposed humanity. The different in classes,thatis to say,theartisan, to groupthemselves business, classes. But in the modem democratic state and professional no effective organization.Socialtheclasseshave as yet attained to createan organization basedon "class on an effort ism,founded increating succeeded more thana political has never consciousness," party. oflaboras a discipline of thedivision maytherefore The effects in thevocational it has produced. be beststudied types
it wouldbe interesting the typeswhich to studyare: the Among thepeddler, thecabman, thenight watchman, the policeman, shopgirl, thequackdoctor, thebartender, thevaudeville theclairvoyant, performer, thelaboragitator, theschool thewardboss,thestrike-breaker, teacher, thepawnbroker; thestockbroker, all ofthese arecharacterthereporter, ofcity with oftheconditions itsspecial experience, istic life;each, products for eachvocational determines and pointofview, and for group insight, itsindividuality. as a whole thecity ofintelligence inthedifferent extent is thegrade To what represented andprofessions trades ability? dependent uponnatural is intelligence of the determined by the character To whatextent ? under which it is practiced and theconditions occupation
587
To what extentis success in the occupationsdependent upon sound judgmentand common-sense;to what extentupon technicalability? successin the differdetermine Does nativeabilityor special training ent vocations? What prestigeand what prejudicesattach to different trades and professions and why? Is the choice of the occupation determined by temperamental, by or by sentimental considerations? economic, do women, In whatoccupationsdo men,in whatoccupations succeed and why? better, How far is occupation,ratherthan association,responsible forthe mental attitude and moral predilections? Do men in the same proor trade,but representing different nationalities and different fession culand identicalopinions? tural groups,hold characteristic To what extent is the social or political creed, that is, socialism, ? bytemperament anarchism, syndicalism, etc.,determined byoccupation ? To whatextent have social doctrine and socialidealism superseded and faithin the different takentheplace of religious and why? occupations, Do social classes tend to assume the characterof culturalgroups? That is to say, do the classes tend to acquire the exclusiveness and indeofa caste or nationality;or is each class alwaysdependent pendence upon class ? ofa corresponding the existence followthe vocationsof theirparentsand To what extentdo children why? To what extentdo individualsmove fromone class to another,and of class relationships the character how does thisfactmodify ?
News and themobility ofthesocial group.-The divisionof labor, in making individual success dependent upon concentrationupon of increasingthe interdependence a special task, has had the effect of the different vocations. A social organizationis thus created in which the individual becomes increasinglydependent upon the communityof which he is an indivisiblepart. The effect, under conditionsof personal competition,of this increasinginterdependence of the parts is to create in the industrialorganizationas a but a solidaritybased, not whole a certainsort of social solidarity, on sentimentand habit, but on communityof interests. theterms In thesense in which arehere is themore used,sentiment conterm. We maycherish interest themoreabstract, a sentiment crete, fora whatsoever. a place, oranyobject It maybe a sentiment ofaversion, person, orto be possessed ofpossession.But topossess ora sentiment bya sentiment means or in regard thatwe are incapable of acting for, to, anything toward
588
rational way. It meansthattheobjectofoursentiment it in a thoroughly disposition. or acquired in somespecialwayto someinherited corresponds which is instinctive. herchild, for ofa mother is theaffection Sucha disposition isacquired. which cradle, empty thechild's havefor shemay the feeling Oreven are motives thatthere indicates attitude of a sentimental The existence conscious; isnotwholly bythem ismoved who theindividual ofwhich action for has a he has onlya partialcontrol.Everysentiment overwhich motives ofthe or in theexperience oftheindividual, in theexperience either history, history. ofthe notbeaware may sentiment actsonthat who person butthe race, theends objectsthantoward specific less toward are directed Interests embodies.Interests oranother at onetime object orthat this particular which ofthedistinct-ion anda consciousness ofmeans theexistence therefore, imply, and ends. means between rationalized valueshavebecome deviceby which is thecardinal Money It is just becausewe feel by interests. have beenreplaced and sentiments suchas we do ourmoney, toward attitude and no sentimental no personal a valuablemeansof becomes our home,thatmoney forexample, toward, in ofmoney a certain amount in acquiring exchange.We willbe interested that maybe achieved butprovided purpose a certain purpose, toachieve order themiser It is only to be justas wellsatisfied. waywearelikely inanyother to prefer andin thatcasehe is likely aboutmoney, sentimental whobecomes ofitsvalue. In thiscase to another irrespective ofmoney, saygold, onesort than rather byreason. sentiment bypersonal thevalueofgoldis determined An organization which is composed of competing individuals and of competinggroups of individuals is in a state of unstable equilibrium, and this equilibrium can be maintained only by a process of continuous readjustment. This aspect of social life and this type of social organization are best representedin the world of business which is the special object of investigationof political economy. The extensionof industrialorganization,which is based on the impersonalrelationsdefinedby money, has gone forwardhand in hand with an increasingmobilityof the population. The laboring a specifictask, are compelled to perform man and the artisan,fitted under the conditionscreated by city life to move fromone region to another in search of the particular kind of employmentwhich which moves they are fittedto perform. The tide of immigration some extent a is to America back and forthbetween Europe and measure of this same mobility.'
I
London, I885, pp. 7-8. Walter Bagehot, The Postulatesof Political Economy,
589
On theotherhand,the tradesman, themanufacturer, theproinevery hisclients fessional man,thespecialist seeks as the vocation, of traveland communication decreaseover an everdifficulties This is anotherway in whichthe widening area of territory. of thepopulation mobility may be measured. However, mobility in an individual or in a population is measured, not merely by of the changeof location, but rather by the number and variety or the population to whichthe individual stimulations responds. Mobility depends, notmerely upon transportation, but uponcomof munication. Educationand the abilityto read,the extension themoneyeconomy to an ever-increasing of theinterests number oflifein so faras it has tendedto depersonalize social relationsall thesehave vastlyincreased themobility of modern peoples.
As isolation maybe due to theexistence ofpurely physical barriers to communication, or to a peculiarity of temperament and a lack of education, so
The termmobility, like its correlative, isolation, covers a wide rangeof phenomena. It may represent at the same timea characterand a condition.
