Number 1 June 2012

Volume 39
Number 1
June 2012
INDIAN ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY

(www.indianecologicalsociety.com) Founder President: A.S. Atwal (Founded 1974, Registration No.: 30588-74)
Registered Office
College of Agriculture, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141004, Punjab, India (e-mail : indianecologicalsociety@yahoo.com) Advisory Board B.V. Patil P.S. Mihas T.P. Rajendran C. Devakumar Asha Dhawan A.S. Sidhu
Executive Council
President G.S. Dhaliwal Vice-Presidents S.K. Singh S.G. Bhave General Secretary-cum-Managing Editor A.K. Dhawan Joint Secretary-cum-Treasurer Vijay Kumar Councillors P.T. Patel D. Jena A. Shukla S. Chakraborti M.P. Rajanna K.S. Shylaraj Members A.P. Singh B. Mandal
S. Geetha
G.T. Gujar
R. Peshin A.K. Sharma T.R. Sharma S.K. Raina
V. Durga Rani Haseena Bhaskar S.B. Das Veena Khanna
Sanjeev Chauhan R.K. Pannu Kiran Bains V.K. Patil B. Mandal
S.S. Walia
Editorial Board Associate Editors Vikas Jindal Editors G. Hemalatha T.V.K. Singh M.P. Rajanna
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The Indian Journal of Ecology is an official organ of the Indian Ecological Society and is published sixmonthly in June and December. Research papers in all fields of ecology are accepted for publication from the members. The annual and life membership fee is Rs (INR) 500 and Rs 7500, respectively within India and US $ 60 and 300 for overseas. The annual subscription for institutions is Rs 2000 and US $ 300 within India and overseas, respectively. All payments should be by demand draft drawn in favour of the Indian Ecological Society payable at Ludhiana.
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1)
Indian Journal of Ecology
CONTENTS
Tree-ring Width of Teak (Tectona grandis L. F.) and Its Relationship with Rainfall and Temperature Satish Kumar Sinha Land Transformation and Urban Sprawl Mapping Using Remote Sensing and GIS Technologies A Case Study of Amritsar City, India Minakshi*, N.S. Tur, Amardeep Singh, Deepak Mehra, Harpinder Singh, Virrat Devaser and Rajneesh Kumar Agro-Climatic Resource Inventory Characterization of Punjab State in Spatial Domain S.K. Bal, J. Mukherjee, Gurjot Singh, Anil Sood, B.V. Choudhury Harpreet Singh and Prabhjyot Kaur Economic Impact of Insecticide Resistance Management (IRM) strategies in cotton in Muktsar district (Punjab) A.K. Dhawan, Vijay Kumar, Amardip Singh, Jasbir Singh and Amrik Singh Effect of Foliar Feeding of GA3, Triacontanol and Calcium Salts on Shelf-Life in Kinnow Mandarin Tanjeet Singh Chahal, J. S. Bal and Kiran Kour Effect of Sodium Sulphite-Microwave Pretreatment on Paddy Straw Digestibility Urmila Gupta Phutela, Karamjeet Kaur and N.K. Khullar Evaluation of Quality Parameters of Low Alcoholic, Self Carbonated Fermented Beverage P. Sahota, G. Pandove and T.S. Dhillion Impact of a Paper Mill on Surrounding Epiphytic Lichen Communities Using Multivariate Analysis Pulak Das, Santosh Joshi, Jayashree Rout and D.K. Upreti Effect of pH upon Copepoda and Cladocera under Laboratory Conditions C.B. Tiwary and Kamlakant Thakur Diversity of Molluscan Fauna Inhabited by River Chenab-fed Stream (Gho-Manhasan) K.K. Sharma and Samita Chowdhary Diurnal Variation of Phytoplankton in the Kali Estuary, Karwar, West Coast of India U.G. Naik, V.V. Nayak and N. Kusuma Heavy Metal Content in Soils and Crops Irrigated with Untreated Sewage Water in Sangrur District of Punjab M.P.S. Khurana, Kuldip Singh and Dhanwinder Singh Interactive Effect of Cobalt, Boron and Molybdenum on Yield Attributes of Pea (Pisum sativum L.). D. K. Singh, P. Kumar and S.K. Singh Micro-nutrient status of pear orchards in Kashmir M. A. Dar, J. A. Wani, S.K. Raina, M.Y. Bhat and M.A. Malik Evaluation of a Customized Fertilizer on Wheat B.S. Sekhon, Satwinderjit Kaur, and Pritpal Singh 1
6 11 18 23 27 32 38 44 48 52 58 63 67 71
Effect of Organic Nitrogen Management on Yield and Quality of Produce in RiceVegetable based Cropping System 76 R. N. Meena and Kalan Singh Effect of Biofertilizers on Yield and Quality Traits of Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.) N.S. Gill, J. S. Bal and D. S. Khurana Effect of Nitrogen Levels, Cultivars and Weed Control Treatments on Smothering Potential of Canola Gobhi Sarson (Brassica napus L.) Lovreet Singh Shergill, B. S. Gill and P. S. Chahal Vertical Distribution of Readily and Slowly Available Potassium in a Typic Haplustept under Different Cropping Sequences H.S. Jassal, Raj Kumar, Kuldip Singh and N.S. Dhillon 82
86
92
CONTENTS
Forms and Quantity-Intensity Parameters of Potassium Applied to Wheat under Temperate Conditions of Kashmir J.A Wani, M.A.Malik, M.A. Dar, Farida Akhter and M.A. Bhat Evaluating Impact of Watershed Development Programme on Land Resources in Shiwalik Hills of J&K Narinder Deep Singh Nitrogen and Spacing Requirements of Promising Hybrids of Indian Mustard (Brassica juncea L. Czern & Coss) Parminder Singh Sandhu, S.S. Mahal and Virender Sardana Studies on Growth, Yield and Yield Attributes of Wheat-Mentha Intercropping System in Relation to Planting Methods and Nitrogen Levels Sumedh Chopra, Jaspal Singh and Satpal Singh Evaluation of Bt Cotton as an Integral Component of Integrated Pest Management Vikas Jindal, Naveen Aggarwal and Vikram Singh Farmers perceived constraints in the uptake of cotton IPM practices Rajinder Peshin, A.K. Dhawan, Kamaldeep Singh and Rakesh Sharma A Case-Study of Two Sunscreens that May Prevent Apoptotic Sunburn Chanda Siddoo Atwal 98 102 108
112 118 123 131
Melia dubia: A Potential Species for Agroforestry Under Different Agro-Climatic Conditions of Haryana State of India 135 Jagdish Chander Response of Potting Media and Sunshine on Bougainvillea Cultivars Ravipal Singh and R.K. Dubey Efficient In vitro Sterilization Technique for Micropropagation of Banana (Musa acuminata) cv. Grand Naine Pooja Manchanda, Ajinder Kaur and S.S. Gosal Effect of Some Bio-pesticides and Chemical Pesticides on Survival of Larval Parasitoid Bracon hebetor Say (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) Lakshman Chandra Patel and Anirudhya Pramanik Adsorption and Leaching Behaviour of Sulfosulfuron S. K. Randhawa and Amandeep Singh Brar Screening of Seed Sources and Development of Powdery Mildew of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. K.S. Ahlawat, J.C. Kaushik, O.P. Lathwal and Avtar Singh Management of root-knot Nematode Meloidogyne javanica in Pigeonpea through Seed Treatment Tarique Hassan Askary Standardization of Method for Soil Arthropods Extraction by Tullgren Funnel Romila Akoijam and Badal Bhattacharyya Strategies to Enhance Fish Production from Ox-bow Lakes of Muzaffarpur, Bihar Sujeet Rajak, Arpita Sharma, S.K. Chakraborty, S.C. Rai, Dilip Kumar and A.K. Jaiswar Effect of Residue Management Practices and Nitrogen Levels on Soil Properties, Yield and Uptake of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium in Soybean Sown after Preceding Wheat Crop K. S. Saini and S. K. Chongtham Sowing Time, Seed Rate and Planting Method effect on Nitrogen Uptake and Quality of Bread Wheat Balkaran Singh, R.S. Uppal and R.P. Singh Performance of Direct Seeded Rice as Influenced by Variety and Date of Sowing U. S. Walia, S. S. Walia and Shelly Nayyar Effect of Fruit Maturity and Temperature on Seed Germination in Summer Squash (Cucurbita pepo L.) Namarta Gupta, S.S. Bal and H.S. Randhawa Evaluation of N, P, Zn Complex Fertilizer for its Efficiency using Wheat as Test Crop in IndoGangetic Alluvial Soils of Northwestern India B.S. Brar, D.S. Benipal and Jagdeep Singh Effect of Bio-fertilizers in Combination with Chemical Fertilizers on Growth and Yield of Broccoli (Brassica oleracea Var. italica Plank) Pradeep Kumar, Sanjay Kumar, Yogesh Chandra Yadav and Adesh Kumar 138 141
143 145 148 151 153 156
158 160 164 167
169 172
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 1-5
Tree-ring Width of Teak (Tectona grandis L. F.) and Its Relationship with Rainfall and Temperature
Satish Kumar Sinha
Dendrochronology Laboratory, Wood Properties and Uses Division, Institute of Wood Science & Technology, Bangalore-560 003, India E-mail: sinhafri@gmail.com
Abstract: Tree-ring chronologies of teak (Tectona grandis L.) at two sites, Mundagod and Shimoga, in Western Ghats of Karnataka were established. Both sites are influenced by climate varying with altitude and proximity to the Arabian sea and the equator. Mundagod is a dry deciduous forest area in North Karnataka where the south-west monsoon is crucial for the main rainy season. Shimoga is a moist deciduous forest area in Central Karnataka dominated by both south-west and north-east monsoon. According to our comparison of the tree-ring chronologies with the respective climate data, teak growth at Mundagod is negatively correlated with October rainfall of previous year and positively correlated with June to August rainfall of current year. At Shimoga, however, teak growth is positively associated with December rainfall of previous year and May to August rainfall of current year. Temperature during the pre-monsoon season, plays an important role for the onset of cambium activity at both sites. Key Words: South-West monsoon, Tree ring, North-East monsoon, Teak
Attempts are going on to retrieve climatic information using growth rings of trees from several sites in India. Being dominated by the tropical monsoon and influenced by oceanic climate, the Western Ghats of Karnataka is an important site for dendroclimatic analysis. It is estimated that about twenty five percent of the total number of tree species produce growth rings (Chowdhury, 1939, 1940). Two taxa, teak (Tectona grandis) and toon (Toona ciliata) exhibit datability of growth rings to the exact years of their formation, which is a prerequisite for dendrochronology. Amongst these two taxa, teak is widely distributed in the peninsular region of the country. It has been studied from a dendrochronological point of view at several sites viz., from moist deciduous forest in Thane, Maharashtra (Pant and Borgaonkar, 1983; Ramesh et al., 1989; Bhattacharyya et al.,1992), dry deciduous forest in Korzi, Andhra Pradesh (Yadav and Bhattacharyya, 1996), Western ghats of Kerala (Bhat and Priya, 1997; Bhattacharyya et al., 2007), upper Narmada river basin in Central India (Wood, 1996) to dry deciduous forests of Madhya Pradesh (Shah et al., 2007; Somaru et al., 2008) and dry deciduous forests of Karnataka and Maharashtra (Sinha et al., 2009, 2011). These exploratory studies revealed that tree rings of teak could be valuable proxy data for dendroclimatic analysis, especially monsoon precipitation. Western Ghats of Karnataka are well known for the best teak growing sites in India. Shimoga and Mundagod falling in this region and with a distance of 200 km between them were selected for the present study. Shimoga is a tropical moist deciduous forest and Mundagod is a dry deciduous forest. No detailed tree-ring analysis
has been reported so far on this tree species in this area. In this paper, an attempt has been made to analyze the growth rings of teak (Tectona grandis) in relation to rainfall and temperature at these two sites of Western Ghats.
MATERIAL AND METHODS Study Area and Sample Collection

Ten increment core samples were collected, using an increment borer, at diameter at breast height (DBH) of teak trees in Shimoga (13o56 N lat. and 75o38' E long.) in October 2007 and ten discs were collected in Mundagod in April 1999 from the base of felled trees at Yellapur Karnataka (140 58' N lat. and 750 1E long.).
Tree-ring Data
The surfaces of the twenty samples were sanded with different grades of sand papers to expose the growth rings and prepare the wood for microscopic analysis. In the case of discs, two radial strips of 1.5 cm width were cut from opposite sides of each disc, which included all the rings from pith to bark. After counting the rings, ring-widths were measured along two radii of each disc and a single radius of each core sample to the nearest 0.01 mm under a Leica stereo-zoom microscope with a linear stage (Velmex) interfaced with a computer system to record the measurements. Each ring of these radii was dated to the calendar year of its formation using cross-dating technique (Stokes and Smiley, 1968). These measurements and dates were re-checked using the computer programme
Satish Kumar Sinha

Table 1. Selected statistics of tree-ring index chronologies of Tectona grandis L. at Mundagod and Shimoga. Mundagod Chronology time span Number of trees (radii) Mean tree-ring width (mm) Standard deviation Mean sensitivity Autocorrelation order 1 Common interval time span Number of trees (radii) Mean correlation between trees Signal-to-noise ratio Expressed population signal Variance explained % in first eigenvector AD 1941-1999 10 (20) 2.14 0.320 0.219 0.024 1944 - 1999 9 (18) 0.25 5.90 0.86 30.95 Shimoga AD 1947-2007 10 (10) 3.16 0.210 0.258 0.020 1960 - 2007 8 (8) 0.48 2.69 0.73 64.84
COFECHA (Holmes, 1983) for any error in the measurement or dating of the samples. Finally, corrected measurements of tree-ring sequences along 30 radii were selected for further analysis. The ring-width data series of two sites were standardized using a negative exponential method of ARSTAN programme (Cook, 1985). After standardization, a ring-width index chronology was prepared from each ringwidth series from both the sites. Indices were derived by dividing the measured ring-width data with the corresponding predicted value of ring-width for each year to extract useful climatic signals. The chronologies of both sites contain significant autocorrelation at lags of 1-2 years, which were removed from each ring-width series by autoregressive modeling. All individual index series were averaged from both the sites to form a site- tree-ring-widthindex chronology. The prepared mean tree-ring-width-index chronology of Mundagod and Shimoga extend from AD 1941-1999 and AD 1947-2007, respectively (Fig. 1). The chronology considered suitable for climatic study should have good correlation both between trees and within trees, high mean sensitivity, high standard deviation, high values of common variance and a high signal to noise ratio. All these statistics considered for the evaluation of tree ring chronology are shown in Table 1. Mean sensitivity is a measure of the relative difference in width between consecutive rings (Fritts, 1976). Its value ranges from 0 (indicating no change in ring-width from one year to the next) to 2 (where a zero value occurs next to a non-zero one in a time series, i.e., occurrence of missing
ring). High value of mean sensitivity is desirable for ringwidth series as it indicates the presence of considerable high-frequency variance (Fritts, 1976). Autocorrelation is the association between ring width for the year (t-1) and the subsequently formed ring t, t+1, to t+k, which can perturb the casual relationship between climate and tree growth. The Expressed Population Signal (EPS) is a measure of the correlation between the mean chronology of samples from each site and the population from which they are drawn. Wigely et al. (1984) suggest that chronologies with EPS e 0.85 can be accepted as reliable chronology for dendroclimatic analysis. Strength of signal between trees (common variance) has been estimated by calculating the signal to noise ratio (Wigley et al., 1984). The value of signal
Fig. 1. Mean ring-width index chronology of Tectona grandis at Mundagod and Shimoga in Western Ghats of Karnataka
Relationship of Tree-ring Width with Weather Parameters

to noise ratio greater than one indicates the more common useful climatic signal. The common variance is a mean of the correlation coefficients of all possible pairwise combinations of ring-width index series over the common interval period. This value indicates the variance owing to the common forcing factor of a site, which might be a climatic effect experienced by the all trees over a wide area.
Climatic Data
The mean monthly temperature and rainfall data of two meteorological stations namely Belgaum and Shimoga, close to the tree-ring sampling sites have been used in the response function analysis for Mundagod and Shimoga tree-ring samples. The records extend from AD 1941-1999 and AD 1947- 2007 for Mundagod and Shimoga respectively.
Fig. 2. Mean monthly precipitation and temperature at Mundagod based on the data from AD 1941-1999.
Response Function Analysis

Climate and tree-growth relationship is assessed by means of response function analysis using a computer programme RESPO (Fritts, 1976). This procedure is a multiple regression analysis in which monthly climatic parameters (temperature and rainfall) are predictors and tree-ring parameters are predictants. The resulting regression equation quantifies the response of the tree to variations in the most important climatic variables. Monthly mean temperature and rainfall at Mundagod and Shimoga were entered as predictor variables and the tree-ring indices as the predictant variables. The analyses were based on the time period 1941-1999 and 1947 to 2007 for Mundagod and Shimoga that were common to both the meteorological and tree-ring data, respectively.
Fig. 3. Mean monthly precipitation and temperature at Shimoga based on the data from AD 1947-2007.
Tree Growth and Climate Relationship

The initiation of growth period in teak starts around March and reaches a peak in June- July and by the first week of October there is no wood formation. Shedding of leaves starts by December and by first week of February, all trees are leafless (Chowdhury, 1939, 1940; Rao and Dave, 1981; Priya and Bhat, 1999). In constructing the response functions, a total of 26 variables were used as predictor variables, which means 13 for temperature and 13 for rainfall from previous October (end of previous growing season) to the current October (end of current growing season). Since many of climatic variables are highly intercorrelated, principle components for 26 data series were obtained. Ring width index chronologies of Mundagod and Shimoga were regressed on the climate principal components to obtain response function coefficients. Figure 4 shows the standardized regression coefficients for the response functions on a monthly scale for the tree ring chronologies from Mundagod and Shimoga. Analysis of tree-growth and climate relationship at Mundagod revealed that June-August rainfall and March
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The chronology statistics (Table 1) suggested that teak at both the sites exhibit moderately high values of standard deviation, mean sensitivity, EPS, common variance and signal to noise ratio, there by proving suitability of these chronologies for dendroclimatic analysis. In case of Mundagod, climatic data shows that April (28.02oC) and December-January (21.9 oC) are the hottest and coldest months, respectively. July receives the highest rainfall (389.2mm) and January-February are the driest months having only 0.75 mm of precipitation (Fig. 2). Similarly in the case of Shimoga, April (27.83 oC) and December-January (21.7 oC) are the hottest and the coldest months, respectively. July receives the highest rainfall (1983.59 mm), October to December months experience scanty rain from north-east monsoon and January-February are the driest months having only 21.45 mm of precipitation (Fig. 3).
Satish Kumar Sinha

the early SW monsoon and December rainfall of previous year might be due to the effect of late NE monsoon. The inverse relationship with January rainfall may be due to the fact that during January, low rainfall may favour respiration over photosynthesis, as trees remain leafless and photosynthesis is almost nil at that time, this might be the cause for lower tree growth. The positive correlation of March-April temperature with tree growth indicates that warm and dry conditions from March to April favours the initiation of cambial activity. Tree-growth and climate relationship in Western Ghats of Karnataka has great significance since it adds novel information to the understanding of the temporal variability in growth of teak with changes in climate. Mundagod and Shimoga are two sites of Karnataka influenced by different types of monsoon climate. Shimoga which is influenced by two monsoons showed wider ring width in teak than Mundagod which is influenced by only one monsoon. This study substantiated that the pattern of ring width in teak varies with the local climatic conditions of different sites.
temperature were positively associated with tree-ring width whereas, October rainfall of previous year, April rainfall and temperature of current year were negatively associated (Fig. 4 a, b). Positive tree growth and climate relationship during June-August suggests that southwest monsoon rainfall plays an important role in the growth of teak. October rainfall of the preceding year showed negative influence on tree growth. This might be due to non-availability of moisture and nutrients as meager rainfall may have eluviated the nutrients to the non-availability zone. A high temperature during March is required for the initiation of cambial activity (Rao and Rajput, 1999). Increased temperature during this pre-monsoon month was also recorded to have an important role in the initiation of cambial activity by Bhattacharyya et al. (2007). The inverse relationship with April rainfall and temperature might be due to a lower net photosynthetic rate, presumably due to higher evapotranspiration. During this month, precipitation is less but temperature is at its maximum level in this region (Fig. 2). Thus, increased precipitation during a hot summer accelerates the rate of evapotranspiration, which might have caused a water stress for teak trees. At Shimoga, December rainfall of the previous year, May-August rainfall and March-April temperature of current year were positively associated with ring width whereas January rainfall was negatively associated (Fig. 4 c, d). Shimoga receives rainfall due to early south-west monsoon (May-August) and north-east monsoon (OctoberDecember). The positive relationship between tree growth and May-August rainfall of current year is due to the effect of
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The present paper represents part of a research project sponsored by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government of India. The author thanks Dr. H.P. Borgaonkar from Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune, for assisting in tree ring sample analysis. Facilities provided by Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bangalore are gratefully acknowledged.
Fig. 4. Response function analysis of tree-ring chronologies of teak (Tectona grandis) at Mundagod and Shimoga using monthly temperature and rainfall at Belgaum and Shimoga, respectively. Vertical bars indicate 95% confidence interval.
Relationship of Tree-ring Width with Weather Parameters
REFERENCES
Bhat, K.M. and Priya, P.B. (1997) Tree ring responses to physical changes in climate in ring porous tropical hardwood-teak. In: Proc. IUFRO World Congress, Division 5, Pullman, USA. Bhattacharyya, A., Yadav, R.R., Borgaonkar, H.P. and Pant, G.B. (1992) Growth-ring analysis of Indian tropical trees: dendroclimatic potential. Curr. Sci. 62 (11):736-740. Bhattacharyya, A., Eckstein, D., Shah, S.K. and Chaudhary, V. (2007) Analyses of climatic changes around Parambikulum, South India, based on early wood mean vessel area of teak. Curr. Sci. 93 (8):1159-1164. Chowdhury, K.A. (1939) The formation of growth rings in Indian trees-I. Indian Forest Records 1-39. Chowdhury, K.A. (1940) The formation of growth rings in Indian trees-II. Indian Forest Records 41-57. Cook, E.R. (1985) A time series analysis approach to tree ring standardization. Dissertation, University of Arizona, Tucson, USA. Fritts, H. C. (1976) Tree Rings and Climate. Academic Press, London, pp.567. Holmes, R.L. (1983) A computer assisted quality control in tree-ring dating and measurement; Tree-Ring Bull. 43: 69-78. Pant, G.B. and Borgaonkar, H.P. (1983) Growth rings of teak trees and regional climatology (An ecological study of Thane region). In: L.R. Singh, S. Singh, R.C. Tiwari and R.P. Srivastava (Eds), Environmental Management. Geog. Soc. Allahabad, India, pp.153-158. Priya, P.B. and Bhat, K.M. (1999) Influence of rainfall, irrigation and age on the growth, periodicity and wood structure in teak (Tectona grandis). IAWA 20: 181-192. Ramesh, R., Bhattacharya, S.K. and Pant, G.B. (1989) Climatic significance of D variations in a tropical tree species from India. Nature 337: 149150. Rao, K.S. and Dave, Y.S. (1981) Seasonal variations in the cambial
anatomy of Tectona grandis (Verbenaceae). Nordic J. Bot. 1: 535-542. Rao, K.S. and Rajput, K.S. (1999) Seasonal behavior of vascular cambium in teak ( Tectona grandis L . ) growing in moist deciduous and dry deciduous forests. IAWA Journal 20 (1): 85-93. Shah, S.K, Bhattacharyya, A. and Chaudhary, V. (2007) Reconstruction of June-September precipitation based on treering data of teak (Tectona grandis L.) from Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh, India. Dendrochronologia 25: 57-64. Sinha, S.K., Deepak, M.S. and Rao, R.V. (2009) Climatic response of early wood mean vessel area of teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) from Shimoga of Central Karnataka. J. Ind. Acad. Wood Sci. 6 (1 &2): 90-97. Sinha, S.K., Deepak, M.S. Rao, R.V. and Borgaonkar, H.P. (2011) Dendroclimatic analysis of teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) annual rings from two locations of peninsular India. Curr. Sci. 100 (1): 84-88. Somaru, R., Borgaonkar, H.P. and Sikder, A.B. (2008) Tree-ring analysis of teak (Tectona grandis L.F.) in Central India and its probable linkage with moisture fluctuation: A case study. J. Earth System Sciences 117 (5): 637-645. Stokes, M.A. and Smiley, T.L. (1968) An introduction to tree-ring dating; The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Wigley, T.M.L., Briffa, K.R. and Jones, P.D. (1984) On the average value of correlated time series, with applications in dendroclimatology and hydrometeorology. J. Climate Appl. Meteorol. 23: 201-213. Wood, M.L. (1996) Synoptic dendroclimatology in the upper Narmada river basin- an exploratory study in Central India. MS thesis, University of Arizona. Yadav, R.R. and Bhattacharya, A. (1996) Biological inferences from the growth climate relationship in teak from India. Proceedings of Indian Academy of Science B 62(3): 233-238.
Received 10 August, 2011; Accepted 11 December, 2011
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 6-10
Land Transformation and Urban Sprawl Mapping Using Remote Sensing and GIS Technologies - A Case Study of Amritsar City, India
Minakshi*, N.S. Tur, Amardeep Singh, Deepak Mehra, Harpinder Singh, Virrat Devaser and Rajneesh Kumar
Punjab Remote Sensing Centre, Ludhiana-141 004, India *E-mail: minakshi_kaur@yahoo.com
Abstract: Understanding of the growth dynamics of urban agglomerations is essential for ecologically feasible developmental planning. The inefficient and consumptive use of land and its associated resources is termed sprawl. By monitoring changes in the urban sprawl over a period of time, the impact of changing land use on land, ecology and environment system can be assessed. Mapping urban growth by conventional methods is too tedious and a slow process, and by the time information becomes available to planners, it is already outdated and redundant since the damage has already been done. Satellite remote sensing data and application of GIS technology provide an alternative means of rapidly assessing the dynamics and development of sprawl so that timely action may be taken. The urban growth analysis of Amritsar city was undertaken with an objective of studying the expansion of Amritsar city at the expense of fertile agriculture land. The study was carried out using panchromatic cartosat-1 data of 2.5 m spatial resolution and IRS P6-LISS 1V MX data of 5.8 m spatial resolution to delineate the extent, pace pattern and direction of growth of the city area of Amritsar with time. The urban area in Amritsar city has increased almost three times since 1972. The rate of land consumption was substantially moderate till 2002 but after 2002 witnessed a sharp increase in land consumption. It is also evident from the land use map for years 1972, 2002 and 2006 that the land consumed for built up after 1972 was mainly agriculture land. Key Words: Urban Sprawl, Remote Sensing, GIS, Amritsar, Land use
The shift of rural population to cities and towns for livelihood is leading to unplanned growth of towns and cities. The pressure of an ever growing population becomes a burden on the limited civic amenities which are virtually collapsing. Asymmetrical growth of urban centers consumes agricultural land at their periphery. The outward spread of cities is accompanied by many environmental problems: changes in the land use patterns, fragmentation and destruction of wild life habitat, discharge of polluted runoff water into stream and surface water bodies, and pollution of ground water resources. Besides taxing the groundwater resources available for an urban centre, an increase in the paved area severely reduces the ground water recharge potential, leading to situations which may truly be potential catastrophes. The current trend of spatial urban growth in most of the Indian cities is haphazard and in an unplanned manner, particularly along the urban-rural fringe. There is an obvious need for continuously monitoring the phenomena of growth of cities/towns, and mapping and analyzing the growth patterns (Farooq et al., 2008). Barnes et al. (2001) categorized the sprawls depending on their forms and patterns. This information is needed by the urban administrators and planners so as to provide basic amenities and infrastructure for the complex urban environment (Pathan et al., 1991; Mundia and Aniya, 2005; Mahesh et al., 2008). Mapping urban growth by conventional methods is too
tedious and a slow process. Satellite remote sensing data and application of GIS technologies provide an alternative means of rapidly assessing the dynamics and development of sprawl so that timely action may be taken. Besides being flexible and extensible, the datasets are easily rectified, updated and may be used for other applications. Infrastructral development brings along negative impacts on natural resources and ecology of the area and particularly it matters most in agrarian state like Punjab (Narinder et al., 2011). The study area shown in Fig. 1 was decided keeping in view the local planning area map of Amritsar city. It covers an area of 485.9 km2 including 87 villages in full and parts
Land Transformation and Urban Sprawl Mapping of Amritsar City

of another 26 villages. These villages surround the Amritsar city. Amritsar is located in Punjab state of India at 313759.16" latitude 745156.16" longitude. The objective of the project is to study the expansion of Amritsar city at the expense of fertile agriculture land.
MATERIAL AND METHODS Satellite Data Used

a) b) IRS 1C/1D LISS III multispectral data of 2002 with spatial resolution of 23.5 metres. High resolution Cartosat I data (spatial resolution 2.5 metres) for the year 2005 and IRS P6 LISS IV digital data of 5.8 metres resolution for the year 2006. Survey of India Toposheet for 1972. Collateral population data from the government agencies, village boundaries from Director Land Record.
c) d)
The objective of the study was to map the land transformation of agriculture land to built up land from 1972 to 2006. For mapping the extent of the urban area as it stood at the 1972 level, survey of India Topographic map 44 I/14 was used. Apart from the extent of the urban area, this has details of drainage, water bodies, rail and road network, built up area and administrative boundaries. IRS IC/ID, LISSIII multi spectral data of 2002 was used to map the extent of sprawl for 2002. Similarly most recent built up was marked from Cartosat data and IRS P6, LISS IV digital data of 2006. The study area was marked using the local planning area map of Amritsar city. Base map of the study area showing permanent features like road, railway and canal was prepared. All the built up areas were marked with in the study area using the available information for the year 1972 from topographic maps and digitized in Arc-Info 9.1 GIS software. With in the same study area built up was interpreted on line from March, 2002 data of IRS IC/ID-LISS-
Minakshi, N.S. Tur, Amardeep Singh, Deepak Mehra, Harpinder Singh, Virrat Devaser and Rajneesh Kumar
commuted and amounts to be 49.43 km2 (Table 1). The IRS-IC/ID LISS-III, March 2002 data was used to map the built up area with in the area of interest for the year 2002.
Table 2. Urban population in Amritsar city during 1971-2001 Year 1971 1981 1991 2001 Population 434951 594844 708835 1003917 Decadal per cent increase in population 36.8 19.2 41.6
III. Similarly IRS P6 LISS IV data of 2006 was also interpreted to update the built up for 2006. The fine resolution Cartosat I data for the year 2005 facilitated clear demarcation of built up areas and agriculture areas which was other wise not possible from LISS III data of spatial resolution 23.5 metres. The maps generated for years 1972, 2002 and 2006 were overlaid in Arc GIS to map the urban sprawl and land transformation from agriculture to build up. The area statistics of built up land with in the study area for these three years was calculated. The methodology followed has been depicted in Fig. 2.

Urban sprawl refers to the expansion of town or city as a result of natural population and influx of migrants due to industrial or commercial purpose. Physical growth of Amritsar city from the year 1972 to 2006 has been studied with the help of survey of India topographic maps (1972) and multi date remote sensing data viz. IRS IC/ID LISS III. March 2002 and Cartosat data of 2006 (Fig. 3) employing both visual and digital technology and supported by ground check. Land transformation map of Amritsar (Fig. 4) was prepared by overlaying the land use maps of 1972, 2002 and 2006 using the ARC-INFO GIS software. In 1972, the urban area of Amritsar consists of old, thickly populated core constituting the ancient city confined mostly with in the double wall prepared at the time of Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
Table 1. Built up and cultivated area around Amritsar City (19722006) Year 1972 2002 2006 Built up area (km2) 49.43 127.29 142.01 Cultivated area (km 2) 436.48 358.62 343.90 Per cent increase in built up 157.5 187.3
Source: Economic Advisor, Statistical Abstract of Punjab, 2007.
* Total study area of 485.91 km2.
This core area is almost completely covered and there appears to be no patch available for any kind of development. The city has a peculiar example of planning system with unique areas called katras. The katras are self styled residential units that-provided unique defence system. To the south east of Amritsar railway station is the dusty and congested old city crowded with narrow zig zag streets with mixed commercial and residential structures. Golden temple is in the heart of the old city and the walls of Maharaja Ranjit Singh time had been demolished to a ring road around the city. The other rural built ups are scattered around the city with in the study area. The area statistics of built up land with in the study area for the year 1972 was
The general trend of growth from 1972 to 2002 was observed mainly along the transportation corridors connecting Amritsar to Delhi and Pathankot. The increase in city area through incorporation of surrounding rural areas in the city limits has been a continuing process. However it could not develop much towards western side due to the proximity of the Indo-Pak border. But after wars in 1965 and 1971, military camps were established in the western side of the city. The new urban areas are being developed to the North East part of the city like Rambagh, Mall and other posh areas of Amritsar. Part of many surrounding villages were covered by built up land in 2002 e.g., Verka, Saidpura, Naushehra, Nangli, Kaler, Kambo, Kala Ghanupur, Gumtala, Mahal, Hair, Bal, Kathanian, Hamidpur, Vadala Guru, Khurmanian, Baser Ke, Guru Wali, Fatehpur, Sultan Wind, Rakh Sukar Garh, Tung Bala, Tung Paian, Miran Kot, Nizarpura and Kot Khalsa. In the year 2002, the total built up land with in the study area was calculated to be 127.29 km2, almost an increase of 157.5 per cent with in a time span of thirty years. The cartosat data of 2006 depicts the recent picture of urban development (Fig. 3) and according to this data the total built up land with in the study area comes out to be 142.01 km2 (an increase of 187.3 per cent in thirty four years). The land transformation (Fig. 4) shows that after 2002 the pattern of growth is mainly high density ribbon sprawl towards north western part along Ajnala and Verka roads. According to census 2001, the total population of Amritsar city has been upto 1,003917, is much more than the total population of the city in 1971 (Table 2). There is a population increase of 130.8 per cent in three decades. This has been accompanied by an unprecedented wave of development. During the last thirty four years, on an average 2.72 km2 of area per year is paved over or otherwise converted to urban human uses. Not with standing the poor pollution control facilities, every person added to the population, consumes additional resources and creates additional waste. All this has resulted in decline in the quality
Land Transformation and Urban Sprawl Mapping of Amritsar City
10
Minakshi, N.S. Tur, Amardeep Singh, Deepak Mehra, Harpinder Singh, Virrat Devaser and Rajneesh Kumar
thereby, environmental quality.
of life, especially for the growing development. One of the primary issues is the loss of prime agricultural land due to urbanization. The study reveals that the urban area has increased almost three times since 1972. The rate of land consumption was substantially moderate till 2002 but after 2002 witnessed a sharp increase in land consumption. It is also evident from the land use map for year 1972, 2002 and 2006 that the land consumed for built up after 1972 was mainly agriculture land. Hence the fertile crop land is being used extensively for commercial, industrial, residential, educational and recreational establishments. The satellite data and GIS technology are very well used for broad land use/land cover mapping with respect to agricultural and urban areas. Urban fringe development of construction sites are easily delineated on satellite data because of their tone, texture and pattern. The urban sprawl maps generated using GIS technologies are very useful for other applications. As observed the agricultural land is being consumed at alarming rate for unplanned development of urban regions. There is a need to balance the present requirements of land against future needs. Preserving agricultural land in the fringe areas of expanding cities is vital for preserving and maintaining open spaces and
REFERENCES
Barnes, K.B., Morgan, III J., Roberge, M.C. and Lowe, S. (2001) Sprawl development; its pattern, consequences and measurement, Towson University Retrieved June 27, 2006 from http:// Chesapeake.towson.edu/landscape/urban sprawl/ download/sprawlwhilepaperPDF Farooq, S. and Ahmad, S. (2008) Urban sprawl development around Aligarh city: A study aided by satellite remote sensing and GIS. J. Ind. Soc. Rem. Sens. 36:77-88. Pathan, S.K., Shukla, V.K., Patel, R.G., Patel, B.R. and Mehta, K.S. (1991) Urban land use mapping. A case study of Ahmedabad city. J. Ind. Soc. Rem. Sens. 19: 95-112. Economic Advisor, Punjab. (2007) Statistical Abstract of Punjab, Economic and Statistical Organisation, Govt. of Punjab. Publication No. 915. Mundia, C.N. and Aniya, M. (2005) Analysis of land use/cover changes and urban expansion of Nairobi city using remote sensing and GIS. Int. J. Rem. Sens. 26:2831-2849 Jat, M.K., Garg, P.K. and Khare, Deepak (2008) Monitoring and modelling of urban sprawl using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Int. J. App. Earth Observation and Geoinformation 10:26-43. Tur, N.S., Singh, A., Mehra, D., Singh, H., Minakshi, Kumar, R. and Devasar V. (2011) Mapping of urban sprawl around Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar. Indian J. Ecol. 38(2): 155-162.
Received 8 August, 2011; Accepted 4 January, 2012
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 11-17
Agro-Climatic Resource Inventory Characterization of Punjab State in Spatial Domain

S.K. Bal*, J. Mukherjee, Gurjot Singh, Anil Sood1, B.V. Choudhury1, Harpreet Singh and Prabhjyot Kaur
Department of Agricultural Meteorology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India 1 Punjab Remote Sensing Centre, Ludhiana, India *E-mail: bal_sk@yahoo.com
Abstract: Agro-climatic resource inventory characterization in spatial domain can play a great role in site specific suitability of sustainable agricultural crop production. An attempt has been made for creation of spatial database and zoning of agro-climatic resources of Punjab in spatial environment using GIS approach. This zoning approach divided Punjab into five zones for temperature and seven zones for Length of Growing Period (LGP). These newly drawn zones reflect that the average annual temperature of the state varies from 21-26OC, with LGP ranging from < 60 to 180 days. Temperature and LGP variation in the entire state depicted a reverse trend, being maximum temperature in south-western part with lowest LGP while lowest temperature being recorded in the northern most parts with highest LGP. Amongst all thermal zones, area under annual average temperature 23-24 C was highest (58% of total geographical area) followed by annual average temperature 24-25 C and the least area was under annual average temperature 21-22 C. Similarly, the state has highest area (29.5%) where LGP varies from 120-140 days (L3 zone) followed by L4 and L5. Less than 1 per cent of the total area of the state has LGP of >160 days. Overlaying of thermal and LGP layers further resulted into 7 thermal-LGP zones. Maximum area of the state (36% of total geographical area) was under annual average temperature 23-24OC & LGP 120-140 days zone followed by zone with annual average temperature 23-24OC & LGP 100-120 days. Key Words: Agro-climatic resources, ArcGIS, LGP, Punjab, Thermal zone
The survival and failure of particular land use or farming system in a given region heavily relies on careful assessment and adoption to location specific agro-climatic resources. Temperature (thermal) and moisture regimes are the two most important components represent agroclimatic resources of an area. Plants can grow and thrive only between certain limits of temperature (upper, lower and optimal) and that limits also differ from species to species and even within a given species from one stage of life cycle to next (Schulze et al., 1997). Availability of soil moisture also plays a great role in deciding the length of crop growth periods. A general characterization of moisture conditions is achieved through the concept of length of growing period (LGP), i.e., the period during the year when both moisture availability and temperature are conducive to crop growth. Farmers cropping strategies are undoubtedly influenced by the variability they have experienced in the onset of the rainy season. A practical zoning approach of agro-climatic regions thus arises, based on thermal and moisture regimes because climate represented by similar thermal and moisture regimes forms uniform geographic areas capable of supporting agricultural developmental planning and other interventions (FAO, 1976). Each zone has a similar combination of constraints and potentials for land use and serves as a focus for formulation and implementation of
location specific recommendations in order to improve the existing land use situation, either through increasing sustainable production system or by arresting further degradation of productive landmasses. In the post green revolution era, it is impossible for Indian Punjab, to increase financial returns by expanding cropped area as there is little scope left for further increase in horizontal expansion of cultivable area. As a byproduct of green revolution, multiple problems have surfaced and are now confronting agricultural productivity and sustainability of natural resources particularly due to large scale adoption of high input intensive mono-cropping without due consideration to site suitability based on agro-climatic and agro-physical resource inventory. This has led to substantial changes in the growth of agriculture and land use/land cover and ultimately the change in global climate contributing factors have led to change in climate at various places of Punjab in the recent past (Hundal and Kaur, 2002; Mukherjee and Bal, 2003). In the past, agro-climatic resource inventory characterization for the state of Punjab involved manual integration of data (Mavi, 1984). Manual integration is time consuming, labour intensive and generally, lack in providing information in time space dimension for a large region like the whole state of Punjab. As a result, large amount of climatic data and other agro-physical inputs could not be
12
S.K. Bal, J. Mukherjee, Gurjot Singh, Anil Sood, B.V. Choudhury, Harpreet Singh and Prabhjyot Kaur
Table1. Locations of meteorological observatories used for the study area. Sr No Station name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Abohar Amritsar Ballowal Saunkhri Bathinda Ferozepur Jalandhar Ludhiana Patiala Kapurthala Gurdaspur Pathankot Chandigarh Hoshiarpur Sirsa Ambala Hissar Ganganagar Latitude 30.15 N
o o o o
handled easily. This led to the loss of information on spatial variability. However, with the advent of space technologies such as remote sensing (RS), geographic information systems (GIS) and global positioning systems (GPS) and their integration with traditional tools, the homogenous zoning and agro-climatic resource inventory characterization of particular region considering space and time dimension has become much easier for achieving sustainable development of natural resources (Steven, 1993). Modern tool as GIS has been providing newer dimensions to effectively monitor and manage the natural resources in spatial domain. Thus, to sustain the food security of the Indian Punjab, it is of great importance to delineate the state into different zones according to the climatic requirements and various agro-physical parameters suitability to specific landuse. Therefore, agro-climatic resource inventory characterization in spatial format for the Punjab state is the urgent need. Thus, in the changing climatic and land use scenario, the revision of characterization of climatic resources inventory has become imminent.
Longitude 74.20o E 74.87o E 76.12o E 74.98o E 74.61o E 75.58o E 75.87o E 76.47o E 75.38o E 75.51o E 75.65o E 76.75o E 76.05o E 75.44o E 76.78o E 75.76o E 73.88o E
31.63 N 31.12 N 30.17 N 30.92o N 31.33o N 30.93 N

o o o o o o
30.33 N 31.38 N 32.03 N 32.28 N 30.67 N 31.33o N 29.53o N 30.38o N 29.17 N

o o
29.90 N
Climatic Data Collection

Daily weather data of rainfall, minimum and maximum temperature representing different existing agro-climatic regions of Punjab and its neighbouring states were collected.
MATERIAL AND METHODS Location and Description of the Study Area