mobility maybe a consequence ofthenaturalmeansofcommunication, or ofan agreeablemanner and a collegeeducation. It is now clearlyrecognized thatwhat we ordinarily call a lack of intelligencein individuals, races,and communities, is frequently a resultof isolation. On the other hand, the mobilityof a population is unquestionably a very large factorin its intellectual development. There is an intimate connection betweenthe immobility of the primitive man and his so-calledinability to use abstractideas. The knowledge whicha is concrete peasantordinarily possesses, from theverynatureofhis occupation, and personal. He knows individually and personallyeverymemberof the flock he tends. He becomesin the courseof yearsso attachedto the land he tillsthat the meretransposition from the stripof soil on whichhe has grown up, to anotherwithwhichhe is less intimately acquaintedis feltby himas a personalloss. For such a man the neighboring valley,or even the stripof land at theotherend ofthevillageis in a certain sensealienterritory.A large part of the peasant's efficiency as an agricultural laborerdependsupon this intimateand personalacquaintance with the idiosyncrasies of a singleplot of land to the care of whichhe has been bred. It is apparentthat underconditionslike these,verylittleof the peasant'spracticalknowledge will take the abstractformof scientific generalization. He thinksin concretetermsbecause he knowsand needs no other. On the other hand, the intellectual characteristics of the Jew and his in abstractand radical ideas are unquestionably generally recognized interest connectedwiththe fact that the Jewsare, beforeall else, a city folk. 'The
590
thevarious to describe terms withwhich abstract Wandering Jew'acquires is baseduponidentities oftheworld he visits. His knowledge scenes which Rearedin and classification. that is to say, on analysis and differences, place,conof themarket withthebustleand business association intimate in and selling gameof buying on theshrewd and fascinating intent stantly ofabstractions, hehasneither heemploys thatmost money, interesting which to places attachment to cultivate thatintimate norinclination opportunity person.' oftheimmobile which is characteristic and persons Concentrationof populations in cities, the wider markets,the division of labor, the concentrationof individuals and groups on special tasks, have continually changed the material conditions of life, and in doing this have made readjustments to novel necessary. Out of thisnecessitytherehave conditionsincreasingly grown up a number of special organizationswhich exist for the special purpose of facilitatingthese readjustments. The market whichbroughtthe modem cityinto existenceis one of thesedevices. More interesting,however, are the exchanges, particularly the stock exchange,and the board of trade,wherepricesare constantly being made in responseto changes or ratherthe reportsof changes in economic conditionsall over the world. These reports,so far as they are calculated to cause readjustments,have the characterof what we call news. It is the existence of a critical situation which converts what were otherwisemere information into news. Where there is an issue at stake; where, in short, there is crisis, there information which might affectthe outcome one way or anotherbecomes "live matter," as the newspaper men say. Live matteris news; dead matteris mereinformation. etc.? ofmobility to suggestion, Whatis therelation imitation, are andmobility devices What arethepractical suggestibility bywhich orinan individual? ina community increased in communities to conditions corresponding Are there pathological and how conin individuals?If so, how are theyproduced hysteria ? trolled ofmobility? an indication is fashion To whatextent in which fashions and customs in themanner Whatis thedifference aretransmitted?
t Cf.W. I.
p. I69. BookofSocialOrigins, Source Thomas,
59I
Whatarethecharacteristics ofa progressive, whatthecharacteristics in respect ofa static, to itsresistance to novel community suggestions? of thehobo,and of the of thegypsy, Whatmental characteristics nomad generally can be traced to these nomadic habits?
Thestock mob.-The exchanges, exchanges andthe we uponwhich of pricesin response to the news of may watch the fluctuation in different economicconditions parts of the world,are typical. are takingplace in everydepartment Similarreadjustments of the devicesformaking social life,where, thesereadjusthowever, mentsare not so completeand perfect. For example,the professional and trade papers,whichkeep the professions and the in regard informed trades to newmethods, and devices, experiences, serveto keep themembers of thesetradesand professions abreast of the times,whichmeans that theyfacilitate readjustments to changig condcitions. There is, however,this important to be made: distinction in the exchanges is moreintense; changesare more Competition rapidand,as far as theindividuals directly concerned, more momentous. In contrast withsucha constellation offorces as we find on the exchanges, wherecompeting dealersmeet to buy and sell,so mobilea form of social organization as the crowdand the mob a relative exhibits stability. It is a commonplace thatdecisive in themovements factors of crowdsas in the fluctuations of markets are psychologic.This meansthatamongtheindividuals whomakeup thecrowd or who in themovements composethepublicwhichparticipates reflected in the market, a condition of instability existswhichcorresponds to what has been defined elsewhere as crisis. It is trueof the exchanges, as it is of crowds, that the situation theyrepresent is thatis to say, the tensions alwayscritical, are such thata slight causemayprecipitate an enormous effect. The current euphemism "the psychological moment"defines sucha critical condition. Psychological moments may arisein any social situation, but in a society theyoccurmorefrequently has acquired which a high stateofmobility. They occurmorefrequently in a society where education is general, whererailways, and the primting telegraph, press have becomean indispensable part of the social economy.
592
They occurmorefrequently in citiesthanin smaller communities. In the crowdand the public everymoment may be said to be "psychological." Crisis maybe said to be thenormal condition on theexchanges. are called financial an extension of this crisesare merely WVhat criticalconditionto the largerbusinesscommunity.Financial follow panicswhich sometimes uponfinancial crises area precipitate of thiscritical condition. The fascinating thing about thestudyofcrises, as ofcrowds, is thatso faras theyare in factdue to psychological causes,thatis, of the communities so faras theyare the resultof the mobility in which they occur, theycan be controlled. The evidence forthis is the factthat theycan be manipulated, and thereis abundant in the transactions evidence of manipulation of the stockmarket. The evidencefor the manipulation of crowdsis less accessible. a pretty Labororganizations known howto develop have,however, definite forthe instigation and control of strikes. The technique SalvationArmyhas workedout a book of tacticswhichis very of street devotedto thehandling largely crowds;and professional like Billy Sunday,have an elaboratetechniquefor revivalists, revivals. their conducting
much has been written in Under the title of collectivepsychology recentyears in regardto crowdsand kindredphenomenaof social life. thusfarhas been based upon general observaMost thathas been written methods existforthe studyof thistypeof tion,and almostno systematic social organization. The practicalmethodswhichpracticalmenlike the the stock-exchange and others politicalboss,thelaboragitator, speculator, of the public and the have workedout forthe controland manipulation a bodyof materials from crowdfurnish whichit is possibleto makea more detailed,a more intimatestudyof what may be called, in orderto disit from collective thatof morehighly behavior. tinguish organized groups, In addition to these and other materialsalready indicated,there of notable mass movements, the greatlabor strikes, the are the histories etc. financial panics,religious revivals, and emotional A studymight be made also of the sensations reactions of individualswho participatein these mass movements. What is the mentalcondition of individuals underthe influence of revivals, of panics, and of loss of personalresponsietc. ? Is therea senseof loss of control, ? bility
HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN Tl1E CITY ENVIRONMENT
593
feelexaltaTo what extentdoes the participant in a mass movement in the feelings tion or depression? What is the difference whichaccompany financialpanics and religiousrevivals? to what extent are these ? to whatextent effects are theypermanent ? temporary financial What deviceshave beenusedto prevent panic? whatdevices to dispersemobs?
III. SECONDARY RELATIONS AND SOCIAL CONTROL