The study was conducted in Punjab State, having a geographical area of 50,362 sq. km, forms a part of the Indus plain. It falls between 29O33 and 32O31 N latitude and between 73O55 and 76O45 E longitude (Table 1). The annual rainfall of the state varies from 400 to 1200 mm, more than 80 per cent of which is received during the three monsoon months (July to September). The study area belongs to the western plain, arid, with length of growing period of 60-150 days agro ecological sub-regions (Sehgal et al., 1996).
Method of Patching Climatic Data

The meteorological data collected from different sources were not uniform with respect to number of parameters, continuity and frequency of recording interval. Thus to maintain uniformity while generating surface maps for thermal and LGP layers, caution was taken to select and collect those meteorological parameters which were uniformly available for all stations to reduce the redundancy. Once the parameters were selected, they were checked to
Table 2. Equipments/Inputs and sources of data collection Equipment / Inputs Data and maps Climatic data Temperature Rainfall Softwares and hardwares GPS (Global Positioning System) ARC GIS 9.1 P.R.S.C., Ludhiana PAU, Ludhiana Used for collection of ground truth data in identification of crops and met station locations Multi-layer analysis State Agricultural Universities, India Meteorological Department, Air port, Air Force Stations To generate thermal maps To generate LGP maps Source Purpose
Agro-climatic Resource Inventory Characterization

find out the missing data if any. It was found that for most of the stations, data was missing for some or other reasons. To fill that missing data, following methods were used for temperature and rainfall. Temperature. Richardson type weather generator ClimGen (Stockle et al., 1999) was used to generate monthly mean maximum and minimum air temperature. In this model, precipitation occurrence is modeled using a first order two state Markov procedure, which describes two precipitation classes (wet or dry) and takes into account precipitation occurrence on the previous day only. If precipitation occur, then the amount of precipitation falling on the wet days is determined usually by using a pre-defined frequency distribution i.e., Weibull distribution. Temperature was then calculated based on their correlation with other parameters like solar radiation, wind speed, rainfall and on the wet or dry status of each day. The Climgen software is based on the assumption that temperature is a weekly stationary process (Matalas, 1967). It considers maximum and minimum temperature to be continuous, multivariate and stochastic process with daily means and standard deviations conditioned by the precipitation status i.e. wet and dry period of the day (Richardson, 1981). The time series of each variable (maximum and minimum temperature) is reduced to a time series of residual elements through the removal of the periodic means and scaling by standard deviations. Rainfall. The method used for patching daily rainfall values was the inverse distance interpolation (ID). This method was chosen for its simplicity and reasonable score from the past research. The inverse distance interpolation method of estimating daily precipitation gave less deviation from the actual data followed by other methods like the arithmetic averaging and normal ratio methods (Xia et al., 1999) The inverse distance method is used to estimate missing data because of its simplicity. yt = {m i=1 (xti / Dib} / { m i=1 1/Dib} where yt is the estimated value of the missing data, xti is the value of the ith nearest weather station, and Di is the distance between the station of missing dataset and the ith nearest weather station (Tang et al., 1996).
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The agreement between the observed and generated data was evaluated using the statistical indices like Residual Mean Square Error (RMSE), General Standard Deviation (GSD) and Willmotts (1982) index of agreement (d). RMSE d GSD = SQRT [{(1/n) * ni=1 (Pi Oi)2}] = 1.0 - (Oi - Pi)2 / [ |Pi - Obar| + |Oi - Obar| ] 2 = RMSE / Obar
where, Oi = observed data; Pi = generated data and Obar = mean of the observed data. The performance of the model was evaluated from GSD and d indicators. If GSD is 0.10 and d is 0.95 then the model performance was good; and if 0.10 < GSD 0.20 and 0.95 > d 0.90, performance was considered acceptable. Values other than the above conditions indicated poor performance. Willmotts index (d) is considered an improved model evaluation tool over R2 because it takes into account differences in observed and model means (biases) and variances, as well as correlation.
Climatic Data Analysis

The daily maximum temperature, minimum temperature and rainfall measurements from 20 meteorological stations were used in the analysis of data. The data from these stations is variable in that different stations have climatic data readings from 1971 to date while a few stations only have records dating from 1984.
Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) Calculation

PET calculation was done by Papadakis method as it requires only daily maximum and minimum temperature data which was actually available at all the meteorological stations chosen for this study. Moreover, Kingra and Hundal (2002) also reported that Papadakis method fits best for Punjab representing different agro-climatic regions. PET = 0.5625 (emax emin-2) x 10 No of days in month Where, PET = Potential Evapotranspiration emax = Saturation vapour pressure corresponding to maximum temperature emin-2 = Saturation vapour pressure corresponding to dew point temperature 0.5625 = Papadakis constant
Statistical Evaluation of the Generated Data

The generated data from 1991 to 1995 were analyzed. In the first step, the five years generated as well as the observed data for the same period (1991-1995) was averaged to compute monthly mean and standard deviation.
Length of Growing Period (LGP) Calculation

Rainfall and potential evapotranspiration (PET) were the critical climatic factors for interpretation. Long-term
14
6) Then the point file coverage was converted to raster format through Krigging method giving equal distance points. Clipping was done to get the thermal and LGP zones of Punjab state.
weekly data on these two parameters were analyzed for calculation of length of growing period (LGP). The LGP is the period in days during a year when precipitation exceeds half the potential evapo-transpiration plus a period required to evapotranspire assured estimated stored moisture (Higgins and Kassam, 1981). Lengths of Growing Periods (LGPs) year wise were calculated using Excel spreadsheet for the period of time that precipitation (P) + stored soil moisture (S) exceeds 0.5 ETp (Potential evapotranspiration). The yields of many common crops decline markedly if the soil moisture falls below this level (Doorenbos and Kassam, 1979). The soil moisture storage capacity was assumed to be uniform throughout the state, because a particular soil type was scattered irrespective of rainfall and PET zones. The LGP excludes any period in which the temperature is unfavourable for crop growth.
7)
Procedure for Zoning and Overlaying of Thermal and LGP Layers

Zoning divides the area into smaller units based on distribution of climate. The level of detail to which a zone is defined depends on the scale of the study, and sometimes on the power of the data processing facilities. Both layers of thermal zone and LGP zones were rasterized using vector to raster module of Arc/Info. Both these raster based spatial data bases were created at 1 km grid size. Different intersections and unions were the resultant of the overlaying of the two layers. To finalize the layers, redigitization of the intersection zones were done and final zones were demarcated. This raster based spatial database of Thermal and LGP zone was then imported into a separate image channel using image processing software (PCI Geometica 9.17).
Extraction of Area of Interest

The approach adopted is to overlay state boundary (taken from Survey of India (SOI) maps at 1:50,000 scale) by transforming it into image coordinates and analyze pixel inside the boundary. The area of interest (Punjab state) was extracted using state boundary mask along with district boundaries.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Patching of Climatic Data

The test of goodness of fit between observed and generated data using GSD and Wilmotts index indicated that the performance of ClimGen generated data for maximum and minimum temperature were having good performance (Table 3). The same result was corroborated from the study by Das and Ray (2005). With the increase in deviation of values between the generated and observed parameters, RMSE value also increases. As a result, GSD increases while Wilmotts index decreases correspondingly.
Map Preparation in Arc GIS

Thermal and LGP maps were prepared in the GIS environment using Arc GIS-9.1. Following steps were followed to prepare the maps: 1) 2) Punjab state polygon coverage was selected. Data were collected from different sites of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Jammu regarding temperature and rainfall using Global Positioning System (GPS) x, y coordinates (latitude and longitude). The latitude- longitude data was converted to degreedecimal format. The coverage file (point) was then generated from the location data in Arc GIS. The thermal and LGP data was transformed as attribute table and attached to the point file coverage already generated.
3) 4) 5)
Compilation of Climatic Resource Inventory

The climatic resource inventory comprises of layer information on temperature and length of growing period (LGP).
Table 3. Statistical evaluation of ClimGen model for generating maximum and minimum temperature for selected weather stations Weatherparameter Maximum temperature (OC) Minimum temperature (OC) Rainfall (mm) Monthly average Observed value 29.5 2.6 16.8 2.6 65.8 5.7 Generated value 29.5 3.3 15.8 2.9 50.7 4.7 0.94 0.97 0.40 0.8 1.1 38.1 0.06 0.09 1.36 R2 RMSE GSD Wilmotts index (d) 0.98 0.99 0.71 Good Good Poor Remark
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Thermal Layer
The inventory of thermal layer was prepared by using temperature data of individual stations. A spatial coverage layer was generated using point data on temperature in Arc GIS. The boundaries of thermal zone were constructed by spatial interpolation (krigging) in GIS environment. Later on, the thermal map was subsequently digitized (Map 1). The thermal regime refers to the amount of heat available for plant growth and development during the growing period. It is usually defined by the mean daily temperature during the growing period. In the present study, five thermal zones have been defined based on temperature intervals of 1OC across the zones. Average annual mean temperature ranges from 21OC to 26OC. The high-lying areas over the extreme north and north-eastern parts of the state (Map 1) record relatively low temperatures representing zones T1 and T2 (22 to 23OC) while in the low-lying south-western arid zones (T4 & T5), temperature is 24-26OC. The high temperature in the south-western parts of the state may be due to the proximity to Thar Desert, scanty rainfall and lack of sufficient vegetative covers. The lower temperature in the northern part may be ascribed to its higher latitudinal location and its proximity to the foot hills of Himalayas (Siwalik Hills). Most of the areas of the state however lies within the moderate thermal zones of 22-23OC to 24-25OC. Area under T3 zone was highest followed by T4 zone and the least area was under T1 zone (Table 4).
Table 4. Per cent total geographical area (TGA) under different thermal zones of Punjab Thermal Zones T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 Annual average temperature 21-22oC Annual average temperature 22-23oC Annual average temperature 23-24oC Annual average temperature 24-25 C
o
Fig. 1. Thermal zones of Punjab
Description
% TGA 0.7 10.0 57.9 29.5 1.9
Annual average temperature 25-26oC
Length of Growing Period (LGP) Layer

In Punjab and its adjoining areas, when rainfall data was superimposed on PET in Excel spreadsheet , it was found that LGP pattern was normal type i.e. two peaks (ridges) were obtained throughout the year. The larger peak was obtained during Kharif season (July-September), since Punjab receives more than 80 per cent of the total rainfall during the months of July-September through south-western monsoons. The lower / marginal peak was observed during the winter season, since during that period only 20 per cent of the total annual rainfall is received through western disturbance. More over, erratic nature of the rainfall distribution further compounded the low peak.
These LGP data of different meteorological stations were fed into GIS environment and through spatial interpolation method (krigging), LGP surface layer map was generated. Altogether, seven LGP zones were categorized ranging from < 60 days to 180 days with an interval of 20days (Map 2). Maximum number of days (L1=160-180 days) with sufficient moisture for crop growth was found in the extreme northern part of Gurdaspur district of Punjab. This was mainly due to the occurrence of higher rainfall and lower ET demand. The lowest number of days (L7 < 60 days) lies in the extreme south-western parts of the state comprising southern parts of Ferozepur and Muktsar districts. This may be attributed to occurrence of less rainfall, higher temperature and subsequent high ET demand. Most of the areas of the state however lie with in the moderate
Table 5. Per cent total geographical area (TGA) under different LGP zones of Punjab LGP Zones L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 Description LGP 160-180 days LGP 140-160 days LGP 120-140 days LGP 100-120 days LGP 80-100 days LGP 60-80 days LGP < 60 days % TGA 0.7 9.8 34.1 27.6 16.8 3.8 7.2
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Fig. 2. Length of growing period (LGP) zones of Punjab
Fig. 3. Thermal - LGP zones of Punjab
LGP zones of L5 (80-100 days) to L2 (140-160 days). The maximum area was under L3 followed by L4 and L5. The least area was under L1 zone (Table 5).
southernmost part of Firozpur district. Maximum area was under Z3 zone followed by Z4 and Z5 (Table 6).
Table 6. Per cent total geographical area (TGA) under different Thermal-LGP zones of Punjab LGP Zones Z1 Z2 Z3 Z4 Z5 Z6 Z7 21-22 22-23 23-24 23-24 24-25 24-25 25-26 Description Temperature (C ) LGP (days) 160-180 140-160 120-140 100-120 80-100 60-80 < 60 0.7 9.7 36.0 25.8 17.0 8.0 2.8 % TGA
Delineation of Thermal-LGP zones

Thermal layer comprises of five zones and LGP layer comprises of seven zones. Through logical combinations of these two layers in raster module of Image processing software (PCI Geomatica), seven Thermal-LGP zones for the state of Punjab has been generated (Map 3). For convenience in carrying out further analysis, these seven zones have been represented as Z1 to Z7. Zone 1 (Z1) comprises only extreme northern parts of Gurdaspur district. Zone 2 (Z 2) comprises northern parts of Gurdaspur, Hoshiarpur, Rupnagar and SAS Nagar districts of Punjab which has temperature range of 22-23OC and LGP varies from 160-180 days. Z3 and Z4 have similar thermal climate (23-24OC) but different LGP values (120-140 and 100-120 days). These include districts of Amritsar, Tarntaran, Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Kapurthala, Patiala and Sangrur. Z5 and Z6 (Muktsar, Faridkot, Bathinda, Mansa) were having similar thermal (24-25OC) but different LGP zones (80-100 and 60-80 days). The last zone was the driest and hottest zone (Z7) having annual average temperature of 25-26OC and LGP less than 60 days. It is confined to the
The test of goodness of fit between observed and generated data using GSD and Wilmotts index indicated that performance of ClimGen generated data for maximum and minimum temperature was good for selected stations situated at different agro-climatic conditions of the state. In total, five thermal zones were defined based on temperature intervals of 1 OC, the gradient being from northeast to southwest. The northeast and southwestern part of the state experiences the lowest and highest temperatures of the state, simultaneously. The LGP pattern in the state is normal type and a total of 7 zones were identified with an interval of 20-days, the highest being in the north-eastern part and

lowest being in the south-western part of the state. The logical combination of the thermal as well as LGP zones resulted in seven thermal-LGP zones.
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trends in Agricultural Physics and Four Decades of Research in Division of Agricultural Physics. 22-24 April, Division of Agricultural Physics, I.A.R.I., New Delhi, pp 105.
Richardson, C.W. (1981) Stochastic simulation of daily precipitation, temperature and solar radiation. Water Resour. Res. 17: 182190. Schulze, R.E., Maharaj, M., Lynch, S.D., Howe, B.J. and MelvilThomson, B. (1997) South African Atlas of Agrohydrology and Climatology. Report TT82/96. Water Research Commission, Pretoria, pp 277. Sehgal, J.L., Mandal, D.K., Mandal, C. and Vadivelu, S. (1996) Agroecological regions of India. Publication 24. NBSS & LUP (ICAR), Nagpur, India. Steven, M.D. (1993) Satellite remote sensing for agricultural management: Opportunities and logistic constraints. ISPRS J. Photogramm. 48: 29-34. Stckle, C.O., Campbell, G.S. and Nelson, R. (1999) ClimGen manual. Biological Systems Engineering Department, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, pp. 28. Tang, W.Y., Kassim, A.H.M. and Abubakar, S.H. (1996) Comparative studies of various missing data treatment methods - Malaysian experience. Atmos. Res. 42: 247-262. Willmott, C.J. (1982) Some comments on the evaluation of model performance. Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc., 63: 1309-1313. Xia, Y., Fabian, P., Winterhalter, M. and Stohl, A. (1999) Forest climatology: estimation of missing values for Bavaria, Germany. Agr. Forest Meteorol. 96: 131-144.
REFERENCES
Das, G. and Ray, S.S. (2005) Comparative evaluation of two weather generators for Punjab. J. Agrometeorol. 7: 231-240. Doorenbos, J. and Kassam, A.H. (1979) Yield response to water. FAO Irrigation and Drainage paper No. 33, FAO, Rome. FAO. (1976) A Framework for Land Evaluation. Soils Bulletin, 32. Food and Agricultural Organisation, Rome, Italy. Higgins, G.M. and Kassam, A.H. (1981) The FAO agro-ecological zone approach to determination of land potential. Pedologie 31: 147168. Hundal, S.S. and Kaur, P. (2002) Annual and seasonal climatic variability at different locations in Punjab. J. Agrometeorol. 4: 113-126. Kingra, P.K. and Hundal, S.S. (2002) Estimation of PET by various methods and its relationships with mesh covered pan evaporation at Ludhiana. J. Agrometeorol. 4: 143-149. Matalas, N.C. (1967) Mathematical assessment of synthetic hydrology. Water Resour. Res. 3: 937-945. Mavi, H.S. (1984) Introduction to Agrometeorology. (2nd ed). Oxford & IBH Publishers Co. Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, pp. 209-227. Mukherjee, J. and Bal, S.K. (2003) Climatic variability at Ballowal Saunkhri, Punjab. Proc. National Symposium on Emerging
Received 7 June, 2011; Accepted 3 March, 2012
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 18-22
Economic Impact of Insecticide Resistance Management (IRM) Strategies in Cotton in Muktsar District (Punjab)
A.K. Dhawan, Vijay Kumar*, Amardip Singh, Jasbir Singh and Amrik Singh
Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India *E-mail: vijay_ento@pau.edu
Abstract: To disseminate Insecticide Resistance Management (IRM) strategies, 10 villages were adopted in Muktsar district of Punjab during 2008 and 2009. Two villages were kept as check (Non-IRM) for comparing the impact of IRM strategies on the major insect pests and natural enemies in Bt cotton arthropod fauna. The impact of adoption of IRM strategies leads to reduction in the population of jassid and whitefly in IRM villages as compared to non-IRM villages. The mean population of nymphs jassid, Amrasca biguttula biguttula (Ishida), and whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius), adults per three leaves was 0.41, 0.45 and 0.61, 0.69 in IRM villages, while in non-IRM villages, it was 0.50, 2.00 and 0.80, 2.40 during 2008 and 2009 crop season, respectively. No incidence of bollworms was observed in IRM as well as Non-IRM villages. Cotton IRM villages were sprayed 3.73 and 3.40 as compared to 6.30 and 6.05 in non-IRM villages for both the years. The per cent reduction in number of sprays, cost of sprays and increase in seed-cotton yield was 40.79 and 43.80, 64.96 and 51.16, 22.70 and 30.45 over non-IRM villages in 2008 and 2009, respectively. The additional net profit per hectare in IRM villages was Rs 11422 and Rs 18441 during both the years. Key Words: Arthropod fauna, Bt Cotton, Insecticide resistance management, Economics, Non-IRM, Natural enemies
Cotton ( Gossypium sp.) being the most important commercial crop, plays a vital role in social and monetary affairs of the India. Besides other causes, major bottleneck in cotton cultivation is biotic stresses due to attack of insect pests and diseases which play a significant role in achieving optimum yield potential. In India, cotton ecosystem harbours about 162 insect species, of which 9 are of utmost importance inflicting significant losses in yield (Dhaliwal et al., 2004). Before the introduction of Bt cotton, farmers solely relied on insecticides for effective management of Bollworms. Besides increasing cost of production and environmental problems, the excessive and indiscriminate use of insecticides for the control of these pests has resulted in development of insecticidal resistance particularly in Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) decline in natural enemies population and resurgence of the pests like whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadiaus) and jassid, Amrasca biguttula biguttula (Ishida) (Gill and Dhawan, 2006). Besides, A. biguttula and B. tabaci, other sucking pests like thrips, Thrips tabaci (Lindemann) hitherto occurring during May-June and aphids, Aphis gossypii (Glover) at fag end of the crop season are also gaining importance. During 2006, a new sucking pest, mealy bug, Phenacoccus solenopsis (Tinsley) appeared in few pockets of Bathinda, Ferozepur and Muktsar districts and caused economic loss (Dhawan et al., 2007). Keeping in view the above facts, IRM window based strategies were implemented in the last two years with the aim to slow or reverse the development of resistance in sucking pests. The various strategies includes the use of refugia, mechanical control of immature stages of tobacco caterpillar
and other damaging insects, use of insecticides on the basis of economic threshold, and alternations as well as rotation of insecticide group in window based adoption of chemical and non-chemical methods for the management of cotton insect-pests.
MATERIAL AND METHODS

Ten villages were adopted for dissemination of IRM strategies in Muktsar district of Punjab during 2008-09 and 2009-10. Two villages adjoining to IRM villages were kept under observation and these constituted the non-IRM villages or villages not adopting the IRM strategies. At least 50 farmers from each village were selected as a target group for dissemination of following IRM strategies. The Bt cotton was grown as per the recommended agronomic practices (Anon., 2009). For the effectiveness of these strategies, training was given to the scouts as well as to the farmers about the identification of insect-pests of cotton crop and natural enemies of these insect-pests. The literature having knowledge about insect-pests, their economic threshold (ETL) and their control was distributed among the farmers. The insecticides of different groups were sprayed at economic threshold level and an attempt has been made not to repeat same insecticide as far as possible. The baseline data regarding time of sowing, number of irrigations, number of insecticidal sprays and type of product used in application of broad spectrum insecticides, herbicides, IGRs and seed cotton yield obtained to study the impact of the implementation of project in the form of
Impact of IRM Strategies in Cotton

questionnaire were collected from IRM and non IRM villages. The data on the number of sucking pests (jassid, whitefly, thrips and mealy bug), bollworm complex (American bollworm and spotted bollworm) and foliage feeder (Tobacco caterpillar) and natural enemies (spiders, coccinellids, predatory bugs etc.) were recorded at weekly interval from 26th to 39th meteorological weeks. and tobacco caterpillar moths.
19
Need based use of Novaluron as first spray for the control of tobacco caterpillar. Use of non- chemical methods for control of mealy bug Need based spray of Buprofezin for the control of mealy bug as spot treatment.
Window 1 (Till 60 days after sowing)

Cultivation of recommended tolerant genotypes (Bt or non-Bt) against sucking pests. Complete the sowing up to 15 May. Eradication of weeds in or around the cotton fields. Avoidance of neonicotinoids and organophosphate group of insecticide for sucking pest Do not spray against sucking pest in order to conserve the natural enemies.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Agronomic Practices

The numbers of farmers involved were 571 and 683 covering an area of 2627 and 2068 ha area under Bt cotton during 2008 and 2009, respectively. In 2008, due to heavy rains at irregular times, the total number of irrigations varied from 1.90 to 2.60; while in 2009 number of irrigations varied from 2.10 to 3.15 and about 63.00 per cent sowing was completed after 15th May due to heavy rains at regular intervals in 2008 while in 2009, 70.90 per cent sowing was completed within time before May 15. In non IRM villages, numbers of farmers involved were 75 and 104 covering an area of 163.2 and 244.8 ha area cotton during 2008 and 2009, respectively. In non-IRM village during 2008, the average number of irrigations was 2.23; while during 2009 number of irrigations was 4.07 and about 69.40 and 26.50 per cent sowing was completed after 15 may in 2008 and 2009, respectively. In IRM villages, urea (kg ha-1), DAP (kg ha-1) and number of potassium sprays were 300, 75 and 2.10 during 2008 and 325, 77 and 2.95 during 2009. In nonIRM villages, urea (kg ha-1), DAP (kg ha-1) and number of potassium sprays were 310, 72 and 1.59 during 2008 and 289, 70 and 1.75 during 2009 (Table 1).
Window II (60-90 days after sowing)

Do not spray against minor lepidopterons. Use of endosulfan, if necessary. Use of organophosphate only on non-Bt cotton at ETL basis. Use of neonicotinoids on ETL basis against sucking pest.
Window III (90-120 days after sowing)

Use of pheromone traps for monitoring of bollworm moths. Peak bollworm infestation period on non-Bt. Use of organophosphate or carbamates only once on ETL basis. Use of spinosad or indoxacarb only on non-Bt cotton at ETL.
Impact on Pest Situation

Sucking pests. The data pertaining to the pest status (Table 2) indicated that during 2008 and 2009 crop season, the population of jassid remained below economic threshold level (ETL) with the mean numbers of 0.41 and 0.45 nymphs per 3 leaves in IRM villages, while in non-IRM
Window IV (>120 days after sowing):

Use of pheromone traps for monitoring of bollworms
Table 1. Agronomic practices adopted in IRM villages of Muktsar during 2008 and 2009 Year Land holding (ha) Total area 2008 2009 2008 2009 4263 4466 347 454 Under cotton 2627 2068 163 245 Before April 30 5.50 21.10 6.30 18.50 31.50 70.90 24.30 55.00 Area under different dates of sowing (%) May 1-15 After May 15 IRM villages 63.00 8.00 69.40 26.50 2.20(1.90-2.60) 3.86(2.10-3.15) 2.23 4.07 300 325 310 289 75 77 72 70 2.10 2.95 1.59 1.75 Irrigations N (Urea) P (DAP) KNO sprays (13:0:45) Fertilizer (Kg ha-1)
Non- IRM villages
20
A.K. Dhawan, Vijay Kumar, Amardip Singh, Jasbir Singh and Amrik Singh
the years. Subsequently their population declined which might be due to the insecticidal sprays (Table 2). Insecticide use pattern. In IRM villages, maximum numbers of sprays were given for the control of sucking pest (2.22 and 3.28) followed by sprays for control of tobacco caterpillar (1.51 and 0.12) in both the year 2008 and 2009. Insecticides sprayed maximum times belongs to group organophosphates (2.09) followed by neonicotinoids (0.95) and organochlorine (0.25) in 2008 , while in 2009 crop season, insecticides sprayed maximum times belongs to group neonicotinoids (1.35) followed by organophosphate (1.20) and organochlorines (0.70). In non-IRM villages, number of insecticide sprays was maximum for control of sucking pest (5.52 and 5.75) followed by sprays against tobacco caterpillar (0.78 and 0.30) during 2008 and 2009, respectively. Insecticides sprayed the maximum times belongs to group organophosphates (3.10) followed by neonicotinoids (1.60) and carbamates and IGRs (0.60) in 2008, while in 2009, insecticides sprayed maximum times belongs to group neonicotinoids (3.20) followed by organophosphate (1.80) and miscellaneous (0.40).
villages, its population was 0.50 and 2.00 during the respective years. Similarly, the data on the population of whitefly per 3 leaves showed that it remains below ETL level with 0.61 and 0.69 in IRM villages during 2008 and 2009 crop season, respectively, while in non-IRM villages, it was 0.80 and 2.40 per 3 leaves for the corresponding years. The population of mealy bug per 2.5 cm of central shoot was 0.34 and 0.00 in IRM villages during 2008 and 2009 crop season, respectively, whereas in non-IRM villages, it was 0.70 and 0.80 for the corresponding years. The population of thrips per plant was 0.07 and 0.05 in IRM villages during 2008 and 2009 crop season, respectively, whereas in non-IRM villages, it was 0.58 and 0.50 for the corresponding years (Table 2). Maximum number of sprays was given for sucking pest in both the years. The number of sprays for sucking pests was 2.22 and 3.28 in IRM villages and 5.52 and 5.75 in nonIRM villages during 2008 and 2009 crop season, respectively. Bollworm complex and foliage feeders. No incidence of pink bollworm, spotted bollworm and American bollworm in 2008 and 2009 due to adoption of recommended varieties/Bt cotton. The mean population of tobacco caterpillar was 0.27 and 0.01 in IRM villages; however it was 0.35 and 0.10 in non-IRM villages during 2008 and 2009, respectively (Table 2). Natural enemies. The most common natural enemies observed were spiders, lady bird beetle, Coccinellids and green lace wing, Chrysoperla spp. The population of natural enemies in IRM villages was high as compared to non-IRM villages. The average number of natural enemies in IRM villages was 0.94 and 0.86 per plant during 2008 and 2009, respectively, while in non-IRM villages it was 0.47 and 0.20 per plant. The peak population of natural enemies was recorded during 32nd-35th meteorological weeks during both
Impact of IRM Strategies on Economics

The numbers of sprays were 3.73 and 3.40 in IRM villages as compared to 6.30 and 6.05 in non-IRM villages (Table 3). The total cost of sprays (Rs ha-1 ) and seed-cotton yield oBtained (kg ha-1) was 1638 and 1778; and 2189 and 2630 in IRM villages (Table 3) as compared to 4675 and 3641; and 1784 and 2016 in non-IRM villages during 2008 and 2009, respectively. It represented 64.96 and 51.16 per cent reduction in cost of sprays over non-IRM villages with 22.70 and 30.45 per cent increase in seed-cotton yield over non-IRM villages during 2008 and 2009, respectively. The total cost of cultivation (Rs. ha-1) was 22222 and 25518 in IRM villages as compared to 22301 and 25898 in non-IRM villages during both the years (Table 3). The net profit per hectare in IRM villages was Rs 39067 and 56028 during
Table 2. Status of insect pest in IRM and non-IRM villages of Muktsar district during 2008 and 2009. Year Jassid nymphs (per 3 leaves) 2008 2009 2008 2009 0.41 0.45 0.50 2.00 0.61 0.69 0.80 2.40 Whitefly (per 3 leaves) Mealy bug (2.5 cm of central shoot) 0.34 0.00 0.70 0.80 0.07 0.05 0.58 0.50 Thrips (per 3 leaves) Tobacco (no. per plant) IRM villages 0.27 0.01 Non-IRM villages 0.35 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.15 0.03 0.02 0.16 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.70 0.67 0.04 0.02 0.20 0.17 0.00 0.00 Numbers per plant Bollworm Spider Chrysopa Coccinellid Predatory bug
caterpillar complex*
Bollworm complex includes American bollworm, spotted bollworm and pink bollworm
Impact of IRM Strategies in Cotton
21
Fig. 1. Insecticide used pattern in Muktsar cotton belt (Punjab) during 2008
Fig. 2. Insecticide used pattern in Muktsar cotton belt (Punjab) during 2009
Table 3. Impact of IRM strategies on economics in Muktsar district during 2008 and 2009 Year Number of sprays 2008 2009 2008 2009 3.73 (40.79)* 3.40 (43.80)* 6.30 6.05 Cost of sprays (Rs ha-1) 1638 (64.96)* 1778 (51.16)* 4675 3641 Seed cotton yield (kg ha-1) IRM villages 2189 (22.70)** 2630 (30.45)** Non-IRM villages 1784 2016 22301 25898 27645 37587 1 : 1.23 1 : 1.45 22222 (0.35)* 25518 (1.46)* 39067 (41.31)** 56028 (49.06)** 1:1.75 (42.27)** 1: 2.19 (51.03)** Cost of cultivation (Rs ha-1) Net profit (Rs ha-1) Cost :Benefit ratio
* Figures in parentheses are per cent decrease over non-IPRM villages ** Figures in parentheses are per cent increase over non-IPRM villages
22
A.K. Dhawan, Vijay Kumar, Amardip Singh, Jasbir Singh and Amrik Singh
seed cotton yield as compared to non-IRM villages.
the two years. Thus, adoption of IRM strategies resulted in additional profit of Rs 11422 and Rs 18441 of IRM villages over non-IRM villages during 2008 and 2009, representing 41.31 and 49.06 per cent increase over IRM villages. The present findings collaborate with the result of Kranthi et al. (2000) who estimated 90 per cent reduction in sprays and seed cotton yield increased up to 59 per cent and plant protection cost reduced by 25-60 per cent due to adoption of IRM strategies. He also reported that number of sprays for the control of sucking and bollworm complex varied from 8-17 in North India. Dhawan et al. (2006) also reported reduction in number of sprays, cost of sprays (Rs ha-1) and increase in seed cotton yield was 24.4 and 25.6; 19.2 and 42.0; and 25.8 and 15.5 per cent in IRM villages over non-IRM villages during 2002 and 2003, respectively. Suruli Velu et al. (2004) also reported 63 per cent reduction in number of sprays at Coimbatore and Theni districts, with the mean of 2.7 in project village as compared to 7.3 in control villages. Likewise, in our study, reduction in spray cost, number of sprays and increased seed cotton yield was recorded during 2008 and 2009. The per cent increase in net profit of IRM villages over non-IRM villages was 41.3 and 49.1 during both the years. The cost benefit ratio increased up to 29.7 and 33.7 per cent during both the years. Similarly, Rajak et al. (1997) reported 30 to 50 per cent reduction in pesticide consumption in IRM-adopted fields with 21-27 per cent increase in seed-cotton yield. With the adoption of IRM strategies, there was no damage of bollworms and also less incidence of sucking pests and foliage feeders, higher number of natural enemies in IRM villages with increase in
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are graeful to The Director CICR, Nagpur for the financial help provided under IRM Project.
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2009) Package of Practices for Crops of PunjabKharif. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India. Dhawan, A. K., Singh, K., Arora, P. K. and Kumar, T. (2006) Insecticide resistance management (IRM) strategies: their impact on arthropod fauna and economics in cotton agro ecosystem. Indian J. Ecol. 33(2): 158-162. Dhawan A. K., Singh, K., Saini, S., Mohindru, B., Kaur, A., Singh, G. and Singh, S. (2007) Incidence and damage potential of mealy bug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley, on cotton in Punjab. Indian J. Ecol. 34 (2): 166172. Dhaliwal, G. S., Arora, R. and Dhawan, A. K. (2004) Crop losses due to insect pests in Indian agriculture. Indian J. Ecol. 31 (1):1-7. Gill, H. K. and Dhawan, A. K. (2006) Global status of insecticide resistance in Helicoverpa armigera on cotton. J. Cotton Res. Dev. 20 (2): 226-231. Kranthi, K. R., Banerjee, S. K. and Russell, D. (2000) IRM strategies for sustainable cotton pest management in India. Pestology, 24: 58-67. Rajak, R. L., Diwaker, M. C. and Mishra, M. P. (1997) National IPM programme in India. Pestic. Inf. 23: 23-26. Suruli Velu, T., Sumathi, E., Matharajan, V. G. and Rajendran, T. P. (2004) Evaluation of success of insecticides resistance management in Tamil Nadu. In: B. M. Khadi, M. H. Vaamadevaiah, I. S. Katageri, Chattannawar, S. S. Udikeri and S. B. Patil (Eds.) International Symposium on Strategies for Sustainable Cotton Production A Global Version 3. Crop Protection, Dharwad, pp. 204-207.
Received 2 February 2011; Accepted 11 December, 2011
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 23-26
Effect of Foliar Feeding of GA3, Triacontanol and Calcium Salts on Shelf-Life in Kinnow Mandarin
Tanjeet Singh Chahal*, J. S. Bal1 and Kiran Kour2
1
Fruit Research Station, Gangian (PAU), Hoshiarpur, India Department of Agriculture, Khalsa College, Amritsar, Punjab, India 2 Division of Fruit Science, SKUAST-J, Jammu - 180 019, India *E-mail: tanjeetchahal@yahoo.com
Abstract: The studies on the effect of pre-harvest chemical treatments in kinnow were conducted investigate their effect on shelf life of the fruits. The plant material used was fifteen year old plantation raised on citrus jambhiri rootstock. Pre-harvest foliar application of GA3 (10, 20, 30 ppm), triacontanol (400, 600 ppm), CaCl2 (4, 6 %) and Ca(NO3)2 (0.1, 0.2, 0.3 %) were applied to the kinnow plants on 25th October. The harvesting of the fruits was done on January 15th and the fruits were kept under ambient conditions for 30 days. The fruit samples were analysed for physico-chemical evaluation at 10 days interval. It was observed that CaCl2 6% proved to be the most effective treatment for minimizing the weight loss during ambient storage. Like physiological loss in weight, the minimum spoilage loss was also recorded in the fruits from CaCl2 6% treatment. Significantly lower spoilage loss was also observed with GA3, triacontanol and other calcium treatments. Highest level of TSS content was shown by fruits treated with GA3 30 ppm, while the highest acidity level was observed in the fruits treated with CaCl2 6% and Ca(NO3)2 0.3%. Key Words: Kinnow mandarin, GA3, CaCl2, Ca(NO3)2, Triacontanol
Kinnow, a mandarin hybrid (Citrus nobilis Loureiro X

The plant material for investigations was selected from Punjab Government Progeny Orchard Attari, Amritsar. The uniform and disease free trees of kinnow with 15 years of age were selected for the investigations. The plants were applied with standard doses of fertilizers and plant protection measures as recommended by Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. The pre-harvest treatments of Gibberellic Acid (GA 3 ) at 10, 20 and 30ppm, Vipul (Triacontanol) at 400 and 600ppm, Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) at 4 and 6 per cent, Calcium Nitrate {Ca(NO3)2} at 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 per cent and control (spray of water) were applied on 25th October. The experiment consisted of eleven treatments. Two trees were kept as unit treatment and replicated three times. The fruits taken for the study were harvested on January 15th. The observations were recorded for physiological loss in weight, spoilage loss, TSS, acidity, TSS acid ratio, total sugars and reducing sugars.
Citrus deliciosa Tenore) is dominant citrus fruit of Punjab and is expanding fastly to Haryana and Rajasthan. It grows successfully is all frost free, tropical and sub-tropical regions of India. Kinnow appears to be very exacting in its climatic requirements.
Large plantations have been brought under kinnow during the last two decades and consequently it has become the major fruit crop dominating the state. This resulted into increased production of kinnow, which is posing a serious handling problem and thus invites research on increasing its shelf life. In this fruit crop, harvesting is confined to a limited period so market glut is the serious problem faced by the growers, which engage the attention of horticulturists to enhance its storage period after harvest. This process can help to overcome the hurdles in its further expansion and regulation of marketing. Essential plant nutrients and growth regulators like calcium and GA3 are known to be involved in number of physiological processes concerning membrane structure, functioning and enzyme activity. There use for extending the shelf life has good scope in kinnow mandarin. Keeping this in view, the investigations were conducted with the aim to study the effect of different chemicals on shelf life of kinnow fruits with the help of GA3, triacontanol and calcium salts along with their thresh hold levels.