ofurbantransportation Modern methods and communicationthe electricrailway,the automobile, and the telephone-have in recent and rapidly silently changed yearsthesocialandindustrial of the modern organization city. They have been the meansof in the businessdistricts;have changedthe traffic concentrating wholecharacter of retailtrade,multiplying the residence suburbs in the the department and making storepossible. These changes industrial organization and in the distribution of population have in sentibeen accompanied the by corresponding changes habits, and character of theurbanpopulation. ments, The generalnatureof thesechangesis indicated by the fact ofcitieshas beenaccompanied thatthegrowth by thesubstitution of indirect, fordirect, "secondary," face-to-face, "primary"relaofindividuals tionsin theassociations in thecommunity.
"By primary groupsI mean thosecharacterized by intimate face-to-face associationand co-operation. They are primary in severalsenses,but chiefly in that they are fundamental in forming the social natureand ideals of the individual. The resultof intimateassociation,psychologically, is a certain in a commonwhole,so that one's veryself,formany fusionof individualities purposesat least, is the commonlifeand purposeof the group. Perhaps the thiswholeness is by sayingthat it is a 'we'; it insimplest way of describing volves the sort of sympathy and mutualidentification forwhich'we' is the naturalexpression. One lives in the feeling of the whole and findsthe chief aims of his willin thatfeeling.. . . ."I Touch and sight,physicalcontact,are the basis for the firstand most elementaryhuman relationships. Mother and child, husband and wife, father and son,masterand servant, kinsman and neighbor, minister, physician, and teacher; theseare themostintimate and realrelationships oflifeand in the small community theyare practically inclusive. The interactions whichtake place amongthe members of a community so constituted are immediate and unreflecting.Intercourse is carriedon largely
I
Charles Horton Cooley, SocialOrganization, p. I5.
594
forthemost and feeling.Socialcontrol within theregion ofinstinct arises, in direct andpublic sentiresponse to personal influences partspontaneously, thantheformulaaccommodation rather ment. It is theresult ofa personal ofa rational andabstract tion principle. The church, theschool,and thefamily.-In a great city, where is are employed the population unstable,whereparentsand children out of the house and oftenin distantparts of the city,wherethousands of people live side by side for years without so much as a bowing acquaintance, these intimate relationshipsof the primary group are weakened and the moral order which rested upon them is gradually dissolved. influencesof city life most of our Under the disintegrating traditional institutions,the church, the school, and the family, have been greatly modified. The school, for example, has taken of the family. It is around the public over some of the functions school and its solicitude for the moral and physical welfareof the childrenthat somethinglike a new neighborhoodand community spirit tends to get itself organized. The church, on the other hand, which has lost much of its influencesince the printed page has so largely taken the place of the pulpit in the interpretation of life, seems at present to be in process of readjustmentto the new conditions. should It is important theschool, and thefamily thatthe church, to theconditions be studied from thepoint ofviewofthisreadjustment ofcity life. sentiWhatchanges have takenplacein recent yearsin thefamily wives?of wivestoward ments?in the attitudes of husbands toward etc.? ofchildren toward husbands? parents, in courts indicate of the juvenile and morals Whatdo the records to thismatter? regard lifechanged? family totheinflutaken To what extent havethese changes placeinresponse encesofthecityenvironment? on withreference be carried to the investigations might Similarly attitude andchanged is a changed andthechurch. Here, too,there school Thisis important because in response to a changed environment. policy in which institutions theimmediate it is, in thelastanalysis, uponthese a corporate thatsocialorganizaandvitalinterests oflifefind expression tionultimately rests.
In what regionsof social life have the moreson the subject of the
595
and the It is probably thebreaking downoflocal attachments and inhibitions ofthe primary weakening of the restraints group, whichare largely of the urbanenvironment, underthe influence of vice and crimein greatcities. It forthe increase responsible in thisconnection to determine wouldbe interesting by investigain crime tionhow farthe increase keepspace withtheincreasing thispointofviewthatwe of thepopulation. It is from mobility all thosestatistics whichregister the disshouldseek to interpret for ofdivorce, ofthemoralorder, thestatistics integration example oftruancy, and ofcrime.
In what regionsand classes are certainkindsof crimeendemic? In what classes does divorceoccur most frequently? What is the in this respectbetweenfarmers difference and, say, actors? To what extentin any given racial group,forexample,the Italians live in the in New York or the Poles in Chicago,do parentsand children same world,speak the same language,and sharethe same ideas, and how foundaccount forjuveniledelinquency in that parfardo the conditions ticulargroup? forcriminal How far are the home moresresponsible manifestations of an immigrant group?
on truancy, and on crime? on divorce,
of ownership ofproperty, of thehome, What is the effect particularly
of citylifethat all Crisis and thecourts.-It is characteristic sortsofpeoplemeetand mingle whoneverfully together compreand theclubman,thepriest hendone another. The anarchist and who touchelbowson the Levite, the actor and the missionary stilllivein totally different worlds. So complete is the thestreet, of vocationalclasses that it is possiblewithinthe segregation of thecityto livein an isolation limits almostas complete as that ruralcommunity. of someremote of his experience WalterBesant tellsthefollowing anecdote as ofthePeople's Palace Journal: editor
"In that capacityI endeavoredto encourageliterary in the hope effort, and latentgenius. The readers of theJournal oflighting upon someunknown of the variousclassesconnected withthe educationalside of werethemembers the place. They wereyoungclerkschiefly-someof themverygood fellows. They had a debating societywhich I attended fromtime to time. Alas! They carriedon theirdebates in an ignorancethe most profound, the most and the most satisfied. I endeavoredto persuadethemthat it unconscious,
596
was desirable at leastto master thefacts ofthecase before they spoke. In vain. ThenI proposed subjects foressays, and offered prizes forverses. I all thethousands to myamazement, ofthese discovered, that, among young ladsandgirls, there wasnotdiscoverable people, theleastrudimentary indicaare young tionof any literary powerwhatever.In all othertownsthere somemeasure peoplewhonourish literary ambitions, with ofliterary ability. How should there be anyin thistown, no books, where there were no papers, no journals, and,at thattime, no free libraries ?", In the immigrantcolonies which are now well established in every large city, foreignpopulations live in an isolation which is fromthat of the population of East London, but in some different respectsmore complete. is thateachoneofthese little The difference colonies has a more or less andsocialorganization independent political ofitsown, andis thecenter ofa orlessvigorous nationalist more eachoneofthese propaganda.Forexample, in its ownlanguage. In New York groups has one or more papers printed ofthem there are270 publications, most localpopulation, City supported bythe in 23 different there are 19 dailypapers printed languages.In Chicago pubwitha combined of 368,0o0 lishedin 7 foreign languages dailycirculation papers. Under these conditions the social ritual and the moral order which these immigrantsbrought with them from their native countries have succeeded in maintaining themselves for a conof the American environment. siderable time under the influences Social control,based on the home mores, breaks down, however, in the second generation. We may express the relation of the city to this fact in general terms by saying that the effectof the urban environmentis to of crisis. all effects intensify ina violent 'crisis' is nottobeunderstood sense. It isinvolved "The term in theboy'slife is a crisis when he leaves in anydisturbance ofhabit. There ofthenegro and theimmigration oftheEuropean home. The emancipation orcrisis aregroup three crises. Anystrain involves peasant possible changes: or death. In biological reduced 'survival' greater fitness, efficiency, terms, means successful to crisis, adjustment accompanied typically bya modification In manit means mental stimulation andgreater or ofstructure. intelligence, in caseoffailure."2 mental depression,
ofSociology, American Journal and Negro," to theImmigrant Reference Particular XVII (May,I9I2), p. 736.
I Walter East London, p. I3. Besant, with 2William I. Thomas,"Race Psychology: and Questionnaire Standpoint
597
individuals in which Undertheconditions imposed by citylife, in sympathy and underofindividuals, removed widely and groups if under conditions of interdependence, live together standing, altered are greatly ofsocialcontrol theconditions not ofintimacy, increased. and thedifficulties
as oneof'assimilation.' characterized Theproblem thus created is usually inourlarge is due cities rapid increase ofcrime thereason for It is assumed that in ourpopulation has notsucceeded in element to thefactthattheforeign to theAmerican mores. and doesnotconform American culture assimilating iftrue, seemto suggest thatperhaps butthefacts Thiswould be interesting, intheopposite direction. be sought thetruth must factsestablished conby theinvestigation "One of themostimportant children of immigrants-the 'secondgeneration.' cernsthe American-born in theNewYorkCourt during ofGeneral Sessions The records ofconvictions October to from 30, I909, andofall commitments theperiod i, I908, to June thoseto thestatefarm, the Massachusetts during institutions, except penal. thebasisofthis ofthecriminal analysis September 30, I909, form year ending ofthesecond tendencies generation. exists on thepartof it appears thata cleartendency records "Fromthese or immigrant to differ from thefirst in the generation thesecond generation thatthis difference is much It alsoappears ofitscriminality. more character of thecriminality of theAmerican-born in thedirection of nonfrequently direction.Thismeans than it is intheopposite thatthe immigrant parentage is awayfrom crime thecrimes ofthesecond-generation to peculiar movement ofnative those oftheAmerican andtoward parentage.Sometimes immigrants evenbeyond has carried thatof criminality thismovement second-generation of nativeparentage.Of thesecond-generation subthenative-born groups a constant adherence to thegeneral onemaintains to thiscomparison, mitted at some failtofollow all theothers it. This abovereferred point rule to,while is theIrishsecond generation."' unique group What we do observe, as a result of the crisis, is that control based on moreswas replaced by controlbased on that was formerly positive law. This change runsparallel to themovementby which secondary relationshipshave taken the place of primaryrelationships in the association of individualsin the city environment. that States oftheUnited should It is characteristic political changes great ofagitation thepressure orupon under theinitiative be effected experimentally no other in the Thereis probably minorities. of smallbut militant country " reforms " areinprogress as at thepresent time inthe inwhich so many world
I
Immigration Commission, Vol.VI, pp. I4-I6. Reports oftheUnited States
598
UnitedStates. Reform has in factbecomea kindof popular"indoor sport." The reforms thus effected, almost withoutexception,involve some sort of restriction or governmental controlover activitiesthat were formerly "free" or controlled onlyby themoresand publicopinion.
of this extensionof what is called the police power The effect in the fundamental has been to producea change,not merely policy of the law, but in the characterand standingof the courts. The Juvenile and Morals courts illustratea change which is perhaps taking place elsewhere. In these courts the judges have assumed something of the functions of administrativeofficers, less in the interpretation of law than in pretheirduties consisting scribing remedies and administeringadvice intended to restore delinquentsbroughtbeforethem to theirnormal places in society. A similar tendency to give judges a wide discretionand to impose upon them a furtherresponsibilityis manifest in those of the business courtswhichhave to deal with the technicalaffairs world, and in the growthin popularity of commissionsin which Judicialand administrativefunctionsare combined, for example, the Interstate Commerce Commission.
in a fundamental In orderto interpret way the factsin regardto social controlit is importantto start with a clear conceptionof the nature of
An ant was placedin theliquids(bloodand lymph) following experiment. andwas then ofnestcompanions outfrom thebodies squeezed putbackinto
are conveyedfromone mind to another. This does ceive how suggestions of consciousness, not implythat thereis any special form any special senseof of kind,necessary to explaincorporate action. kinshipor consciousness been shownthatin the case ofcertain In factit has recently highly organlike thatofthewell-known ized and staticsocieties, that ant,probably nothing takesplace. we wouldcall communication a nest and afterfactthat if an ant be removed from "It is a well-known an ant belonging whilealmostinvariably wardput back it willnotbe attacked, to use the words to anothernest will be attacked. It has been customary in describing this fact. Now Bethe made the memory, enmity, friendship,
action. corporate action when there is some sort ofcommunication between Corporate begins a group. Communication individuals who constitute may take place at to on the different levels; thatis, suggestions maybe givenand responded or ideo-motor levels. The mechanism of cominstinctive, senso-motor, in fact, so subtile, is very thatit is often munication difficult to consubtile,
599
the its nest; it was not attacked. It was thenput in the juice taken from inmatesofa 'hostile' nestand was at once attackedand killed."' in whichants communicate will illustrate instance ofthemanner A further level. maybecomeon theinstinctive communication howsimpleand automatic fromthe nest for the first time, "An ant, when takinga new direction by the same path. This shows that some trace must be left always returns by this behindwhichservesas a guideback to the nest. If the ant returning ants trythisdirection. But ifit thatno other pathbearno spoils,Bethefound bringback honeyor sugar,otherants are sure to trythe path. Hence somecarriedover thispath by the ants mustremainon the thingof the substances mustbe strong theantschemically."2 enoughto affect path. These substances simpledevice factis that by means of this comparatively The important corporateaction is made possible. way, but they Individualsnot only react upon one anotherin this reflex and organicexcitements, attitudes, theirsentiments, inevitably communicate react, not merelyto what each individual and in doing so they necessarily desires,or hopes to do. The factthat actuallydoes, but to what he intends, and attitudesto othersof whichtheyare oftenbetraysentiments individuals makesit possiblefor individual conscious A, for example, themselves onlydimly and tensionsin B as soon or even beforeB is able to do to act upon motives A may act upon the suggestionsthat emanate fromB so. Furthermore whichhis motives withouthimself beingclearlyconsciousof the sourcefrom be whichcontrol individuals may thereactions spring. So subtleand intimate in a social-psychological who are bound together process. and spontaneous control that It is upon thebasis of thissortofinstinctive mustbe based in orderto be effective. sortofcontrol everymoreformal