During the study, the plants applied with different CaCl2 and Ca(NO3)2 concentrations showed significantly lower physiological loss in weight in comparison to control (Table 1). The minimum weight loss was registered in the fruits applied with CaCl2 at 6 per cent. The decreased weight loss of calcium treated fruits was due to lower storage
24
Tanjeet Singh Chahal, J. S. Bal and Kiran Kour
Table 1. Effect of GA3, triacontanol and calcium salts on physiological loss in weight (%) during storage of kinnow fruits Treatments 10 GA3 10ppm GA3 20ppm GA3 30ppm Tria 400ppm Tria 600ppm CaCl2 4% CaCl2 6% Ca(NO3)2 0.1% Ca(NO3)2 0.2% Ca(NO3)2 0.3% Control Mean 3.27 3.03 3.47 4.01 3.98 2.25 2.10 3.60 3.52 2.26 4.37 3.26 Physiological loss in weight (%) 20 8.02 6.93 7.13 8.81 6.24 4.45 4.03 6.34 6.27 4.45 8.52 6.47 30 11.68 10.49 9.94 14.85 14.60 9.11 7.27 11.22 11.13 8.14 15.43 11.26 Mean 7.66 6.82 6.85 9.22 8.27 5.27 4.47 7.05 6.97 4.95 9.44 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 Spoilage (%) 20 10.33 9.67 10.67 13.67 12.67 8.67 7.33 10.67 10.00 7.67 15.33 10.61 30 21.00 17.00 21.00 29.00 27.00 15.00 13.00 21.00 19.00 15.00 36.67 21.33 Mean 10.44 8.89 10.56 14.22 13.22 7.89 6.78 10.56 9.67 7.56 17.33
CD(0.05) Physiological loss in weight: Treatments (A) 0.36; Storage Interval (B) 0.19 and AxB 0.62 Spoilage : Treatments (A) 0.78; Storage Interval (B) 0.41 and AxB 1.35
breakdown associated with lower respiratory rate compared to control fruits (Faust and Shear, 1972). Pathmanaban et al. (1995) in acid lime revealed similar retardation in physiological loss in weight with CaCl 2 and Ca(NO 3) 2 treatments. GA3 treatments were also found to lower the physiological weight loss significantly over control. The most efficacious dose of GA3 in lowering the weight loss was 20 ppm. The reduced weight loss in GA3 treated fruits might be due to antisenescent property of GA3 and also by binding the ethylene biosynthesis as reported by Khader (1992). Triacontanol at 600 ppm was also found to reduce the weight loss in comparison to control. However, effect of this chemical in reducing weight loss during storage was significantly lesser than calcium and GA 3 treatments. Physiological loss in weight increased with the increase in storage period irrespective of treatments. This may be due to continuous water loss from fruits during storage. The data presented in Table 1 revealed that the application of all the calcium treatments recorded significantly lower spoilage in the fruits during storage of kinnow mandarin. The minimum spoilage loss was observed in the fruits applied with CaCl2 at 6 per cent. This might be due to the fact that the exogenously applied calcium became localized in the cell wall, thus increasing the number of salt bridges, which could have accounted for the resistance of this tissue to maceration by fungal polygalacturonase and for resistance to pathogens, thus avoiding spoilage. Significantly lower spoilage loss was also observed with the GA3 and triacontanol treatments. All the GA3 concentrations were found to be superior over triacontanol. The most effective GA3 application was at 20 ppm. The lower spoilage loss with these growth regulators
might be due to firmer fruits produced by them, which may have checked fungal attack and rotting for longer period. The spoilage losses fastly increased with the progressive increase in storage period in kinnow mandarin under all the treatments. This could be owed to continuous biochemical changes in the fruits after picking, causing the aging which could have attracted fungal infection that leads to fruit softening and hence spoilage. The results are in close confirmation with those of Kumar et al.(2002) who observed increased fruit rot with increased storage period in Red Blush grapefruit. The TSS level of the fruits significantly decreased with the application of triacontanol at 400 ppm (Table 2). The decrease might be due to higher firmness in the triacontanol treated fruits in comparison to control, which might have decreased the biochemical changes in fruits. All the CaCl2 and Ca(NO3)2 treatments showed significant decrease in the TSS level of the kinnow fruits in comparison to control. The maximum decrease was recorded in the fruits treated with CaCl2 at 6 per cent. In the present studies, calcium had probably reduced the TSS level of the fruits due to reduced respiration rate (Faust and Klein, 1973). Similar decrease in the TSS level of the mango cv. Totapuri fruits with calcium application was also observed by Dhaka et al. (2001). The soluble solids recorded a general increase in kinnow fruits during storage under all the treatments. The exceeded TSS with prolongation of storage period can be attributed to increased hydrolysis of polysachharides and concentration of juice due to dehydration (Bhullar et al., 1985). Similar increase in TSS level of the fruits with prolongation in storage period was advocated by Mahajan et al. (2002) in kinnow.
Effect of GA3, Triacontanol and Calcium Salts in Kinnow shelf-life

Table 2. Effect of GA3, triacontanol and calcium salts on TSS and acidity (per cent) during storage of kinnow fruits Treatments 10 GA3 10ppm GA3 20ppm GA3 30ppm Tria 400ppm Tria 600ppm CaCl2 4% CaCl2 6% Ca(NO3)2 0.1% Ca(NO3)2 0.2% Ca(NO3)2 0.3% Control Mean 10.14 10.16 10.42 9.84 10.01 9.50 9.21 9.82 9.49 9.37 10.32 9.84 20 10.56 10.67 10.79 10.25 10.39 9.78 9.63 10.25 9.88 9.74 10.74 10.24 TSS 30 11.07 11.20 11.30 10.68 10.83 10.21 10.17 10.84 10.32 10.19 11.21 10.73 Mean 10.59 10.68 10.84 10.26 10.41 9.83 9.67 10.30 9.90 9.77 10.76 10 0.70 0.67 0.63 0.74 0.69 0.72 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.76 0.69 0.71 20 0.65 0.63 0.60 0.70 0.65 0.68 0.72 0.70 0.69 0.72 0.63 0.67 Acitidity 30 0.57 0.58 0.55 0.62 0.59 0.61 0.66 0.63 0.63 0.66 0.57 0.61
25
Mean 0.64 0.63 0.59 0.69 0.64 0.67 0.71 0.69 0.68 0.71 0.63
CD(0.05) TSS: Treatments (A) 0.45; Storage Interval (B) 0.24 and AxB N.S. Acidity : Treatments (A) - 0.03; Storage Interval (B) - 0.02 and A x B - N.S.
The data in Table 3 regarding acidity level of the kinnow fruits, depicted that with the increase in the application of GA3 concentration the acidity level of the fruits decreased. The minimum acidity was observed with the application of GA3 at 30 ppm. The acids under the influence of growth regulator might have either been rapidly converted into sugars and their derivatives by the reactions involving reversal of glycolytic pathway or might be used in respiration or both (Brahmachari et al., 1997). The fruits treated with triacontanol 400 ppm registered significantly higher acidity level in the fruits. The control fruits showed significantly lower acidity level from all the calcium treated fruits. The highest acidity was observed in the fruits treated with CaCl2 at 6 per cent and Ca(NO3)2 at 0.3 per cent. Higher acidity in the calcium treated fruits may be attributed to slower
utilization of organic acids in oxidative process because of slow rate of respiration (Nagpal and Kumar, 1999). The average acidity level of kinnow fruits recorded a descending trend with the advancement of storage period. The decrease in acidity level may be attributed to the utilization of organic acids in respiratory process (Ulrich, 1974). The data regarding the total sugars and reducing sugars of kinnow fruits clearly shows that the application of GA3 at 10 ppm and 20 ppm registered lower level of the sugars in comparison to control (Table 4). However, the maximum total sugar and reducing sugar level was observed with GA3 at 30 ppm, which was higher than control. The application of GA3 at 30 ppm may have increased the activity of the enzymes such as amylases, which hydrolyse the complex polysaccharides into simple sugars
Table 3. Effect of GA3, triacontanol and calcium salts on total sugars and reducing sugars (per cent) during storage of kinnow fruits Treatments 10 GA3 10ppm GA3 20ppm GA3 30ppm Tria 400ppm Tria 600ppm CaCl2 4% CaCl2 6% Ca(NO3)2 0.1% Ca(NO3)2 0.2% Ca(NO3)2 0.3% Control Mean 6.67 6.72 7.21 6.63 6.68 6.04 5.99 6.24 5.92 5.80 6.92 6.44 Total sugar 20 6.83 6.89 7.24 6.75 6.79 6.18 6.15 6.47 6.09 6.01 7.08 6.59 30 7.12 7.18 7.57 7.04 7.08 6.40 6.32 6.64 6.31 6.15 7.53 6.85 Mean 6.87 6.93 7.34 6.81 6.85 6.21 6.15 6.45 6.11 5.99 7.18 10 3.34 3.38 3.49 3.30 3.34 3.02 2.99 3.11 3.04 2.89 3.46 3.21 Reducing sugars 20 3.42 3.48 3.63 3.41 3.40 3.10 3.16 3.21 3.07 3.09 3.52 3.32 30 3.55 3.72 3.79 3.52 3.53 3.21 3.30 3.52 3.13 3.18 3.75 3.47 Mean 3.44 3.53 3.64 3.41 3.42 3.11 3.15 3.28 3.08 3.05 3.58
CD(0.05) Total Sugars: Treatments (A) 0.26; Storage Interval (B) 0.13 and AxB N.S. Reducing Sugar: Treatments (A) - 0.12; Storage Interval (B) - 0.06 and AxB N.S.
26
Tanjeet Singh Chahal, J. S. Bal and Kiran Kour

storage of mango cv. Totapuri. Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 30(1-2): 36-38. Faust, M. and Shear, C. B. (1972) The effect of calcium on respiration of apples. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 97 : 437-439. Faust, M. and Klein, J. D. (1973) Levels and sites of metabolically active calcium in apple fruits. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 99 : 9394. Jain, S. K., Mukherjee, S. and Gupta, N. K. (2001) Effect of postharvest treatments and storage condition on the quality of mango during storage. Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 30(3-4) : 183187. Khader, S. E. S. A. (1992) Effect of gibberellic acid and vapour guard on ripening, amylase and peroxidase activity in storage of mango. J. Hort. Sci. 67(6): 25-29. Kumar, A., Rattanpal, H. S. and Randhawa, J. S. (2002) Storage behaviour of polyethylene wrapped Red Blush grapefruit under ambient conditions. Indian J. Citriculture 1(2): 179184. Mahajan, B. V. C., Dhatt, A. S. and Rattan, G. S. (2002) Evaluation of various wax formulations on the post-harvest characteristics of kinnow. Indian J. Citriculture 1(2): 185-188. Nagpal, Rajesh and Kumar, Ranjit (1999) Effect of post-harvest treatments on the quality of Dashehari mango during storage. Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 28(1-2) : 76-77. Pathmanaban, G., Nagarajan, M., Manian, K. and Annamalainathan, K. (1995) Effect of fused calcium salts on post-harvest preservation in fruits. Madras Agric. J. 82(1): 47-50. Ramakrishna, M., Haribabu, K., Reddy, Y. N. and Purushotam, K. (2001) Effect of pre-harvest application of calcium on physicochemical changes during ripening and storage of papaya. Indian J. Hort. 58(1): 228-231. Sharma, R. M., Yamdagni, R., Gaur, H. and Sukla, R. K. (1996) Role of calcium in horticulture A review. Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 25(4): 205-212. Shinde, S. B., Kadam, B. A., Naik, D. M., Shinde, B. N., Shinde, N. N. and Purandare, N. D. (2000) Effect of growth regulators and chemicals on physico-chemical composition of Mosambi fruits (Citrus sinensis Osbeck). Hi-Tech Citrus Management : Proc. of International Symposium on Citriculture, pp. 637-639. Ulrich, R. (1974) Biochemistry of fruits and their products. Academic Press, New York, USA, pp. 89-118.
(Brahmachari et al., 1997). Shinde et al. (2000) in Mosambi revealed similar results to that observed in the present study. All the triacontanol and calcium treatments produced lower total sugars and reducing sugars in comparison to control. The decrease in the sugars with calcium application owes to the fact that exogenous calcium incorporates into protopectin molecules in the middle membrane retards hydrolysis during post-harvest ripening (Sharma et al., 1996). The results are in proximity with the findings of Ramakrishna et al. (2001) in papaya. A continuous increase in the total sugars and reducing sugars on an average was recorded with increase in storage period. Increase in the level of sugars during storage might be either due to hydrolytic conversion of polysaccharides (starch) into monosaccharides (sugars) or due to concentration of juice owing to dehydration (Jain et al., 2001). From the foregoing discussion, inference can be drawn that pre-harvest application of all calcium salt treatments and GA3 treatments help in reducing the physiological loss in weight and spoilage losses during ambient storage of the kinnow fruits. However, the pre-harvest application of CaCl2 6 per cent was observed to be the most efficacious treatment in reducing the spoilage losses. Thus, foliar application of CaCl2 6 per cent can be used for enhancing the shelf-life of kinnow fruits during ambient storage.
REFERENCES
Bhullar, J. S., Dhillon, B. S. and Randhawa, J. S. (1985) Effect of wrappers on the storage of kinnow mandarin. J. Res. Punjab Agric. Univ. 22 : 663-666. Brahmchari, V. S., Kumar, Naresh and Kumar, Rajesh (1997) Effect of foliar feeding of calcium, potassium and growth substances on yield and quality of guava (Psidium guajava L.). Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 26(3-4): 169-173. Dhaka, R. S., Verma, M. K. and Agrawal, M. K. (2001) Effect of post harvest treatments on physico-chemical characters during
Received 8 September, 2011; Accepted 12 December, 2011
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 27-31
Effect of Sodium Sulphite-Microwave Pretreatment on Paddy Straw Digestibility

Urmila Gupta Phutela*, Karamjeet Kaur1 and N.K. Khullar2
School of Energy Studies for Agriculture, College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, 1 Department of Microbiology, College of Basic Sciences and Humanities, 2 Department of Civil Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, India *E-mail: phutelau@gmail.com
Abstract: To remove lignin and silica complex of paddy straw, which are the main hindering factors in paddy straw digestibility, sodium sulphite (different concentrations i.e. 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10%) pretreatments in combination with microwave (30 and 60 min) were applied. Microwave irradiations were found to enhance the paddy straw biodegradability in combination with sodium sulphite. Lignin and silica content of pretreated paddy straw decreased by 30.0 and 16.9 per cent, respectively as compared to untreated paddy straw when paddy straw was soaked in 10 per cent sodium sulphite for 48 h. Whereas, 48.3 and 15.4 per cent reduction in lignin and silica content was found in case of only 4 per cent sodium sulphite pretreatment in combination with microwave (60 minutes). Key Words: Paddy straw, Ligno-cellulose, Microwave, Sodium-sulphite
In India, annual production of rice is about 136.5 million tonnes (http://www.indiastat.com) and about 136.5-150 million tonnes of paddy straw is estimated to be produced. Paddy straw burning can be commonly seen during the harvesting season which causes soil erosion and emission of pollutants. Paddy straw has high content of cellulose (35-40%), hemi-cellulose (20%), lignin (12%) and silica (8%) (Pathak et al., 1986). But, the lignin complex and silica incrustation shields the microbial action and hence restricts paddy straw digestibility. So, the first step towards economical utilization of paddy straw is to remove/degrade lignin and silica. Different types of pretreatments i.e., physical (mechanical and thermal), chemical (acid, alkali, oxidizing agents), physico-chemical (AFEX, CO2 and steam explosion) and biological (using ligno-cellulosic microbes/enzymes) are being tried to increase the digestibility of rice straw. These pretreatments technologies either change or remove structural and compositional constraints to improve hydrolysis rate. Amongst all these pretreatment methods, a few can be used on an industrial scale based on economics and environmental consideration (Sun and Cheng, 2002). Keeping in view all these aspects and the importance of paddy straw for energy and power generation along with combating the environmental pollution, the present study of microwave supplementation to the sodium sulphite pretreatment was carried out so as to reduce the concentration of chemical for enhancing paddy straw digestibility.

Procurement of the materials. Paddy straw was procured from the research field of Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. The paddy straw was chopped to 3-5 cm and was stored in polythene bags at room temperature. The chemicals used for chemical pretreatment and proximate analysis were of analytical grade. Chemical-soaking pretreatment of paddy straw. Solutions of different concentrations (2, 4, 6, 8 and 10%) of Na2SO3 were poured onto the chopped, washed and dried paddy straw @ 10 per cent and paddy straw was soaked in chemical solution for 24 and 48h. After the desired period of soaking, the solution was decanted off and paddy straw was washed with tap water until the washings were clean, colorless and neutral to the pH paper. The paddy straw was then dried overnight in the oven at 100oC, ground and then used for proximate and chemical analysis i.e., TS, VS, total sugars, cellulose, hemi-cellulose, lignin and silica determination. Chemical-Microwave pretreatment of paddy straw. Beaker containing paddy straw soaked in solution of different concentrations of Na2SO3 (as mentioned in the previous section) was irradiated with microwave (180oC) for 30 min. The same pretreatment was repeated for 60 min also. Pretreated paddy straw was washed with tap water until the washings were clean, colorless and neutral to the pH paper. Paddy straw was dried overnight in oven at 100oC. Pretreated paddy straw was ground and stored in polythene bags.
28
Urmila Gupta Phutela, Karamjeet Kaur and N.K. Khullar

VS content of paddy straw significantly. Total sugars were found to increase significantly from 46.5 mg total sugars/g PS in the control to 98.7 mg total sugars/g PS at 10% Na2SO3-60 min microwave indicating an increase of 112.3 per cent than the control. The increase in sugars could be due to the degradation of cellulose/hemi-cellulose to fermentable sugars and decrease might be the result of conversion of these fermentable sugars into furfural or HMF (Gregg and Saddler, 1996). Reducing sugars increase with the increasing radiation dose in rice straw, rice hull and corn husk hydrolyzed with acid (Rosa et al., 1983). In case of chemical-microwave pretreatment, the increase in total sugars might be result of supplementation of the microwave irradiation to the alkali resulting in the cleavage of -1, 4 glycosidic bond in the cellulose thereby, releasing fermentable sugars (Ma et al., 2009). A maximum increase of 10.7 and 12.3 per cent cellulose was obtained when paddy straw was pretreated with 10% Na2SO3 in combination with microwave for 30 and 60 min, respectively, as compared to the control. Hemi-cellulose increased significantly to 26.1 and 26.7 per cent at 10% Na2SO3 for the two microwave durations (30 and 60 min) from a control with 24.4 per cent hemi-cellulose. An increase of 30.6 per cent cellulose and 43.3 per cent hemi-cellulose content of paddy straw by microwave pretreatment (680W; 24 minutes) has been reported (Ma et al, 2009). Profound and significant decrease in lignin was found reaching a minimum of 2.3% for 10% Na 2SO3-60 min microwave. Oxygen-sodium sulphite pulping method was reported to be better than conventional alkaline pulping and oxygensodium hydroxide pulping with 95 per cent delignification and high retention of both cellulose and hemi-cellulose (Park et al., 2000). A reduction of 26.2 and 30.8 per cent in silica content was observed for 10% Na2SO3-30 and 60 min microwave, respectively as compared to the untreated straw. Microwave irradiations cause acceleration of ions, collision with other molecules, rapid rotation (2450 million times/sec) of dipoles such as H2O with an alternating electric field (Banik et al., 2003), which generates sufficient heat for the solubilization of hindering components such as lignin (soluble only at high temperatures) and disruption of silicified waxy surface and breakdown of ligninhemicellulose complex (Ma et al., 2009), which make these irradiations highly suitable for enhancing paddy straw digestibility. It is concluded that microwave irradiations reduce the need of higher concentrations of chemical for pretreatment purpose as observed from the current study where 48.3
A control (untreated paddy straw) was also analyzed simultaneously along with these pretreatments in order to determine the extent of degradation of various components of paddy straw. All the experiments for proximate and chemical analysis were conducted in triplicates. Analytical procedures and statistical analysis. The proximate and chemical analysis of paddy straw i.e. total solids (TS), volatile solids (VS), cellulose, hemi-cellulose, lignin and silica content was done as per standard methods (AOAC, 2000). Total sugars were estimated by PhenolSulphuric acid method using glucose as standard (Dubois et al., 1956). Critical difference (at 5% level) was calculated.

Effect of sodium sulphite-soaking pretreatment on paddy straw degradation. There was significant decrease in TS of the paddy straw with the increase in Na 2SO 3 concentration and soaking period whereas VS content get increased. A minimum value of TS was obtained at 10% Na2SO3-48h soaking. Maximum amount of VS was obtained at 10% Na2SO3-48h soaking. A 27.5 per cent and 31% increase in total sugars was observed at 10% Na2SO 3 concentration when paddy straw was soaked for 24h and 48h, respectively (Table 1). Cellulose increased significantly w.r.t. increasing Na2SO3 concentration but non-significantly w.r.t. soaking period. An increase of 3.9 and 4.9 per cent cellulose was obtained at 10% Na2SO3 for 24 and 48h, respectively as compared to control (43.1%). Hemi-cellulose increased significantly w.r.t. both the parameters and was maximum at 10% Na2SO3 showing an increase of 7.4 -10.2% than that of the control (24.4%). There was a significant decrease in lignin concentration reaching a minimum of 4.5% (24h soaking) and 4.2% (48h soaking) accounting to a decrease of 25 and 30 per cent, respectively than that of the control (6%). Silica concentration reached a minimum value of 5.7% and 5.4% at 10% Na2SO3-24h soaking and 10% Na2SO348h soaking corresponding to a decrease of 12.3 and 16.9 per cent, respectively. Effect of sodium sulphite-microwave pretreatment on paddy straw degradation. A decreasing trend in TS and increasing trend in VS was observed while moving towards higher Na2SO3 concentration and increasing microwave duration (Table 2). TS decreased to 95.2 and 94.7 per cent in case of 10% Na 2 SO 3-30 and 10% Na 2SO 3 -60 min microwave, respectively from 96.4 per cent in control indicating a decrease of 1.2 and 1.8 per cent. Maximum increase in VS was observed at 10% Na2SO3. Increase in microwave duration from 30 to 60 min did not increase the
Table 1. Effect of sodium sulphite-soaking pretreatment on paddy straw digestibility Na2SO3 concentration (%) CD 5% (Na2SO3 conc.) 8 95.6 (0.8) 95.3 (1.1) 89.7 (0.8) 89.9 (1.0) 57.8 (24.3) 59.2 (27.3) 44.4 (3.0) 44.7 (3.7) 25.5 (4.5) 25.9 (6.1) 5.2 (13.3) 4.9 (18.3) 6.2 (4.6) 5.8 (10.8) 6.1 (6.2) 5.7 (12.3) 4.9 (18.3) 4.6 (23.3) 5.9 (9.2) 5.6 (13.8) 60.9 (31.0) 44.8 (3.9) 45.2 (4.9) 26.2 (7.4) 26.9 (10.2) 4.5 (25.0) 4.2 (30.0) 5.7 (12.3) 5.4 (16.9) 0.38 0.22 NS 0.38 0.22 NS 0.41 0.24 NS 0.32 NS NS (27.5) 59.3 (1.2) 0.39 0.22 0.55 90.1 (1.0) 89.9 0.40 (1.3) 0.23 0.57 95.1 (1.2) 95.2 0.37 0.21 10 NS CD 5% (Soaking period) CD 5% (Na2SO3 conc. X soaking period)
Proximate and chemical composition of paddy straw 0 24 (0.1) 48 (0.2) 24 (0.2) 48 (0.3) 24 (1.9) 48 (1.5) 24 (0.2) 48 (0.5) 24 (0.4) 48 (1.2) 24 (6.7) 48 (3.3) (0) 6.6 (1.5) 6.4 (1.5) 24 (4.6) 48 (3.1) 6.7 6.8 6.2 6.0 5.0 (16.7) (1.7) (11.7) 6.4 6.1 5.3 (2.0) (2.9) 24.7 24.9 25.1 25.6 (4.9) (0.4) (1.2) (3.3) 24.5 24.5 24.7 25.2 (1.4) (2.1) (2.6) 43.3 43.7 44.0 44.2 (1.2) (1.9) (2.3) 43.2 43.6 43.9 44.1 (13.1) (19.1) (25.8) 47.2 52.6 55.4 58.5 (8.6) (18.1) (22.2) 47.4 50.5 54.9 56.8 (0.4) (0.7) (0.8) 89.3 89.4 89.6 89.7 (0.2) (0.6) (0.6) 89.2 89.2 89.5 89.5 (0.3) (0.6) (1.0) 96.2 96.1 95.8 95.4 (0.1) (0.2) (0.7) 96.3 96.3 96.2 95.7 2 4 6
Untreated paddy straw (control)
Soaking period (h)
Total solids
96.4
(%)
Volatile solids
89.0
(%)
Total sugars
46.5
(mg-1 PS)
Cellulose (%)
43.1
Hemi-cellulose
24.4
Paddy Straw Digestibility with Sodium Sulphite
(%)
Lignin (%)
6.0
Silica (%)
6.5
Values in parentheses indicate increase () or decrease () w.r.t. untreated paddy straw
29
30
Table 2. Effect of sodium sulphite-microwave pretreatment on paddy straw digestibility Na2SO3 concentration (%) CD (Na2SO3 conc.) 8 95.4 (1.0) 95.1 (1.3) 89.9 (1.0) 90.0 (1.1) 85.5 (83.9) 89.7 (92.9) 46.5 (7.9) 47.8 (10.9) 25.6 (4.9) 25.9 (6.1) 3.4 (43.3) 2.9 (51.7) (48.3) 5.8 (10.8) 5.5 (15.4) 5.7 (12.3) 5.4 (16.9) 2.7 (65.0) 2.4 (60.0) 5.3 (18.5) 4.9 (24.6) 98.7 (112.3) 47.7 (10.7) 48.4 (12.3) 26.1 (7.0) 26.7 (9.4) 2.6 (56.7) 2.3 (61.7) 4.8 (26.2) 4.5 (30.8) 0.48 NS NS 0.44 0.25 NS 0.40 NS 0.57 0.36 0.21 0.52 (99.8) 92.9 (1.3) 0.48 0.28 0.68 90.2 (1.2) 90.1 0.37 (1.8) NS NS 94.7 (1.2) 95.2 0.38 0.22 10 CD (Micro wave duration) NS
Proximate and chemical composition of paddy straw 0 30 (0) 60 (0.1) 30 (0.2) 60 (0.3) 30 (1.9) 60 (1.5) 30 (0.2) 60 (3.5) 30 (0.4) 60 (0.4) 30 (6.7) (0) 5.7 (5.0) 6.5 (0) 6.3 (3.1) 3.1 60 (0) 30 (4.6) 60 (15.4) 7.5 6.8 6.0 (41.7) 6.4 6.0 3.5 (1.2) (3.7) 24.5 24.7 25.3 25.7 (5.3) (0.4) (2.0) (3.3) 24.5 24.5 24.9 25.2 (1.9) (7.7) (8.8) 44.6 43.9 46.4 46.9 (1.4) (4.6) (6.0) 43.2 43.7 45.1 45.7 (24.5) (40.6) (77.6) 47.2 57.9 65.4 82.6 (18.9) (25.8) (58.7) 47.4 55.3 58.5 73.8 (0.4) (0.7) (0.9) 89.3 89.4 89.6 89.8 (0.3) (0.4) (0.7) 89.2 89.3 89.4 89.6 (0.5) (0.9) (1.1) 96.3 95.9 95.5 95.3 (0.3) (0.6) (0.8) 96.4 96.1 95.8 95.6 2 4 6
Untreated paddy straw (control)
Micro wave duration (min)
CD (Na2SO3 conc. X Micro wave duration)
Total solids (%)
96.4
Volatile solids (%)
89.0
Total sugars
46.5
(mg-1 PS)
Cellulose (%)
43.1
Hemi-cellulose
24.4
(%)
Urmila Gupta Phutela, Karamjeet Kaur and N.K. Khullar
Lignin (%)
6.0
Silica (%)
6.5
Values in parentheses indicate increase () or decrease () w.r.t. untreated paddy straw
Paddy Straw Digestibility with Sodium Sulphite

and 15.4 per cent decrease in lignin and silica content was observed when microwaves are supplemented with only 4% Na2SO3. Whereas, without microwave, 10% Na2SO3 was needed to achieve 30.0 and 16.9 per cent reduction in lignin and silica content, respectively.
31
Gregg, D. and Saddler, J.N. (1996) A techno-economic assessment of the pretreatment and fractionation steps of a biomass to ethanol process. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 57-58: 711-727. http://www.indiastat.com Ma, H., Liu, W.W., Chen, X., Wu, Y.J. and Yu, Z.L. (2009) Enhanced enzymatic saccharification of rice straw by microwave pretreatment. Bioresour. Technol. 100: 1279-1284. Pathak, B.S., Jain, A.K. and Singh, A. (1986) Characteristics of crop residues. Agri. Wastes 16: 27-35. Park, S.Y., Koda, K., Matsumoto, Y., Meshitsuka, G. and Iiyama, K. (2000) Oxygen weak base pulping of rice straw with minimum silica removal. Japan TAPPI J. 54(9): 1245- 1251. Rosa, A.M.D., Mines, A.S.D., Banson, R.B. and Nuguid, Z.F.S. (1983) Radiation pretreatment of cellulose for energy production. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 22(3-5): 861-867. Sun, Y. and Cheng, J. (2002) Hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials for ethanol production: a review. Bioresour. Technol. 83: 1-11.
REFERENCES
AOAC (2000) Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Official Methods of Analysis, 17th Edition, Maryland, USA. Banik, S., Bandyopadhyay, S. and Ganguly, S. (2003) Bio-effects of microwave-a brief review. Bioresour. Technol. 87: 155159. Dubois, M., Gilles, K.A., Hamilton, J.K., Rebers, P.A. and Smith, F. (1956) Calorimetric method for determination of sugars and related substances. Anal. Chem. 28: 350-356.
Received 8 July, 2011; Accepted 4 May, 2012
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 32-37
Evaluation of Quality Parameters of Low Alcoholic, Self Carbonated Fermented Beverage

P. Sahota, G. Pandove* and T.S. Dhillion1
Department of Microbiology, 1Department of Vegetable Crops, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, India *E-mail: gpandoveg@yahoo.co.in
Abstract: A pure yeast isolate from whey beverage, phenotypically characterized and D1/D2 domain of 26S rRNA and Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) region sequenced, was identified as Clavispora lusitaniae. A technology to produce low alcoholic self carbonated beverage with this yeast was developed. It is a reliable, controllable, reproducible technology to safeguard interest of horticulturists during seasonal glut of the fruits. The freshly prepared fermented carrot-amla (Emblica officinalis) beverage (1:1) had TSS 16B, pH 3.5, acidity 0.36 per cent, brix acid ratio 44.44, ethanol 0.3 per cent,CO2 0.9 bar and viable cell count was 1.5x107 cfu ml-1. Physico-chemical changes recorded after three months of storage at refrigerated temperature revealed TSS 11B, pH 3.3, Brix acid ratio 25, acidity 0.44 per cent, ethanol 1.0 per cent, CO2 1.5 (bar) and viable cell count (cfu ml-1) was 9.5x108 cfu ml-1. CO2 so produced is antimicrobial, adds effervescence sparkle, tangy taste to the beverage. On the basis of organoleptic evaluation, the beverage was adjudged the best with highest sensory quality and shelf life of three months Key Words: Beverage, Low alcoholic, Self carbonated, Yeast
India stands second in the world for production of fruits and vegetables owing to the remarkable diversity of its geographical conditions. The country produces about 50 million tonnes of fruits per year but only 2 per cent of this goes for processing, while over 25 per cent is spoiled due to improper handling and storage resulting in quantitative and qualitatively losses (Singh and Goswami, 2006). Consumers like carrot juice because of its high nutritive value, fiber, carbohydrates, vitamin A derived from its high a carotene (b-carotene), b-carotene content, colour, aromatic compounds and refreshing characteristics (Desobry et al., 1998). A major problem for processing carrot is color loss and requires double pasteurization (Czepa and Hofmann, 2004). Fruits like amla because of its high acidity and astringent taste, is not palatable for direct consumption, but its excellent nutritional and therapeutic values offer enormous potentiality for processing. Amla is a richest source of ascorbic acid, an antioxidant (600 mg100g-1), which is said to be the second highest among all the fruits and a good source of choline, an effective free radical scavenger (256mg100g-1). It contains 20 times as much ascorbic acid as orange juice. Amla is exception among fruits as it contains substances, which partially protect the ascorbic acid from destruction on heating or drying. As it is highly acidic, so it protects its ascorbic acid. Blending of carrot juice with astringent, highly nutritious fruits like amla can provide health beverages with medicinal and therapeutic values. The fermented beverage retains nutrients, and additionally CO2 so produced is anti microbial and adds tangy taste, fizz and sparkle to the beverage. Carrot
and amla are available for short span of time in a year and result in seasonal glut. To make them available throughout the year, the present study was conducted with objective to develop a reliable, controllable, reproducible technology for the production of low alcoholic self carbonated beverage with shelf-life of three months.

Physiological, biochemical and molecular characterization of yeast isolate. Feta cheese was prepared by inoculating starter mesophilic culture (CHOOZIT 230, Bulk cultures, Danisco, Germany) containing Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis and Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris and thermophilic yoghurt culture (YO-MIX 532, Bulk cultures, Danisco, Germany) containing Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbruckii subsp. bulgaricus. The whey so obtained was used for beverage making. A total of ten morphologically identical yeast colonies were screened, isolated from whey beverage which on streak purification revealed one distinct colony type, initially designated as 84. Identification of the yeast isolate determined on the basis of biochemical activities included fermentation of sugars, assimilation of carbon compounds, growth on vitamin free medium, growth at 25C, 30C, 35C, 37C and 42C, growth in 50 per cent and 60 per cent D-glucose medium, urea hydrolysis and 0.01 per cent and 0.1 per cent cycloheximide (Van der Walt and Yarrow, 1984).The yeast isolate 84 was further identified phenotypically and by sequencing based on partial ITS2 region of the rDNA sequence. Genomic DNA was isolated
Quality Parameters of Low Alcoholic, Self Carbonated Fermented Beverage

from pure culture (Sambrook et al. 2001). Using consensus primers, D1/D2 domain of 26S rRNA, ITS-1 and 2 region fragment (0.4 Kb) was amplified using high fidelity Taq polymerase (Hi-Media). The PCR product was cloned in to pTZ57R/T vector as per manufacturers instruction (Fermentas, USA) and plasmid DNA was bi-directionally sequenced using the forward, reverse and an internal primer. Sequence data was aligned and analyzed for finding the closest homology for the microbe. The MEGA 4.0 package (Tamura et al., 2007) was used for all analyses. Screening of yeast isolates for potential of fermentation of fruit juices. Screening of yeast isolates for potential of fermentation of fruit juices was carried out by inoculating the yeast isolate 84 in amla juice (procured from the Deptt. of Horticulture, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana). The inoculum for low-alcoholic self carbonated beverage was prepared in boiled fruit juice. Brix adjusted to 16B with boiled and cooled sucrose solution. A loopful of 24 h old yeast culture was transferred to 100 ml fruit juice in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask and incubated at 205C for 24 hrs to achieve concentration 107-108 cells ml-1. Studies on fermentation potential of yeast isolates in fruit juice was done in one litre glass bottles each containing 750 ml juice (16B), inoculated @ 0.5 per cent and incubated at 205C. The bottles were analyzed for ethanol and carbon dioxide (bar) production after 36 h at 205C temperature. Fruits and extraction of juices. Carrot var. PC-34 was procured from the Department of Vegetable crops, PAU, Ludhiana. Amla var. Chaikya was obtained from Department of Horticulture, PAU, Ludhiana. Healthy fruits and vegetables were washed with chlorinated water and peeled. Carrot juice was extracted aseptically and in hygienic conditions using Electronic juicer (INALSA), where as amla was passed through screw type extractor to extract juice. Extracted juice was filtered through muslin cloth Preparation of sugar solution. The granulated sucrose procured from local market of Ludhiana city, was boiled in equal water (500g 100 litre-1) for 5 min and then cooled to room temperature to prepare sugar solution. Physico-chemical analysis of carrot and amla. Physico-chemical analysis of Carrot and amla juice was done, TSS (B), pH, acidity (%), Brix-acid ratio, total sugar (%), reducing sugar (%), ascorbic acid (mg 100 ml-1), total carotenoids (mg 100ml-1), juice recovery kg-1. Carrot and amla juices were mixed in the ratio of 3:1, 1:1 and 1:3. Blended juice was diluted in the ratio of 1:2 with water. Diluted juice was pasteurized at 82C for 15 secs, cooled and brix adjusted to 16B by adding sugar solution followed by culture @ 0.5 per cent. It was incubated for 36 hrs at
33
205C. The beverage was refrigerated for 24 h, siphoned, bottled and stored in refrigerated conditions. Chemical Analysis. The pH of the juice was determined using a digital pH meter (Electronic Corporarion of India Ltd., Hyderabad, type 101). Total acidity expressed as per cent anhydrous citric acid by titration against standardized 0.1N NaOH (AOAC, 1980). Per cent total soluble solids (%TSS) determined by using Erma hand refractometer of 0-32B (UNICO make). Total sugars estimated by phenol-sulphuric acid method of Dubois et al. (1956) using glucose as standard. Reducing sugars estimated by the method of Miller (1959). Ascorbic acid was determined by titrametric method using 2, 6dichlorophenol indophenol dye (AOVC, 1996). Per cent ethanol in beverage was estimated by the Spectrophotometric method. Higher alcohols, aldehyde and ethyl acetate in beverage were estimated by GC Headspace Injection, TR wax Column, Detection by FID [Punjab Biotechnology Incubator, Phase-V, SAS Nagar (Mohali), Punjab, India]. Carbon dioxide volumes in beverage bottles were determined by Zahm and Nagel piercing device. Sensory evaluation of beverage was carried out using ninepoint hedonic scale (Amerine et al., 1965). Statistical analysis was done by using GSTATO4 and CPCS1 software developed by Maths, Statistics and Physics Department, PAU, Ludhiana.

Physiological and biochemical characterization. Preliminary identification was attempted using classical techniques involving physiological and biochemical tests. After three days of growth in glucose yeast extract (GYE) broth at 25C, cells of yeast isolates 84 were mostly elliptical (5.1 x 6.5m and 5.3 x 6.7m).The colony morphology of the isolate on solid media exhibited viscous texture with offwhite colouration and matt appearances, the shape of the colonies were considerably distinct. After four weeks on GYE agar, 84 colonies were off-white, butyrous, dull, waxy, and had convex to umbonate elevations. The results of the carbon assimilation and the fermentation tests showed that the yeast isolate 84 was able to ferment D-glucose, D-xylose and raffinose while assimilate D-galactose, L-sorbose, Dglucosamine, D-ribose, D-xylose, L-arabinose, sucrose, maltose, Alpha, alpha-trehalose, Me alpha-D-glucoside, melezitose, glycerol, ribotol, D-glucitol, D-mannitol, Dglucono-1,5-lactone, 2-keto-D-gluconate, D-gluconate, DLlactate, succinate, citrate and ethanol. Isolate 84 had an identical physiological and biochemical profile to Debaromyces hansenii except that 84 were unable to
34
P. Sahota, G. Pandove and T.S. Dhillion

Screening of yeast isolates for fermentation on different juices for preparation of low-alcoholic naturally carbonated beverage. C. lusitaniae EF221824 was used for carrying out fermentation on amla juice. Yeast isolate C. lusitaniae EF568047 showed the potential to produce low alcohol and carbonation in amla juice with carbonation of 0.9 bars and ethanol concentration of 0.4 per cent. So beverage was prepared using C . lusitaniae EF568047 under standardized condition. Markides (1986) reported that yeasts ferment the sugar to alcohol and producing CO2 as the by-product having the bottle pressure of about 500-600 KPa (5-6 atmospheres) at 10C; after the completion of
metabolize soluble starch, ethylamine, L-lysine, and cadaverine. Similarly, isolate 84 was able to grow at temperatures up to 42C; in high osmotic pressure conditions (50 % glucose); exhibited a negative starch test; was resistant to 1000 ppm cycloheximide; and was not able to grow in vitamin-free media. On the basis of physiological, biochemical, nucleotide homology (Table 1) and phylogenetic analysis (Fig.1), the isolate 84 was detected to be Clavispora lusitaniae and was deposited in GenBank of NCBI under accession number: EF221824. Nearest homologous genus and species of isolate 84 was found to be Candida flosculorum (Accession No. EF137918).
Table 1. Percentage homologies of yeast isolate 84 based on nucleotide sequence Isolates 1 84 (1) EF221824 (2) EF568047 (3) EF568024 (4) AYI74102 (5) A Y 493434 (6) EU568925 (7) A Y321464 (8) EF137918 (9) A Y321465 (10) EF060724 (11) * 2 100 * 3 100 100 * 4 100 100 100 * Percentage homology 5 98 98 98 98 * 6 99 99 99 99 98 * 7 95 95 95 95 95 94 * 8 96 96 96 96 96 95 93 * 9 82 82 82 82 82 81 80 80 * 10 99 99 99 99 98 98 98 96 81 * 11 77 77 77 77 77 77 76 77 78 77 *
Fig. 1. Phylogenetic tree of yeast isolate 84 (using neighbor joining method)

secondary fermentation and for each 100 KPa of pressure rise, approximately 4g l-1 of sugar was required. Technology for preparation of low-alcoholic self carbonated beverage under optimized conditions of fermentation. Low alcoholic self carbonated beverage was prepared from carrot and amla juice blend under optimized conditions of inoculum concentration (0.5%), incubation temp (205C), incubation time (36h) and TSS (16oB). Low alcoholic self carbonated beverage is fresh, safe, stable more natural minimally processed, free from additives contaminants, adulterants and harmful pathogenic bacteria. Preparation of low-alcoholic self carbonated beverage from carrot and amla blend. The acceptability of beverages is very much dependent on its physico-chemical and organoleptic properties like color, appearance, texture, and aroma. There were not significant changes in physicochemical characteristics that impart flavour and aroma to the beverages during pasteurization and storage. The stability of fruit-based beverages is also influenced by the type of fruit juice used in their formulation (Deak et al., 1986). Physico-chemical composition of carrot and amla juice. The physico-chemical composition of carrot juice was evaluated on the basis of chemical analysis. The physicochemical characteristics of PC-34 carrot variety was TSS 8.5B, per cent titrable acidity 0.25, pH 7.1, Brix-acid ratio 34, total sugars 2.4 per cent, reducing sugars 1.97 per cent, total carotenoids 204 mg 100ml-1 and juice yield 48.4 per cent. The physico-chemical characteristics of amla variety Chaikya was TSS 6.0B, per cent titrable acidity 3.20, pH 2.53, Brix-acid ratio 1.87, total sugars 2.17 per cent, reducing sugars 2.0 per cent, ascorbic acid 204 mg 100ml-1 and juice yield 44.0 per cent. Standardization of carrot-amla beverage for shelf life study. The beverage has been rated as liked very much
35
during sensory evaluation due to its effervescence, improved tangy taste, color, appearance, texture, and aroma as well as enriched with the nutrients and typical flavour of the fruits. As compared to fruit juices the formulation of low alcoholic self carbonated beverage offers more variety of flavour, nutrients, long shelf life and other physiological benefits with greater margin of safety in a fermented drink. The fermentation conditions and technology is simple and can be adopted at small and pilot scale. Carrot-amla (3:1, 1:1 and 1:3) beverages were analyzed by panelists for sensory scores (Table 2). Blended carrot beverage is pale yellow in color and not red as expected by consumer because of settling of red pigment. The blended beverages did not show significant difference in color, appearance, taste but differed significantly with respect to for texture, aroma and overall acceptability. Blended beverage from carrot-amla (1:1) scored highest for texture (7.5), taste (7.7) and overall acceptability (7.7). Shelf-life studies (Effect of fermentation on physicochemical properties of carrot: amla beverage). Shelf-life of low alcoholic self carbonated carrot-amla (1:1) blended beverage stored at refrigerated temperature was studied and evaluated fortnightly for organoleptic, biochemical and microbiological qualities. The results of carrot: amla beverage (1:1) show significant decrease in brix from 16.0 to 11.0 and Brix acid ratio from 44.44 to 25 (Table 3). Under anaerobic conditions and at high glucose concentration, the pyruvate formed in glycolysis is decarboxylated to acetaldehyde, which is then reduced to ethanol. The pH of the beverage decreased from 3.5 to 3.3 and acidity increased from 0.36 to 0.44 during fermentation. The decrease in pH and increase in acidity was non-significant. This is due to buffering action of juices. These results are in accordance with Aruna et al. (1992)
Table 2. Effect of blending on sensory attributes* of low alcoholic self carbonated beverages Sensory attributes Color Appearance Texture Taste Aroma Overall acceptability A 7.0+0.10 6.6+0.89 6.6+0.55 6.6+0.55 6.6+0.89 6.6+0.89 B 7.3+0.98 7.2+0.45 7.5+0.50 7.5+0.50 7.7+0.45 7.7+0.45 C 7.2+0.84 7.2+0.45 7.3+0.45 7.3+0.45 6.6+0.55 6.6+0.55 F-ratio 0.13 NS 1.50
NS
CD at 5% NS NS 0.69 NS 0.91 0.91
4.47 1.90 NS 4.65 4.65
*On a 9 point hedonic scale, 9=liked extremely,1= disliked extremely, values are mean+SD, NS=non Significant, Mean value of five panelists A-Carrot: Amla (3:1) B- Carrot: Amla (1:1) C- Carrot: Amla (1:3)
36
P. Sahota, G. Pandove and T.S. Dhillion
Table 3. Effect of storage on low alcoholic self carbonated carrot:amla (1:1) blended beverage Carrot: amla (1:1) Fresh 15days 30days 45days 60days 75days 90days CD at 5% (p= 0.05) Physico-chemical properties TSS ( B)
o
16.00 3.50 0.36 44.44 0.30 0.90 1.5x10 7
16.00 3.50 0.36 44.44 0.40 0.90 3.5x107
15.85 3.40 0.37 42.89 0.60 0.90 4.0x10 7
15.10 3.40 0.41 36.82 0.70 1.20 4.5x107
14.25 3.40 0.42 33.92 0.70 1.20 6.5x10 7
13.20 3.30 0.43 30.70 0.80 1.20 8.0x108
11.00 3.30 0.44 25.00 1.00 1.50 9.5x10 8
0.35 NS NS 0.85 NS NS 0.35
pH Acidity (%) Brix acid ratio Alcohol (w/v) CO2 (bar) Total plate count (cfu ml-1)
Organoleptic properties Color Appearance Texture Taste Aroma Overall acceptability NS: Non-significant 8.0+0.50 8.1+0.22 7.8+0.84 8.2+0.84 7.8+0.84 7.8+0.84 8.2+0.45 8.0+0.50 7.7+0.45 8.1+0.22 7.7+0.45 7.7+0.45 8.1+022 8.0+0.50 7.9+0.22 8.1+0.22 7.6+0.55 7.9+0.22 8.1+022 8.1+0.22 7.8+0.45 7.9+0.22 7.8+0.45 7.8+0.45 7.9+0.22 7.9+0.22 7.8+045 7.7+0.45 7.8+0.45 7.8+0.45 7.8+0.45 8.0+0.50 7.7+045 7.8+0.45 7.9+0.22 7.9+0.22 7.8+0.45 7.9+0.22 7.7+0.45 7.9+0.22 7.9+0.22 7.6+0.55 NS NS NS NS NS NS
who observed that during storage, total soluble solid, and pH decreased while acidity increased. Babajide et al. (2002) also reported decrease in pH and increase in acidity during storage of low-alcoholic beverage made from millet grain. Ezeronye (2005) observed decrease in Brix from 20B to 6B during fermentation. Ilamaran and Amutha (2007) reported gradual decrease in BAR content of carbonated banana beverage during storage. The ethanol after 15 days was 0.40 per cent and gradually increased to 0.70% v/v after 60 days and reached up to 1.0 per cent after 90 days. Higher alcohol like propanol, butanol, isopropanol and acetaldehyde and ethyl acetate was absent in beverage after 90 days of storage. The CO 2 pressure of fresh beverage was 0.90 bar that increased to 1.5 bar at the end of 90 days. Viable cell count increased from 1.5x107-9.5x108 cfu ml-1. During fermentation CO2, alcohol and glycerol produced is proportional to the amount of sugar fermented. The yeast strain produce large amount of glycerol at the expense of ethanol represent an advantageous alternative for development of beverages with low ethanol contents versus physical processes which alter the organoleptic properties of the final product. Kumar (1997) found that carbonated pure mandarin juice beverage at 100 psi pressure of carbonation, the best, similarly low alcoholic self carbonated beverage from carrot: amla (1:1) has been adjudged the best with sensory scores ranges from liked very much to moderately liked with shelf life of three months as carbonation enhances the sensory quality of beverage partly due to increased acidity, sparkle and unique fizz.
The alarming wastage associated with carrot and amla (Emblica officinalis) coupled with its low level of industrial utilization in the developing countries calls for a great concern. The nutritional and therapeutic value of amla (Emblica officinalis) and carrot can be tapped by processing them into value added fermented product (low alcoholic self carbonated beverage) with retention of nutritional properties, highest sensory qualities and shelf life of three months
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledged the financial assistance provided by University Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi, India for support of the project entitled Preparation of non-alcoholic naturally carbonated beverage from fruit juices.
REFERENCES
Amerine M. A., Pangborn R. M., Roessler E. B. (1965) Principles of Sensory Evaluation of Food. Academic press , London. AOAC (1980) Official Methods of Analysis. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 13th ed., Washington, DC, USA. AOVC (1996) Methods of Vitamin Assay. Association of Vitamin Chemists Inc. (Ed.) Interscience Publishers, pp.306-312. Aruna-seralthan, M., Malathi, D. and Susheela-Thirumaran, A. (1992) Preparation of carrot based ready to serve beverage. S. Indian Hort. 40: 41-52. Babajide, J. M., Atanda, O. O. and Idown, M. A.(2002) Microbial and sensory quality of freshly processed and reconstituted Kununzaki A Nigerian Mille based beverage. J. Food Technol. 7: 65-67.