Changes in the formof social controlmay for the purposes of be groupedunder the generalheads: investigation and theextension ofpositive law forcustom, of i. The substitution left thatwere to individual initiacontrol to activities formerly municipal tiveanddiscretion. and criminal of judgesin municipal courtsto 2. The disposition ofthecriminal so thattheadministration function administrative assume and becomes of thesocialritual an law ceasesto be a mere application andtechnical ofrational expert knowledge methods, requiring application to society andrepair inorder theindividual theinjury torestore oradvice, has caused. thathis delinquency thedifferent in themores anddivergences isolated among 3. Changes for in thecity. Whatare themores, of and segregated example, groups ? andthelaboragitator ? ? thepolitician ? theimmigrant theshopgirl
I Jacques pp. 220-2I. ofthe Brain, Physiology Loeb,Comparative 2Ibid., p. 22I.
600
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY It shouldbe the aim of theseinvestigations to distinguish not merely the causes of these changes, the directionin which they are moving, but also the forcesthat are likelyto minimize and neutralize them. For it is important to knowwhether example, themotives whichare at present multiplying the positive restrictions on the individualwill necessarily go as farin thiscountry as theyhave alreadydonein Germany. Will they socialism? eventually bringabout a conditionapproaching
limit, control, and stamp out the vice trafficand to do away with the use and sale of liquor. Among the things that we should desire to know are:
of the humannatureupon whichthe commerce has been erected, (2) of the social conditionswhich tend to convertthe normalappetites into social vices, (3) of the practical effects of the efforts to
(i)
the conditions of city life, can, perhaps, be best studied in its attempts to stamp out vice and control the liquor traffic. The saloon and the vice establishments have come into existence as a means of exploiting appetites and instincts fundamental to human nature. This makes the efforts that have been made to regulate and suppress these forms of exploitation and traffic interesting and important as subjects of investigation. Such an investigation should be based upon thorough study:
Commercialized vice and theliquor traffic.-Socialcontrol,under
To what extent is the appetite for alcoholic stimulusa pre-natal ? disposition To what extentmay such an appetitebe transferred from one form of to another; that is, e.g., from stimulation to cocaine,etc.? whiskey To what extentis it possibleto substitute normaland healthful for pathologicaland vicious stimulations? What are the social and moraleffects of secretdrinking? Where a taboo is establishedearly in life does it have the effect of of indulgence? Does it do thisin some cases and idealizingthe delights not in others? If so, what are the contributing circumstances? Do lose thetastefor mensuddenly stimulants ? Whatarethe liquorand other conditions underwhichthishappens? can be answered Many ofthesequestions onlyby a studyofindividual have theirnatural historylike certain experiences. Vices undoubtedly forms ofdisease. Theymaytherefore be regarded as independent entities, whichfindtheirhabitatin humanenvironment, are stimulated by certain inhibited but invariably conditions, by others, exhibit all changes through a character that is typical.
6oi
had something the movement In theearlydays thetemperance were highly picof a religious revival,and the effects character turesque. In recentyears the leaders have displayeda more still againstthe liquortraffic but the struggle deliberate strategy, a movehas all the characteristics of a big popularmovement, the ruraldistricts, is now conquered ment havingat length which, advancing upon the cities. On the otherhand, the vice crusadestartedwith the cities, vice is indigenous.The merediswherein fact commercialized change cussionof thissubjectin publichas meantan enormous is everywhere in the sex mores. The fact that this movement of womeninto partypoliticsis sigcoincident withthe entrance nificant.
to thelifeof great cities, (referred to peculiar Thereare conditions of GreatCities")which ofthePopulation under theheading "Mobility difficult. For example, crusades of vice especially make the control inthe city movements do nothavethesamesuccess andreligious generally and less heterogeneous comthat theydo in the smaller environment makethistrue? which munities.Whatare theconditions in connection with worth thefacts most themovestudying Perhaps indicate thechanges which which forsuppression ofviceare those, ment with reference in sexmores, to havetaken particularly placeinfifty years andbehavior, in thedress as modest andimmodest and whatis regarded are nowdissexualmatters withwhich to the freedom withreference women. menand young cussed by young in thepresence oftwoepoch-making in fact, as ifwe were It seems, to putintoxicating destined seems liquors theonewhich finally changes, and theother to lift thetaboowhich, ofpoisonous in thecategory drugs, has effectually prevented up to peoples, among Anglo-Saxon particularly ofthefacts ofsex. time thefrank discussion thepresent
is everywhere at present and publicity.-There a Partypolitics branchof the to increasethe powerof the executive disposition of at the expenseof the legislative. The influence government in some has beendiminished and of citycouncils statelegislatures and the recall. of the referendum instances by the introduction reasonforthesechangesis form of government.The ostensible
In others they have been largely superseded by the commission the power of the prothat they offera means for overthrowing to me the recognition The real seems fessionalpoliticians. ground
602
whichhad its originin the of the fact that the formof government and was wellsuitedto the needs of a small community townmeeting of the based on primaryrelationsis not suitable to the government changingand heterogeneouspopulations of cities of three or four millions. and sizeofthepopulation. uponthecharacter depends Much, ofcourse, and thenumber is not too citizens of voting it is ofAmerican stock, Where can be schoolof politics no better and calmdiscussion, greatforthorough jobbery toprevent more certain affairs ofmanaging noranymethod imagined, however, When, and breedcontentment. vigilance to stimulate and waste, or eight persons, and, hundred has grown to exceed seven meeting thetown such as Irishor are strangers, section whenany considerable still more, theinstituintoNew England, whohavelatterly poured Canadians, French for the multitude is toolarge debate, factions because works lessperfectly tion in self-government, untrained to spring up, and the immigrants, are likely orpetty ofwire theprey demagogues.' pullers become have become, For one thing,the problemsof city government with the growthand organizationof city life,so complicatedthatit is no longerdesirableto leave themto the controlofmen whoseonly qualificationforhandlingthem consistsin the fact that they have succeeded in gaining officethrough the ordinary machineryof ward politics. Another circumstancewhich has made the selection of city officials by popular vote impractical,under the conditionsof city fact that, except in special cases, the voter knows little is the life, or nothing about the officialshe is voting for; knows little or to which that official of the office is to nothingabout the functions be elected; and, besides all the rest,is too busy elsewhereto inform about conditionsand needs of the city as a whole. himself At a recentelectionin Chicago, forexample,voterswere called upon to select candidates from a ballot containing 250 names, most of them unknownto the voters. Under these circumstances relieson some more or the citizen who wishes to vote intelligently adviser less interestedorganizationor some more or less interested to tell him how to vote. To meet this emergency, created primarily by conditions imposed by city life, two types of organization have come into
I JamesBryce, The American I, 566. Commonwealth,
603
crises thatwe call elections. for thoseartificial existence controlling boss represented by the political One of theseis the organization machine. The otheris that represented by the and the political and organizavoters' associations, independent leagues,taxpayers' research. tionslikethebureausofmunicipal