Czepa, A. and Hofmann, T. (2004) Structural and sensory characterization of compound contributing to bitter taste of carrots and carrot puree. J. Agri. Food Chem. 51: 3865 3875. Deak, T., Tabajdi-Pinter and Fabri, I. (1986) Baseline counts of yeasts in soft drinks. In: A.D King, Jr., J .I Pitt, L. R. Beuchat, J. E. L. Corry Methods for the Mycological Examination of Food (eds) Plenum Press, New York, pp.188-189. Desobry, S. A., Netro, F. M. and Labaza, T. P. (1998) Preservation of -carotene from carrots. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutrition. 38: 381-396. Dubois, M., Gills, K. A., Hamilton, J. K., Roberts, P. A. and Smith, F. (1956) Colorimetric method for determination of sugars and related substances. Anal. Chem. 28: 350-356. Ezeronye, O. V. (2005) Nutrient utilization profile of Saccharomyces cerevisiae from palm wine in tropical fruit fermentation. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 86: 235-239. Ilamaran, M. and Amutha, S. (2007) Effect of total soluble solids and CO2 pressure on physico-chemical and sensory qualities of carbonated banana and sapota beverages. J. Food Sci. Technol. 44:178-182. Kumar, S. (1997) Standardization of technology and evaluation of
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carbonated citrus fruit juices and their blends with synthetic beverage. M. Sc. Thesis, Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture & Forestry, Nauni-Solan, (HP), India. Markides, A. J. (1986) The microbiology of methode Champenoise. In: Proceedings of 6 th Australian Wine Industry Technical Conference, Adelaide, 14-17, 1986. Australian Industrial Publishers, Adelaide, pp 232-236. Miller, G. L. (1959) Use of Dinitrosalicylic acid reagent for determination of reducing sugar. Anal. Chem. 31: 426-428. Sambrook, J., Maccallum, P. and Russell, D. (2001) Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual. 3rd ed. Cold Spring Harbor Press, NY, 2344 p. Singh, A. K. and Goswami, T. K. (2006) Controlled atmosphere storage of fruits and vegetables: A review. J. Food Sci. Technol. 43: 1-7. Tamura, K. D., Nei, J. M. and Kumar, S. (2007) MEGA4, molecular evolutionary genetics analysis (MEGA) software version 4.0. Mol. Biol. Evol. 24: 15961599. Van der Walt, J. P. and Yarrow, D. (1984) Methods for the isolation, maintenance, classification and identification of yeasts. In: N. J. W. Kreger-van Rij (Ed.). The Yeasts: A Taxonomie Study. Elsevier Science Publishers.
Received 4 March, 2011; Accepted 4 November, 2011
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 38-43
Impact of a Paper Mill on Surrounding Epiphytic Lichen Communities Using Multivariate Analysis
Pulak Das*, Santosh Joshi1, Jayashree Rout and D.K. Upreti1
Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Assam University, Silchar, Assam788 011, India 1 Lichenology Laboratory, Plant Biodiversity and Conservation Biology Division, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow (UP)226 001, India * E-mail: pulakdas.ecology@gmail.com
Abstract: The present study analyses the effect of a paper mill on epiphytic lichen communities in Barak Valley, Assam, India. Lichen thallus size, thallus number and frequency of occurrence, along with diversity of lichens at three levels (species, generic, and family) are considered as variables to see the community composition across the distance from a paper mill. Number of lichen thallus per tree in study area ranged from 3 to 16, while thallus area per tree varied from 20 cm2 to 256.48 cm2. Number of species showed high positive correlation with number of genera, families, thalli and thallus area. Number of thalli showed high positive correlation with area covered, number of thallus, and thallus area per tree. Distance from the paper mill exhibited no significant correlation with either variable. Multivariate analysis showed two major groups and two subgroups of communities. Sites which are more polluted showed a decrease in the community variables. Fifteen out of seventeen sites were most affected ones. Epiphytic lichen community study thus can be used to study levels of pollution impact around a source of pollution. Key Words: Epiphytic lichen community, Paper mill, Pollution, Cluster analysis
Lichens are among the most frequently used indicators of atmospheric pollution in the last couple of decades due to their sensitivity towards atmospheric pollutants in the form of oxides and other hazardous pollutants. Important factors behind the high sensitivity of lichens are the absence of a protective cuticle that lead to the direct exposure of thallus surface to atmosphere and rather unspecific uptake of mineral nutrients from the surrounding environment. Pulp and paper mills are considered as one of most polluted industries in India. SO2 and NOx are two major air pollutants emitted from pulp and paper mills along with some other pollutants. Impacts of the polluted environment upon lichens have been observed from morphological changes to community structure changes (Gries, 1996). It has been observed that air pollution leads to a reduction of thallus size and frequency of lichens, and sometimes even to the complete loss of sensitive species (Zambrano et al., 2000; Brodo, 1966). Ultra structural changes in lichens due to SO2 and NOx consequently develop physiological changes, which may affect the dispersal mechanism through reduction in abundance and species richness (Nash and Gries, 2002), changes in frequency and coverage (LeBlanc et al., 1974), directing the overall lichen community structure. The changes in frequency, coverage, abundance, number of lichen individuals, and richness in terms of species, genera, and family can therefore be considered important parameters to study the impact of pollution on surrounding lichens. In other words, the spatial pattern of lichens in such community can be deciphered by studying these
parameters. Considering these, the present study aims to assess the role of industrial point source pollution in the reformation of epiphytic lichen communities around a paper mill in Barak Valley by studying above mentioned variables and delineating the areas which are most affected.

The study was conducted around Cachar Paper Mill (Fig.1) in Panchgram in Barak Valley of Assam state in north east India, which is a unit of Hindustan Paper Corporation Limited (HPCL). It uses almost 2,00,000 Bone dry metric tons (BDMT) of bamboo annually for the production of 1,00,000 metric tons (MT) of paper. The data on epiphytic lichens were collected at seventeen sites randomly selected from the geographical map of the area (Fig. 1) within 25 km radius around the paper mill covering an area of around 1800 km2 and spanning between the dimensions 9222 9253 E longitude and 2442 2459 N latitude. Kalinagar is the nearest site at 2.4 km and Jalalpur is the farthest site at 24 km towards east and north-west of the mill, respectively (Fig. 2). Lichens are collected following Insarov (2010) from the model tree Artocarpus heterophyllus , growing abundantly around the study area. A group of model trees (five trees in the present case) belonging to A. heterophyllus , located close to each other, forms the sampling plot (or site). Seventeen sampling plots (Fig. 2) are randomly selected in the present study. At each sampling plot, trees exposed to more or less similar conditions of light, temperature, and humidity and trees with
Paper Mill and Lichen Communities
39
Fig. 1. Location of Cachar paper mill in Barak Valley, Assam
Site Nos.: 1-Gumra, 2-Dumkur, 3-Baroital, 4-Mohanpur, 5-Elongjuri, 6-Umarpur, 7-Bhanga, 8-Devendranagar, 9-Bornogod, 10Lokhirbond, 11-Uttarkanchanpur, 12-Kalinagar, 13-Ghagrapar, 14-Sangjurai, 15-Udharbond, 16-Jalalpur, 17-Kaliganj
Fig. 2. Locations of the seventeen study sites (plots) around the paper mill
40
Pulak Das, Santosh Joshi, Jayashree Rout and D.K. Upreti

number of thallus per tree (Table 2). Mean frequencies for all lichen species at any particular site ranged from 24.44 per cent at Udharbond (23.3 km) to 51.67 per cent at Bhanga (11.3 km). The family Graphidaceae dominates the sites and represents maximum number of species belonging to the genus Graphis. Arthopyreniaceae, Opegraphaceae, Chrysothricaceae, Parmeliaceae, Biatoraceae, and Tricotheliaceae families have only single representation of species. The total number of species per plot shows high positive correlation with number of individuals (r = 0.52, p < 0.05) and area covered by lichens per plot (r = 0.64, p < 0.05). Number of thalli per plot is strongly correlated with area covered per plot (r = 0.83, p < 0.05) (Table 3). Cluster analysis is performed on the basis of six variables: i) species, ii) genus, iii) family, iv) number of thallus, v) area per plot, and vi) frequency (Fig. 3). The analysis demonstrates two major groups and two subgroups among sites (or plots) on the basis of above mentioned variables. All sites belong to group A except 16 and 14, which lie in Group B. Subgroup A1 consists of sites 2, 9, 10, 13, 3, 15, 8, 12, 5, 11, 6, and 7 and subgroup A2 consists of sites 1, 17, and 4. Average area (cm2) covered by lichens increased as follows: subgroup A1 (1551.08) < subgroup A2 (5240) < group B (10688.16). Average of total number of individuals, species and genera also increased in a similar way from subgroup A1 to group B. Average of frequency and families also increased from group A to group B although in group A2 there was a little discrepancy. SO2 and Nitrogen compounds are found to adversely affect lichens near paper mills (Holopainen, 1983). In the present study ,although paper mill is observed to be the most significant source of air pollution, but the impact of some other noticeable sources such as stone crushers (site 15) and urban areas (sites 5 and 10) cannot be ignored. Site 16 and site 14 (top left and middle right quadrant, Fig. 2) on the other hand represents areas comparatively rich in terms of vegetation away from any pollution source and hence can be assumed comparatively
similar diameter at breast height (DBH) were selected. All species of lichens present on trunks of the trees up to a height of 2 m from the base were collected and enlisted. The lichen samples were collected on completion of rainy season between September to November 2005. The specimens were studied and identified up to species level after following the protocols given by Awasthi (2007), Walker and James (1980) and Orange et al. (2001). Total numbers of lichen species, individuals within a species, thallus (coverage) area per individual and total coverage of lichens were calculated for each model tree and subsequent calculations were done. Cluster analysis is done using software STATISTICA.

The present work revealed the occurrence of 53 species of lichens consisting of 13 families and 23 genera. Average number of species, genera, and families per plot (consisting five trees) are 13.59, 9.24, and 6.47, respectively (Table 1). Average values for total number of thallus per tree, total number of thallus per plot, thallus area per tree, thallus area per plot, and mean frequency of occurrence per plot are 6.66, 219.59, 112.02, 3277.01 cm2 and 38.16 per cent, respectively (Table 1). Out of the total species, five are foliose and remaining forty-eight are crustose lichens in growth form. The foliose lichens Dirinaria aegialita, Pyxine cocoes, Parmotrema saccatilobum, Physcia dilatata and Phyllopsora corallina are found respectively at site numbers 13, 6, 4, 2, and 1. Among foliose lichens, the largest individual thallus area and thallus area per tree, both are exhibited by Pyxine cocoes at Udharbond (Table 2). Dirinaria aegialita exhibited the maximum number of thalli at Uttarkanchanpur. The crustose lichens attained comparatively much larger growth of a single thallus than foliose lichens. The largest area of a single crustose thallus is observed to be 146.9 cm2 (Graphis capillaceae), whereas, largest thallus area per tree is exhibited by G. subasahinae (Table 2). G. inamoena is found to have the highest total
Table 1. Range and average of lichen community variables around the paper mill Minimum (Site) Species (number) Genus (number) Family (number) Number of thallus per tree Number of thallus per plot Thallus area (cm2) per tree Thallus area (cm2) per plot Mean frequency of occurrence per plot (%) 5 (Site 12) 3 (Site 12) 2 (Site 12) 3 (Site 3) 54 (Site 8) 20 (Site 8) 340 (Site 8) 24.44 (Site 15) Maximum (Site) 24 (Site 14) 15 (Site 14) 10 (Site 14) 16(Site 16) 894 (Site 16) 256.48 (Site 16) 10772.3 (Site 16) 51.67 (Site 7) Average 13.59 9.24 6.47 6.66 219.59 112.02 3277 38.16

Table 2. Highest values of thallus area and numbers of foliose and crustose species found in the study area Species Highest area (cm2) per thallus Site (no.) FOLIOSE GROWTH FORM Distance (km)
41
Dirinaria aegialita Pyxine cocoes Parmotrema saccatilobum Physcia dilatata Phyllopsora corallina Dirinaria aegialita Pyxine cocoes Parmotrema saccatilobum Physcia dilatata Phyllopsora corallina Dirinaria aegialita Pyxine cocoes Parmotrema saccatilobum Physcia dilatata Phyllopsora corallina
6.2 12.54 3.25 1.46 4.52 Highest thallus area (cm2) per tree 105.88 439 8.67 14.63 117.5 51 35 4 10 26 Highest area (cm2) per thallus
Gumra (1) Udharbond (15) Bornogod (9) Sangjurai (14) Devendranagar (8) Uttarkanchanpur (1) Udharbond (15) Bornogod (9) Sangjurai (14) Devendranagar (8) Uttarkanchanpur (11) Udharbond (15) Dumkur (2) Sangjurai (14) Devendranagar (8) CRUSTOSE GROWTH FORM
16.9 23.3 12.1 8.8 5.6 4.8 23.3 12.1 8.4 5.6 4.8 23.3 16.1 8.8 5.6
Highest total number of thallus per tree
Graphis capillaceae Graphis subasahinae Graphis inamoena
146.9 Highest thallus area (cm2) per tree 1624.6 54.7
Gumra (1) Sangjurai (14) Jalalpur (16)
16.9 8.4 24.1
Highest total number of thallus per tree
Table 3. Correlation between different community variables. Bold values are significantly correlated (p<0.05) Distance from the pollution source Distance from the pollution source Number of species per plot Number of genera per plot Number of families per plot Number of individual per plot Area covered per plot Mean frequency per plot 1.00 0.22 0.19 0.17 0.33 0.31 0.21 1.00 0.92 0.76 0.52 0.64 0.15 1.00 0.89 0.35 0.56 0.11 1.00 0.03 0.34 0.11 1.00 0.83 0.38 1.00 0.31 1.00 Number of species per plot Number of genera per plot Number of families per plot Number of individual per plot Area covered per plot Mean frequency per plot
cleaner. Both the areas are amidst hillock; former being a part of tea garden near Jalalpur and the latter belongs to Srikona region. The distance from the mill is not showing statistically significant relationship with either of the variable, which declines its significance in role as factor in the overall variation; the topography of the region and other sources of pollution besides the paper mill could be held responsible for the same. High positive correlation between species
richness and thallus area per plot is consistent with the results found by Cceres et al. (2007). Although in the present study species richness is not significantly correlated with the thallus area per tree, some authors like Lbel and Rydin (2009) believes that a general decrease in epiphyte cover could lead to a decrease in species richness. In the present study, the area coverage is increasing on increasing the number of thallus in other trees within a plot. The community
42
Pulak Das, Santosh Joshi, Jayashree Rout and D.K. Upreti
Fig.3. Cluster analysis of seventeen sites on the basis of thallus area, number of thallus, frequency and lichen richness at species, genus and family levels,
structure of different lichen species up to some extent can be attributed to the dispersal behaviour of the lichen species. ckinger et al. (2005) showed that the dispersalrestricted species is favoured by increasing habitat patch area and connectivity between nearby patches, while a habitat-restricted species tend to create new patches and increase habitat quality in persisting patches. However, in the present study numbers of lichen thallus per tree have significant positive correlation with thallus area per tree, which intended to a peculiar strategy adapted by lichens in the study area having characteristics of both dispersalrestricted species and habitat-restricted species. As new patches are created, their patch area is also increasing. No correlation was found between thallus area and frequency as is found in some studies (Cceres et al., 2007). Groups A and B reflects polluted and clean air regions respectively while subgroups A1 and A2 indicate comparatively more polluted and less polluted regions, respectively. All the major polluted sites (urban, minor and major industry) lies within Subgroup A1 while all cleaner areas (hilly vegetated areas) are situated within Group B. Species of group A are rare and
characterize by least coverage, number of individuals, and frequency, so they can be considered as highly pollution sensitive species. The species of group B, which are rare but show highest level of area coverage and number of individuals can be considered as highly tolerant. The present study helps in understanding the community structure of lichens in and around a potential pollution source and throws light on their adaptive strategies in response to pollution. Lichens exhibit two major groups having different ranges of community variables. Fifteen sites (88.2%) (Group A) seems to be polluted, out of which 12 sites (70.6%) (Subgroup A1) are highly polluted in the region. Lichen community pattern hence can be used as potential bio-indicator to measure the impact of pollution on surrounding lichens.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors kindly acknowledge the Head, Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Assam University, Silchar, and Director, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow for providing laboratory facilities.
43
REFERENCE
Awasthi, D.D. (2007) A Compendium of the Macrolichens from India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India. Brodo, I. M. (1996) Lichen growth and cities: A study on Long Island, New York. The Bryologist 69: 427-449. Cceres, M. E. S., Lcking, R. and Rambold, G. (2007) Phorophyte specificity and environmental parameters versus stochasticity as determinants for species composition of corticolous crustose lichen communities in the Atlantic rain forest of northeastern Brazil. Mycological Progress 6: 117136. Gries, C. (1996) Lichens as indicators of air pollution. In: T. H. Nash III (Ed.), Lichen Biology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Holopainen, T. H. (1983) Ultrastructural changes in epiphytic lichens, Bryoria capillaries and Hypogymnia physodes, growing near a fertilizer plant and pulp mill in central Finland. Annales Botanici Fennici 20:169-185. Insarov, G.E. (2010) Epiphytic montane lichens exposed to background air pollution and climate change: monitoring and conservation aspects. International J. Ecol. and Environ. Sci. 36 (1): 29-35.
LeBlanc, F., Robitaille, G. and Rao, D.N. (1974) Biological response of lichens and bryophytes to environmental pollution in the Murdochville Copper mine area, Quebec. Hattori Bot. Lab. 38:405-433. Lbel, S. and Rydin, H. (2009) Dispersal and life history strategies in epiphyte metacommunities: alternative solutions to survival in patchy, dynamic landscapes. Oecologia 161:569579. Nash, T.H III. and Gries, C. (2002) Lichens as bio-indicators of sulfur dioxide. Symbiosis 33:1-21. ckinger, E., Niklasson, M. and Nilsson, S.G. (2005) Is local distribution of the epiphytic lichen Lobaria pulmonaria limited by dispersal capacity or habitat quality? Biodiversity and Conservation 14:759-773. Orange, A., James, P.W. and White, F.J. (2001) Micro-chemical methods for the identification of lichens. British Lichen Society. Walker, F.J. and James, P.W. (1980) A revised guide to the microchemical technique for the identification of lichen products. Bulletin of British Lichen Society 46: 13-29. Zambrano, G.A., Nash III, T.H. and Herrera-Campos, M.A. (2000) Lichen decline in Desierto de los Leones (Mexico City). The Bryologist 103(3): 428-441.
Received 13 October, 2011; Accepted 4 February, 2011
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 44-47
Effect of pH upon Copepoda and Cladocera under Laboratory Conditions

C.B. Tiwary* and Kamlakant Thakur1
Dept. of Zoology, S.M.D. College, M.N.Jalalpur, Gopalganj - 841 428, Bihar, India **J.P. University, Chapra - 841 452, Bihar, India *E-mail : tiwary_cb@rediffmail.com
Abstract: The increased CO2 diffused from the atmosphere into water body surface, result in increased partial pressure of CO2 and reduced pH. Laboratory experiments revealed that water acidification has negative impacts on the fertilization, cleavage, larva settlement and reproductive stages to environmental change within zooplanktons. There appear to be significant ontogenetic impacts and speciesspecies differences in tolerance to the low pH. The effect of high pH on the reproduction revealed that the mortality of Juveniles and adults did not increase with increasing pH in the range 9.0-10.5 and suggest that the threshold value for mortality is between pH 10.5 and 11.5. However, both mortality and the proportion of stillborn neonates increased at pH 10.0 and above and both Copepoda (Daphnia carinata) and Cladocera (Mesocyclopus hyalinus) differed in their sensitivities to pH. Consequently, pH affects population growth rate markedly from pH 10.0 onward. Because pH value 10.0 are common during spring and summer in local water bodies due to intense photosynthesis activity, indicating that high pH has larger effect on population structure and the community composition of zooplankton in such water bodies. Key Words: pH, Zooplankton, Nauplius, Stillborn, Buffer, Daphnia carinata, Mesocyclopus hyalinus
Temperate lakes has shown that the number of species present are strongly correlated with pH, with species diversity highest in lakes varying in pH from 6.8 to 7.2 (Ivanova, 1987), but there is scarcity of literature in freshwater tropical conditions. Thus, it seems that the abundance and presence of may zooplankton species are negatively affected by both low and high pH in tropical conditions. Considerable experimental research has been done on the effects of pH on the population dynamics and community composition of micro-crustacean zooplankton (Havens,1992). However, these studies were concerned with the effects of acidification, while the ecological importance of high pH has been less investigated. Information based on field and laboratory experiments suggests that most Cladoceran species have an upper pH limit in the range of 10.5-11.5 (OBrien and DeNoyelles, 1972; Hansen et al., 1991). It is unclear, however, how these high pH values affect the population growth rate of Cladocerans. Most previous studies have been concentrated on direct toxic effects of pH on the free-living stages. However, an elevated pH may affect the population growth rate through chronic effect on somatic growth and fecundity. In our study, the response of a Zooplankton population to elevated pH was examined. Special interest is focused on the impact of elevated pH on egg viability. The pH values tested in the experiments were chosen because spring and summer pH values of many eutrophic and hypertrophic lakes and ponds fall within this range (Jeppesen et al., 1990).

Both Copepoda (Mesocyclops hyalinus) and Cladocera (Daphnia carinata) were acclimatized to their experimental conditions for two generations. They were kept under constant illumination at 17.50.2 Candella, and pH was kept constant at 9.0 0.1. As soon as the animals produced newborn, the mothers were removed. These newborn were reared to maturity and their offspring used in the experiments. A buffer of NaOH- NaHCO3 was used to make the different PH series. Four constant pH treatments were applied (9.00.1, 9.50.1, 10.00.1 and 10.50.1). Neonates from different mother were equally treated with pH solutions. About 16 individuals were cultured per pH series. After every 2-3 days, the individuals were examined then transferred to clean tubes with fresh medium. During each observation, dead individuals were noted and removed. Live animals were observed, every molt noted, and the number of eggembryos and of newborn recorded. Furthermore, egg mortality was noted and newborn were discarded after being examined; observations were stopped when the Cladoceran reared the fourth adult instar and Copepod till adult stage.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION pH effect upon copepods. The various life cycle stages
of copepods, such as fertilization, cleavage, planktonic larva, metamorphosis, juvenile and adult reproductive stages
pH Effect on Copepoda and Cladocera

were effected differently due to pH. Both hatching and nauplius survival decrease with decreasing pH in the M.hyalinus below 7.1 and Cyclopus scutifer below 6.9, even though negative effects were significant only at high level of CO2 than normal in water body. Additionally, the hatching rate was unaffected during ensuring generations (0 to 2 generations). The delayed larval development is observed at low pH than 7.1 and also at high pH than 8.3 during experiment period. The mortality rate is higher for smaller individuals than for larger individuals. pH also effected settlement of juveniles, which was significantly low than the control. The studied copepod cultured under 7.9 pH (saline water) for 15 week showed reduced reproduction as compared to the control. On the other hand, egg production of studied copepod was not affected when reared under low PH than 7.1, but significantly decreased above pH level of 8.9. Ion transport is an energy consuming process, whereas, molecular CO 2 directly diffuses across the biological cell membranes more faster than protons and hence lowering of intracellular pH into eggs or sperms through entering of CO2 was observed. Low pH of eggs, thus trigger the initiation of inorganic development in aquatic macro-invertebrates. In addition to the impact on sperm motility, the low egg pH may present fertilization and subsequent development of copepods. The time to complete the first cleavage was shortest at pH 8.2 and increased with decreasing pH. Both hatching and naupliar survival decreased with decreasing pH in copepods than 8.1, even though negative impacts were significant only at low pH caused by higher CO2 level those projected to occur in the future (Kurihara and Shirayam, 2004). The hatching rate in copepods was significantly reduced at low pH as indicated in calcifiers (Hart and Strathmann, 1995). The egg production of all copepods studied (e.g., Acropora steveri and A. erythraea) was not affected when reared under the 7.5 pH at high CO2 (Kurihara and Ishimatsu, 2008). The data indicated positive effect of moderate pH upon ontogenetic development in copepods under freshwater culture in companies of its negative effect upon oceanic species and significantly positive role in tropical water body of this investigation.
45
Table 1. Mean number of eggs per female (+95% C.L.) of D.carinata cultured at different pH values
Daphnia carinata
pH 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 Mean 11.1 (1.90) 9.7 (1.57) 9.0 (1.28) 7.6 (1.72) N 30 28 31 27
but instar effect (P=0.001) and interactions between instar number and pH (P=0.037) and between adult and pH (P=0.045) were significant. The mean number of eggs per adult female decreased significantly with pH, but the differences were small. Also, a substantial and significant increase in egg mortality occurred with increasing pH (Fig. 1). Eggs degenerated and were reabsorbed before the next molt accord. At pH 10.5, egg mortality also resulted in reduced fecundity. Dead and inactive neonates were frequently observed. In some cases, the neonates were still alive, although in a very poor condition. However, these individuals were always lying on the bottom of petridish, were never observed swimming and invariably died within 24 hour after they had seen. All these newborns are categorized as stillborn neonates. We observed a distinct and significant increase in stillborn neonates with increasing pH (x2=193.2; df=3,P<0.001). At pH 10.5, almost half the neonates were stillborn, which caused a marked reduction in fecundity; newborn at pH 10.0 were also seriously affected, while the effects were smaller at the series below pH 10.0. Assuming all eggs are
Degenerated eggs (%)
D. Carinata M. hyalinus
Fig. 1. Effect of pH on D. carinata and M. hyalinus in terms of per cent degenerated eggs
pH effect upon cladocera. The apparent food quality of the algae was not influenced by the pH treatment as indicated with measurement of P,N and content of algal particles just before and 48 hour after their suspension in Daphnia carinata medium (Table 1). Within the pH range 9.0-10.5, no clear relationship between mortality and pH was observed pH effects were non-significant (P=0.068),
viable and result in living newborn, t-tests with the sequential Bonferonni corrections showed no significant differences in the rate of population increase between treatments. However, the combined effects of egg mortality and stillborn neonates resulted in strong and significant reductions in r. The r-value shows a more general decrease over the pH range of 9.0-10.5 (Fig. 2).
46
C.B. Tiwary and Kamlakant Thakur

and Bias, 1990). Second, within the pH range studied, Se speciation did not change (i.e., availability of Se was not inhibited at high pH). Deleterious effects of important abiotic influences such as pH or toxic substances are often stronger at low food levels because they usually act via the inability of the organism to keep food intake and assimilation high enough to pay for increased respiration (Reinikainen et al., 1994). The number of neonates produced were reduced by 50-80 per cent due to egg degeneration and stillbirth in the pH range of 10.0-10.5. Because were cultured the daphnids at high food levels-well above the incipient limiting leveland because even in eutrophic lakes daphnids may be food limited as a consequence of prevailing low food quality (Boersma and Vijverberg, 1994), pH effect on egg and neonate viability in the natural habitat may be even larger than observed in the present study. In some Copepod and Cladoceran species, the physiological effect of high pH was due to a pH effect on the sodium balance (Potts and Fryer, 1979). Copepods usually showed a good sodium balance up to ~ pH 9.5, but above this pH, they showed a net sodium loss (Nilssen et al., 1984). Several studies have reported the presence of degenerated eggs in populations of Copepods and Cladocerans under natural conditions (Boersma and Vijverberg, 1995), but in none of these studies was high pH considered a possible factor for this mortality. Present study demonstrated that high pH can substantially reduce the egg viability and fitness of micro-crustacean zooplankton. A pH value >10.0 is commonly found in many eutrophic and hypertrophic lakes. Therefore, the effect of high pH on the population dynamics and community composition of microcrustacean zooplankton is probably much more important than has been assumed. The culture of selected zooplankton in culture medium conclude that optimal pH (7.6-8.5) is best for survival and reproduction. The physiological effect of high pH has been
A strong effect of high pH on reproduction, but the question arises whether this pH effect acts directly (as a stress factor) or indirectly via variations in the food quality. Direct effects that may have played a role at high pH are toxic effect of un-ionized ammonia (NH3) on Daphnia carinata and disruption of ion-exchange in Daphnia. An indirect effect may have been the change of algal food conditions for Daphnia as result of pH shock undergone by the algae. The changes in food quality as a result of the variation in pH are less likely because nutrient status of the algae showed no pH effect. The high P content of the algae is an indication that the food was enriched (Sterner, 1993). Additionally, an indirect effect would have resulted in reduced somatic growth and a reduced number of larger eggs; larger eggs contain more yolk and will have a higher viability (Tessier and Consolatti,1989). Because no reduced growth rate in relation to elevated pH was observed, egg viability decreased, and reduction in number of eggs produced was small and did not contribute to the observed overall reduction in r (Fig. 2). The high degeneration and stillborn rates at elevated pH are likely due to direct effects. The two direct effects on Daphnia carinata that may have played a role are the toxic effect of un-ionized ammonia and the disruption of ion exchange. The equilibrium between unionized and ionized ammonia is strongly effected by pH. The un-ionized ammonia is toxic for cladocerans. Results of culture experiments by Elendt and Bias (1990) suggest that selenium deficiency in culture media may cause egg abortion and neonate mortality in Daphnia carinata. Exactly the same phenomena at high pH was observed, which tempting to regard Se limitation as the possible causal factor. However, it is not likely that this was the case. First, because we used 12 per cent filtered water from a local waterbody for Daphnia medium, the Se concentration in this medium was ~0.1 g liter-1, which is high enough for successful reproduction and low neonate mortality (Elendt
D. Carinata M. hyalinus
Fig 2. Mean per cent of stillborn neonates affected by pH in D. carinata and M. hyalinus.
pH Effect on Copepoda and Cladocera

caused by a pH effect on the sodium balance. Copepods usually showed a good sodium balance up to pH 9.5, but above this pH they showed a net sodium loss. The Cladocerans are more sensitive than Copepods.
47
Jeppesen, E., Sondergaard M., Sortkjaer,O., Mortenson,E. and Kristensen, O.P. (1990) Interactions between phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish in a shallow, hypertrophic lake : A study on phytoplankton collapses in lake seleygard, Denmark. Hydrobiologia 191: 149-164. Kurihara, H. and Shirayama,Y. (2004). Effect of increased atmospheric CO2 on copepod development. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Series 274:161-168. Kurihara, H. and Ishimatsu, A. (2008). Effects of elevated CO2 on the life cycle of Copepoda. Mar. pollution Bulletin. 56: 10861090. Nilssen, J.P., Potts, W.T.W. and Ostdahl, T. (1984). Physiology of zooplankton subjected to acidification and liming. A pilot study using radioisotopes. Kalkningsprosj. Rapp. 11:37pp. OBrien, W.J. and Denoyelles, F. (1972). Photosynthetically elevated PH as a factor in zooplankton mortality in nutrient enriched ponds. Ecology 53: 606-614. Potts, W.T.W. and Fryer, G. (1979) The effect of pH and salt content on sodium balance in Daphnia magna (cladocera). J. Comp. Physiol. 129:289-294. Reinikainen, M., Ketola M. and Walls, M. (1994) Effects of the concentration of toxic Microcystis Geruginosa and an alternative food on the survival of Daphnia pulex. Limnol. Oceanogr. 39: 424-432. Sterner, R.W. (1993) Daphnia growth on varying quality of scendesmus : Mineral limitation of zooplankton. Ecology 74:2351-2360. Tessier, A.J. and Consolatti, N.L. (1989) Variation in offspring size in Daphnia and consequence for individual fitness. Oikos 56: 269-276.
REFERENCES
Boersma, M. and Vijverberg, J. (1994) Seasonal variations in the condition of two Daphnia species and their hybrid in a eutrophic lake: Evidence for food limitation under field conditions. J. Plankton Res. 16: 1793-1809. Boersma, M. and Vijverberg, J. (1995) The significance of nonviable eggs for Daphnia population dynamics. Limnol. Oceanogr. 40:1215-1224. Elendt, B.P. and Bias, W.R.(1990) Trace nutrient deficiency in Daphnia magna cultured in standard medium for toxicity testing: Effects of the optimization of culture condition of life history parameters of D. Magna. Water Res. 24: 1157-1167. Hansen, M., Christensen, J.V. and Sortkajaer,O.(1991) Effect of high pH on zooplankton and nutrients in fish free enclosures. Arch. Hydrobiol. 123:143-164. Hart, M.W. and Strathmann, B.R. (1995) Mechanisms and rates of suspension feeding. In: Mc Edward, L. (Ed.) Ecology of Marine Imertebrate Larvae. CRC press, Boca Raton, pp 183-222. Havens, K.E.(1992). Acidification effects on the plankton size spectrum an in situ experiment. J. Plankton. Res. 14: 16871697. Ivanova, M. B. (1987) Relationship between zooplankton development and environmental conditions in different type of lakes in the zone of temperate climate. Int. Rev. Gesamten Hydrobiol. 72:669-684.
Received 20 September, 2011; Accepted 23 December, 2011
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 48-51
Diversity of Molluscan Fauna Inhabited by River Chenab-fed Stream (Gho-Manhasan)

K.K. Sharma and Samita Chowdhary*
Department of Zoology, University of Jammu, Jammu-180 001, India *E-mail: c.samita30@gmail.com
Abstract : Among nine species of Molluscan fauna, seven species belongs to families Viviparidae, Thiaridae, Lymnoidae, Physidae and Planorbidae of class Gastropoda and two species are of Family Pisididae of the class Bivalvia. Melanoides tuberculata of family Thiaridae was most dominant species ranged from 234 org m-2 (spring) to 802 org m-2 (summer). Class Bivalvia is represented by only 2 species Pisidium mitchelli and Sphaerium indicum in which P. mitchelli was dominant and had its minimum density 72org m-2 in monsoon and maximum 360org m-2 in winters. Different biological indices are used to determine the diversity, dominance, species richness and evenness of the observed malacofauna. This biosurvey of the molluscan diversity gives an important insight into the health of the steam and appends the knowledge and understanding of the management strategies involving bio-monitoring as a significant tool in the restoration studies. Key Words: Malacofauna, Biological indexes, Species richness, Dominance, Diversity, Evenness
Macrobenthic organisms occupy the bottom of water body and display a wide range of life histories, and sensitivities to water quality impairment. The abundance and variance of macrobenthic invertebrates flourishing in the bottom depends upon the physico-chemical conditions of water, soil and biological complexes. The functional role of macrobenthic communities in the trophic dynamics of reservoir ecosystems is well acknowledged. The composition, abundance and distribution of benthic organisms over a period of time provide an index of the ecosystems. In recent years, there used to be a greater emphasis world over for better understanding of benthic environment, its communities and productivity, which has led to increased exploitation of many inland water bodies. Though a lot of work has been done on the hydrological and macrobenthic faunal aspects on lotic freshwater bodies by earlier workers (Dutta and Malhotra, 1986; Dutta et al., 2000; Sawhney, 2008; Mushtaq, 2007) but no work has been done on the molluscan diversity. The phylum Mollusca is a large assemblage of animals having diverse shapes, sizes, habits and occupies different habitats (Subba Rao, 1993). Although molluscs are common components of the benthic communities, their role in the dynamics of the aquatic ecosystem and their contribution to biomass production is not well known. Our freshwater molluscs are not only a fascinating part of our natural heritage but have global significance. As a group, they serve vital functions in freshwater ecosystems and many species are commercially important. Freshwater molluscs have been known to play significant roles in the public and veterinary health and thus need to be scientifically
explored more extensively. In the present paper, some of the basic observations on the molluscan diversity of a subtropical stream, a tributary of River Chenab, have been presented.

This study carried out in October 2008 to August 2009 covered the River Chenab-fed stream Gho-Manhasan. River Chenab is one of the largest rivers of the Indus basis and feeds to maximum parts of the Jammu region of J&K. River Chenab gives rise to many streams and Gho-Manhasan is one of them, which is located at 32.56N 74.95E. This stream is sole source for the population of adjoining areas, which depends on this stream for irrigation and domestic purposes. Since, no work has been done on this stream so, it was a necessity to explore the diversity exhibiting in it. The molluscs of the littoral zone were collected by hand picking and for the smallest species a sieve was used. They were brought to the laboratory, washed and then preserved in polythene bags. Identifications were done the basis of standard procedure of Zoological Survey of India. To understand a particular biotic community ShanonWeiner (H) (Shannon and Weiner, 1949), Marglefs index (d) (Marglef, 1958), Simpsons index (dsimp) (Simpson, 1949) and Pielous evenness index (Pi) (Pielou, 1966) were calculated.