in which conditions primitive our It is an indication of the rather to govern thecountry thatthey wereformed on sought political parties forall sortsof administrative evilswas theprinciple thatthe remedy to "turntherascals out,"as thepopular phrase expressed it, a change and thepolitical bosshavecome The political machine ofgovernment. in theinterest ofparty politics. The parties were necesintoexistence machine is merely elections.The political a sarily organized to capture of achieving thisend. The forthe purpose deviceinvented technical themachine.He is as necessary to thewinwhoruns bossis theexpert isnecessary tosuccess at football. as a professional coach ning ofanelection
ofcontrolling thepopular votethat have grown up forthepurpose that is to say, primary relationships.The second,the personal, make theirappeal to the public, good-government organizations, understand that expression, is a and the public,as we ordinarily Members ofa publicare relationships. groupbased on secondary not as a rulepersonally acquainted. to maintain, is in factan attempt machine inside The political of thecity,thecontrol ofa theformal administrative organization thusbuiltup, of whichTamprimary group. The organizations feudal appearto be thoroughly manyHall is theclassicillustration, betweenthe boss and his ward in theircharacter. The relations on one side thatof personal loyalty captainseem to be precisely on the other,whichthe feudalrelation and personalprotection calls out are the which suchan organization implies. The virtues to theinterests and devotion of old tribal ones offidelity, loyalty, theorganization, their the chief and the clan. The peoplewithin a "we"-group, whilethe restof consitute friends and supporters, is not quitealive and not theouterworld, which thecityis merely the conditions of are. We have here something approaching
primitive society. quite human in the sense in which the membersof the "we "-group the first,the political machine, is based, on the whole, on local,
It is characteristicof the two types of organization which
604
is that of society' whichwe oughtto form of 'primitive "The conception over a territory.The size of the groupsis determined small groupsscattered by the conditionsof the strugglefor existence. The internalorganization to its size. A group of groups may have some of each group corresponds and commeralliance,connubium, relationto each other(kin,neighborhood, themfrom others. Thus and differentiates cium) whichdrawsthemtogether and or in-group, arises between ourselves,the we-group, a differentiation in a we-group out-groups. The insiders else, or the others-groups, everybody to each other. and industry, ofpeace, order, law, government, are in a relation is one of war and plunder, or others-groups, Their relationto all outsiders, it. have modified exceptso faras agreements and that of hosof comradeship and peace in the we-group "The relation are correlativeto each other. The tility and war towards other-groups exigenciesof war with outsidersare what make peace inside, lest internal discord should weaken the we-groupfor war. These exigenciesalso make in orderto preventquarrelsand enforce and law in the in-group, government discipline.",
abundant materials for The politics of most great cities offers by the politicalboss as well as the the studyof the type represented social mechanisms created by and embodied in the political mathat we studythemdisinterestedly. however, chine. It is necessary, Some of the questions we should seek to answer are: is thepolitical at anypoint offact, organization What,as a matter and interests and attitudes the city? Whatare thesentiments within it? find through which expression formobilizing its forces it employs devices Whatare thepractical intoaction? them andputting inthedifferent moral oftheparty regions is thecharacter appeal What is made thecity ofwhich up? is practical in politics and howmuchis How muchof theinterest mere sport? ? Howmuch is advertising ofitcan ofthecostofelections What part is puregraft? and howmuch as "educational be classed publicity," under as we find particularly conditions, existing To whatextent, controlled techcanelections be practically in great bypurely them cities, spell bindersprocessions, torch-light nicaldevices,card catalogues, machinery? and recall have willtheintroduction of thereferendum Whateffect in cities? elections ofconducting methods uponpresent and social control.-Jn contrast with the political Advertising machine, which has founded its organized action on the local,
I
p. 12. Sumner,Folkways,
605
interests represented by the different personal,and immediate organizations, the good-government and localities, neighborhoods and the like have soughtto research, the bureausof municipal ofthecityas a wholeand have appealedto theinterests represent neither and opinion localnorpersonal. Theseagencies a sentiment by theeducaefficiency and goodgovernment to secure havesought and publishing the tionofthevoter, thatis to say,by investigating the government. factsregarding formof In this way publicity has come to be a recognized advertising"-hasbecome and advertising-"social socialcontrol, by a body of supported a profession withan elaboratetechnique specialknowledge.
of citylifeand of society It is one of thecharacteristic phenomena should have come founded on secondary relationships thatadvertising to occupy a placein itseconomy. so important which has had to and organization In recent individual yearsevery andmore thesmaller outside dealwith thepublic, thatis to saythepublic has cometo have of thevillageand smalltown, intimate communities itspressagent, manthana diplomatic less an advertising whois often at large. manaccredited them to theworld newspapers, andthrough to the the and to a less extent, Institutions liketheRussellSage Foundation, directly opinion General Boardhavesought to influence public Education uponMedical themedium of publicity.The Carnegie Report through Report thePittsburgh theRussellSage Foundation Survey, Education, in theSeveral on Comparative CostsofPublic-School Education States, a high are something morethanscientific reports.They are rather andseeking form with conditions critically, existing ofjournalism, dealing The of publicity the agency to bring about radicalreforms. through inNewYorkhashada similar ofMunicipal work oftheBureau Research must be addedthework accomplished bythe purpose. To these practical in different undertaken parts child-welfare bythesocialsurveys exhibits, andby similar in favor ofpublic health. ofthecountry, propaganda
rather thanthemoresbecomesthe of custom, and publicopinion force in socialcontrol. dominant
secondarygroups and in the city, fashion tends to take the place
on secondary ofwhich founded greatcities in societies relationships are a type. In thecityevery socialgrouptendsto createits own the morestendto becomefixed, milieuand, as theseconditions to the conditionsthus created. In accommodatethemselves
As a source of social controlpublic opinion becomes important
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In any attempt to understand thenature ofpublicopinion and its relation to social control, it is important to investigate first of all theagencies and deviceswhich have comeintopractical use in theeffort to control, enlighten, and exploit it. The first and themostimportant of theseis thepress,thatis thedailynewspaper and other forms ofcurrent literature including booksclassedas current.' Afterthe newspaper, the bureausof research whichare now up in all thelargecitiesare themostinteresting and the springing mostpromising devicesforusingpublicity as a meansof control. The fruitsof these investigations do not reach the public directly, but are disseminated the mediumof thepress, through the pulpit,and othersourcesof popularenlightenment. In addition to thesethere are theeducational in the campaigns interest ofbetter healthconditions, thechild-welfare exhibits, and thenumerous "social advertising" devices which arenowemployed, ofprivatesocieties, sometimes upon theinitiative sometimes upon thatof popularmagazines in orderto educatethe or newspapers, publicand enlistthe massesof the people in the movement for the improvement of conditions of community life. The newspaper is the greatmedium of communication within the city,and it is on thebasis oftheinformation which it supplies thatpublicopinionrests. The first function whicha newspaper suppliesis that which was formerly performed by the village In spite, however, of the industry with which newspapers and human interest, pursue facts of personalintelligence they cannot of as social with the a means control. compete village gossips For one thing,the newspaper maintains some reservations not in thematters recognized ofpersonal by gossip, intelligence.For untiltheyrunforoffice or commit someother overtact example, that bringsthem beforethe public conspicuously, the private life of individualmen or womenis a subject that is for the taboo. It is not so withgossip,partlybecause in a newspaper small community no individualis so obscurethat his private affairs and discussion;partly escape observation becausethefield
z Cf. Bryce,TheAmerican Commonwealth, p. 267.
gossip.
607
is smaller. In small communities thereis a perfectly amazing amountof personal information afloatamongtheindividuals who compose them. The absenceofthisin thecityis what,in largepart,makesthe citywhatit is.
and ofpublicity are: thenewspaper generally
Someofthequestions thatarisein regard to thenatureand function of
monopoly?
IV.
? controlled by public sentiment What is a "fake" and why? What is yellowjournalism and whyis it yellow? What would be the effectof making the newspapera municipal What is the difference and news? betweenadvertising
TEMPERAMENT AND THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT
? ormerely ? those ofan artist ? a historian they those ofa brigand To whatextent is it doesthenewspaper control and to whatextent
What is news? What are the methodsand motives of the newspaperman? Are
of races and Great citieshave always been the melting-pots ofcultures. Out ofthevividand subtle ofwhich interactions they there have been the centers, have comethenewer breedsand the newersocial types. The great cities of the United States, for example,have drawnfromthe isolationof theirnative villages of Europe and America. great masses of the ruralpopulations of these Underthe shockof the new contactsthe latentenergies of and the subtler primitive peopleshave been released, processes have brought into existence, interaction not merelyvocational, but temperamental types. Mobilization and comof theindividual man.-Transportation munication haveeffected, butfar-reaching among manyother silent of the individual what I have called the "mobilization changes, the opportunities of the individual man." They have multiplied man forcontactand forassociationwith his fellows, but they have made these contactsand associations more transitory and A less stable. of greatcities, verylargepart of the populations thosewho make theirhomesin tenements and apartincluding menthouses,livemuchas peopledo in somegreathotel,meeting
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of thisis to substitute one another. The effect but not knowing for the more intimateand and casual relationship fortuitous of the smaller community. associations permanent statusis determined theindividual's Underthesecircumstances and signs-by fashion degreeby conventional to a considerable on thin to skating reduced "front"-and the art of lifeis largely and a scrupulous studyof styleand manners. surfaces butthesegregation and communication, Not onlytransportation of the the mobility of the urban populationtends to facilitate establishmoral individualman. The processesof segregation touch worlds which distances makethecitya mosaicoflittle which This makesit possibleforindividuals but do not interpenetrate. and one moralmilieuto another to pass quicklyand easilyfrom of livingat but dangerous experiment the fascinating encourages but widely perhaps, thesame timein severaldifferent contiguous, worlds. All thistendsto give to citylifea superficial separated socialrelationand adventitious character;it tendsto complicate individualtypes. It ships and to producenew and divergent an element ofchanceand adventure, at thesame time, introduces, of citylifeand givesit foryoungand whichadds to the stimulus fresh nervesa peculiarattractiveness.The lureof greatcitiesis uponthe ofstimulations act directly a consequence which perhaps like it may be explained, reflexes.As a typeof humanbehavior as a sortof tropism. forthemoth, of theflame the attraction to the is due in part,however, of themetropolis The attraction finds somewhere among factthatin thelongruneveryindividual in of citylife the sortof environment the variedmanifestations in short,the moral whichhe expandsand feelsat ease; finds, that in whichhis peculiar natureobtainsthe stimulations climate bringhis innate qualities to full and freeexpression.It is, I basis,notin interest ofthiskindwhich have their motives suspect, and morefundamental but in something nor even in sentiment, whichdraw many,if not most,of the youngmen and primitive into oftheir homesin thecountry from thesecurity women young In small life. a of and excitement city confusion thebig,booming or eccentricity it is thenormal man,theman without community who seemsmostlikelyto succeed. The smallcommunity genius,
609
often tolerates eccentricity. The city, on thecontrary, rewards it. nor the geniushas the same the defective, Neitherthe criminal, in a small town, to develop his innate disposition opportunity in a greatcity. thathe invariably finds Fiftyyearsago everyvillagehad one or two eccentric charwitha benevolent acterswho weretreatedordinarily toleration, but who were regarded as impracticable and queer. meanwhile These exceptional individuals livedan isolatedexistence, cut off of geniusor of defect, from whether by theirveryeccentricities, with theirfellows. If they had genuinely intimateintercourse of thesmall themaking ofcriminals, therestraints and inhibitions community rendered them harmless. If they had thestuff ofgenius or opportunin them, they remained sterile for lack ofappreciation of ity. MarkTwain'sstory ofPudd'n Head Wilsonis a description and unappreciated one suchobscure genius. It is notso trueas it was thatFull manya flower is bornto blushunseen And waste its fragrance on the desertair.
Gray wrotethe "Elegy in a CountryChurchyard" beforethe of the moderncity. existence In thecitymanyof thesedivergent a milieuin typesnowfind whichforgood or forill theirdispositions and talentsparturate and bearfruit.
In the investigation of those exceptionaland temperamental types which the city has produced,we should seek to distinguish, as far as possible,betweenthose abstractmentalqualities upon which technical excellenceis based and those more fundamental native characteristics in temperament. We may therefore whichfindexpression ask: To what extentare the moralqualitiesof individuals based on native character? To what extentare they conventionalized habits imposed thegroup? uponby themor takenoverby themfrom What are the native qualities and characteristics upon which the moralor immoralcharacteraccepted and conventionalized by the group are based? What connection or what divorce appears to exist betweenmental and moralqualitiesin thegroupsand in theindividuals them? composing Are criminalsas a rule of a lower order of intelligence than noncriminals? If so, what typesof intelligence are associatedwithdifferent
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THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY ofcrime? For example, types do professional burglars and professional menrepresent confidence different mental types? Whatare theeffects uponthesedifferent types of isolation and of mobility, ofstimulus andofrepression? To what extentcan playgrounds and otherforms of recreation supply thestimulation which is otherwise sought for invicious pleasures ? in finding To whatextent can vocational guidance assistindividuals in which a free oftheir vocations they willbe able to obtain expression temperamental qualities?