The distribution and abundances of freshwater molluscs in Gho-manhasan stream may be attributed to the availability of food, shelter and oviposition sites. Water
Diversity of Molluscan Fauna

bodies rich in organic and silt matter are known to support thriving populations of macro-invertebrates because of reduction in water current and as such the substratum tends to make molluscs indistinguishable from their typical lentic habitat (Whitton, 1975). Molluscs are represented in freshwater bodies by classes Gastropoda and Pelecypoda and are a group of most diverse and dominant benthic water bodies. Molluscs were found abundant in Gho-manhasan stream particular the marginal areas. Their abundance might be attributed to the presence of vegetation in the shallow depth, which emerged when the stream was dry during the post-monsoon period and formed a good feed leading to their multiplication as has also been observed by earlier workers (Gupta, 1976; Manoharan et al., 2006). During the present study, a total of eight species of Mollusca belonging to 6 families were recorded (Table 1). The population of Gastropoda was recorded throughout the year and is represented by 7 species. The density of order Gastropoda ranged between 9 to 802 org m-2 with maximum in summer and minimum in autumn. A higher count of Gastropods recorded during summer may be either due to the effect of reproduction of these macrobenthic invertebrates, as small sized molluscs were observed in collection during this period or the maximum abundance of decomposer settled organic matter and macrophytes on the bottom of the water body and increased water temperature activating the process of decomposition of organic sediments (Dutta and Malhotra, 1986; Malhotra et al., 1996). Minimum density of Gastropods recorded during autumn may be due to aestivation (Singh and Munshi, 1992). Amongst the Gastropoda group, Mellanoides tuberculata was dominant (47.18%) followed by Gyraulus ladacensis (18.50%), Bellamya bengalensis (15.40%), Lymnaea luteola (4.37%), L.accuminata (f.brevissima) (2.16%), while 2 species (Pisidium mitchelli and Sphaerium indicum) of order Trigoindae (Bivalvia) were recorded and density of this group represented by 18-360 org m-2 showing their peak in winter (Fig. 1). Some other Gastropods, which are used as pollution indicators include Physa acuta, Lymnaea accuminata , and L. luteola. In addition, both bivalvia species Pisidium mitcheli and Sphaerium indicum can also tolerate greater nutrient concentrations are also used like some other Gastropods, as a bioindicator of water. Such a high diversity of molluscan fauna may be attributed to availaibility of suitable habitats (Wadaan, 2007), organically enriched soft bottom (Singh, 1984) and slow water currents (Sawhney, 2008).
49
Winter
549
315
360 72 136 72
Autumn
432
90
36
36
27
Summer
802
252
54
117
72
81
Spring
234
54
198
54
Table 1. Seasonal fluctuation of molluscan fauna (org m-2) recorded in Gho-manhasan, during Oct.2008 to Sept.2009
bengalensis f.typica (lamarck)
accuminata (f.brevissima)
accuminata (f.patula)
36
Melanoides
Physidae
Planorbidae
Viviparidae
Thiaridae
Lymnoidae
Mesogastropoda
Basommatophora
Mellanoides tuberculata is the commonest and most wide ranging member of the family Thiaridae, found dominant in the stream. M. tuberculata contributed 47.18
Gastropoda
Bivalvia
Class
Trigoinidae
Order
Pisididae
Family
Sphaerium
Bellamya
Gyraulus
Lymnaea
Pisidium
Genus
Physa
indicum (Deshayes)
tuberculata (Muller)
acuta (Draparnaud)
Species
luteola (f.typica)
mitchelli (Prashad)
ladacensis (Nevill)
72
54
18
126
54
36
63
50
K.K. Sharma and Samita Chowdhary
org m-2
Fig. 1. Seasonal diversity of molluscan fauna during Sept 2008-Aug. 2009
per cent of the total number of species recorded. Numerical abundance of M.tuberculata may be due to the reason that it is among the hardiest of the prosobranchs and it covered mainly in its parthenogenetic mode of reproduction. It can occupy a great diversity of habitats (Berry and Kadri, 1974). In addition, Melanoides tuberculata can tolerate high nutrient levels and was found to be positively correlated with carbonates and nitrates and was found to be highly associated with macrophytes.
d simp =0.549. Marglefs richness index was recorded minimum in November and December (d=0) and was maximum in June (d=0.933). Pielous evenness index was low (Pi=0) in winter season but was found to be maximum (pi=0.913) due to the presence of some communities in which abundances and distributions were more homogenous, such as in the dry period of June. This study indicate that in many freshwater systems molluscan populations may be playing a central role in supporting both local and ecosystem level biodiversity. The ultimate extirpation and extinction of such molluscan populations may therefore have profound effects on the wider ecosystem. The results emphasized the importance of conserving the worlds freshwater molluscan populations, which are declining at an alarming rate through habitat destruction, pollution and the invasion of non-native biota. Benthic macroinvertebrates being widespread and sensitive to environmental changes are the group of
L.luteola being a minor contributor, forms only 2.16 per cent of the overall density of molluscan fauna. Among bivalves, Pisidium mitchelli forms 15.38 per cent and thus dominates Sphaerium indicum (6.49%). Numerical abundance of Pisidium mitchelli indicated greater nutrient concentration and is used as a bioindicator of water quality.
Low Shannon-Wiener indices were recorded, varying between H=0 to H=1.623 (Table 2). Species dominance index i.e., Simpsons index varied between d simp=0 to
Table 2. Seasonal variations in different biological indices of the Molluscan fauna Month October November December January February March April May June July August September Shannon (H) 0.793 0 0 1.306 1.22 1.231 1.623 1.167 1.585 1.266 0.902 1.176 Marglef (d-) 0.361 0 0 0.621 0.513 0.514 0.865 0.625 0.933 0.595 0.532 0.813 Simpson (dsim) 0.549 0 0 0.293 0.338 0.327 0.213 0.233 0.266 0.310 0.522 0.328 Pielous (Pi) 0.722 0 0 0.811 0.830 0.883 0.905 0.725 0.814 0.913 0.650 0.655
Diversity of Molluscan Fauna

organisms most often used for assessment of freshwater quality. Application of such bioindicators can be used to improve the environment and to augment awareness of the living creatures to obtain better appreciation of their crucial role in sustaining life of the planet.
51
Metcalf, J.L. (1989) Biological water quality assessment of running waters based on macroinvertebrate communities. History and present status in Europe. Environ. Poll. 60:101-139 Mushtaq, R. (2007) Impact of urban influences on the diversity of macrobenthic invertebrate fauna of River Tawi. M.Phil Dissertation, University of Jammu, Jammu. Pielou, E.C. (1966) The measurement of diversity in different types of biological collections. J. Theor. Biol. 13: 131-144. Sawhney, N. (2008) Biomonitoring of river Tawi in the vicinity of Jammu City. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Jammu, Jammu. Shanon, C.E. and Wiener, W. (1949) The Mathematical Theory of Communication. University of Illinois press, 117, Urbana, USA. Simpson, E.H. (1949) Measurement of diversity. Nature, Lond. 164: 163-688. Singh,R. and Munshi, J.S.D.(1992) Molluscan diversity and role of certain abiotic factors on the density of Gastropods Pila globosa and Bellamya bengalensis in a tank at Jamalpur. J. Freshwater Biol. 4(2):135-140. Singh, R. (1984) Hydrobiological investigations of Neeru Nullah (Bhaderwah) with reference to the Benthic macroinvertebrates. M. Phil. Dissertation, University of Jammu, Jammu. Subba Rao,N.V. (1993) Freshwater Mollusca of India. In: Rao K.S. (Ed.). Recent Advances in Freshwater Biology. New Delhi. Anmol Publication. Vol. 2, pp.187-202. Wadaan, A.M. (2007) The fresh water growing snail Physa acuta : A suitable bioindicator for testing cadmium toxicity. Saudi J. Biological Sciences 14(2): 185-190. Whitton,B.A. (1975) Zooplanktons and Macroinvertebrates. In: Whitton.B.A. (Ed.). Studies in River Ecology. Vol.2. Baker Publisher Limited London, pp. 87-118.
ACKNOWLEGEMENT
Authors are grateful to ZSI Kolkata especially Dr. Rao and Dr. Amit Mudhopadhay for their selfless help in the identification of molluscs.
REFERENCES
Berry,A.J. and Kadri,A.B.H. (1974) Reproduction in the Malayan freshwater cerithiacean Gastropoda, Mellanoides tuberculata. J. Zool. Lond. 172: 369-381. Dutta, S.P.S. and Malhotra, Y.R. (1986). Seasonal variations in the macrobenthic fauna of Gadigarh stream (Miran Sahib) Jammu. Indian J. Ecol. 113(1): 138-145. Dutta, S.P.S., Malhotra, Y.R., Sharma, K.K. and Sinha, K. (2000). Diel variations in physico-chemical parameters of water in relation to macrobenthic invertebrate in some pool adjacent to the River Tawi, Nagrota Bye Pass, Jammu. Him.J. Env. Zool. 14:13-24. Gupta,S.D. (1976). Macrobenthic fauna of Loni reservoir. J. Inland Fish. Soc. India 8:49-59. Manoharan, S., Murugesan, V.K. and Palaniswamy, R. (2006) Numerical abundance of benthic macroinvertebrates in selected reservoirs of Tamil Nadu. J. Inland Fish. Soc. India 38(1): 54-59. Marglef, R. (1958) Perspective in ecological theory. Univ. Chicago Press, 122, Chicago, USA.
Received 3 February, 2011; Accepted 9 December, 2011
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 52-57
Diurnal Variation of Phytoplankton in the Kali Estuary, Karwar, West Coast of India
U.G. Naik*, V.V. Nayak1 and N. Kusuma
Department of Marine Biology, Karnatak University PG Centre, Kodibag, Karwar-581 303, Karnataka, India 1 Shri Mahasatee Arts, Commerce and Science College, Ulga, Karwar-581 324, Karnataka, India *E-mail: ugnaik66@yahoo.co.in
Abstract: Along with different hydrographic parameters variations in phytoplankton density and photosynthetic pigments were studied at every two hour for 24 hours, at a fixed station in the lower reaches of the Kali estuary. During flood tides, the species diversity and phytoplankton density increased and decreased during ebb tides. Considerable discrepancy (about 12%) was noticed between cell counts of day and night high waters. Oscillation in Chl. a, followed by the cell number. Among the nutrients, silicate and nitrate concentration was increased markedly during ebb tide periods. An inverse relationship was noticed between salinity and nutrients like nitrite, nitrate, phosphate and silicate. Linear relationship was observed between salinity and nitrate and salinity with silicate compared to salinity versus nitrite and phosphate. Key Words: Phytoplankton, Kali estuary, Chlorophyll
In an estuary, the physico-chemical properties and biological entities variations is mainly governed by the differential tidal amplitude and the Kali estuary is no exception for it. Hence it is very essential to acquire information on circadian (diel) variations in hydrographic (environmental) parameters of such water body. Information available on such diurnal variations on estuarine phytoplankton in India is limited to few regions (Chandran, 1985; Gouda and Panigrahy, 1989). Kali River estuary located between 14o 50 15" - 14o 51 12" N latitude and 74o 07 30" E - 74o 10 09" E longitude is one of the major estuaries of Uttara Kannada maritime district of Karnataka state (west coast of India), it is opening into the Arabian Sea near Karwar. It is a shallow estuary with maximum depth of 3.5 m at its deepest region but influenced by semi-diurnal tide. This region is free from pollution and is surrounded by the rich mangrove flora and is high productive zone from the point of fishery resource. Many more estuaries on west coast of India still remain either little known or totally unexplored. Therefore, in the present investigation an effort is made to study the diurnal variations in phytoplankton population along with some physico-chemical factors of Kali estuary, Karwar, west coast of India.
measured by fixing a tide staff near the collection site. Both temperature and pH were recorded at study site only. Analyses for nutrients, dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll-a and carotenoids were made following the standard procedures (Strickland and Parsons, 1975). For enumerating density of phytoplankton population, the sedimentation technique was followed (Utermohl, 1931). Using the numerical density of phytoplankton, the species diversity index was also calculated (Shannon and Weiner, 1963).

Hydrographic parameters: The water level gradually increased from 19.15 hours and highest water level (1.40m) was reached at 23.15 hours and later it gradually decreased and minimum level of 0.18 m at 05.15 hours (Fig. 1). Again second highest water level was recorded at 13.15 hours (1.88 m) and later it gradually decreased in following hours. A variation of 48 cm was noticed between the water heights of two flood tides during the study period. Temperature (air and water):Air temperature was gradually lowered from 19.15 to 11.15 hours and later it slowly increased and more or less stable profile was maintained (Fig. 2). More or less similar pattern of temperature profile of surface water was recorded but the values were far lesser than the air temperature and gradually increased from 07.15 hours and attained the peak at 15.15 hours. Temperature of bottom water was comparatively higher than the surface water temperature but was lower than air temperature during 19.15 and 07.15 hours, later its values were found slightly higher than the air temperature

The present investigation was carried out during April at a fixed site (14o51 N and 74o10 E) located in the lower reaches of the estuary. Sampling was made at every two hour interval starting from 19.15 hrs on 25th April to the same time next day on 26th April. The water level change was
Diurnal Variation of Phytoplankton
53
Fig.1.Diurnal variation in the tidal amplitude range at study station River Kali
Fig.2.Diurnal variation in temperature profile at study station River Kali
(13.15 - 15.15 hours) and once again found lower than air temperature in 17.15 -19.15 hours. Considerable variation was noticed between air temperature and surface water temperature and fluctuated from 21.4o to 27.5oC and 16.5o to 27.4oC, respectively. During night hours, well-marked difference between surface and bottom water temperature was noticed when the bottom water remained relatively warmer than that of surface water. Salinity did not show any marked variation in its salt content in both surface and bottom water but the content in the bottom water was lesser than surface layer in day and night hours (Fig. 3). High salinity was recorded during 21.15 and 13.15 hours low during 05.15 hours in both layers. The salinity conditions revealed conspicuous tidal variations ranging from 18.4 to 26.8 for surface and 16.1 to 26.3 parts per thousand for bottom waters. Higher salinities were recorded during flood periods compared to ebb periods. The vertical salinity gradients during extreme high water and low water were 0.3 and 1.7 parts per thousand, respectively. Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) in surface and bottom water varied between 7.8 - 8.4 and 8.1 8.6, the bottom water showed slightly more alkaline condition (Fig. 4). The concentration varied in accordance with the change in tidal amplitude. Variations in hydrogen ion concentration (pH) were between 7.81 and 8.6 and followed the pattern of salinity variations with higher values during flood periods. Compared to surface waters, the pH values of bottom waters were invariably higher. There is no marked variation in the dissolved oxygen content in surface and bottom water layer but the content. Both have shown more or less uniform trend in the distribution of the dissolved oxygen. Slightly higher values were noticed during 11.15-19.15 hours sampling (Fig. 5). With respect to the tidal cycle, the dissolved oxygen varied from 3.42-4.93 ml/l at the surface and 3.05-4.59 ml/l near the bottom. Comparatively higher
oxygen concentrations were recorded during daytime than at night hours. Diurnal variation in nutrients: The concentration of all nutrient salts (Phosphate-P, Nitrate-N, Nitrite-N and SilicateSi) varied considerably with respect to the tidal amplitude (Fig. 6-9). On a whole, higher values were obtained during high tides than at low tides.Phosphate showed marked variation on time scale with higher concentration in bottom waters and both strata showed more or less uniform pattern in their concentration (Fig. 6). In bottom water, maximum concentration was recorded at 23.15, 05.15 and 15.15 hours (1.32, 1.45 and 1.48 g at/l, respectively). Similarly in surface water also but the quantum was comparatively lesser than the previous stratum (0.94, 1.26 and 1.15 g at/l, respectively). Nitrate exhibited marked variation in surface and bottom water layers but comparatively higher concentration was recorded in surface waters (Fig. 7). Relatively higher concentration was noticed during 05.15 and 09.15 hours in both layers. Minimum concentration was noticed during 23.15 and 01.15 hours in both surface and bottom water. Nitrite was found in high concentration during 05-15-07.15 hours and in 15.15-17.15 hours but quantum of nitrite in bottom water found in the late hours (15.15-17.15hours) was higher than samples collected in the early hours. But, the reverse case was noticed in the surface water samples (Fig. 8). Silicate content in both layers of surface and bottom showed uniform pattern of distribution of this nutrient salt but the quantity was found more in surface than bottom layer (Fig. 9). Minimum content of this nutrient was noticed during 21.15 - 01.15 hours in both layers, whereas, maximum content was noticed during 05.15 and 19.15 hours in both strata of aquatic biotope This shows inverse relationship between the tide and silicate nutrient salt during the period of investigation. When compared to phosphate and nitrite, the concentrations of
54
U.G. Naik, V.V. Nayak and N. Kusuma
Fig.3.Diurnal variation in salinity profile at study station during the study period
Fig.4.Diurnal variation in the pH range at study station during the study period
Fig.5.Diurnal variation in the Dissolved Oxygen content at study station during the study period
Fig.6.Diurnal variation in the phosphate content at study station during the study period
Fig.7. Diurnal variation in the Nitrate-N content at study station during the study period
Fig.8. Diurnal variation in the nitrate-N content at study station during the study period
55
Fig.9. Diurnal variation in the silicate-Si content at study station during the study period
Fig.10. Diurnal variation in the chlorophyll a and carotene content with ratio factor.
silicate and nitrate were highly fluctuating during the study period. During 03.15 - 09.15 hours period, it was quite evident that there was well-marked difference between surface and bottom strata. In bottom waters, the phosphate (PO4-P) concentration was higher than the corresponding surface concentration values throughout the tidal cycle. Contrary to this, a reverse trend was seen in silicate (SiO4Si) while a different pattern in nitrate (N03-N) distribution was experienced (Fig. 7 & 9). Diurnal variation in phytoplankton. Totally 56 species of phytoplankton comprising 1-blue-green algae, 4- green algae, 41- diatoms and 10- dinoflagellates were recorded during the tidal cycle period (Table 1). Assemblages of the phytoplankton cells were comparatively richer in high tides than the low tides period. Among the diatoms, Coscinodiscus sp., Skeletonema costatum, Chaetoceros socialis, C. affinis, Guinardia, Gyrosigma, Nitzschia longissima, Navivula sp ., Rhizosolenia stolterfothii, R. styliformis, Talassionema sp., Eucampia sp., Bellorochea sp., and Hemidiscus hardmanensis were encountered in majority of collections between 13.15 and 15.15 hours and
thus were considered as common species for the estuary. Similarly, the blue-green algae Trichodesmium erythraeum and dinoflagellates Ceratium massiliensis, C. tripos, Peridinium depressum and Prorocentrum sp. occurred more frequently and abundantly than other species of the respective groups (Table 1). The green algae components namely, Zygnema and Spirogyra species were less frequent and occurred only during the ebb conditions. Maximum, 36 species and minimum, 14 species were recorded during 09.15 and 15.15 hours, respectively. Species diversity varied between 1.45 (15.15 hours) and 3.96 (11.15 hours) and exhibited well-marked tidal variations. Numerical abundance (cells x10 3/l -1) of phytoplankton showed significant diurnal variations. Maximum (25.47x103/l-1) and minimum (9.45x103/l-1) cell counts were obtained at 19.15 and 21.15 hours, respectively. Phytoplankton cells in general dwindled in number during ebb periods and with the rise of water level the cell counts also increased. About 14 per cent increase in total cell number was observed between the two high waters, highest being at 09.15 hours.
Table 1. Phytoplankton species recorded at Kali estuary Class Cyanophyceae Chlorophyceae Bacillariophyceae Species
Trichodesmium erythraeum Cosmarium sp., Miocroasterias sp., Spirogyra sp., and Zygnema sp. Coscinodiscus sp., Skeletonema costatum, Hemidiscus sp., Stephanophyxis sp, Triceratium sp., Biddulphia sp., B. mobiliensis, B. obtusa, B. sinensis, Guinardia sp , Bellorochea sp ., Melosira sp , Nitzschia sp , N.seriata, Ditylum sp., Chaetoceros socialis, C.decipens, C. lorenzianus, C. affinis, Grammatophora sp, Campylodiscus sp., Planktoniella sp, Bacteriastrum sp, Eucampia sp., Clamacodium sp., Streptotheca sp, Thallassiosira sp, T. gravida, Thallassionema sp, Rhizosolenia alata, R. stolterfothii, R. stlyiformis, R.hebata, R. robusta, R. castracanei, Thalassiothrix sp, Asterionella japonica, Pleurosigma sp, Gyrosigma sp, Navicula sp , Lithodesmium sp. Peridinium depressum, Noctiluca miliaris, Pyrocystis fusiformis, Prorocentrum sp ., Dinophysis sp ., Ornithocercus sp, Ceratium tripos, C. massiliensis, C. furca, C. fusus,
Dinophyceae
56
U.G. Naik, V.V. Nayak and N. Kusuma

chlorotic phytoplankton population during these hours as observed elsewhere. Phytoplankton are extremely sensitive to the spectra of turbulent motions in the mixed layers of lakes, estuaries and oceans. Among physico-chemical parameters, the salinity, silicate and nitrate were found to be more fluctuating during the study period. Every nutrient salt showed a significant negative correlation with salinity. Greater linearity was observed between salinity and nitrate (r = -0.657) and salinity and silicate (r = -0.788) compared to that of salinity against nitrite (r = 0.451) and salinity versus phosphate (r = 423). It is surmised from the present data that the main source of their supply to the environment is from freshwater biotopes. The phytoplankton density showed clear diurnal variation and was much dependent on the tidal amplitude. Further, it was also observed that phytoplankton cell density and species diversity index were remained moderately high during the high tides when compared to low tide periods. Likewise increased density of phytoplankton population and higher diversity index of this micro floral community during flood periods and comparatively lower values found during ebb tide periods have been reported in many Indian estuaries (Bhargava and Dwivedi, 1974; Devassy and Bhargava, 1978; Chandran, 1985).
Floristic phytoplankton crop in the present study seems to be more or less similar to that of other estuaries of West coast of India (Rammirtham and Jayaraman, 1963; Qasim and Gopinathan, 1969; Qasim et al., 1969; Dehadri and Bhargava, 1972; Bhargava and Dwivedi, 1976; Bhattathiri et al., 1976; Qasim and Sengupta, 1981; Devassy, 1983; Devassy and Goes, 1989; Naik and Neelakantan, 1990; Redekar and Wagh, 2000; Tripathy et al., 2005) but diatoms were greatly dominated over other groups. Representation of lower density of blue-green and green algae can be a special feature to this habitat. Considerable differences (about 12%) were noticed between cell populations of day and night samples during high tide waters. This could be due to difference in heights of tidal amplitude and high rate of grazing pressures exerted by zooplankton community near the surface area during night hours. Such type of aggregation of zooplankton in the surface during night hours is a common incident in the Indian waters (Goswami et al., 1979; Madhupratap and Rao, 1979; Naik and Neelakantan, 1989 and Naik et al., 2005). In the present study, more or less a close and direct relationship was established between chlorophyll-a and phytoplankton population density. At 21.15 hours (25th April), the lowest chlorophyll-a value (0.51 mg/m3) was obtained. Whereas, during 07.15 - 09.15 hours, the chlorophyll-a increased and then gradually decreased till 15.15 hours and later once again increased during 17.15 hours. At 19.15 hours of 25th April, the carotene attained peak value of 1.83 m-SPU/m-3. The ratio between chlorophyll-a and carotene fluctuated between 0.46 and 4.56 (Fig. 10). As it is envisaged from the data that the distribution of chlorophyll-a closely followed the phytoplankton cell counts and the maximum values were obtained during peak density phase. Since the chlorophyll-a is the common pigment present in all groups of algae and its increase or decrease normally follows with increase or decrease of phytoplankton density. However, exceptions were found towards mid-day when bleaching of pigments could occur due to intense surface radiation (Yentsch and Scagel, 1958). In the present study, the pattern of distribution of chlorophyll- a was very much similar to previous works that have been carried out in different estuaries of India (Krishnamurthy, 1971; Bhargava, 1973; Vijaylakshmi and Venugopalan, 1973; Verlencar and DSilva, 1978). As carotenoid values did not follow phytoplankton density but variable ratios between chlorophyll-a and carotenoids were observed. Lower values (<1) of chlorophyll-a : carotenoid ratios were obtained at sampling hours of 13.15, 15.15, 19.15 and 21.15 indicating the occurrence of unhealthy and
REFERENCES
Bhargava, R.M.S. (1973) Diurnal variation in phytoplankton of Mandovi estuary, Goa. Indian J. Marine Sciences 2: 27-31. Bhargava,R.M.S. and Dwivedi, S.N. (1974) Diurnal variations of phytoplankton pigments of Zuari estuary. Indian J. Marine Sciences 5: 142-145. Bhargava, R.M.S. and Dwivedi, S.N. (1976) Seasonal distribution of phytoplankton pigments in the estuarine system of Goa. Indian J. Marine Sciences 5: 87-90. Bhattathiri, P.M.A., Devassy, V.P. and Bhargava, R.M.S. (1976) Production at different trophic levels in the estuarine system of Goa. Indian J. Marine Sciences 5: 83-86. Chandran, R. (1985) Mahasagar-Bulletin of National Institute of Oceanography 18: 37. Dehadri, P.V. and Bhargava, R.M.S. (1972) Distribution of chlorophyll, carotenoids and phytoplankton in relation to certain environmental factors along the central west coast of India. Marine Biology 17: 30-37. Devassy, V.P. (1983) Plankton ecology of some estuarine and marine regions of the west coast of India. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Kerala, Trivandrum. Devassy, V.P. and Goes, J.I. (1989) Seasonal patterns of phytoplankton biomass and productivity in a tropical estuarine complex (west coast of India). Indian Academy Sciences 99 (5): 485-501. Devassy, V.P. and Bhargava, R.M.S. (1978) Diel changes in phytoplankton in the Mandovi and Zuari estuaries of Goa. Mahasagar- Bulletin of National Institute of Oceanography, Goa 11: 195-199.

Gleason, H.A. (1922) On the relation between species and area. Ecology 3: 156-162. Goswami, S.C., Selvakumar and Goswami, U. (1979) MahasagarBulletin of National Institute of Oceanography 12: 247. Gouda Rajashree and Panigrahy, R.C. (1989) Diurnal variation of phytoplankton in Rushikulya estuary, east coast of India. Indian J. Marine Sciences 18: 246-250. Krishanmurthy, K. (1971) Phytoplankton pigments in Porto Novo waters (India). Ind. Revu. Ges. Hydrobiol. 56: 273-282. Madhupratap,M. and Rao, T.S.S. (1979) Tidal and diurnal influence on estuarine plankton. Indian J. Marine Sciences 8(1): 9-11. Naik, U.G. and Neelakantan, B. (1989) Seasonal abundance of phytoplankton in the inshore waters of Karwar. Comparative Physiology and Ecology 14(4): 219-226. Naik, U.G. and Neelakantan, B. (1990) Phytoplankton distribution in the Kali estuary-A seasonal study. Pollution Research 15:2327. Naik, Ulhas G., Naik R.K. and Nayak, V.N. (2006) Primary productivity in the Karwar bay, Karnataka, west coast of India. Environment and Ecology 24(4): 827-831. Qasim, S.Z. and Gopinathan, C.K. (1969) Tidal cycle and the environmental features of Cochin backwater (a tropical estuary). Proceeding of Indian Academy Sciences, B 69: 336348. Qasim, S.Z. and Sengupta, R. (1981) Environmental characteristics of the Mandovi-Zuari estuarine system in Goa. Estuarine Coastal Shelf Sci. 13: 557-578. Qasim, S.Z., Wallershaws, S.P., Bhattathiri M.A. and Abidi, S.A.H. (1969) Organic production in a tropical estuary. Proceeding of Indian Academy Sciences, B 69: 51-74.
57
Ramamirtham, C.P. and Jayaraman, R. (1963) Some aspects of the hydrographical conditions of the backwaters around Willingdon Island, Cochin. J. Marine Biological Association of India 5: 170. Rangarajan, K. (1959) Light penetration in the inshore waters of Porto Novo. Proceeding of Indian Sciences, Sect. B. 49: 271279. Redekar, P.D. and Wagh, A.B. (2000) Planktonic diatoms of the Zuari estuary, Goa (west coast of India). Seaweed Research Utilization 22(1 & 2): 107-112. Shannon, C.E. and Weiner, W. (1963) The Mathematical Theory of Communications. Urbana Univ. Illinois Press. 117: p.111. Singbal, S.Y.S. (1976) Diurnal variation of some physico-chemical factors in the Mandovi estuary of Goa. Mahasagar Bulletin of National Institute of Oceanography 9: 27-34. Strickland, J.D.H. and Parsons, T.R. (1975) A Manual of Seawater Analysis. Fisheries Research Board, Canada, Ottawa, 167: pp.310. Tripathy, S.C., Ray, A.K., Patra, S. and Sarma, V.V. (2005) Water quality assessment of Gautami-Godavari mangrove estuarine ecosystem of Andhra Pradesh, India during September 2001. J. Earth Systems Sciences 114 (2): 185-190. Utermohl, H. (1931) Verhint ver theor angew. Limnology. 5: 567 Verlencar, X.N. and DSilva, C. (1978) Mahasagar Bulletin of National Institute of Oceanography 11: 83. Yentsch, C. S. and Ryther, J.H. (1957) Short term variations in phytoplankton chlorophyll and their significance. Limnology and Oceanogr. 2: 140. Yentsch, C.S. and Scagel, R.F. (1958) Diurnal study of phytoplankton pigments. An in situ study in East Sound, Washington. J. Marine Research 17: 567-583.
Received 12 October, 2011; Accepted 5 April, 2011
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 58-62
Heavy Metal Content in Soils and Crops Irrigated with Untreated Sewage Water in Sangrur District of Punjab
M.P.S. Khurana, Kuldip Singh* and Dhanwinder Singh
Department of Soil Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana -141 004, India *E-mail: kuldip@pau.edu
Abstract: Soil and plant samples collected from different sites receiving sewage and tube-well irrigation in Sangrur District of Punjab were analyzed for heavy metals to ascertain pollution potential. The sewage irrigated soils accumulated relatively higher amounts of Diethydene triamine penta acitic acid (DTPA) extractable and total heavy metals in surface as well as at all the depths as compared to tubewell irrigated soils and their content generally decreased with depth. The mean total contents of Pb, Ni, Cd, Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn in sewage irrigated soils were 56.7, 26.7, 2.15, 88.6, 48.4, 10990 and 272.8 mg kg-1 soil, respectively in the surface samples which were 3.02, 4.24, 1.12, 1.26, 1.70, 1.30 and 2.10 times their respective content in tube well irrigated soil. All the soil samples, in terms of pollutant elements of sewage irrigated were found within permissible limits. All the crops had higher amount of micro-nutrients and heavy metals in their above ground parts when grown in sewage irrigated soils than in the same plant species grown in tube well irrigated soils. Spinach accumulated highest amount of micronutrients and heavy metal among all the crops. The extent of accumulation of different pollutant metals were maximum for Pb followed by Ni and Cd in all crops. In the sewage irrigated soils, the content of Pb, Ni and Cd were below the critical limit in all the crops except for Cd in spinach. Key Words: Heavy metals, Sewage irrigated soils, Vegetables, DTPA Extractable
Disposal of waste water as a source of irrigation to agricultural lands is an old practice and still followed in most of the developing countries. In the recent past, due to rapid industrialization and urbanization, a large volume of industrial waste water is produced every day. These industrial effluents are disposed-off as such in to sewer system, which is used for irrigation purposes either directly or through some water body. It is estimated that 15000 million liters of sewage water is produced every day in the country, which approximately contributes 3.2, 1.4 and 1.9 million tons of nitrogen, phosphorus and potash, respectively per annum with an economic value of about Rs. 2600 million (Jurwarkar et al., 1991). However, one constraint with this approach is the contamination of soils and crops grown on these soils have bearing on the quality of the produce. It has been observed that the use of municipal waste water for irrigation purposes leads to substantial increase in the accumulation of heavy metals (Kansal, 1994), consequently crops grown in polluted soils may accumulate heavy metals to such an extent so as to cause health hazards in animals and human beings. Therefore, the present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the effects of irrigation with contaminated sewage water on the concentration of heavy metals in the soils and crops.

Sangrur is one of the important cities of Punjab where different types of industries (paper mill, pipe fittings, ghee
mill, biscuit and glucose factory) are situated along the Sunam road. The untreated polluted water released from these industries, together with domestic waste water find its way into open drain called Ganda Nallah situated in the out skirts of the city. The farmers of the villages namely Shibian, Uppali, Kanoi and Chotey Nacktey located along this open drain use this waste water for irrigation to their crops. In order to determine the depth wise distribution of metals in soils, the samples were collected from 0-15, 1530, 30-45 and 45-90 cm depth from the locations using sewage waters largely contaminated by industrial effluents for irrigation. Soil samples at the same depths were also collected from different far off sites receiving tube-well irrigation in the same villages. The available contents of these metals in the soils were determined by DTPA method (Lindsay and Norvell, 1978). Total contents of pollutant elements (Pb, Ni and Cd) and micronutrients (Zn, Cu Fe and Mn) were estimated only in the surface layer of both polluted and sewage irrigated soils after digesting the soil samples with hydrofloric and perchloric acids using platinum crucibles. Above ground parts of the crops namely cauliflower ( Brassica oleracea L.var botrytis), cabbage ( Brassica oleracea L.var capitata ), spinach ( Spinacia oleracea) and radish (Raphanus sativus) were sampled from three locations. The total content of the metals in dry plant material were determined after pooling the ground samples and digested in a di-acid mixture of nitric and perchloric acid in the ratio of 4:1. The contents of the metals in the digests were analysed by atomic absorption spectrophotometer.
Heavy Metal Content in Soils and Crops Irrigated with Untreated Sewage Water
59
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Soils

DTPA extractable metal contents. The depth wise distribution of the DTPA extractable metals for sewage and tube well irrigated soils are presented in Tables 1 and 2.
DTPA extractable Cu: Comparatively higher amount of

DTPA extractable Cu was found at all the depths in sewage irrigated soils compared to its value in tube well irrigated soils (Table 1). The mean value of DTPA extractable Cu in 015, 15-30, 30-45 and 45-90 cm layer in sewage irrigated soils was 2.00, 1.53, 1.43 and 2.28 times its respective in tube well irrigated soils. The DTPA extractable Cu declined with depth both in sewage and tube well irrigated soils. The higher Cu content in surface layer indicated its high affinity with organic matter.
DTPA extractable Fe: The mean content of DTPA extractable Fe in sewage fed soils was 10.88, 9.57, 7.67 and 6.51 mg kg-1 soil, respectively in 0-15, 15-30, 30-45 and 45-90 cm layer as against 6.27, 5.31, 4.58 and 3.89 mg kg-1 soil, respectively in tube well irrigated soil. Mean DTPA content of Fe in 0-15 cm layer of sewage irrigated soils comes out to be 1.74 times the mean value of DTPA content in normal soils. DTPA extractable Mn: The sewage irrigated soils at all the depths accumulated higher amount of DTPA extractable Mn as compared to tube-well irrigated soils at all the sites in all the villages. The increase in DTPA extractable Mn with sewage irrigation at 0-15, 15-30, 30-45 and 45-90 cm layer was found to be 55.30, 57.17, 76.39 and 80.3 per cent respectively. Mean DTPA extractable Mn in 0-15 cm layer in polluted soils was 8.34 mg kg-1 soil, which declined to 5.95 mg kg-1 soil in 45-90 cm layer.
Table 1. Range and mean content of DTPA extractable heavy metals (mg kg-1 soil) in sewage and tubewell irrigated soils of Sangrur (depth-wise distribution) Depth (cm) Range 0-15 15-30 30-45 45-90 0-15 15-30 30-45 45-90 1.00-3.10 0.62-1.32 0.42-0.82 0.30-0.68 0.65-1.15 0.50-0.72 0.30-0.50 0.12-0.40 Cu Mean SD 1.880.64 0.950.27 0.630.12 0.570.11 0.940.19 0.620.08 0.440.08 0.250.11 Range Sewage irrigated 7.35-15.40 7.00-13.80 6.10-11.00 5.3-8.20 Tubewell irrigated 4.98-7.20 4.32-6.20 3.08-5.94 3.04-4.50 6.270.96 5.310.70 4.58.95 3.890.51 4.70-6.10 3.90-5.90 3.14-5.00 2.45-4.30 5.370.55 4.880.66 4.110.69 3.300.76 10.882.50 9.572.26 7.671.53 6.511.03 6.00-10.70 5.10-11.30 5.00-10.10 4.50-8.00 8.341.85 7.672.02 7.252.03 5.951.23 Element (mg kg-1 soil) Fe MeanSD Range Mn MeanSD
Table 2. Range and mean content of DTPA extractable heavy metals (mg kg-1) in sewage and Tubewell irrigated soils of Sangrur (depth-wise distribution) Depth (cm) Range 0-15 15-30 30-45 45-90 0-15 15-30 30-45 45-90 1.46-3.10 0.80-2.60 0.78-1.06 0.60-0.96 1.00 -1.92 0.65 -1.02 0.42 -0.85 0.28 -0.72 Zn MeanSD 2.100.59 1.040.67 0.860.11 0.770.12 1.450.39 0.800.14 0.650.17 0.470.20 Range 0.12-0.30 0.09-0.16 ND ND 0.02 -0.09 ND ND ND Cd MeanSD 0.220.05 0.110.02 ND ND 0.060.02 ND ND ND Range 0.48-0.82 0.18-0.64 0.12-0.56 0.10-0.40 0.24 -0.48 0.12- 0.20 0.08 -0.15 0.02 -0.10 Sewage irrigated 0.650.10 0.410.15 0.310.14 0.160.09 0.380.09 0.150.04 0.120.03 0.050.04 1.09-4.40 1.26-4.02 0.68-3.10 0.60-2.50 0.88-1.68 0.50-0.94 0.36-0.60 0.36-0.48 2.760.73 2.050.82 1.700.73 1.100.52 1.320.31 0.700.16 0.510.08 0.420.05 Element (mg kg-1 soil) Ni MeanSD Range Pb MeanSD
Tubewell irrigated
ND-not detected
60
M.P.S. Khurana, Kuldip Singh and Dhanwinder Singh

accumulation of Cd, Ni and Co was higher in soils irrigated with sewage water as compared with tubewell water irrigation and their content decreased with depth. Kansal and Khurana (2000) observed that waste water irrigation elevated the level of both available and total Cd content in soils of all the three industrial towns of Punjab namely Ludhiana, Amritsar and Jalandhar. In an other study Khurana and Kansal (2001) found elevated concentration of DTPA extractable Pb in sewage irrigated soils in all the industrial towns of Punjab both in surface (0-15 cm) and sub surface (15-30 cm) as compared to normal soils. Total metal content. Elevated concentration of total Pb, Ni, Cd, Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn was found in sewage fed soils of Sangrur district as compared to normal soils. Mean contents of Pb, Ni, Cd, Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn in sewage irrigated soils were 56.7, 26.7, 2.15, 88.6, 48.4, 10990 and 272.8 mg kg-1 soil, respectively, which were 3.02, 4.24, 1.12, 1.26, 1.70, 1.30 and 2.10 times their respective content in tube well irrigated soil (Table 3). The increase in the mean content of various metals with sewage irrigation may have resulted from higher rate of metal loading from industrial effluents. Critical values based on total metal content are available in literature for categorizing soils into polluted category. If guidelines of Kabata and Pendias (1984) were to be considered, where maximum concentrations of Pb, Ni, Cd, Zn, Cu and Mn were taken as 100, 100, 3, 200, 60 and 1500 mg kg -1 soil, respectively, no soil samples of sewage irrigated soils of Sangrur fall in polluted category. However, use of untreated waste water on long term basis would result in development of contaminated soils.
DTPA extractable Zn: DTPA extractable Zn also exhibited decreasing trend with depth. The mean values of DTPA extractable Zn in tube-well irrigated soils in 0-15 and 45-90 cm layer was 1.45 and 0.47 mg kg-1 soil respectively, which were 69 and 61 per cent of the corresponding values of polluted soils (Table 2).
The increase in micro nutrient content in soil with sewage irrigation has been reported by many workers (Adhikari et al., 1998; Kuhad et al., 1989). Kuhad et al. (1989) also observed higher concentration of metals such as Zn, Cu, Mn and Fe in the surface layer of the sewage irrigated soils in comparison to tubewell irrigated soils of Sonepat district of Haryana. Bosewell (1975) reported that the content of Cu and Zn in soil was remarkably higher after one year of sludge application.
DTPA extractable Cd, Pb and Ni: Higher amounts of DTPA extractable Cd, Pb and Ni were found at all the depths in sewage irrigated soils compared to tube well irrigated soils. Higher amounts of DTPA extractable Cd, Pb and Ni at surface layer indicated their low mobility and diminution with depth. Mean DTPA extractable content of Cd, Pb and Ni in sewage irrigated soils irrespective of sites were 4.4, 1.71 and 1.85 times their content in tube well irrigated soils (Table 2). The results also find support from the work of Dowdy et al. (1991) who found that massive sludge additions (765 Mg ha-1 on dry weight basis) over a period of 14 years resulted in an increased concentration of Cd, Zn and Cu in Ap1 genetic horizon. The movement of these metals was restricted and usually stay at tillage depth. The others workers like Sharma and Kansal (1986) also observed that around Ludhiana City, Punjab, the soils that received water of Budda Nallah (a rivulet contaminated with industrial and municipal wastes) were enriched with heavy metals. Accumulation was greater in surface soils but decreased with depth. The increase in heavy metals content of soils with continuous application of sewage water has been reported by Brar et al. (2002). Azad et al. (1986) found that
Vegetable Crops
Micronutrient content in various crops. Invariably, all the crops contained higher amount of micro-nutrient cations like Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn in their above ground parts when grown in sewage irrigated soils than in the same plant species grown in tube well irrigated soils. The higher
Table 3. Total content of heavy metals (mg kg-1 soil) of sewage and tube well irrigated soils of Sangrur (0-15 cm) Element (mg kg-1 soil) Cu Mean SD 48.417.4 (16.5-68.4) Mean SD 11.42.45 (8.0-14.3) Permissible Limits Fe 109901134.6 (9580-13100) 9747316.7 (9358-10210) Mn 272.852.3 (200-352) 215.645.6 (176-286) Zn 88.624.1 (58.2-121.0) 28.388.4 (19.2-43.2) Pb 56.710.8 (39.9-72.4) 33.063.2 (29.8-37.2) 100-500 Ni 26.74.5 (20.4-32) 20.503.78 (15.4-25.4) 100 Cd 2.150.52 (1.50-2.72) 1.020.10 (0.80-1.25) 3-8
Sewage irrigated soils
Tubewell irrigated soils
Figures in parentheses indicate range
Heavy Metal Content in Soils and Crops Irrigated with Untreated Sewage Water
content of DTPA extractable metals in sewage irrigated soils has caused the growing plants in these soils to take up these elements in higher amounts. Different crops showed different pattern of accumulation of micronutrient content. The content of Zn in their above ground parts of cauliflower, cabbage, spinach and radish in sewage irrigated soils were 1.62, 1.92, 1.20 and 1.56 times their content in tube well irrigated soils. The increase in the content of Cu with sewage irrigation was found to be 23.5, 15.3, 31.5 and 78.1 per cent, respectively. The content of Fe in cauliflower, cabbage, spinach and radish were 180, 74, 560 and 452 g g-1 dry matter, respectively in sewage irrigated soils. Similarly, increase in the content of Mn in cauliflower, cabbage, spinach and radish in sewage irrigated soils emulated the same pattern. Singh and Sakal (2001) reported higher concentration of micronutrients in different crops than normal in sewage sludge treated soils. Adhikari et al. (1998) reported that the comparatively higher concentration of the micronutrients in vegetables in comparison to normal soils has resulted from the addition of these elements through the continuous application of sewage water in the outskirts of city of Calcutta. The micronutrient concentration for various crops in sewage irrigated sangrur soils can be arranged in the following order Zn : Spinach > cauliflower > cabbage > radish Fe : Spinach > radish > cauliflower > cabbage Cu : Spinach > radish> cauliflower > cabbage Mn : Radish > spinach > cauliflower > cabbage It may be concluded that spinach accumulated highest amount of Zn, Cu and Fe except Mn in its above ground parts indicating it to be the efficient accumulator among these crops. Although, micronutrient accumulation was more in sewage irrigated soils than normal soils, but none of the micronutrient approached the level of toxicity, in any of the plant species.
61
Pollutant elements. Pollutant elements unlike those of micronutrients, become toxic to the plants and animal species at a very low concentration. Their presence above the critical limit in the plants may cause health hazards in animals and human beings. The three pollutant elements (Pb, Ni and Cd) were present in higher concentration in the above ground parts of all the plant species growing on sewage fed soils in comparison to their concentration in tube well irrigated soils. The amount of Pb, Ni and Cd in cauliflower irrigated with sewage water was 2.03, 1.82 and 4.8 times their respective content in tube well water irrigation. Other pollutant elements also followed the same pattern regardless of the crop species. The extent of accumulation of different metals was maximum for Pb followed by Ni and Cd in all the plant species. The content of Pb, Ni and Cd were found below the critical limit of 10, 5 and 0.8 g g-1 (Allaway, 1968) respectively for Pb, Ni and Cd in all the crops except for spinach in the sewage irrigated soils where concentration of Cd was 1.98 g g-1 (Table 4). More recently, Aulakh et al. (2009) found that the mean concentrations of Pb, Cr, Cd, and Ni in crops grown on sewage-irrigated soils were 4.88, 4.20, 0.29, and 3.99 mg kg1, respectively, which were significantly higher than their concentrations in tubewell-irrigated soil. From this study, it is revealed that in most of the situations where soils of Sangrur district have been receiving sewage irrigation for the last many years, the plants growing on them has not yet crossed the threshold values of toxicity. It is advisable to monitor the build up of these elements on long term basis. It is desirable that the waste water particularly industrial effluent would be made to undergo suitable treatment in wastewater treatment plants before being discharged in to water bodies.
Table 4. Amount of micronutrient and pollutant elements (g g-1) in shoot (above ground parts) of various crops in sewage irrigated and tubewell irrigated soils Crop Cu Cauliflower Cabbage Spinach Radish Cauliflower Cabbage Spinach Radish 8.4 6.8 14.2 11.4 6.8 5.9 10.8 6.4 Micronutrient element (g g-1) Fe 180.0 74.0 560.0 452.0 84.3 45.0 402.0 270.0 Mn 48.0 30.0 57.4 60.27 30.0 21.8 32.8 23.5 Zn 53.6 38.4 50.2 45.0 32.8 20.0 41.8 29.5 Pb 2.10 2.75 5.02 1.45 1.03 1.46 2.40 0.98 Sewage irrigation 1.02 0.87 3.00 1.12 0.50 0.40 0.83 0.90 0.24 0.48 1.98 0.56 0.04 0.08 0.10 0.04 Pollutant elements (g g-1) Ni Cd
Tubewell irrigation
62
M.P.S. Khurana, Kuldip Singh and Dhanwinder Singh
REFERENCES
Adhikari, S., Mitra, A., Gupta, S.K. and Banerjee, S.K. (1998) Pollutant metal contents of vegetables irrigated with sewage water. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 46: 153-155. Allaway, W.H. (1968) Agronomic controls over the environmental cycling of trace elements. Adv. Agro. 20: 235-274. Aulakh, M.S., Khurana, M.P.S. and Dhanwinder Singh (2009) Water pollution related to agricultural, industrial, and urban activities, and its effects on the food chain: Case studies from Punjab. J. New Seeds 10:112-137. Azad, A.S., Sekhon, G.S. and Arora, B.R. (1986) Distribution of cadmium, nickel and cobalt in sewage water irrigated soils. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 34: 619-622. Bosewell, F.C. (1975) Municipal sewage sludge and selected elements application to soils. J. Envion. Qual. 4: 267-273. Brar, M.S., Khurana, M.P.S. and Kansal, B.D. (2002) Effect of irrigation by untreated sewage effluents on the micro and potentially toxic elements in soils and plants. In: Proc 17 the World Congress of Soil Science held at Bangkok, Thailand from August 14-21, 2002, Volume IV, Symposium no 24, pp 198(1) 198(10). Dowdy, R.H., Lattreell, J.J., Hinesly,T.D., Grassman, R.B. and Sullivan, D.L. (1991) Trace metal movement in an aeric ochraqualf following 14 years of annual sludge application J. Environ. Qual. 20: 119-123. Jurwarkar, A.S., Jurwarkar Asha, Deshbharatan, P.B. and Bal, A.S. (1991) Exploitation of nutrient potential of sewage and sludge through land application. In: Asian Experience in Integrated Plant Nutrition. RAPA-FAO, Bankok, pp. 178-201.
Kabata, P.A. and Pendias, H. (1984) Trace Elements in Soil and Plants. p 365. CRC Press Inc Boca Raton, Florida, U.S.A. Kansal, B.D. (1994). Efeect of domestic and industrial effulents on agricultural productivity. In: G.S. Dhaliwal and B.D. Kansal (Eds) Management of Agricultural Pollution in India. Commonwealth Publishers, New Delhi, pp. 157-176. Kansal, B.D. and Khurana, M.P.S. (2000) Cadmium accumulation in alluvial soils from agricultural use of urban and industrial waste water. 8th International Congress on Soil Science, Islamabad, Pakisthan, Nov 13-16, 2000. Khurana, M.P.S. and Kansal, B.D. (2001) Lead contamination of alluvial soils as influenced by sewage irrigation. Paper presented at the 66th Annual Convention of the Indian Society of Soil Science held at Udipur from 29th Oct to 3 Nov 2001. Kuhad, M.S., Malik, R.S., Singh, R. and Singh, A. (1989) Studied on mobility and accumulation of heavy metals in agricultural soils receiving sewer water irrigation. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 37: 290-294. Lindsay, W.L. and Norvell, W.A. (1978) Development of DTPA soil test for zinc, iron manganese and copper. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 42: 421-428. Sharma, V.K. and Kansal, B.D. (1986) Heavy metal contamination of soils and plants with sewage irrigation. Pollut. Res. 4: 8691. Singh, A.P and Sakal, R. (2001) Sewage sludge treated soils: Distribution and translocation of micronutrient cations in different plant species. Sust. Chemi. Agri. 2: 22-32.
Received 4 May, 2011; Accepted 12 December, 2011
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 63-66
Interactive Effect of Cobalt, Boron and Molybdenum on Yield Attributes of Pea (Pisum sativum L.)
D. K. Singh*, P. Kumar1 and S.K. Singh
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, 1Department of Environmental Science, P.G. College, Ghazipur, U.P., India *E-mail: singhdk@rediffmail.com
Abstract: An experiment was conducted during the winter season of 2008-09 and 2009-2010 to study the interactive effect of cobalt, boron and molybdenum on yield attributes of pea (Pisum sativum L.) at fertility level of 30 mg P2O5+20 mg S+2.5 mg Zn, per kg soil and 60mg P2O5+40 mg S+5.0 mg Zn, per kg soil on number of pod per plant, no. of seeds per pod, grain yield and straw yield. The number of pod per plant and number of seeds per pod were significantly influenced with increasing levels of fertility in both the years. The macronutrients viz. Co, B and Mo have also shown significant impact on number of pod per plant and number of seeds per pod. The grain yield was affected significantly at higher fertility level. A significant increase in grain yield and straw yield was recorded by the use of Co, B and Mo but the combined effect of fertility did not show significant impact. Key Words: Interactive effect, Micronutrient, Yield, Pea
Majority of the Indian population is vegetarian and they depend for their protein requirement on pulses. Pulses are the cheapest source of protein and sustain the productivity of cropping system by their ability to use atmospheric nitrogen through biological nitrogen fixation, which is ecologically most acceptable and economically viable. Availability of all the essential plant nutrients in adequate quantity and balanced proportion is essential to realize full potentiality of yield from newly developed high yielding improved varieties. Phosphorus is desirable for promoting nitrogen fixation by soil microorganisms. Thus, phosphorus requirement of leguminous crop, which is totally dependent for meeting out their nitrogen requirement on atmospheric nitrogen fixation by symbiotic Rhizobium are higher than cereals. Sulphur deficiency in soil affects the assimilation of nitrogen and synthesis of protein. Cobalt, Boron and Molybdenum are essential for the growth of Rhizobium and nitrogen fixation. These micronutrients are essential for synthesis of vitamin B12, translocation of materials, photosynthesis, absorption of nitrogen required for synthesis of amino acids and proteins, carbohydrate metabolism and proper nodulation. The studies on integrated effect of various micronutrients at varying soil fertility on yield attributes of leguminous plants are very scare. The present study was designed to study the interactive effect of nutrients on pea (Pisum sativum L.) by keeping the record of cropping history of the field from which soil was taken for pot experiment. Mostly the paddy-wheat and paddy-pea have been the main crop rotation. Paddy being transplanted and water logged crop witness high rate of protection of applied water resulting into leaching losses of many essential plant nutrients. Cobalt is one of
such element which becomes critically deficient after paddy cropping.

A pot experiment was conducted during winter at Agricultural Research Farm of Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ghazipur in the year 2008-09 and 2009-2010. Certified seeds of pea Malviya 15 were used for the experiment. The pot experiment was conducted in a glass house. Each earthen pot was cleaned by fresh water and its outer and inner surfaces were coloured by red and black paint, respectively. The pots were filled with 10 kg processed soil. The recommended dose of N, P2O5, K2O, S and Zn for pea is 20, 60, 30, 40 and 5 kgha-1, respectively. Our idea was to accommodate two levels of P, S and Zn, one at par with the recommended dose, while the other at an elevated level so that the optimum dose could be assertained. The treatments consisted of two fertility levels viz. F1: P1S1Zn1 (30:20:2.5mg kg-1 of P2O5, sulphur and zinc) and F2: P2S2Zn2 (60:40:5 mg kg-1 of P2O5, sulphur and zinc) Uniform application of N (20 mg kg-1 soil ) and K (30 mg K2O kg-1 soil) was applied in each pot. Eight concentration of micronutrients viz. control, Co 2 mg kg-1, B 0.3%, Mo 1 mg kg-1, Co 2 mg kg-1 + B 0.3%, Co 2 mg kg-1 + 1 mg kg-1, B 0.3% + Mo 1 mg kg-1, Co 2 mg kg-1 + B 0.3% + Mo 1 mg kg-1 were tested in completely Randomized Block Design (factorial arrangement) with four replications. All the nutrients were applied as basal except boron, for which foliar application was done at 45 and 60 days after sowing. Nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, sulphur, zinc, molybdenum and cobalt were applied through urea, KCl, KH2PO4, CaSO4.2H2O, ZnSO4 7H2O, ammonium molybdate and cobalt nitrate, respectively. Boron was
64
D. K. Singh, P. Kumar and S.K. Singh

2008-09 and 2009-10, respectively. F2 fertility level produced 13.98 and 18-07 per cent more number of seeds per pod than F1 during 1st and 2nd year, respectively. Micronutrients also showed significant impact on number of seeds per pod. Increase in number of seeds per pod over control by the application of Co, B, Mo, Co+B, Co+Mo, B+Mo, Co+B+Mo was 12.84, 12.47, 11.74, 16.14, 13.76, 16.51 and 21.10 per cent, respectively, during 2009-10. Significant increase in number of seeds per pod were noted by to application of Co, B and Mo during both the years. These results corroborate with the finding of Srivastava and Ahlawat (1995). F1 fertility level recorded 40.61 and 48.15 per cent more grain yield per pot than control during 2008-09 and 200910, respectively. Fertility level showed significant impact on grain yield per pot during both the years. The F2 fertility level showed 48 and 11.37 per cent more yield than F1 fertility level during 2008-09 and 2009-10, respectively. Micronutrients also showed significant impact at both fertility doses during both the years. Grain yield increased by 47.60 42.81, 44.64, 49.40, 51.18, 45.89 and 53.57 pre cent during 2008-09 and 48.23, 45.10. 45.67, 51.55, 41.44, 47.53 and 54.00 per cent during 2009-10 by the application of Co, B, Mo, Co+B, Co+Mo, B+Mo, Co+B+Mo, respectively over control. The straw yield was infuenced significantly with fertilizer application (40.62 and 48.28 per cent more than control during 2008-09 and 2009-10, respectively). Fertility level also affected significantly. The application of F2 fertility level produced 5.09 and 15.81 per cent more straw yield per pot than F1 fertility level during first and second year, respectively. The micronutrient also showed significant impact on straw yield of pea per pot. Increase in straw yield per pot over control by the application of Co, B, Mo, Co+B, Co+Mo, B+Mo, Co+B+Mo was 47.0, 42.34, 44.12, 48.64, 50.40, 45.17 and
applied as sodium borate in solution form. The average number of pods per plant and grains of pods were counted and the mean values were expressed as number of pod per plant and number of grain per pod, respectively. Harvesting was done manually at complete maturity. The grain yield and straw yield was measured in gram per pot. Soil samples were taken from each earthen pot for analysis before cropping from a depth of 0-15 cm. Collected soil samples were analysed for various physicochemical properties (Piper, 1966).

The number of pods per plant as influenced by micronutrient under fertility levels F1 and F2 are shown in the Table 2. It is evident from data that treatment effect has significant impact over control. F1 fertility level showed 19.17 and 17.23 per cent more number of pods per plant than control during 2008-09 and 2009-10, respectively. The maximum number of pods per plant were observed under F2 fertility level. Significant impact of micronutrients was observed at both fertility level during both the years. The number of pod increased by 6.13, 3.15, 3.92, 6.04, 7.21, 0.94 and 3.24 per cent during 2008-09 and 6.64, 4.97, 4.68, 7.85, 8.06, 3.34 and 6.43 per cent during 2009-10 by the application of Co, B, Mo Co+B, Co+Mo, B+Mo, Co+B+Mo over control, respectively. The number of pods increased significantly due to application of Cobalt, other micronutrients did not cause significant impact on number of pods per plant. The interaction of B x Co and B x Mo was also significant. These findings are in close conformity with the findings of Srivastava and Verma (1984), Kanaujia et al. (1998, 1999) and ABO-Shetara and Soheir (2001). The number of seeds per pod increased significantly superior over control. The number of seeds per pod were 19.4 and 27.92 per cent more than absolute control during
Table 1. Chemical analysis of the soil Soil parameter pH EC(milli mhos per cm) CEC mole (P+) kg-1 Organic carbon(%) Available N (kg ha-1 ) Available P (kg ha-1) Available K (kg ha )
-1
Procedure followed Chopra and Kanwar (1991) Chopra and Kanwar (1991) Jackson (1973) Walkley and Black (1934) Subbiah and Asija (1956) Olsens (1954) Jackson (1973) Chesnin and Yien (1951) Lindsay and Norvell (1978) Jackson (1973) Jackson (1973)
2008-09 7.5 0.26 12.65 0.36 230.0 18.00 22.00 18.00 0.1 0.2 0.08
2009-10 7.6 0.38 12.70 0.38 236.0 20.00 230.00 20.00 0.1 0.2 0.08
Available S (kg ha-1) Available Co ppm Available B ppm Available Mo ppm
Table 2. Effect of Co, B and Mo at different fertility status on yield and yield contributing parameters
Number of seeds per pod 2008-09 F1 5 5.9 5.7 5.8 6 6.1 6 6.3 5.6 5 SEm 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.5 CD (5%) SEm CD (5%) 4.8 6.4 5.7 6.6 123 73 SEm 1.2 1.2 1.7 3.4 6.9 6.3 7 138 6.8 6 6.8 131 136 143 129 CD (5%) 3.4 3.4 4.8 9.5 6.4 6.2 6.9 135 141 6.7 6.1 6.9 134 139 6.4 5.9 6.7 129 135 139 145 146 141 149 132 79 SEm 1.8 1.8 2.5 5.1 6.6 5.8 6.7 128 133 138 6.5 6 6.8 132 138 142 5.9 5 6 89 93 92 113 163 159 159 166 165 161 167 153 CD (5%) 5.1 5.1 7.2 14 F2 F1 F2 F1 F2 F1 F2 2009-10 2008-09 2009-10 Grain yield (g per pot) Straw yield (g per pot) 2008-09 F1 117 171 165 167 173 175 169 177 159 95 SEm 1.6 1.6 2.2 4.5 F2 121 179 173 176 181 183 177 186 167 CD (5%) 4.5 4.5 6.3 13 2009-10 F1 120 185 180 181 188 189 184 193 172 102 SEm 2.3 2.3 3.3 6.6 F2 146 212 207 207 216 214 209 217 199 CD (5%) 6.6 6.6 9.3 19
Treatments 2009-10 F1 23 25 25 24 26 26 24 25 24 21 SEm CD(5%) 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.6 1.82 0.91 0.64 0.64 26 26 25 26 26 26 26 26 25 F2
Number of pods per plant
2008-09 F2 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 0.4 0.4 0.5 1.1
F1
Control
21
Co 2ppm
23
B 0.3%
22
Mo 1ppm
22
Co 2ppm+ B 0.3%
23
Co 2ppm+ Mo 1ppm
24
B 0.3% + Mo 1ppm
21
Co 2ppm+ B 0.3% +
22
Mo 1ppm
Mean
22
Absolute control
19
Comparison between
SEm
CD(5%)
Means of Fertility
0.1
Effect of Cobalt, Boron and Molybdenum on Pea Yield
Means of Micronutrients 0.1
Interaction FxM
0.2
Treatment vs Control
0.4
65
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D. K. Singh, P. Kumar and S.K. Singh

Kanaujia, S.P., Tripathi, D., Narayan, R. and Shukla, Y.R. (1999) Influence of P, K and Rhizobium on green pod yield of pea (Pisum sativum L.) cv Linoln. Advance in Horticulture and Forestry 7 :107-112. Lindsay, W.L. and Norvell, W.A. (1978) Development of DTPA soil test for zine, iron, manganese and copper. Soil Science Society of America Journal 42: 421-428. Olsen, S.R., Cole, C.V., Watanbe, F.S. and Dean, L.A. (1954) Estimation of available phosphorus in soil by extraction with sodium bicarbonate. U.S. Department of Agricluture Circular 939, U.S. Govt,. Printing Office, Wahington DC. Piper, C.S. (1966) Soil and plant analysis. Academic Press, New York . Srivastava, S.N.L. and Verma, S.C. (1984) Effect of nitrogen, Rhizobium and techniques of phosphorus application on yield and quality of field pea (Pisum sativum L.). Legume Research 7(1): 37-42. Srivastava, T. K. and Ahlawat, I.P.S. (1995) Response of pea (Pisum Sativum) to phosphorus, molybdenum and biofertilizers. Indian J. Agron. 40(4): 630-635. Subbiah, B.V. and Asija, G. L. (1956) A rapid procedure for determination of available nitrogen in soils. Curr. Sci. 25: 259260. Walkley, A. J. and Black, I .A. (1934) An estimation of soil organic carbon by the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science 37: 29-38.
52.43 per cent during 2008-09 and 49.05, 45.01, 45.55, 51.30, 47.40. 44.02 and 53.86 per cent during 2009-10, respectively. Grain yield and straw yield significantly increased by the use of Co, B and Mo but the combined effect of fertility and micronutrient did not show significant impact on grain and straw yield of pea.
REFERENCES
ABO- Shetia A.M. and Soheir, A.M. (2001) Yield and yield component response of chickpea ( Cicer arietinum ) to phosphorus fertilization and micronutrients. Arab University. J. Agricultural Sci. 9(1): 235-248. Chesnis, L. and Yien, C.H. (1951) Turbidimetric determination of available sulphates, proceedings of the soil. Science Society of America 14:149-151. Chopra, S.L. and Kanwar, J.S. (1991) Analytical Agricultural Chemistry, Kalyani publishers New Delhi. Jackson, M.L. (1973) Soil Chemical Analysis, Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi. Kanaujia, S.P., Sharma, S.K. and Rastogi, K.B. (1998) Effect of P.K. and Rhizobium inoculation on growth and yield of pea (Pisum sativum ). Annals of Agricultural Research 19(2): 219-221.
Received 12 March, 2011; Accepted 12 December, 2011
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 67-70
Micro-nutrient Status of Pear Orchards in Kashmir

M. A. Dar, J. A. Wani, S.K. Raina*, M.Y. Bhat1 and M.A. Malik
Division of Soil Science, 1Division of Fruit Science Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Shalimar Srinagar (J&K) -191 121, India *E-mail: sanjayraina11@gmail.com
Abstract: The present study was undertaken to find out the concentration of micro-nutrients in the leaves of pear cultivar Bartlett grown in Kashmir, which revealed that concentration of zinc and manganese were adequate to high, whereas copper content was low to adequate . The concentration of Iron was found adequate in all the samples of pear orchards. The relationship among the micro-nutrient cations in the foliage of pear was significantly positive. The micro-nutrients varied significantly among the pear orchards of three altitudes during the course of study. Key Words: Micro-nutrients, Pear, Kashmir, Altitude, Soils
Jammu & Kashmir state is famous throughout the world not only for its scenic beauty of mountains, pastures, lakes, rivers, meadows, heritages, gardens, etc but also for the production of diverse type of fruits because of their adaptability owing to topography, parent material, vegetation, soils, besides climate. The state is by and large a mountainous area comprising of sub-tropical, intermediate, temperate and cold arid zone on the basis of altitude and climate. The temperate zone comprises of whole of Kashmir valley and higher reaches of Doda and Poonch districts. The altitude of the valley varied from 1500 to 2500 meters above mean sea level. The altitude has a considerable effect on the nutrient status of soil and plant growth as the variation in climate has resulted in significant differences in leaf composition of the plants. In India pear occupies third place in temperate fruits both in area and production and is cultivated largely in Jammu & Kashmir state and also in upper hills of Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhan. However, sand pear or oriental pear requires less chilling and is cultivated in semi-temperate regions of the states of Punjab, Haryana and Nilgiri regions. In Jammu and Kashmir, the pear ranks second among the pome fruits after apple in acreage and production. The area under pear was 12.10 thousand hectares with a production of 45.86 thousand metric tonnes. Among various factors of production, nutrition of pear fruits has received a considerable attention in recent years, because of importance of nutrients in quality production of fruits and also due to their relationship to physiological disorders and other effects particularly reducing respiration, delaying ripening and increasing fruit firmness thereby extending their storage and shelf life. Imbalance of nutrients causes several disorders which consequently affects the quality
and yield of pear. Besides major elements, micro-nutrient elements are also required in small quantities because of their role as activators, structural components, energy transfer and as regulator of cell constituents. Different micronutrient elements are required for carrying out various physiological processes in plants, and thereby maintaining their essentiality in growth and nourishment of plants leading to maximum production of quality fruits. Since the nutritional aspect of pear fruits have not received much attention so far and no attempt has been made to assess the status of micro-nutrients in pear orchards of Kashmir valley. Therefore keeping in view the importance of micronutrients in the production of pear, a study was undertaken to evaluate the status of micro-nutrients in pear orchards of Kashmir valley.

For this study twenty one orchards of uniform age group with seven orchards each located in three altitudes viz. high, mid and low altitude were selected. The leaf samples of pear cultivar Bartlett were collected from each sample orchard following the procedure outlined by Chapman (1964). The leaf samples were washed with tap water and then dipped in 0.1 N hydrochloric acid solution. Further washings were repeated with single and double distill water. The samples were air dried on filter papers followed by oven drying at a temperature of 60+5 oC for 72 hours. The samples were then ground in a stainless steel blender to pass through 2 mm mesh and stored in polythene bags for analysis. For the determination of micro-nutrient cations, the leaf samples were digested in di-acid mixture of nitric acid and per-chloric acid in the ratio of 10:3. The digested material was diluted in double distilled water and filtered in
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M. A. Dar, J. A. Wani, S.K. Raina, M.Y. Bhat and M.A. Malik
Table 1. Critical concentration of micro-nutrients in pear Nutrient Deficient Zinc Copper Iron Manganese <10 <5 <20 Marginal 10-19 5-8 <60 20-59 Micro-nutrients (ppm) Adequate 20-50 9-20 60-200 60-120 High >50 21-50 >200 120-220 Excess >50 >220
(Vanden-Ende and Leece, 1975)
100 ml volumetric flask. In order to ensure complete transfer of digested material, about six washings were given with double distilled water and final volume was made to 100 ml. The micro-nutrient cations like zinc, copper, manganese and iron were determined on atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The leaf micro-nutrient status was evaluated on the basis of critical concentrations reported by Vanden-Ende and Leece (1975) give in Table 1. Properties of the surface soils in orchards. The soils were clay loam to silly clay loam in texture with normal electrical conductivity and calcium carbonate content. The pH was slightly acidic to slightly alkaline and ranged from 6.10 to 7.76 (Table 2). The organic carbon was medium to high in soils analyzed and varied from 0.66 to 2.36 per cent. The DTPA extractable zinc was low to high and ranged from 0.54 to 1.82 mg kg-1 soil, while as, DTPA extractable copper was medium to high ranging from 1.14 to 2.80 mg kg-1 soil. The DTPA extractable iron and manganese were high in pear orchard soils and varied from 29.6 to 76.0 and 25.4 to 54.4 mg kg-1 soil. All available micro-nutrient cations were observed high in high altitude soils.
Table 2. Properties of surface layers in pear orchard soils of Kashmir Soil property pH EC (dSm-1) Calcium carbonate (%) Organic carbon (%) Available Zinc (ppm) Available Copper (ppm) Available Iron (ppm) Available Manganese (ppm) Range 6.10 - 7.76 0.10 - 0.44 6.40 - 9.80 0.66 - 2.36 0.54 - 1.82 1.14 - 2.80 29.6 - 76.0 25.4 - 54.4

Concentration of micro-nutrients in leaves. The concentration of zinc in the leaves of Bartlett cultivar of pear ranged from 44.7 to 58.3, 39.0 to 48.0 and 24.0 to 44.0 ppm with mean value of 52.19, 44.30 and 32.10 ppm in high, mid and low altitude orchards, respectively (Table 3). Chaplin and Westwood (1980) and Shen (1990) also reported similar range of zinc concentration in pear leaves.
The higher concentration of zinc in high altitude may be attributed to acidic pH which favours the uptake of zinc. The leaf zinc content was observed adequate in 76 per cent and high in 24 per cent orchards, which could be attributed to high content of organic matter and favourable pH for its uptake. The zinc content in the foliage also revealed significant variation among the orchards of three altitudes with highest amount in high altitude orchards and lowest amount in low altitude orchards. This is supported by the findings of Mamgain et al. (1988) and Najar (2002). The leaf copper content in high, mid and low altitude orchards varied from 14.3 to 19.7, 10.0 to 17.7 and 8.3 to 16.3 ppm with mean value of 17.04, 13.47 and 11.76 ppm, respectively. These values are nearly in same magnitude as reported by Chaplin and Westwood (1980) and Arora et al. (1992). The leaf copper exhibited significant variation among the orchards of three altitudes with higher amount in high altitude orchards. The leaf copper was adequate in 95 per cent samples and low in per cent samples and low content was observed in 5 per cent orchards located at low altitude. This could be due to higher amount of organic matter and available copper in soils and favourable soil pH for its uptake in high altitude orchards. Sharma and Bhandari (1992) and Mamgain et al. (1998) also reported similar range of copper in apple foliage. The concentration of iron in leaves ranged from 128.7 to 199.3, 86.0 to 138.0 and 84.0 to 122.7 ppm with mean value of 157.76, 118.06 and 104.71 ppm, respectively in high, mid and low altitude pear orchards. Similar range of iron concentration was reported in foliage of pear by Woodbridge (1973) and Arora et al. (1992). The leaf iron was observed adequate in 100 percent samples and it varied significantly among the orchards of three altitudes with high content observed in high altitude orchards, which may be due to high amount of organic matter as well as available iron and soil condition for its uptake. Mamgain et al. (1998) and Najar (2002) observed that high amount of iron in the foliage of apple at higher altitude was attributed to high amount of organic matter and available iron in the soil, besides suitable pH for its uptake. The leaf manganese content of pear ranged from 96.7 to 128.3, 81.3 to 122.0 and 72.0 to 118.3 ppm with
Micro-nutreint Status of Pear Orchards

Table 3. Micro-nutrient status of pear leaves of Bartlett cultivar (ppm) dry weight basis Orchard number H-1 H-2 H-3 H-4 H-5 H-6 H-7 Range Mean M-1 M-2 M-3 M-4 M-5 M-6 M-7 Range Mean L-1 L-2 L-3 L-4 L-5 L-6 L-7 Range Mean LSD altitude (p=0.05) SED Zinc 58.3 55.7 56.0 48.0 44.7 50.3 52.3 44.7-58.3 52.19 48.0 45.7 46.7 45.3 41.7 39.0 43.7 39.0-48.0 44.30 44.0 27.3 31.7 30.7 40.7 26.3 24.0 24.0-44.0 32.10 5.65 2.59 Copper High altitude 18.0 17.3 19.7 16.3 14.3 16.7 17.0 14.3-19.7 17.04 Mid altitude 17.7 13.7 14.3 13.3 12.3 10.0 13.0 10.0-17.7 13.47 Low altitude 16.3 10.7 12.3 11.0 14.7 9.0 8.3 8.3-16.3 11.76 2.16 0.99 122.7 102.0 108.7 109.3 120.0 86.3 84.0 84.0-122.7 104.71 15.26 7.00 118.3 98.7 100.3 101.0 108.3 75.4 72.0 72.0-118.3 96.29 13.50 6.19 138.0 126.7 130.3 130.0 119.7 95.7 86.0 86.0-138.0 118.06 122.0 92.7 106.3 101.7 92.3 85.7 81.3 81.3-122.0 97.43 199.3 178.0 182.3 147.3 132.7 128.7 136.0 128.7-199.3 157.76 116.0 121.7 128.3 103.3 96.7 112.0 117.7 96.7-128.3 113.67 Iron Manganese
69
mean value of 113.67, 97.43 and 96.29 ppm in high, mid and low altitude orchards, respectively. Arora et al. (1992) observed that the manganese content in foliage of pear in Punjab was in similar range of concentration. Eighty six percent samples were adequate and 14 per cent samples were high in leaf manganese content and exhibited significant variation among the orchards of three altitudes, which could be ascribed to the amount of available manganese and organic matter content together with favourable pH for its uptake. Mushki (1994) and Mamgain et al. (1998) reported that higher content of manganese in foliage of apple in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh at higher altitude was due to high organic matter content with favourable pH for uptake of manganese than at lower altitudes.
The leaf zinc, iron and manganese were adequate to high in all locations of three altitudes. Leaf copper was low at Pohru location of low altitude and rest of locations of three altitudes were adequate in copper. The low content of leaf copper at low altitude is in agreement with the findings of Arora et al. (1992) for pear and Najar (2002) for apple in Punjab and Kashmir, respectively. Significant differences were also reported by Mamgain et al. (1998) for all micronutrients under study at various locations. In general, concentration of micro-nutrients was found maximum in orchards of high altitude followed by mid altitude and low altitude. Similar results were also reported by Najar (2002) and Farida (2005). Therefore, nutrient concentration in a plant seems to be the result of interaction between its genetic inheritance and the environment in which it grows.
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M. A. Dar, J. A. Wani, S.K. Raina, M.Y. Bhat and M.A. Malik

horticultural and plantation crops. Indian J. Hort. 21(2): 97119. Farida, A. (2005) Studies on relationship between fruit yield and quality with soil and leaf nutrient content in apple orchards of Zangier block of district Baramulla Kashmir. Ph. D. Thesis submitted to Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology of Kashmir, Shalimar, Srinagar, pp. 117. Mamgain, S., Verma, H. S. and Kumar, J. (1998) Relationship between fruit yield and foliar nutrient status of apple. Indian J. Hort. 55(3): 226-231. Mushki, G. M. (1994) Studies on apple orchard soils of Kashmir. M. Sc. Thesis submitted to Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology of Kashmir, Shalimar, Srinagar, pp.144. Najar, G. R. (2002) Studies on pedogenesis and nutrient indexing of apple (Red Delicious) growing soils of Kashmir. Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Techn0logy of Kashmir, Shalimar, Srinagar, pp 204. Proebsting, E. L. Jr. and Kenworthy, A. L. (1954) Growth and leaf analysis of Montmorency cherry trees as influenced by solar radiation and intensity of nutrition. Proceed. American Soc. Hort. Sci. 63: 41-48 Sharma, U. and Bhandari, A. R. (1992) Survey of the nutrient status of apple orchards in Himachal Pradesh. Indian J. Hort. 49(3): 234-241. Shen, T. (1990) Nutritional ranges in deciduous tree fruits and nuts. Acta Hort. 274: 429-436. Vanden-Ende, B. and Leece, D. R. (1975) Leaf analysis for pear development of standards and the nutritional status of orchards in the Goulburn valley and Murrumbidgee Irrigation Areas. Aust. J. Expet. Agric. Animal Hus. 15: 129-135. Woodbridge, C. G. (1973) Effect of rootstock and interstocks on nutrient levels in Bartlett pear leaves, on tree growth and on fruit. J. American Soc. Hort. Sci. 98(2): 200-202.
Interrelationship among the leaf micro-nutrients. The concentration of micro-nutrients in pear leaves indicated positive and significant relationship with each other. Zinc showed significant and positive correlation co-efficient with copper (r = 0.908), iron (r = 0.844) and manganese (r = 0.734), whereas, copper revealed r value of 0.852 and 0.898 with iron and manganese, respectively. The leaf iron indicated similar relationship with manganese (r = 0.795). Similar relationship between zinc and copper was also reported by Arora et al. (1992). Thus it can be concluded that micro-nutrients are by and large in adequate concentrations except copper. Therefore package of practices should include application of copper to pear orchards in order to encourage proper growth of plants leading to maximum production of quality pear.
REFERENCES
Anonymous. (2008) Area & production of horticultural crops in Jammu and Kashmir state. Department of Horticulture, J & K Government. Arora, C. L, Brar, M. S. and Dhatt, A. S. (1992) Secondary and micro-nutrient status of pear orchards in Punjab. Indian J. Hort. 49(2): 150-154. Bhandari, A. R. and Randhawa, N. S. (1978) Micro-nutrient status of apple orchards of Shimla hills. Indian J. Hort. 35(4): 321327. Chaplin, M. H. and Westwood, M. N. (1980) Nutritional status of Bartlett pear on Cydonia and Pyrus species rootstocks. J. American Soc. Hort. Sci. 105(1): 60-63. Chapman, H. D. (1964) Suggested foliar sampling and handling techniques for determining the nutrient status of some field,
Received 5 June, 2011; Accepted 25 September, 2011
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 71-75
Evaluation of a Customized Fertilizer on Wheat

B.S. Sekhon*, Satwinderjit Kaur1, and Pritpal Singh2
Department of Soil Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, Punjab, India 1 Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Gurdaspur, Punjab, India 2 Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Rupnagar, Punjab, India *E-mail: bsekhon3@gmail.com
Abstract: An experiment was conducted at two sites in Punjab state to evaluate the effect of a customized fertilizer (CF) with grade 16:24:9:5:0.7(N: P: K: S: Zn) on yield and yield attributes of wheat crop (var PBW 550). The treatments involved considered a manufacturerrecommended dose of CF (MRDCF) providing basal 60kg N ha-1, 90kg ha-1 P2O5, and 35kg K2O ha-1 as standard dose (100% MRDCF). The other treatments involved graded doses of CF from 0 to 150% MRDCF through 50, 75, 100, and 125%. An additional comparison treatment involved use of CF as per state recommendations for N and P. The CF effect evaluated through observations on plant height, effective tillers, spike length, spike weight, 1000-grain test weight, grain and straw yield, agronomic efficiency of N (AEN), benefit-cost ratio, net returns, etc. indicated that using CF as per state recommendations gave the best results. Key Words: Punjab, Customized fertilizer, Yield attributes, Wheat
A typical rice-wheat sequence that yields 7t ha-1 of rice (unmilled) and 5t ha-1 of wheat consumes 300kg of N, 30kg P, and 300kg ha-1 of potassium (Bijay-Singh et al., 2004). Besides, it leads to concomitant depletion of various secondary and micronutrients. The rice-wheat system has started showing fatigue signs and lack of response to increasing levels of fertilizers has been attributed among many factors to macro- and micro-nutrient imbalances resulting from exhaustive feeding and imbalanced replenishment of nutrients through inappropriate fertilizer applications. Application of many fertilizer sources resulting from soil-test based recommendations during one agronomic operation (at the time of sowing), is constrained by high labour costs and uneven application (if mixed) owing to segregation. These hurdles to site-specific soil testbased fertilizer applications can be overcome by producing crop-specific and site-specific mixed fertilizer grades, called customized fertilizers. Wheat is the predominant rabi season crop of northwestern and central India. Due to its prolonged association with rice, the rice-wheat cropping sequence has started exhibiting deficiency of various secondary and micronutrients, namely, sulphur, manganese, and zinc. As a result, the northwest region has been witnessing increased sale of various nutrient cocktails. These cocktails do not provide site-specific, need-based, and economical solutions to various plant nutrition related problems. There is a need for fertilizers that can provide for application of micronutrients like Zn (Ramkala et al., 2008). Keeping this in view, this experiment was laid during rabi 2010-11 to evaluate the performance of a customized
fertilizer grade (CF-18) prepared specifically for Amritsar, Gurdaspur, Hoshiarpur, Jalandhar, Kapurthala, Rupnagar, and Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar districts of Punjab for wheat crop by a fertilizer manufacturer.