The moral region.-It is inevitable that individuals who seek the same formsof excitement,whetherthat excitementbe furnished by a horse race or by grand opera, should find themselves fromtime to time in the same places. The result of this is that, in the organizationwhich city life spontaneouslyassumes, a disposition of the population manifestsitself to segregateitself,not merelyin accordance with its interests,but in accordance with its tastes or its temperaments. The resultingdistributionof the fromthat broughtabout population is likely to be quite different or economicconditions. by occupational interests Every neighborhood, under the influenceswhich tend to distributeand segregatecity populations,may assume the character of a "moral region." Such, for example, are the vice districts, which are found in most cities. A moral regionis not necessarily a place of abode. It may be a mere rendezvous, a place of resort. in every In order tounderstand tend todevelop theforces which large city in which andsuppressed thesedetached milieus, vagrant impulses, passions, from moral andidealsemancipate themselves thedominant it isnecesorder, to thefact ortheory oflatent ofmen. saryto refer impulses The factseemsto be thatmenarebrought intotheworld with all the uncontrolled and undisciplined. Civilizaand appetites, passions, instincts, in theinterests thesuppression ofthecommon demands sometion, welfare, and the control of thesewild,natural In the times, always, dispositions. process of imposing its discipline uponthe individual, in making overthe in accordance withtheaccepted is supindividual much community model, a vicarious in forms and much more finds pressed altogether, expression that are socially or at least innocuous.It is at thispointthatsport, valuable, to purgehimself play, and art function. They permit the individual by means ofsymbolic of these wildandsuppressed expression impulses.Thisis in hisPoetic thecatharsis and which has beengiven ofwhich Aristotle wrote
6ii
of Sigmund Freud by theinvestigations newand more positive significance and thePsycho-Analysts.I suchas strikes, socialphenomena wars,popular No doubtmanyother function in releasing a similar the and religious revivals, perform elections, smaller communities where socialrelations subconscious tensions.Butwithin there aremany more exceptional imperative, aremore intimate andinhibitions nonormal and thelimits ofthecommunal activity individuals whofind within individual and temperaments. andhealthful oftheir aptitudes expression The causes whichgive rise to what are here describedas "moral " are due in part to the restrictions whichurban lifeimposes; regions in part to the license which these same conditionsoffer. We have to the temptationsof until very recently given much consideration to the effects citylife,but we have not given the same consideration of inhibitionsand suppressionsof natural impulses and instincts life. For one thing, under the changed conditionsof metropolitan in as an which the are counted asset become in the children country citya liability. Aside fromthis fact it is very much more difficult to rear a familyin the citythan on the farm. Marriage takes place it doesn't take place at all. These later in the city,and sometimes the of which we are as yet facts have consequences significance wholly unable to estimate. oftheproblems involved wellbegin by a study might Investigation and comparison of thecharacteristic of socialorganization which types in theregions referred to. exist Whatare the external factsin regard to the lifein Bohemia, the "moral the Red-Light and other lessproDistrict, regions" Half-World, in character? nounced ofthevocations which themselves Whatis thenature connect with lifeof theseregions? Whatare thecharacteristic theordinary mental which areattracted offer? which bythefreedom they types findtheirway into theseregions? How do How do individuals them? they escapefrom ofthelicense; To whatextent aretheregions referred to theproduct extent arethey dueto therestrictions life on the to what imposed bycity man? natural tance to the segregationof the poor, the vcious, the criminal,and a feature exceptionalpersons generally,which is so characteristic
' Cf.Dr. Sigmund The Interpretation ofDreams. Freud,
lendsspecialimporand socialcontagion.-What Temperament
612
in tendsto stimulate of citylife, is the factthatsocial contagion and to differences, divergent typesthe commontemperamental unitethemwiththenormal about characters which types suppress of their ilk also others own provides them. Associationwith have notmerely a stimulus, forthetraits they but a moralsupport in common in a less selectsociety. In whichtheywouldnot find crushed the greatcitythe poor,the vicious,and the delinquent, in an unhealthful and contagious intimacy, breed inand in, together occurred to me thatthoselong soul and body,so thatit has often of the Jukesand the Tribes of Ishmael would not genealogies showsuch a persistent uniformity of vice, crime, and distressing in and poverty unlesstheywerepeculiarly fitforthe environment which they are condemned to exist. mustthenacceptthese"moral regions"and the moreor WVe peoplewhoinhabit them, in a sense, less eccentric and exceptional ifnotthenormal lifeofa city. at least,as partofthenatural
"moralregion" a by the expression It is not necessary to understand iseither orabnormal.It is intended that criminal necessarily placeora society inwhich a divergent it moral codeprevails, because rather to apply to regions in which it are dominated, as peopleare is a region thepeoplewhoinhabit orbysome notdominated, interest which ordinarily bya tasteorbya passion has its roots in theoriginal of theindividual.It maybe an nature directly likehorse differ from ora sport, would racing. Sucha region art,likemusic, aremore andmore socialgroups immediate other bythefactthatitsinterests For thisreason its differences are likely to be due to moral fundamental. isolation. rather thanintellectual it offers, Because of the opportunity particularlyto the exceptional and abnormal typesof man, a great city tends to spread out and lay bare to the public view in a massive manner all the char-
obscured and suppressed acters and traitswhich are ordinarily The city,in short, communities. showsthe good and in smaller or clinicin whichhumannatureand social processes laboratory and profitably studied. maybe mostconveniently
evil in human nature in excess. It is thisfact,perhaps,more than any other which justifiesthe view that would make of the city a

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The City: Suggestions for the Investigation of Human Behavior in the City Environment Author(s): Robert E.

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

Walter Besant, East London,pp. 7-9.

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

thedemandforrational stimulates technical and methods, devices,

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

p. I69. BookofSocialOrigins, Source Thomas,

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN Tl1E CITY ENVIRONMENT

Charles Horton Cooley, SocialOrganization, p. I5.

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

on truancy, and on crime? on divorce,

of ownership ofproperty, of thehome, What is the effect particularly

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

Immigration Commission, Vol.VI, pp. I4-I6. Reports oftheUnited States

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

Commercialized vice and theliquor traffic.-Socialcontrol,under

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

It is characteristicof the two types of organization which

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

rather thanthemoresbecomesthe of custom, and publicopinion force in socialcontrol. dominant

secondarygroups and in the city, fashion tends to take the place

As a source of social controlpublic opinion becomes important

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

lendsspecialimporand socialcontagion.-What Temperament

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

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