The experiment was laid out in completely randomized design to evaluate the performance of a customized fertilizer (CF) product provided by M/S Nagarjuna Fertilzers and Chemicals Limited, Hyderabad. The grade of CF (CF-18) was 16:24:9.5:0.7 (N-P-K-S-Zn). The experiment was conducted at two sites: Punjab Agricultural University Regional Research Station, Gurdaspur (75O, 25, 36.77"E and 32O, 02, 54.27" N), and at a farmers field (30O 57 31.4"N and 76O 22 20.4"E) in Chamkaur Sahib sub-division of Rupnagar district of Punjab. Basic soil properties of both sites are given in Table 1. Soil organic carbon was determined as per the method proposed by Walkley and Black (1934), available P by the method given by Olsen et al. (1954), and available K was determined by extracting the soil with 1N neutral ammonium acetate (Pratt, 1982).
Table 1. Some basic properties of soil at Gurdaspur and Rupnagar sites Property Texture pH(1:2 soil:water ratio) EC (dS m-1) Organic Carbon(g kg-1 soil) Available P (kg ha-1) Available K (kg ha-1) Gurdaspur Clay loam 6.6 0.07 6.0 32.7 326.1 Rupnagar Sandy loam 8.1 0.24 4.5 38.7 145.6
72
B.S. Sekhon, Satwinderjit Kaur and Pritpal Singh
Table 2. Various treatments of customized fertilizer used in wheat crop Treatment CF Level Basal CF to basal N(kg ha-1) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 Control 50%MRDCF* 75%MRDCF 100%MRDCF 125%MRDCF 150%MRDCF 67% MRDCF (Standard) 250 40 20 60 0 120 60 23 12.5 1.8 *MRDCF: Manufacturer-recommended dose of customized fertilizer 0 188 281 375 469 563 0 30 45 60 75 90 Urea to basal 0 0 0 0 0 0 First top Second top Total N added Total P added Total K added Total S added Total Zn (kg ha-1) 0 86 128 171 214 257 0 45 68 90 113 135 0 17 25 34 42 51 0.0 9.4 14.1 18.8 23.4 28.1 0.0 1.3 2.0 2.6 3.3 3.9
CF(kg ha-1) contribution contribution
dressed dressed (kg ha-1) (kg ha-1) (kg ha-1) (kg ha-1) added 0 30 45 60 75 90 0 26 38 51 64 77
N(kg ha -1) N(kg ha-1) N(kg ha -1)
Keeping in view the protocol given by the manufacturer, the treatment with a CF dose providing a basal dose of 60kg N ha -1, 90kg ha -1 P 2O 5 , and 35kg K 2O ha -1 was considered as the basic treatment (T4, Table 2). Hence, this CF dose level was considered as 100% of the manufacturer-recommended dose of CF (100% MRDCF). The other treatments were designed around it by varying this basal CF dose by a level of 25%, starting from 50% (T2) through 75% (T3), 100%(T4), 125% (T5) to 150% (T6). Two other treatments were control (T1) and application of basal CF dose as per the state university basal N (60kg N ha-1) and P (60kg P2O5 ha-1) fertilizer recommendations (67% of standard CF dose). T7 incidentally provided 23kg K2O ha-1. Each treatment had three replicates. Besides basal application, treatments involving graded doses of CF (T2 through T6) involved top-dressing N through two equated instalments of urea with first and second irrigations. Amount of top-dressed N was calculated by maintaining a basal N to top-dressed N ratio of 0.54. However, in the treatment involving agreement with state recommended dose of N and P through CF N was top-dressed once @ 60kg N ha-1 (basal N: top-dressed N ratio 1:1) through urea a day before first irrigation in keeping with the State university recommendation. Wheat crop (variety PBW 550), was sown on 14 November 2010 at Rupnagar site and on 30 November 2010 at Gurdaspur. All recommended agronomic practices were followed to raise the crop. Below normal temperatures prevalent during April 2011 delayed the maturity considerably at Gurdaspur site. Straw and grain yield parameters were recorded at maturity. Other observations included number of tillers and effective tillers per plant or per meter row, plant height at maturity, spike length, number of grains per spike, spike weight, grain test weight, etc. For
plant height, plants selected at random were tagged and height was measured in centimeters from ground level to the base of the ear head. Effective tillers in one meter row length were counted from randomly selected rows in each plot. Grains per spike were assessed by randomly selecting ten ear heads from each plot. The experimental data was examined statistically using analysis of variance by employing CS-11 programme (Cheema, 1990).

Plant height. Customized fertilizer application resulted in increased plant height (Table 3), but increasing CF rates did not increase plant height significantly at Gurdaspur site. At this site, increasing CF rates from 50% to 150% of the benchmark, CF level (100%) maintained plant height around a mean of 87.7cm. In contrast, however, at Rupnagar site, increase in plant height with increasing CF level stagnated at 75% CF level. Mean plant height at CF levels beyond 75% at Rupnagar site was 88.0cm. Average plant height at CF application as per state university recommendations did not differ significantly from other CF levels in its vicinity. Data showed that splitting top-dressed N dose in two instalments, first at crown root initiation stage and second at first node stage, resulted in greater, though statistically insignificant, plant height than that gained in topdressing N in one dose at CRI stage. The higher plant height with split top dressed N has been reported extensively (Bhardwaj et al., 2010, Oscarson et al. 1995). It might have resulted from increased production of photosynthates by prolonged availability of fertilizer N (Bhardwaj et al., 2010). Effective tillers. On an average, effective tillers formed about 93-96 per cent of total tillers at Gurdaspur site and 93-99% at Rupnagar site (Table 3). It is likely that relatively earlier planting at Rupnagar site led to slightly better tillering.
Customized Fertilizer Response on Wheat

Table 3. Plant height, number of tillers and effective tillers as affected by various customized fertilizer (CF) levels. Treatment T1 (control) T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 LSD (0.05) CF level (% of MRDCF) 0 50 75 100 125 150 67 Plant height (cm) Gurdaspur 71.8 87.3 88.2 87.7 87.7 88.2 87.4 2.6 Rupnagar 62.1 74.7 87.9 88.7 89.0 89.9 84.7 4.2 No. of tillers m-1 row Gurdaspur 30 51 54 61 57 61 54 8 Rupnagar 29 58 75 81 84 86 74 10
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No. of effective tillers m-1 row Gurdaspur 28 49 51 57 53 57 51 7 Rupnagar 27 56 73 79 83 84 72 10
CF application resulted in increased number of tillers but increasing CF levels beyond 75% level did not add to the number of effective tillers considerably. Further, using CF as per state recommendations (T7) for N and P produced same number of effective tillers as did the 75% MRDCF application. Spike length. Customized fertilizer application led to increase in spike length (Table 4). However, increasing rates of CF beyond 50% of MRDCF in Gurdaspur and beyond 75% in Rupnagar did not increase the head length significantly. Furthermore, Rupnagar site, in general, showed higher response of spike length than did Gurdaspur site. Gurdaspur site produced longer spikes than Rupnagar site. This varied response can be ascribed to the difference in fertility status of the two sites and consequent response to CF. Spike weight. Customized fertilizer application increased spike weight over unfertilized soil (Table 4 ). However, in line with other yield attributes, increasing rates of CF application beyond state-recommended levels (67% MRDCF) did not add to the spike weight significantly. At both sites, under normally fertilized conditions, spike weight hovered around a mean of 2.46g. No. of grains/spike. Customized fertilizer application added to the grain count (Table 4) but increasing CF levels did not increase grain count accordingly. On an average, at both sites under fertilizer levels beyond 67%, CF maintained a 50-grain/spike level. 1000-grain test weight. Thousand-grain test weight yield attribute behaved the way other yield attributes did (Table 4). CF applications beyond state-recommended dose did not help to increase 1000-grain weight. Rupnagar site, in comparison to Gurdaspur site, showed more response to CF application in terms of this parameter. Grain yield. Grain yield is a composite and interactive effect of above-discussed yield attributes. Accordingly,
increasing CF level beyond state recommended dose (T7, 67% MRDCF) did not lead to a significant increase in grain yield at Gurdaspur site (Table 5 ). In contrast, however, at Rupnagar site increasing CF levels went on adding significantly to grain yield. Straw yield. Effect of CF application on straw yield resembles its effect on grain yield (Table 5). However, increasing CF dose went on adding to straw yield significantly till 125% MRDCF level in Rupnagar site and till 100% MRDCF in Gurdaspur site. Past 100% MRDCF, Gurdaspur site showed sudden decline in straw yield. This decline, though inexplicable, was in line with decline in number of effective tillers witnessed at this level (Table 3). However, the extended response of straw yield to increasing CF dose at Rupnagar site can be attributed to comparatively lower organic carbon and available K levels. Harvest index. Ratio of grain yield to total biomass yield decreased with increasing CF level from 0 to 100% through 50 and 75% at Gurdaspur site (Table 5). However, in accordance with the straw yield pattern, harvest index at this site increased with increasing CF levels beyond 100%. CF application as per state recommendations for N and P gave harvest index similar to that in 75% CF level. At Rupnagar site, in general, values of harvest index were higher than obtained at Gurdaspur site. Also, increasing CF levels did not significantly affect the average harvest index of 0.474 achieved in all the treatments.
Agronomic Efficiency of Nitrogen (AEN)

At Gurdaspur site, highest AEN was obtained at 50% MRDCF level (Table 5) and the 150% MRDCF gave the lowest AEN (11.5kg grain kg-1N). The second highest AEN at Gurdaspur site was obtained in treatment involving use of CF as per N and P state recommendations. At Rupnagar, the highest AEN (31.0kg grain kg-1 N) was obtained when CF dose was equivalent to state recommendations for N and P. This was followed by 75% CF treatment; and like in
74
B.S. Sekhon, Satwinderjit-Kaur, and Pritpal-Singh
Table 4. Spike length, spike weight, number of grains/spike, and grain weight as affected by various CF levels Treatment T1 (control) T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 LSD (0.05) CF Level 0 50 75 100 125 150 67 Spike length (cm) Rupnagar 4.6 7.1 8.8 9.0 9.3 9.3 8.7 0.7 9.3 11.1 10.9 11.3 11.1 11.5 11.2 0.6 Spike wt. (g) Gurdaspur 0.79 1.27 2.42 2.46 2.43 2.53 2.42 0.17 0.81 1.28 2.44 2.47 2.49 2.53 2.43 0.16 No. of grains/spike 12 35 48 49 51 51 48 3 13 36 49 51 51 53 49 3 1000-grain test wt. (g) 36.29 37.93 37.62 36.61 37.83 36.19 36.39 0.81 13.21 23.57 36.22 36.72 36.96 36.97 35.44 1.55
(% of MRDCF) Gurdaspur
Rupnagar Gurdaspur
Rupnagar Gurdaspur Rupnagar
Table 5. Wheat grain yield, straw yield, nitrogen efficiency, and economic parameters as affected by various CF levels Treatment T1 (control) T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 LSD(0.05) CF Level 0 50 75 100 125 150 67 Grain yield (q ha -1) Rupnagar 12.3 29.3 49.9 50.6 51.1 51.4 49.5 0.30 16.4 41.4 45.7 50.3 47.9 45.9 46.7 2.4 Straw yield (q ha-1) Gurdaspur 23.8 61.3 72.2 84.2 69.7 72.9 75.1 4.9 13.6 32.5 55.4 56.7 57 56.9 55 0.28 Harvest index 0.417 0.402 0.389 0.375 0.409 0.382 0.389 0.018 0.475 0.473 0.474 0.472 0.473 0.474 0.474 NS AEN(kg grain kg-1 N) 29.2 22.9 19.8 14.7 11.5 25.3 3.1 19.9 29.3 22.4 18.2 15.3 31.0 0.21
(% of MRDCF) Gurdaspur
Rupnagar Gurdaspur
Rupnagar Gurdaspur Rupnagar
AEN= Agronomic Efficiency of Nitrogen
Gurdaspur site 150% CF treatment gave the lowest AEN (15.3 kg grain kg-1N). In general, use of CF resulted in better AEN at Rupnagar site. This can be ascribed to comparatively lower organic carbon level (Table 1). The grain yield response to fertilizer can also vary with the environment at the time of fertilizer application (Otteson et al., 2008).
Beyond 75 per cent MRDCF level, Rupnagar site gave higher net returns. This trend can be associated with higher straw yields at Gurdaspur site. CF levels beyond 67 per cent (state recommended dose) did not add significantly to the net returns.
Benefit-cost (B:C) Ratio Net Returns

A perusal of net returns yielded by various CF levels (Table 6) indicated that at both Gurdaspur and Rupnagar sites, MRDCF 100% treatment gave the highest net returns.
Table 6. Income parameters of various CF treatments Treatment CF Level (% of MRDCF) T1 (control) T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 LSD(0.05) 0 50 75 100 125 150 67 Net returns(Rs. ha-1) Gurdaspur 3261 40273 47263 54793 47560 45289 49370 3533 Rupnagar -4100 18919 47961 48367 48220 47688 47691 368 Gurdaspur 1.15 2.72 2.95 3.19 2.84 2.70 3.06 0.15 B:C Ratio Rupnagar 0.55 2.25 4.20 4.00 3.78 3.56 4.27 0.02
A comparison among the two sites shows that Gurdaspur site gave better B:C ratio than Rupnagar site below 67 per cent MRDCF level (Table 6). This difference did not result from grain yield difference but from higher
Customized Fertilizer Response on Wheat

straw yield across all the treatments at Gurdaspur site as well. Thus, this superiority in B:C ratio is of significance only under efficient economic utilization of straw. Accounting for statistical significance, the highest B:C ratio was recorded by the use of CF as per the Punjab state recommendations for N and P. Data on yield and yield attributes and economic parameters primarily suggest that using the CF at state recommended dose for N (120 kg ha-1, half basal, half top dressed once at Crown Root Initiation stage) and P (60kg P2O5 ha-1), equivalent to 67 per cent of the dose considered standard by the manufacturer, leads to the best results. This is closely followed by the use of CF at 75 per cent of the manufacturer-recommended level. Higher overall response of various yield and yield attributes to increasing CF levels at Rupnagar site can be clearly ascribed to the differences in soil fertility status at the two sites.
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(2004) Potassium nutrition of the rice-wheat cropping system. Adv. Agron. 81: 203-259. Cheema, H.S. (1990). A Computer Programming Package for Statistical Analysis Manual. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Olsen, S.R., Cole, C.V., Watanabe, F.S. and Dean L.A. (1954) Estimation of available phosphorus in soils by extraction with sodium bicarbonate. United States Department of Agriculture circular 939. Oscarson, P., Lundborg, T., Larsson, M. and Larson, C. M. (1995) Fate and effects on yield components of extra applications of nitrogen on spring wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) grown in solution culture. Plant Soil 175:179188. Otteson, B. N., Mergoum, M., Ransom, J. K. and Schatz, B. (2008) Tiller contribution to spring wheat yield under varying seeding and nitrogen management. Agron J. 100:406413. Pratt, P F. (1982) Potassium In: Methods of Soil Analysis. Part II. Chemical and Microbiological Properties. In: A.L. Page, R.H. Miller and D.R. Keeney (eds) American Society of Agronomy, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Madison, Wisconsin, USA, pp. 225-246. Ramkala, Dahiya, R.R., Dahiya, S.S. and Dalel-Singh (2008) Evaluation of N:P:Zn (10:50:1.5) complex fertilizer in rice-wheat cropping sequence. Indian J. Agric. Res. 42: 288-292. Walkley, A. and Black, J.A. (1934) An examination of the Degtjareff method of determining soil organic matter and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Sci. 37: 29-38.
REFERENCES
Bhardwaj, V., Yadav, V. and Chauhan, B.S. (2010) Effect of nitrogen application timings and varieties on growth and yield of wheat grown on raised beds. Arch. Agron. Soil Sci. 56: 211-222. Bijay-Singh, Yadvinder-Singh, Patricia-Imas and Xie Jian-Chang
Received 1 July, 2011; Accepted 4 March, 2012
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 76-81
Effect of Organic Nitrogen Management on Yield and Quality of Produce in RiceVegetable Based Cropping System
R. N. Meena* and Kalan Singh
Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi - 221 005 (U.P.), India *E-mail: ramnarayanbhu@gmail.com
Abstract: A field experiment was conducted during 2003-04 and 2004-05 at Research Farm, BHU, Varanasi, U.P. to study the effect of various sources (farm yard manure, vermicompost and poultry manure) and rates of organic manures (100%, 125% and 150% RND) on yield, quality of produce, soil quality and economics of rice-table pea-onion cropping sequence. Poultry manure @ 150% RND gave higher grain (57.96q ha-1) and straw yield (91.27q ha-1) in rice, green pod yield (70.72q ha-1) and straw yield (70.03q ha-1) of table pea and bulb (270.84q/ha) and haulm yield (35.13q ha-1) of onion. On an average, application of poultry manure resulted improved values regarding soil organic carbon, uptake of available NPK and soil biological properties compared to varying doses of vermicompost, FYM and over the control treatment. Physical properties of soil viz. bulk density and water stable aggregates were not affected due to nitrogen management through organic sources. Economic analysis revealed that the highest rice-grain equivalent yield and maximum net profit (Rs.1,30,799 ha-1) from rice-table pea-onion sequence were recorded with the application of 150% RND through poultry manure. Key Words: Rice, Table pea, Onion, Cropping sequence, Organic farming, System productivity, Economics
Green revolution of India has undoubtedly changed the scenario of food grain production which has been more than doubled during post green revolution period without any change in the cultivated area. This has resulted not only self-sufficiency in food grains production but also made the country food surplus. This increased level of production could be achieved only due to increased use of external agro-inputs mainly fertilizers. Use of these high analysis chemical fertilizers in imbalanced and indiscriminate manner had developed many problems like decline of soil organic matter, increase in salinity, sodicity, soil pollutant and hazards of pests and diseases (Chakraborti and Singh, 2004). Continuous use of inorganic fertilizers has not only brought loss of vital soil fauna and flora but also resulted in loss of secondary and micronutrients. In organic production systems, the soil health is maintained and improved through stimulating the activity of soil organisms and organic manures are also helpful in alleviating the increasing incidence or deficiency of secondary and micronutrients and is capable of sustaining crop productivity. Organic manures modifies the soil physical behaviour and increases the efficiency of applied nutrients (Pandey et al., 2007). Regular application of organics in amounts sufficient to meet the requirements of crops not only results in increasing crop yield but also improve soil fertility and organic matter content (Ramesh et al., 2008). Use of organic manures to meet the nutrient requirement of crops would be an inevitable practice in the years to come for sustainable agriculture hence, organic matter should be replenished
by adding organic manures. Therefore, the present study was conducted to find out the effect of various organic manures on yield, quality and nutrient uptake by ricevegetable based cropping system and to explore the possibility of improving the productivity, profitability and sustainability of the above sequence by supply of nutrients through organic source.

A field experiment was conducted during 2003-04 and 2004-05 at Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh with rice-tablepea-onion cropping sequence during rainy, winter and summer seasons. The soil was sandy clay loam in texture with 7.12 pH, 0.45% organic carbon and 180.5, 18.2 and 202.4 kg ha -1 available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, respectively. The experiment was carried out in randomized block design in fixed plots lay out replicated thrice consisting a set of ten treatment combinations involving three sources of organic manures viz. farm yard manure (FYM), vermicompost (VM) and poultry manure (PM) adopting 3 different rates i.e., 100%, 125% and 150% of recommended nitrogen dose (RND) and 100% RND through urea (control). The organic manures were applied as per their nutrient content on oven dry weight basis. The FYM, vermicompost and poultry manure contained 0.50, 2.30 and 2.80% N, 0.20, 0.75 and 2.20% P 2O 5 and 0.50, 1.23 and 1.30% K2O, respectively. Organic manures were applied as per treatment at sowing and mixed thoroughly in 15cm top soil layer. In control treatment, recommended dose of nitrogen
Management of Organic Nitrogen Nutrition in RiceVegetable Cropping

through urea was drilled 10cm deep and 5cm away from the seed or seedling. The cultivars of rice (Pusa Sugandha3), table pea (Early Apoorva) and onion (Pusa Red) were transplanted/sown at 2010cm, 3010cm and 2010cm, respectively. Protein content in rice and tablepea grain was estimated through NIR by taking whole grain under near infra-red waves (AOAC, 1995). Pungency (%) in onion was computed by Allyl-propyl-disulphide content in onion bulb determined as pyruvic acid and using formula suggested by Hort and Fisher (1970). The yield data were recorded and converted into rice-grain equivalent and system productivity was calculated on the basis of prevailing market prices of rice, table pea and onion. Economics of treatments were calculated on prevailing market price of yield and inputs during investigation period.
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best in enhancing straw yield and had 33.1 per cent higher straw yield compared with control in pooled analysis. Bulb and haulm yield of onion were affected significantly (Table 1). Use of FYM, VM and PM gave better bulb yield than the control. Increased application of organic manure alone, from 100 to 150% of the recommended dose of N, also increased bulb and haulm yield. Application of PM and VM brought significant improvement in bulb and haulm yield of onion over 100% RND through urea (control) irrespective of levels of manures. Application of 150% RND as PM recorded the maximum bulb and haulm yield of onion. However, superior values of bulb and haulm yield were recorded in order of PM>VM>FYM>control. It may thus be inferred that sustainability of rice- table pea-onion sequence production was not influenced by organic nitrogen nutrition and poultry manure among all organic sources used was proved most effective. It might be due to the fact that mineralized nutrient from these sources could sufficiently meet the nutritional requirement of the crops. Thus, higher rates over recommended nitrogen dose favourably influenced plant growth and development characters which ultimately resulted in higher yields.
Yield of Rice, Table pea and Onion

An increase in grain and straw yields of rice were recorded during both the years with increase in level of nitrogen from 100% recommended dose to 150% under all the three sources of organic manures (Table 1). Among the different sources of manures used, PM proved significantly superior followed by VC and FYM. Pooled analysis revealed that the maximum grain and straw yields i.e. 40.4 per cent and 44.4 per cent higher than control were recorded with PM applied @ 150% RND, which produced significantly greater yield response than other sources at all the levels of nitrogen application. However, during first year differences in straw yield were found non-significant. Grain and straw yield of rice behaved in similar manner and these might be attributed to better physical conditions of soil which provided congenial growing environment. Maximum reduction in rice yield was found when the crop was fertilized with 100% RND through urea. The green pod yield level of tablepea improved considerably with successive increment in rate of organic nitrogen nutrition though FYM levels were remained statistically at par. Incorporation of 150% RND as PM produced significantly higher green pod yield compared to other sources and their application rates and the increase was found to the extent of 70.1 per cent and 114.8 per cent higher over control treatment during first and second year, respectively. However, pooled data reflects that application of PM and VM @ 150% RND produced significantly higher green pod yield over their 100% RND only and were at part with 125% RND. Similarly superior values of table pea straw yields were recorded at higher levels of different sources for nitrogen nutrition. Poultry manure @ 150% RND was
Quality of Produce
There were no significant differences in parameters judged for quality of rice grain due to different treatments during both the years (Table 2). Protein content, protein yield and carbohydrate content in tablepea grain differed significantly due to various treatments and the highest values of these were noticed with PM treatments followed by VC, FYM and 100% RND through urea, respectively. Poultry manure applied @ 150% RND produced maximum protein content which was significantly superior over control, 100% and 125% RND as FYM during first year and to the control and 100% RND as FYM during second year of study. Rest all the treatments were found at par. Protein yield (452.10 and 458.01 kg ha-1) and carbohydrate content (59.93 and 60.18%) during both years were observed significantly higher than other treatments when PM applied @ 150% RND which was at par with PM @ 125% RND. Pungency percentage in onion was significantly higher with PM application and followed the order of PM>VM>FYM>control. Each successive increase in the level of organic nitrogen nutrition through different sources showed significant improvement in pungency per cent. The superior performance exhibited by PM in comparison to other sources and also better results obtained at higher RND may be explained with the fact it might have helped in improving the nutrients availability for a prolonged period and improved
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Table 1. Effect of organic nitrogen nutrition on the productivity of rice-high value crop based cropping sequence (q ha-1) Rice Straw Pooled -04 43.83 44.47 46.8 47.49 50.8 52 52.19 54.04 57.96 41.27 3.63 25.4 16.92 14.74 4.79 11.19 61.48 64.94 63.21 39.44 34.62 37.03 5.88 76.12 106.41 91.27 67.09 74.36 70.72 74.68 99.42 87.05 64.54 68.59 66.56 66.75 68.91 57.44 NS 74.51 90.7 82.61 63.69 65.69 64.69 66.44 72.43 85.9 79.16 62.99 64.42 63.71 64.82 62.82 63.14 65.06 71.15 47.76 14.07 69.23 81.72 75.48 59.31 60.3 59.81 63.11 62.07 68.2 81.09 74.64 49.99 59.3 54.65 62.67 61.53 62.1 62.59 63.83 64.77 65.9 70.03 52.6 8.78 64.74 78.84 71.72 43.58 58.33 50.95 61.89 61.21 61.55 64.59 77.89 71.06 40.98 54.8 47.89 60.21 60.89 60.55 64.23 71.79 68.27 40.51 51.92 46.21 59.95 53.2 56.57 05 04 05 04 05 04 05 2003 2004Pooled 20032004Pooled 20032004Pooled 20032004Green pod Straw Bulb Pooled 200304 13.78 21.87 22.95 250.46 258.8 254.63 257.46 261.03 259.24 262.42 262.02 262.22 264.54 265.55 265.05 266.3 266.12 266.21 270.54 271.14 270.84 234.54 238.05 14 19.72 236.3 11.7 23.29 24.87 27.54 31.23 32.31 35.82 10.27 8.87 Table pea Onion Haulm 200405 13.74 14.68 16.24 17.47 24.44 26.12 26.44 29.35 34.43 12.26 8.18 13.76 18.27 19.6 20.36 24.65 26.83 28.83 30.83 35.13 11.27 5.81 Pooled
Treatment
Grain 2004 -05
2003
-04
100% RND as FYM
46.79
40.86
238.94 239.68 239.31 245.94 244.76 245.35 249.81 251.47 250.64
125% RND as FYM
47.44
41.51
150% RND as FYM
48.72
44.89
100% RND as VM
49.56
45.43
125% RND as VM
50.32
50.96
150% RND as VM
50.64
51.12
100% RND as PM
52.88
54.07
R. N Meena and Kalan Singh
125% RND as PM
53.52
54.55
150% RND as PM
57.37
58.55
100% RND through urea 43.91 4.79
38.62
C.D. (0.05)
5.80
RND, recommended nitrogen dose; FYM, farmyard manure; VM, vermicompost; PM, poultry manure Charges of input used (Rs kg-1): Urea 5.00, FYM 0.50, VM 3.00, PM 3.00 Selling price (Rs kg-1) of organic produce: Rice grain 6.50, table pea pod 8.00, onion bulb 4.00, rice and table pea straw 1.00 Selling price (Rs kg-1 ) of inorganic produce: Rice grain 5.00, table pea pod 5.00, onion bulb 3.00, rice and table pea straw 0.50
Table 2. Effect of organic nitrogen nutrition on quality of rice-high value crop based cropping sequence Rice Milling (%) (%) 200304 59.81 59.86 60.26 60.28 60.36 60.45 60.60 60.69 61.20 59.69 NS NS NS NS NS NS 2.44 2.92 20.88 8.45 59.77 57.37 57.45 5.89 5.84 15.30 16.05 247.40 296.93 61.28 58.82 58.91 6.54 6.74 19.10 19.22 452.10 458.01 60.77 58.59 58.67 6.48 6.57 18.66 19.02 432.35 451.67 59.25 59.93 56.26 1.15 60.68 58.25 58.33 6.44 6.54 18.11 19.01 406.03 429.06 58.69 60.53 58.10 58.14 6.21 6.31 17.81 18.52 368.13 415.22 58.25 58.50 58.94 59.50 60.18 56.51 1.12 60.44 58.03 58.08 6.15 6.24 17.75 18.11 360.86 384.84 57.90 58.15 60.36 57.94 58.01 6.06 6.16 17.29 18.08 335.77 372.09 57.60 57.85 60.34 57.92 57.99 5.99 5.99 17.20 18.00 329.55 365.94 57.30 57.55 59.94 57.54 57.60 5.96 5.89 16.33 17.94 302.11 351.27 56.60 56.90 59.89 57.44 57.48 5.90 5.87 16.20 16.27 270.86 315.96 56.50 56.75 0.0039 0.0021 0.0044 0.0035 0.0048 0.0039 0.0049 0.0045 0.0059 0.0058 0.0061 0.0066 0.0062 0.0072 0.0071 0.0076 0.0076 0.0078 0.0017 0.0014 NS NS 05 04 05 04 05 04 05 04 05 04 05 04 05 2004200320042003200420032004200320042003200420032004200304 10.37 10.57 10.83 10.90 10.97 11.03 11.07 11.60 11.80 10.20 NS 05 grain (%) (%) (kg ha-1) (%) 200405 10.30 10.33 10.50 10.80 10.87 10.93 11.03 11.20 11.97 10.10 NS recovery content in content yield content (%) content (%) Head rice Protein Protein Protein Carbohydrate Pungency Carbohydrate Table pea Onion
Treatment
Hulling
(%)
2003-
2004-
04
100% RND as FYM
71.51
71.61
125% RND as FYM
71.69
71.79
150% RND as FYM
71.76
71.84
100% RND as VM
71.94
72.01
125% RND as VM
72.10
72.16
150% RND as VM
72.19
72.25
100% RND as PM
72.22
72.31
125% RND as PM
72.58
72.68
150% RND as PM NS
72.61
72.73
100% RND through urea 70.94
71.06
C.D. (0.05)
NS
Table 3. Parameters as influenced by organic nitrogen nutrition at the end of 2 years cycle of rice-high value crop based sequence Soil physical parameters Porosity (%) (%) 40.32 40.38 41.34 40.3 40.36 41.18 40.2 40.22 40.95 40.02 0.86 18.65 18.00 NS 18.32 18.04 18.5 18.2 0.48 0.49 0.5 0.52 0.54 0.4 0.12 18.01 0.47 18.2 0.46 18.18 0.45 18.01 0.44 (%) N 184.34 185.46 186.72 187.73 189.44 189.95 190.44 191.43 192.98 178.95 9.78 aggregates carbon P 24.43 24.61 25.44 26.52 27.82 28 28.42 28.84 29.43 22.44 0.56 K 154.41 154.87 155.44 157.42 158.84 160.42 161.72 162.43 164.12 152.44 8.94 62.82 63.63 66.92 72.34 77.94 78.65 79.54 80.44 82.45 41.85 22.5 23.03 24.00 25.31 27.94 28.63 29.45 32.11 37.82 11.49 33.73 34.74 35.43 36.25 37.44 43.18 46.94 54.46 58.23 33.44 Water stable Organic Soil chemical parameters Available nutrient (kg ha )
-1
Treatment
Soil biological parameters Bacteria (x103) Fungi (x103) Actinomycetes (x103)
Bulk
density
(g cc-1 )
100% RND as FYM
1.36
125% RND as FYM
1.37
150% RND as FYM
1.39
100% RND as VM
1.38
125% RND as VM
1.4
150% RND as VM
1.41
100% RND as PM
1.39
125% RND as PM
1.41
150% RND as PM
1.42
100% RND through urea
1.35
C.D. (0.05)
NS
79
80
R. N Meena and Kalan Singh

of 2-years cropping sequence due to supplementation of organic sources. Poultry manure applied @ 150% RND was best which lead into higher counts of bacteria (82.4510 3 ), fungi (37.8210 3 ) and actinomycetes (58.23103) closely followed by the treatments where PM was applied with reduced rates. The control had relatively lower values of soil microbial count than the organic treatments. The favourable effect of organics on soil biological properties is a proven fact which helped in providing ideal conditions and presumably increased the microbial activity because of the available high organic matter. Hati et al. (2001) and Shanmei et al. (2002) also reported favourable effect of organic manures on soil physical and biological properties.
physical condition of soil allowed better utilization of nutrients and root penetration of crops.
Soil Quality
Soil physical parameters viz. bulk density and water stable aggregates did not showed any profound effect due to addition of organic materials (Table 3). The values of chemical properties of soil like organic carbon, available N, P and K increased significantly from initial stage and over control treatment on the completion of 2-years cycle of ricetablepea-onion sequence. The maximum organic carbon build up was accured (0.54%) when 150% RND was supplied through PM (T4) while the least value (0.40%) was noticed with the 100% RND through urea. The organic carbon of the soil increased over its initial status (0.38%) under nitrogen supply through organic sources. The nutrient status of the experimental site was also affected significantly by the application of different organic manures alongwith their varying rates. Results clearly indicated improved fertility status of soil due to increased values of available N, P and K in all organic treatments over its initial value as well as control. Application of organic manures with increased rate enhanced soil fertility over their lower doses. At the end of 2-year sequence, 150% RND applied as PM maintained higher values of organic carbon and available N, P and K. Next best treatments in this respect were also found when PM applied with reduced rates of 125% and 100% RND, respectively. Continuous application of organic manures in sufficient quantities have been reported to improve the soil organic carbon and available N, P and K in soil thereby sustaining the soil health (Tiwari et al., 2002). Soil biological properties showed improvement in the soil microbial counts over its initial values at the end
System Productivity and Economics

Pooled data of 2-years revealed that the system productivity of rice-tablepea-onion sequence in terms of ricegrain equivalent yield was highest with the application of PM @ 150% RND than other treatments. In general the production of grain, pod and bulb of rice, tablepea and onion were higher with application of organic manures, respectively. Higher application rate of each manure augmented system productivity of which PM was best closely followed by VM. Pooled economic evaluation in terms of monetary return showed that all the organic nitrogen nutrition treatments gave higher net returns and benefit : cost ratio than control (Table 4), indicating that organic nitrogen management is a productive and remunerative practice while 100% RND through urea was not found economical. Onion gave maximum net profit followed by tablepea while rice cultivation in sequence was less profitable. In case of rice -tablepea-onion system, maximum
Table 4. Effect of organic nitrogen nutrition on rice grain equivalent yield (RGEY) and economics of ricehigh value crop based sequence (mean data of 2 years) Treatment Rice grain equivalent yield (RGEY) 100% RND as FYM 125% RND as FYM 150% RND as FYM 100% RND as VM 125% RND as VM 150% RND as VM 100% RND as PM 125% RND as PM 150% RND as PM 100% RND through urea 24797 25439 26375 27145 28394 29178 29492 29978 31167 22008 97749 96602 96846 114198 116451 116038 130517 128233 130799 49494 1.29 1.18 1.10 1.50 1.42 1.32 1.72 1.56 1.49 0.91 System Net return ( Rs ha )
-1
Net return (Rs ha-1) from component Benefit : cost ratio) Rice 4009 1704 284 7025 6260 4408 10877 9523 9493 3183 Table pea 29804 31046 33094 37108 40784 43530 45407 46515 49758 10109 Onion 63936 63852 63468 70065 69407 68100 74233 72195 71548 36202 crops in sequence

net return of Rs. 1, 30,799 ha-1 with 1.49 benefit: cost ratio was obtained when crops were fertilized with 150% RND through PM. It was followed by (Rs. 1, 30,517 ha-1 and 1.72 benefit: cost ratio) 100% RND applied as PM. The benefit: cost ratio reduced with increase in the rate of manure application is an indicative of the fact that additional productivity obtained due to increased manurial dose over RND and the value of additional product/ha were not proportionately increased. It was concluded that growing of rice-tablepea-onion sequence with organic nitrogen nutrition applied as 150% RND through PM could be beneficial for enhancing soil fertility and sustaining the system productivity.
81
Hati, K.M., Mandal, K.G., Mishra, A.K., Ghosh, P.K. and Acharya, C.L. (2001). Effect of irrigation regimes and nutrient management on soil water dynamics, evapo-transpiration and yield of wheat in vertisols. Indian J. Agricultural Sciences 71(9): 581-587. Hort, F.L. and Fisher, H.J. (1970). Determination of Pyruvic acid in dehydrated onion. In: Modern Food Analysis Springer Verlog, Berlin, Neidelberg, New York, pp. 433-434. Pandey, N., Verma, A.K., Anurag, and Tripathi, R.S. (2007). Integrated nutrient management in transplanted hybrid rice (Oryza sativa L.). Indian J. Agron. 52(1): 40-42. Ramesh, P., Panwar, N.R., Singh, A.B. and Ramana, S. (2008). Effect of organic manures on productivity, nutrient uptake and soil fertility of maize Linseed cropping system. Indian J. Agricultural Sciences 78(4): 351-354. Tiwari, A., Dwivedi, A.K. and Diskhit, P.R. 2002. Long term influence of organic and inorganic fertilization on soil fertility and productivity os soybean wheat system in a vertisols. J. Indian Society of Soil Science 50(4): 472-475.
REFERENCES
Chakarborti, Mandira and Singh, N.P. (2004). Bio-compost: a novel input to organic farming. Agrobios News Letter 2(8):14-15.
Received 8 October, 2011; Accepted 13 March, 2012
Indian J. Ecol. (2011) 38(2) : 82-85
Effect of Biofertilizers on Yield and Quality Traits of Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.)
N.S. Gill, J. S. Bal and D. S. Khurana*
Department of Vegetable Crop, Punjab Agricultural Unviersity, Ludhiana-141 004, India *E-mail:roopinder79@gmail.com
Abstract: The present investigation was carried out at Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Moga during 2007-2009. The experimental material comprised of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitala L.) cv. Golden Acre, grown in randomized block design and replicated thrice. Maximum head weight during 2008 was found in plots were Phosphorus Solublizing Bacteria (PSB) with recommended dose of Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium was applied, while in 2009, maximum head weight was observed where PSB + 75%P + recommended dose of N and K was applied. It was found that in cabbage maximum ratio of polar and equitorial diameter was obtained where Azotobactor with 75% recommended P and full dose of N and K was applied during 2008. But in 2009, maximum ratio was found in treatment where only recommended dose of N, P and K was applied. Maximum Ascorbic acid was obtained where PSB with 75% P and recommended dose of N and K was applied. Maximum chlorophyll content was obtained when Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrizae (VAM)+ 75% P + full dose of N and K was applied during 2008. But maximum chlorophyll content during 2009 was found where VAM with full doses of N, P and K was applied. Thus, it is concluded that all the treatments, which included biofertilizers gave better results than the treatments with only recommended dose of chemical fertilizers. Key Words: Biofertilizers, Quality traits, Cabbage, Yield
The consumption of chemical fertilizers was recorded more than 14.31 million tonnes during 2003-04. The green revolution with high use inorganic fertilizers has reached a plateau with falling dividends. The intensive use of inorganic fertilizers alone had polluted the soil, water and environment. The problem is further aggravated in most of the vegetable crops when the crop residues are seldom left in the fields for biological decomposition as a result organic matter is lost rapidly. The probable solution for the vegetable growers would be to follow the practices of integrated use of nutrients without compromising for production. It may not be possible to completely replace the chemical fertilizers. However, it seems to be possible to reduce the dose of inorganic fertilizers by substituting some part of nutrients from biofertilizers. For this, the dose of fertilizers need to be gradually reduced and be balanced by increasing the use of optimum quantity of organic manures and biofertilizers. Azotobacter and Azospirillium the strains of free living nitrogen bacteria can help to reduce the consumption of nitrogen. Likewise strains of Phosphorus Solublizing bacteria (PSB) can make available the phosphorus already present in the soil. The scientists have also advocated the inoculation of plants with Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrizae (VAM) which can help to proliferase tips of roots which can help to absorb phosphorus assimilates from the soil. Keeping in view these facts a study has been planned to compare the production potential of cabbage under the influence of various biofertilizers and farm yard manure (FYM) and to study the possibility of limiting the use of inorganic fertilizers by using biofertilizers and FYM.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The present investigation was carried out at Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Moga and Biochemistry Laboratory of the Department of Vegetable crops, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. The nursery of cabbage cv. Golden Acre was sown in second week of October, 2007 and 2008. Before sowing the seed was treated with Captan @ 3gm/ kg of seed. The thirty days old seedlings were transplanted in the second week of November. Before transplanting the seedlings were treated with Azotobacter, Azospirillium and PSB at the rate given below for one hour. Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrizae was applied as soil application before transplanting. FYM was incorporated into the soil on air dry weight basis. It contains 1.6% N, 1.5% P and 1.4% K.
Table 1. Different treatments of biofertilizers for experiment Biofertilizer Azotobactor Azosprillium PSB VAM FYM Dose 200 g acre
-1
Method of Application Seedling dip treatment -do-doSoil application Soil application
200 g acre-1 200 g acre-1 200 g acre-1 16 tonne acre-1
The present investigation was carried out in randomized block design (RBD) replicated thrice. There were eleven treatments including control (Table 1). Recommended dosages of chemical fertilizers as per package of practices for vegetable crops by Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana i.e., 125:60:60 kg ha-1 N, P and K, respectively were applied. The chemical fertilizers urea, single super phosphate and muriate of potash were
Biofertilizers and Cabbage

used as source of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium respectively. Half dose of urea and full dose of single super phosphate and muirate of potash was applied before transplanting. The remaining half dose of urea was applied four weeks after transplanting. The seedlings were transplanted on ridges by keeping the inter-row spacing of 60 cm and intra-row spacing of 45 cm. Irrigation was applied immediately after transplanting. Later on timely irrigations, cultural practices and sprays were done as per package and practices for vegetable crops to raise the healthy crop. The observations were recorded on plant height (cm), number of leaves, head weight (g), head shape, total yield (q/ha), ascorbic acid(mg/100g) and chlorophyll content (g/ g) The data was subjected to randomized block design analysis.
83
+ recommended P & K, Azotobactor + 75% N + recommended P & K but was at par with VAM + 75% P+ recommended N & K, PSB + recommended N, P & K. The lowest head weight per plant 215.09 g and 251.53 g during 2008-2009 respectively was obtained from control where neither chemical fertilizer nor biofertilizer was supplied. Improvement in yield with PSB might be due to better solublization of insoluble fixed P and better uptake of soluble P by the plant. Present study finds the support of Bahadur et al. (2004 and 2006). During 2008, maximum ascorbic acid 40.57 mg/g (Table 2) was obtained in treatment where PSB + 75% P + recommended dose of N and K was applied which was significantly higher than Azosprillium + 75% N + recommended P and K. But during 2009, maximum ascorbic acid 45.13 mg g-1 was found where Azotobactor + 75% N + recommended P and K was applied, which was significantly higher than all treatments except recommended N, P and K, PSB + recommended N, P and K and FYM. In both the years, minimum ascorbic acid 29.43 mg g-1 and 30.87 mg g-1 was found in 2008 and 2009 respectively in control. It was observed from the data that biofertilizers like Azotobactor, Azosprillium and PSB tend to increase the ascorbic acid. The maximum and significantly higher ascorbic acid content over other treatments were obtained from Azotobactor, Azosprillium and PSB. Ascorbic acid was found higher in treatments with biofertilizers. This might be due to physiological influence of Azospirillium on a number of enzymes (Sendur et al., 1998). The data in Table 2, revealed that maximum chlorophyll content 92 ug/g was found where VAM + 75% P + recommended dose of N and K was applies which was at par with treatment VAM + recommended N, P and K and was significantly higher than all treatments in 2008. During 2009, maximum chlorophyll content was found in plots where VAM + recommended N, P and K was applied which was at par with treatments Azospirillium + 75% N + recommended P & K and VAM + 75% P+ recommended N & K but was significantly higher than recommended N, P and K, Azospirillium + recommended N, P& K, PSB + 75% P + recommended N & K and control. Effect of biofertilizers on head shape is also presented in Table 1. Maximum ratio (1.00) was found where Azotobactor + 75% N + recommended dose of P and K was applied in 2008. During both years, there was no significant difference in head shape. During in 2009, lowest ratio 1.01 was found in control where neither chemical fertilizer nor biofertilizers were applied.

Maximum plant height of 24.87 cm in 2008 and 20.88 cm in 2009 was observed in plots (Table 1) where PSB with recommended dose of N, P & K was applied, which was at par with (Azospirillium + 75% N + recommended dose P & K, Azospirillium + recommended N, P & K, Azotobactor + 75% N + recommended P & K, Azotobactor + recommended N, P & K, VAM + 75% P + recommended N & K but significantly higher than recommended N, P & K, and Control. The beneficial effects of biofertilizers are well known as the increase in growth attributes could be because of certain growth promoting substances secreted by microbial inoculants and increased availability of nitrogen and phosphorus. Present study finds the support of Rather et al. (2003) who has reported that application of biofertilizers help to increase the growth attributes. In cabbage, maximum number of non-wrapper leaves 13.17 during 2008 and 13.13 2009 (Table 1) were found in plots where Azotobactor + recommended dose of N, P and K was applied. This was at par with other treatments and there was no significant difference among different treatments. Similar results were also reported by Verma et al. (1997). It was observed that in plots where biofertilizers was applied, produced more number of leaves. However, maximum head weight during 2008 was observed with PSB + recommended dose of N, P and K was applied which was significantly higher than recommended N, P and K, Azosprillium + 75% N + recommended P and K and but was as par with VAM + 75% P + recommended N and K, PSB + 75% P + recommended N and K. During 2009, maximum head weight was found in plot where PSB + 75% P + recommended N and K was applied which was significantly higher than treatments Azospirillium + 75% N
84
Table 1. Effect of biofertilizers on economic traits of cabbage Plant height (cm) 2008 19.33 24.38 22.29 24.52 23.80 24.33 21.40 23.28 24.87 17.32 16.18 2.31 2.37 2.34 N.S. N.S. N.S. 30.11 45.21 14.81 15.49 9.72 7.12 8.42 215.09 251.53 16.19 16.75 10.41 10.48 10.45 359.93 556.05 20.88 22.87 11.75 11.37 11.56 614.58 650.44 632.51 457.99 233.31 36.63 20.36 21.82 11.47 11.62 11.54 610.74 687.93 649.34 18.35 19.87 10.79 11.35 11.07 591.15 665.75 628.45 20.69 22.51 10.78 10.78 10.78 593.47 668.74 631.10 0.99 0.99 1.00 0.96 0.96 0.97 N.S. 19.37 21.59 12.34 12.40 12.37 522.92 437.15 480.03 0.98 19.84 22.18 13.17 13.13 13.15 515.49 621.09 568.29 1.00 20.27 21.28 11.71 12.21 11.96 516.17 633.43 574.80 0.98 1.04 1.12 1.04 1.02 1.04 1.04 1.02 1.09 1.02 N.S. 20.18 22.28 10.73 10.51 10.62 514.85 619.87 567.36 1.00 1.04 17.24 18.29 10.51 11.50 11.01 515.33 624.27 569.80 0.99 1.05 2009 Mean 2008 2009 Mean 2008 2009 Mean 2008 2009 Mean 1.02 1.02 1.01 1.06 1.01 1.01 1.02 1.02 0.99 1.03 1.00 N.S. Non-wrapper leaves Head weight (g) Head shape
Treatments
Recommended N, P, K
Azospirillium+75% N+Recommended P and K
Azospirillium+Recommended N, P, K
Azotobactor+75%N+Recommended P and K
Azotobactor+Recommended N, P and K
VAM+75%P+Recommeded N and K
VAM+Recommended N, P and K
PSB+75%P+Recommended N and K
PSB+Recommended N, P and K
FYM
Control
LSD(0.05)
*ratio of two axis
Table 2. Effect of biofertilizers on quality traits of cabbage Ascorbic acid (mg 100g-1) 2008 35.43 38.86 37.66 38.56 38.46 37.77 38.22 40.57 36.18 33.58 29.43 1.78 41.22 36.34 34.08 30.78 4.11 43.50 44.47 44.36 45.35 44.22 40.94 41.95 41.41 41.12 40.86 40.89 36.26 33.83 30.11 1.92 45.13 42.00 40.18 37.81 2009 Mean 2008 55.67 71.33 73.33 71.00 70.67 77.67 78.67 74.33 72.67 41.33 37.33 3.98 Chlorophyll content (u g-1) 2009 57.00 71.00 74.33 71.67 70.67 78.67 79.00 75.00 75.00 42.67 37.67 3.87 Mean 56.34 71.17 73.83 71.34 70.67 78.17 78.84 74.67 73.84 42.00 37.50 3.92 2008 189.72 183.45 190.03 185.28 195.69 202.12 209.24 214.85 210.12 176.43 93.87 16.07 Yield (q ha-1) 2009 198.79 195.23 204.15 200.07 203.95 208.43 217.88 220.71 208.88 184.15 98.19 13.24 Mean 194.26 189.34 197.09 192.67 199.82 205.27 213.56 217.78 209.50 180.29 96.003 14.49
N.S. Gill, J. S. Bal and D. S. Khurana
Treatments
Recommended N, P, K
Azospirillium+75% N+Recommended P and K
Azospirillium+Recommended N, P, K
Azotobactor+75%N+Recommended P and K
Azotobactor+Recommended N, P and K
VAM+75%P+Recommeded N and K
VAM+Recommended N, P and K
PSB+75%P+Recommended N and K
PSB+Recommended N, P and K
FYM
Control
LSD(0.05)
Biofertilizers and Cabbage

As shown in Table 2, maximum yield 214.85 q ha-1 during 2008 and 220.71 q ha-1 during 2009 was found where PSB + 75% P + recommended dose of N and K was applied, which was significantly higher than recommended N, P and K, Azosprillium + 75% N + recommended P and K, Azotobactor + 75% N + recommended P and K and FYM but was at par with treatments VAM + 75% P + recommended N and K and PSB + recommended N, P and K. Thus, it was concluded that the treatments, which included biofertilizers gave better cabbage production as well as quality over recommended dose of chemical fertilizers. The biofertilizers application helped to save 25 per cent N as well as P.
85
REFERENCES
Bahadur, A., Singh, J. and Singh, K.P. (2004) Response of cabbage to organic manures and biofertilizers. Indian J. Hort. 61(3) : 278-279. Bahadur, A., Singh, J., Singh, K.P., Upadhaya, A.K. and Rai, M. (2006) Effect of organic amendments and biofertilizers on growth, yield and quality attributes of Chinese cabbage (Brassica pekinensis). Indian J. Agric.Sci. 76(10): 596-598. Rather, S.A, Ahmed, M. and Chatto, M.A. (2003) Response of onion to microbial inoculation and chemical nitrogen. Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 32(3-4) : 270-271. Sendur, K.S., Natarjan, S. and Thamburj, S. (1998) Effect of organic and inorganic fertilizers on growth, yield and quality of tomato. S. Indian Hort. 46(3,4) : 203-205. Verma, T.S., Thakur, P.C. and Singh, A. (1997) Effect of biofertilizers on vegetable and seed yield of cabbage. Veg. Sci. 24(1) : 1-3.
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 86-91
Effect of Nitrogen Levels, Cultivars and Weed Control Treatments on Smothering Potential of Canola Gobhi Sarson (Brassica napus L.)
Lovreet Singh Shergill*, B. S. Gill and P. S. Chahal
Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana- 141 004, India *E-mail: lovreet.shergill@yahoo.co.in
Abstract: The field experiment was conducted during the rabi season of 2008-09 to study the effect of various nitrogen levels, cultivars and weed control treatments on smothering potential of canola gobhi sarson (Brassica napus L.). The crop registered significantly higher value of seed yield (19.29 q ha-1) with the application of 125 kg N ha-1, with further increase in nitrogen up to 150 and 175 kg N ha-1, the increase was non-significant. The weed population and dry matter accumulation data revealed decreasing trend with increasing level of nitrogen. Among the cultivars, the differences in weed population and dry matter accumulation were non-significant. There was no difference in competitive ability of both cultivars. Hyola PAC 401 yielded higher (20.21 q ha-1) because of its higher yield potential than GSC 6 (18.87 q ha-1). Hand weeding registered higher values of yield attributes viz. plant height, dry matter, LAI, primary and secondary branches plant-1, number of siliquae plant-1 which resulted in higher seed yield (20.67 q ha-1) as compared to unweeded control. Key Words: Smothering potential, Brassica napus, Canola, Gobhi sarson, Weed, Nitrogen
Canola (Brassica napus L.) is a genetically improved version of rapeseed and is low in both erucic acid and glucosinolates, which distinguish it from ordinary rapeseed. It is also called double zero (00) crop and swede rape. In irrigated agro-ecosystem, liberal use of irrigation and nitrogen application offer congenial environment for growth and development of weeds. Application of nitrogen may shift the competition in favor of crops against weeds. Increased crop vigour as a result of increased nutrient uptake may suppress the weeds due to shading (Mishra and Kurchania, 1999). Canola seed yield respond to nitrogen fertilizer applied at either sowing or bud stage, generally increasing with increased nitrogen upto 200 Kg ha-1 (Ramsey and Callinan, 1994). Per cent yield loss due to weeds decreases as we go for higher and higher doses of nitrogen. It was reported that per cent yield loss due to weeds was 14.3 per cent at 100 kg ha-1 nitrogen application, which was significantly lower as compared to no nitrogen application (Anon., 2001). Increasing costs of herbicide inputs in intensive crop production systems and incidence of herbicide resistance in weeds have renewed interest in exploiting crop competitiveness to reduce herbicide use. Variation in competitive ability against weeds exist not only among crop species, but among cultivars within species. So in this investigation, it is to be studied that how nitrogen levels would help in shifting the advantage of competition toward crop for different varieties of canola gobhi sarson. Hence, the current research is planned to explore the competitive potential of canola gobhi sarson against weeds and also whether it could be increased with nitrogen application.

Field investigation was carried out at the Students Research Farm, Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, during rabi 2008-09 on loamy sand soils with low organic carbon (0.28 %), low available nitrogen (243 kg ha -1 ), medium in available Phosphorus (20.8 kg ha-1) and potash (188 kg ha-1). The experiment comprised 16 treatments with three replications and was laid out in a split plot design with four levels of nitrogen (100, 125, 150 and 175 kg ha-1) in main plots and two cultivars (GSC 6 and Hyola PAC 401) and two weed control methods (weeded and unweeded) in subplots. The crop was sown on 24th October 2008 with hand drill, in rows 45 cm apart and seeds were covered with light soil. The plant to plant spacing of 10 cm was kept by thinning the crop. Nitrogen was applied through urea (46% N), whereas, phosphorus was applied through single super phosphate (16% P2O5), which is also source of sulphur (12% S). Hand weeding was done at 30 days after sowing (DAS) to the crop by using small hand tool. The first post sowing irrigation to the crop was given at 30 days after sowing. Second irrigation was applied at 50 DAS of crop, whereas, third and last irrigation was given at 75 days after sowing of crop. All recommended plant protection measures were adopted. To protect the crop from aphids and cabbage caterpillar alternate sprays of insecticides, Thiodon 35 EC (Endosulfan) @ 500 ml/acre was made at appropriate crop growth stages. Weed population and dry matter was recorded species wise. Weeds were counted by randomly throwing a quadrant of size 0.3 0.3 m in each plot and results expressed as
Weed Control Treatments on Smothering Potential of Canola Gobhi Sarson

number m-2, whereas, weeds collected from the plots for weed count were sun dried, followed by oven drying at 60 2C till constant weight was obtained. The samples were weighed and results expressed as g m-2. Species-wise dry matter accumulated by weeds was summed up to get the value for total of weed dry matter accumulation by all species. The plant height of five plants was measured from ground to tip of main shoot. Above ground parts of plants from each plot were removed from 30 cm row length, air dried and further dried in a hot air oven at 60 2C till constant weight was obtained. Dry weight was recorded at harvest and expressed as g m-2. The periodic leaf area index (LAI) and photosynthetic active radiation interception (PARI) of plants was recorded with sun scan canopy analyzer. The observations were taken at random from four places in each plot at 12:00 noon to 12:30 PM in a day. The number of primary, secondary branches and siliquae plant-1 of five plants was counted and average was worked out. One thousand seeds were taken from each plot for obtaining test weight. The crop was harvested manually when colour of stems, branches and siliquae changed from green to light yellow or brown. The harvested crop was tied in bundles, labeled and kept for sun drying for few days. Threshing was done manually separately for each plot and cleaned by proper winnowing. The entire produce from net plot was weighed and expressed in q ha-1.
87
population was reduced. Among cultivars, the difference in weed population was non-significant for all the species. However, weed population in GSC 6 was higher than Hyola PAC 401, this maybe due to spreading and comparatively quick growth habit of Hyola cultivar. At 120 days after sowing (DAS), the weeded treatments recorded significantly lower values of weed count (3.3, 4.2, 2.0, 3.7 and 2.7 m-2) for all the weeds viz., C. album, L. sativa, R. dentatus, P. minor and other respectively, as compared to that of unweeded control. All other interaction effects were found to be nonsignificant. Similar results were also reported by Singh (2006) in P. minor in varieties and weed control methods.
Effect on Weed Dry Matter

The data collected for dry matter accumulation by C. album at 120 DAS (Table 1) revealed that there were nonsignificant differences in dry matter accumulation among various nitrogen levels at all stages of observation. It was observed that the dry matter of weeds declined with subsequent increase in nitrogen levels. This may be due to the fact that with each increment in nitrogen level, the crop dry matter increased, which may have suppressed the weed growth. Hosseni et al. (2006) also reported that the addition of nitrogen fertilizer resulted in increasing plant leaf area index (LAI) and decreasing weed dry matter. Cultivar Hyola PAC 401 registered lower values of weed dry matter as compared to GSC 6, although the differences were nonsignificant. This may be due to greater suppression by the crop due to greater plant height, LAI and dry matter accumulation by the crop. Among weed control treatments, hand weeding treatment gave significantly lower values of weed dry matter accumulation over that of unweeded control at 120 DAS. Chauhan et al. (2005) reported that two hand weedings drastically reduced weed density and weed biomass. All other interaction effects were found nonsignificant.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Effect on Weed Population

Weed flora of the experimental field consisted of Chenopodium album, Lepidium sativa, Rumex dentatus, Phalaris minor, Avena ludoviciana, Gnaphalium purpureum, Melilotus alba, Spergulla arvensis, Anagallis arvensis and Medicago denticulata. The data on major weed population i.e., C. album, L. sativa, R. dentatus, P. minor are discussed in Table 1. The weed species which showed very less number per unit area in periodic weed counts were grouped under one heading i.e. other weed species. These weed species consist of A. ludoviciana, G. purpureum, M. alba, S. arvensis, A. arvensis and M. denticulata. The population data revealed that there were nonsignificant differences in weed count in all the weed species viz. C. album, L. sativa, R. dentatus, P. minor and other, among various levels of nitrogen at harvest, but a decreasing trend was observed with higher level of nitrogen except in C. album. This may be due to the increase in crop plant height and the crop covered inter-row spaces more rapidly which suppressed the weeds, and ultimately the weed
Effect on Crop
Increase in nitrogen application from 100 to 175 Kg ha-1 resulted in increase in plant height Maximum plant height (152.1 cm) was recorded with 175 Kg N ha-1, which was significantly higher as compared to 100 and 125 Kg N ha-1 but it was statistically at par with of 150 Kg N ha-1 (149.6 cm). The results are in conformity with Kumar et al. (2002). Application of 175 Kg N ha-1 gave significantly higher dry matter accumulation (819.4 g m-2) over 100 Kg N ha -1 application but was statistically at par with 150 Kg N ha-1 and 125 Kg N ha-1 at harvest. Similar results have been reported by Gill and Narang (1993) and Chauhan et al. (1992). Significantly higher LAI was recorded with 175 kg N
88
Table 1. Effect of different nitrogen levels, cultivars and weed control treatments on weed population and dry matter accumulation* Weed population m-1 at 120 DAS Weed dry matter accumulation (g m-2) at 120 DAS Other species
Treatment
Chenopodium album
6.21 (55.29) 6.06 (49.77) 5.69 (48.20) 5.17 (45.88) NS 6.53 (64.74) 5.04 (34.84) NS 4.16 (25.62) 7.39 (73.97) 2.64 1.07 1.22 (20.62) (52.98) 3.99 7.11 4.46 (25.19) 1.40 (4.87) (16.8) (8.34) 2.05 3.66 2.66 NS NS NS NS 2.11 (7.03) 8.46 (87.99) 1.92 (12.51) (28.96) (13.67) (41.21) 2.98 4.95 3.31 5.01 (12.97) (40.80) (19.87) (53.81) 3.06 5.82 3.81 5.55 3.64 (22.71) 3.20 (12.41) NS 2.37 (7.00) 4.47 (28.12) 1.47 NS NS NS NS NS (8.39) (26.33) (11.58) (40.28) (9.44) 2.42 4.57 3.11 4.66 2.81 1.37 (1.40) NS 1.74 (3.13) 1.71 (2.75) NS 1.31 (0.90) 2.14 (4.98) 0.54 (12.51) (30.28) (14.25) (42.37) (11.64) (2.82) 2.99 5.03 3.12 5.26 3.08 1.76 (12.05) (40.80) (17.61) (47.77) (15.81) (3.34) 3.15 5.91 3.73 5.57 3.45 1.81 2.42 (6.14) 2.35 (5.36) 2.30 (5.50) NS 2.55 (7.04) 2.22 (5.59) NS 1.59 (1.93) 3.18 (10.70) 0.57 (18.07) (42.13) (23.63) (59.62) (33.35) (4.19) (8.25) 3.53 6.02 4.27 5.63 4.35 1.96 2.47 2.81 (7.11) 2.24 (4.87) 1.91 (3.09) 1.82 (2.72) NS 2.23 (5.01) 2.16 (4.40) NS 1.85 (3.44) 2.55 (6.07) 0.59
Lepidium sativa
Rumex dentatus
Phalaris minor
Chenopodium album
Lepidium sativa
Rumex dentatus
Phalaris minor
Other species
Total dry matter accumulation 111.64 110.11 92.03 64.71 NS 110.84 78.41 NS 25.88 163.37 46.07
Nitrogen (Kg ha-1)
100
6.76
(62.09)
125
5.86
(65.33)
150
6.29
(54.2)
175
5.66
(34.75)
CD (0.05)
NS
Cultivar
GSC 6
6.61
(63.48)
Hyola PAC 401
5.68
(44.71)
CD (0.05)
NS
Lovreet Singh Shergill, B. S. Gill and P. S. Chahal
Weed control
Weeded
3.29
(15.75)
Unweeded
9.99
(92.44)
CD (0.05)
1.93
*Figures in the parentheses are means of original values.

ha-1 at 120 DAS, which was statistically at par with 150 kg N ha-1 application. The results are in conformity with results of Singh et al. (1997) who reported that addition of nitrogen fertilizer resulted in increasing plant LAI. The increase in nitrogen level increased the photosynthetic active radiation interception (PARI) but significantly higher PARI was recorded at 150 kg N ha-1 over 100 kg N ha-1 at 90 DAS. Further increase in nitrogen level upto 175 kg N ha-1 did not increase PARI significantly. This may be due to the fact that with increase in nitrogen level, there was increase in plant height and LAI. The primary branches plant-1 increased significantly upto 150 kg N ha-1 over 100 and kg N ha-1 but was statistically at par with that of 175 kg N ha-1. Application of 175 kg N ha -1 gave significantly higher secondary branches plant-1 over 100 kg N ha-1 but was statistically at par with 125 kg and 150 kg N ha-1. Data (Table 2) showed that nitrogen at 125 kg ha-1 recorded significantly higher number of siliquae plant-1 over 100 kg N ha-1 but at par with that of 150 kg and 175 kg N ha-1 application. Minhas et al. (2007) also reported increase in siliquae per plant with successive increments of nitrogen from 0 to 150 kg ha-1. Highest value (3.80 g) of test weight was recorded for nitrogen application of 175 kg ha -1 , though this was statistically at par with all other levels of nitrogen application. The seed yield increased with increase in nitrogen levels upto 175 kg ha-1 (Table 2). Maximum seed yield was obtained with the application of 175 kg N ha-1, which was significantly superior over 100 kg N ha-1 application, however it was statistically at par with 125 kg and 150 kg N ha-1. The seed yield increased by 8.9, 15.0 and 17.3 per cent with 125, 150 and 175 kg N ha-1 application over 100 kg N ha-1, respectively. Increase in N level from 125 to 150 Kg N ha-1 resulted in 5.6 per cent increase in seed yield, whereas, increase in N levels from 150 to 175 kg N ha-1 resulted only 2 per cent increase in seed yield. The increase in seed yield may be due to more number of branches, siliqua plant-1 and test weight with increase in levels of nitrogen. Nitrogen application increased seed yield and significant response was observed up to 125 kg ha-1 (Deol and Mahey, 2005). Similar results were also reported by Thakur et al. (2003). Among the two cultivars, Hyola PAC 401 recorded significantly higher plant height (153.3 cm) as compared to GSC 6 (142.6 cm) at harvest (Table 2). Similar results were also reported by Depar et al. (2005). Dry matter accumulation differed significantly in both cultivars. On the whole Hyola PAC 401 accumulated 10.6 per cent more dry matter over GSC 6 at harvest. At harvest, Hyola PAC 401 accumulated significantly higher dry matter (779.9 g m-2) as compared to GSC 6 (704.8 g m -2 ). Siddiqui and Mohammad (2004) also reported similar results for Hyola
89
Seed yield (q ha-1)
Table 2. Seed yield and yield contributing characters of canola gobhi sarson as influenced by different nitrogen levels, cultivars and weed control treatments
Test weight (g)
17.71 19.29 20.37 20.78 1.534
3.71 3.75 NS 211.3 219.4 7.57 7.4 8.8 0.39 4.8 5.2 0.15 88.5 94.7 3.70 2.27 3.31 0.14 704.8 779.9 38.20 142.6 153.3 3.33
18.87 20.21 0.703
Siliqua/ plant
3.68 3.70 3.77 3.80 NS
Secondary branches/plant
7.0 7.9 8.7 8.9 0.96
198.9 215.9 222.3 224.5 12.08
Primary branches/ plant
4.4 4.9 5.3 5.4 0.24
Photosynthetic active radiation (90 DAS)
85.4 90.9 94.1 96.0 5.77
Leaf area index (120 DAS)
2.21 2.74 3.02 3.19 0.22
Dry matter accumulation by crop (g m-1)
662.1 720.1 767.9 819.4 99.36
Plant height (cm)
143.3 147.0 149.6 152.1 2.57
Nitrogen (Kg ha-1) 100 125 150 175 CD (0.05) Cultivar GSC 6 Hyola PAC 401 CD (0.05) Weed control Weeded Unweeded CD (0.05)
Treatment
150.5 145.5 3.33
769.7 715.0 38.20
2.98 2.60 0.14
88.7 94.5 3.70
5.6 4.5 0.15
8.5 7.8 0.39
223.9 206.8 7.57
3.76 3.71 NS
20.67 18.41 0.703
90
Lovreet Singh Shergill, B. S. Gill and P. S. Chahal

weight in weed control treatments were found to be nonsignificant. Under weed control treatments viz. hand weeding and weedy check. Hand weeding produced significantly higher seed yield (20.67 q ha-1) as compared to unweeded control. It was 12.28 per cent higher for weeded plots as compared to unweeded control. It was due to the fact that in weeded plots there was more space and hence more branching and siliqua plant-1, which ultimately reflected in seed yield. The results are in conformity with results reported by Fathi et al. (2005) and Singh et al. (2001). There was no difference in competitive ability of both cultivars. Hyola PAC 401 yielded higher because of its higher yield potential than GSC 6. Application of 125 Kg N ha-1 produced significantly higher seed yield, with further increase in nitrogen, the increase was non-significant. Hand weeding treatment registered higher values of yield attributes which resulted in higher seed yield as compared to unweeded control.
PAC 401. Both cultivars differed significantly in leaf area. Hyola PAC 401 recorded significantly higher LAI as compared to GSC 6 at 120 DAS. Siddiqui and Mohammad (2004) also reported that Hyola PAC 401 produced the highest LAI. The PARI of Hyola PAC 401 was significantly higher over GSC 6 at 90 DAS. Hyola PAC 401 registered higher PARI because of greater plant height and LAI. This provided advantage to Hyola PAC 401 as compared to GSC 6 in suppressing weeds. Hyola PAC 401 recorded significantly higher number of primary branches plant-1 (5.20) as compared to GSC 6 cultivar (4.80). Thakur et al. (2005) also reported similar trend with increase in nitrogen levels and among varieties. Hyola PAC 401 recorded significantly higher number of secondary branches plant-1(8.81) and siliquae plant-1 as compared to GSC 6 (7.44). Kumar et al. (2002) also reported similar trend. The differences in test weight were found to be non-significant among both the varieties. Hyola PAC 401 proved more competent cultivar which produced seed yield of 20.21 q ha -1 and it was significantly superior over GSC 6, yielding 18.87 q ha-1. Hyola cultivar recorded 7.1 per cent higher seed yield over GSC 6. Higher seed yield recorded in Hyola PAC 401 was due to higher LAI, more number of branches, siliqua plant-1 and there was no difference in competitive ability of both cultivars.
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2001) Proceedings of the Australian Agronomy Conference. Australian Society of Agron. Chauhan, A. K., Singh, M. and Dadhwal, K. S. (1992) Effect of nitrogen level and row spacing on performance of rape (Brassica napus). Indian J. Agron. 37(4): 851-853. Chauhan, Y. S., Bhargava, M. K. and Jain, V. K. (2005) Weed management in Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L.). Indian J. Agron. 50(2): 149-151. Deol, K. S. and Mahey, R. K. (2005) Response of gobhi sarson (Brassica napus subsp. oleifera var annua) to transplanting methods and nitrogen. Environ. Ecol. 23(4): 723-725. Depar, M. S., Soomro, N. A., Usmanikhail, M. U., Memon, G. R. and Baloch, F. M. (2005) Comparative study of Brassica species under different fertility levels. Indus J. Plant Sci. 4(4): 467473. Fathi, G. (2005) Integrated weed management in canola (Brassica napus L). Turkish J. Field Crops 10(2): 57-63. Gill, M. S. and Narang, R. S. (1993) Yield analysis in gobhi sarson (Brassica napus subsp. oleifera var. annua) to irrigation and nitrogen. Indian J. Agron. 38(2): 257-265. Hosseini, N. M., Alizadeh, H. M. and Ahmadi, H. M. (2006) Effects of plant density and nitrogen rates on the competitive ability of canola ( Brassica napus L.) against weeds. J. Agric. Sci. Tech. 8: 281-291. Kumar, R., Singh, D. and Singh, H. (2002) Effect of nitrogen and sowing dates on productivity of Brassica species. Indian J. Agron. 47(3): 411-417. Minhas, K. S., Rajinderpal and Brar, R. S. (2007) Effect of nitrogen application on transplanted hybrid gobhi sarson (Brassica napus L.) in relation to age of seedlings. Envrion. Ecol. 25: 291-294. Mishra, J. S. and Kurchania, S. P. (1999) Effect of nitrogen levels, planting geometry and herbicides on weed growth and yield of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea (L) Czern. and Coss.). Indian J. Weed Sci. 31: 187-190.
Effect of Weed Control Methods

Among weed control treatments hand weeding showed significantly higher plant height. Maximum plant height of 150.5 cm was observed in weeded plot treatment and minimum of 145.5 cm in unweeded control treatment at harvest. Dry matter accumulation, LAI, was significantly higher in one hand weeding as compared to unweeded control. Weeded plots recorded 7.65 per cent higher dry matter over unweeded control. Mishra and Kurchania (1999) reported that with increase in nitrogen levels there was substantial increase in crop biomass under hand weeded plots as compared to weedy plots. Unweeded control treatment intercepted significantly more solar radiation as compared to hand weeded treatment at 90 DAS. The unweeded treatment intercepted more light because of presence of weeds in the inter row spaces. Similar results were reported by Singh (2006) for varieties and weed control methods. All other interaction effects were found to be nonsignificant. Among weed control treatments, weeded plots recorded significantly higher value of primary (5.6), secondary branches plant-1 (8.5), siliqua plant-1 (223.9) as compared to unweeded control (4.5, 7.8 and 206.8, respectively). This may be due to the weeds interference in the unweeded control treatments. The differences in test

Ramsey, B. R. and Callinan, A. P. L. (1994) Effects of nitrogen fertilizer on canola production in north central Victoria. Australian J. Expt. Agric. 34(6): 789-796. Siddiqui, M. H. and Mohammad, F. (2004) Physio-morphological analysis of rapeseed-mustard cultivars. Indian J. Pl. Physiol. 9: 283-287. Singh, H., Singh, B. P. and Prasad, H. (2001) Weed management in Brassica species. Indian J. Agron. 46(3): 533-537. Singh, S. (2006) Competitive ability of Brassica genotypes against Phalaris minor and other weeds as influenced by date of
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sowing. M.Sc. Thesis, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India. Thakur, K. S., Kumar, A. and Manuja, S. (2003) Effect of nitrogen fertilization on productivity and nitrogen balance in soil in gobhi sarson (Brassica napus ) based crop sequences. Indian J. Agron. 48(3): 162-163. Thakur, K. S., Kumar, A. and Manuja, S. (2005) Performance of promising varieties of gobhi sarson ( Brassica napus) at different nitrogen levels. Indian J. Agron. 50(1): 67-69.
Received 24 May, 2011; Accepted 15 October, 2011
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 92-97
Vertical Distribution of Readily and Slowly Available Potassium in a Typic Haplustept under Different Cropping Sequences
H.S. Jassal*, Raj Kumar, Kuldip Singh and N.S. Dhillon
Department of Soils Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, India *E-mail: hsjassal@pau.edu
Abstract: Vertical distribution of different forms of potassium in a soil under long-term (34 years) field experiment of paddy-wheat, maizewheat and arhar-wheat cropping sequences were studied. The soils of experimental site were found to be low to medium in available K and and high in non-exchangeable K. The exchangeable K and non-exchangeable K followed almost similar pattern as followed by available K and HNO3 extractable K respectively with depth suggesting their close association. The fertilizer treated plots were found to be relatively higher in different K fractions compared to the control plots in all the cropping sequences. The control and fertilized plots under paddy-wheat, maize-wheat and arhar-wheat sequences showed increase in non-exchangeable K within a half-meter depth. The water soluble K significantly and positively correlated with organic matter (r = 0.48**) whereas the exchangeable K had positive but nonsignificant relationship with clay due to its low content. The exchangeable and non-exchaneable K has shown their affinity with two different sources, the former more with clay fraction whereas later more with silt fraction. As compared to paddy-wheat and maizewheat sequences, relatively higher depletion of potential K reserve from the surface horizon (0-24 cm) in arhar-wheat may be due to lower root biomass addition in the latter. Key Words: Soil properties, Potassium fractions, Correlation, Cropping sequences
The intensive cropping and adoption of high yielding varieites in the past several decades has caused imbalance of several primary nutrients in the alluvial soils of Punjab (Singh and Singh, 2001). Although, the soils of Punjab are rich in potassium because of dominance of K bearing minerals, but show overall negative input-output balance with respect to K. Potassium uptake and removal by crops is usually of the order of or greater than N removal, and depends on crops and cropping sequence, K reserves and clay mineralogy of soils (Kaur and Benipal, 2006). It has been reported that continuous cropping without potassium applicaiton appreciably decreases the available K content whereas regular incorporation of potassium influences its availability to varying extent (Brar et al. , 2008). The replenishment of K nutrient removed by crops, thus, must be to the extent that it makes the system sustainable for intensive cropping. The present investigation is aimed to study the readily and slowly available forms of K and their distribution pattern in the soils under the different cropping sequences.
arhar-wheat. The field under each cropping sequence was differentiated into two plots one representng absolute control and other fertilized one. No fertilizers were applied to the control plots whereas fertilized plots received nitrogen and phosphorus at the rate of 125 per cent and potassium at the rate of 100 per cent of recommended doses of respective crops. A total of six representative profiles (P1 to P6), two profiles from a cropping sequence (one from absolute control and one from fertilized plot), were exposed for the present sudy. The soil samples were collected from different horizons of the representative profiles from the control and fertilized plots of three cropping sequences, i.e. paddy-wheat, maize-wheat and arhar-wheat. The soil samples were dried and ground for subsequent analyzed for physical and chemical properties such as particle size distribution, organic carbon content, pH, electrical conductance and CaCO 3 content following standard procedures (Soil Conservation Service, 1972) Water-soluble and 1N ammonium acetate extractable K (1:5 soil extracted ratio) were estimated as per the method given by Jackson (1967). Exchangebale K content was calculated by subtracting water soluble K from 1N ammonium acetate extractable K (avalable K). Potassium extractable in 1N boiling HNO3 was estimated according to the method of Pratt (1965). Non-exchangeable K was obtained by subtracting available K from 1N boiling HNO3 extractable K. Total K in soil samples was determined in HF-HCIO4 digest. The amount of K in mineral lattice was estimated by subtracting 1N boiling HNO3 extractable K from

A loamy sand/ sandy loam soils from the experimental field of Department of Soils, Punjab Agricultural Unviersity, Ludhiana was studied for vertical distribution of different forms of potassium. The soils were under long-term field experimentation, which started in seventies following cropping sequences of paddy-wheat, maize-wheat and
Distribution of Available K in different Cropping Sequences

the total soil K content. Potassium content in all the extracts was determined by a flame photometer. Simple correclation coefficient between physico-chemical properties and K forms were worked out as per the statistical methods outlined by Gomez and Gomez (1984).
93
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Physical and Chemical Characteristics

The physical and chemical characteristics of soil samples collected from various profiles under different cropping sequences are summarized in Table 1. The particle size distribution data revealed highest content of sand (61.2 to 77.5%) followed by silt (18.5 to 39.5%) and clay (1.8 to 5.8%). The texture of the soil is sandy loam but also crosses to marginally loamy sand in PI and P6 soils and in surface horizons of P3 and P4 soils. The pH of the soils is nearly neutral ranging from 6.9 to 7.9 (wt. mean) corroborating the absence of carbonates in the profiles. The surface horizon had relatively lower pH compared subsurface horizons suggesting acids produced due to root respiration and decomposition organic matter. The soils under different cropping sequences showed conspicuous decrease in pH in fertilized plots as compared to control plots in all the cropping sequences. Singh et at. (2006) have also reported decrease of pH in soils with application of fertilizers in a long-term experiment. Electrical conductivity value remained well below the critical limit of 0.80 dS m-1 indicating non-saline nature of the soils. The surface horizon had more EC than immediate subsurface horizon suggesting salts accumulation at surface soil. Different cropping sequences have not shown any significant influence on organic carbon content of the soils. Organic carbon content ranges from 0.31 to 0.41 per cent in surface
horizons and 0.05 to 0.16 per cent in subsurface horizons. The soils are almost free of -calcium carbonate except for minor presence at surface horizons of P3 soil. The uninterrupted irrigation of the field for long period resulted in leaching calcium carbonate to lower depths. The soils of the experimental farm were classified as coarse loamy, mixed hyperthermic family of Typic Haplustepts following the criteria of Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1999).
Distribution of Readily Available Potassium

The water soluble potassium ranged from 5.0 to 24.5 mg kg-1 with an average weighted mean of 12.2 mg kg-1 in different profiles (Table 2). The depth-wise distribution of water soluble K in different cropping sequences was generally decreasing with depth in both control and fertilized plots. Relatively more concentration of water soluble K at or near the surface suggests its dynamic nature which appears to be associated with phytocyc1ing, capillary rise of water and effect of irrigation which return substantial K in surface horizon. Dhaliwal et at. (2004) observed Gurdaspur and Dhar soils low in water soluble K on account of exhaustive rice-wheat system and better leaching condition of the area. The exchangeable K ranged from 5.5 to 61.0 mg kg-1 with an average weighted mean of 25.4 mg kg-1 in different profiles (Table 2). The exchangeable K content was highest in soils of arhar-wheat and lowest in maize-wheat sequence. The surface horizon of soils (control plots) under paddy-wheat and arhar-wheat showed relatively lower amounts of exchangeable K than immediate subsurface horizon suggesting some depletion. However soils receiving K fertilization showed relatively higher in exchangeable K in surface horizon than underlying horizon in all the cropping sequences. No specific trend of
Table 1. Important physico-chemical properties* of the soils of different cropping sequence Sand(%) 74.5 (71.7-76.6) 70.7 (61.2-75.5) 70.7 (67.1-77.5) 67.8 (62.6-73.2) 73.1 (70.4-74.5) 75.3 (74.6-77.3) SIlt (%) 22.5 (20.0-244.9) 24.9 (19.3-34.0) 26.2 (20.3-39.5) 28.6 (24.4-32.8) 22.2 (20.0-25.2) 21.2 (18.5-22.6) Clay (%) 3.0 (2.8-3.4) 4.4 (3.0-5.6) 3.1 (1.8-4.6) 3.6 (2.4-4.8) 4.7 (4.0 (4.0-5.8) 3.5 (2.8-4.4) pH (1:2) 7.6 (7.2-8.5) 7.2 (6.7-7.4) 7.9 (7.8-8.3) 6.9 (6.5-7.0) 7.8 (7.4-8.3) 7.5 (7.0-7.9) EC (dS/m) 0.06 (0.05-0.07) 0.05 (0.04-.06) 0.07 (0.05-0.10) 0.06 (0.05-0.08) 0.06 (0.05-0.08) 0.05 (0.04-0.07) O C (%) 0.14 (0.05-0.41) 0.12 (0.05-0.32) 0.15 (0.09-0.32) 0.15 (0.10-0.31) 0.14 (0.08-0.34) 0.14 (0.08-0.33)
Profile 1, Paddy-Wheat (control) Profile 2, Paddy-Wheat (fertilized) Profile 3, Maize-Wheat (control) Profile 4, Maize-Wheat (fertilized) Profile 5, Arhar-Wheat (control) Profile 6, Arhar-Wheat (fertilized) * Weighted mean (figures in parentheses indicate range)
94
Table 2. Vertical distribution of K fractions in the soils under different cropping sequences Available - K (mg kg-1) - K (mg kg-1) Control Profile 1, Paddy-Wheat 29.5 61.0 30.5 12.5 26.0 26.5 Profile 3, Maize-Wheat 13.5 7.0 5.5 21.5 22.5 14.7 Profile 5, Arhar-Wheat 17.0 46.5 36.0 37.5 35.0 35.5 43.4 1879.8 40.0 1880.0 42.5 2277.5 45.0 2155.0 55.0 1465.0 1520 2200 2320 1920 1923 30.0 1130-0 1160 16.5 17.0 19.5 14.5 16.5 17.1 51.8 38.5 15.3 21.3 33.3 31.1 26.4 1871.2 1898 30.0 1850.0 1880 32.5 2687.5 2720 15.5 11.0 16.3 17.5 1862.5 1880 12.0 20.0 1300.0 1320 24.5 30.0 1210.0 1240 22.0 19.5 7.0 17.5 24.0 29.0 20.2 35.7 1542.3 1578 10.8 20.4 32.5 1807.5 1840 10.0 20.3 2.0 1620.0 1640 10.0 19.3 37.5 1282.5 1320 11.5 14.3 70.0 1610.0 1680 13.5 28.0 41.5 25.8 29.3 30.3 31.2 Profile 4, Maize-Wheat 41.5 31.5 29.5 39.5 40.0 36.5 Profile 6, Arhar-Wheat 68.3 55.5 34.8 35.8 49.8 48.2 1531.7 2224.5 2605.2 2684.2 2510.2 2414.5 1600 2280 2640 2720 2560 2463 1238.5 1768.5 200.5 2000.5 3400.0 2146.6 1280 1800 2040 2040 3440 2183 52.5 1347.5 1400 11.0 29.3 40.3 Fertilized Profile 2, Paddy-Wheat 1679.7 1638.5 1854.2 1650.7 1529.7 1677.8 1720 1680 1880 1680 1560 17.09 - K (mg kg-1) exchangeable K (mg kg-1) soluble - K (mg kg-1) - K (mg kg-1) Non HNO3 Water Exchangeable Available Non exchangeable - K (mg kg-1) HNO3- K (mg kg-1)
Water soluble Exchangeable - K (mg kg-1)
- K (mg kg-1)
0-18
23.0
18-33
9.0
33-69
7.0
69-119
7.5
119-149
6.5
Wt. mean
9.2
0-22
16.5
22-45
13.0
45-73
12.0
73-108
11.0
108-138
7.5
Wt. mean
11.6
0-24
13.0
H.S. Jassal, Raj Kumar, Kuldip Singh and N.S. Dhillon
24-49
8.5
49-81
9.0
81-116
5.0
116-146
5.0
Wt. mean
7.9
* and ** Significant at 5% and 1% level of significance, respectively.

exchangeable K with depth, however, was observed in the soils. The available K ranged from 17.5 to 70.0 mg kg-1 with an average weighted mean of 37.7 mg kg-1 in different profiles (Table 2). The water soluble K contributed to the extent of 12 to 67 per cent (average 32 %) and the exchangeable K to the extent of 33 to 88 per cent (average 68%) towards the available K. The depth-wise distribution pattern of available K was almost similar to exchangeable potassium showing no specific trend with depth. Considering the fertility index of available K less than 51 mg kg-1 as low, 51 to 124 mg kg-1 as medium and more than 124 mg kg-1 as high, the soils (surface horizon) under all cropping sequences are low to medium in available K. The surface horizon of fertilized plots showed relatively more available K compared to control plots, except in paddywheat sequence. Amongst the different cropping sequences, unfertilized surface horizon showed higher depletion of available K as compared to immediate subsurface horizon in arhar-wheat, and this trend was not followed by paddy-wheat cropping sequence, which is considered to be more exhaustive for K. This may be due to addition of K from irrigation water in paddy-wheat sequence. The maize-wheat sequence, on the other hand, showed some available K built-up in the surface horizon probably due to its lower uptake and more recycling/addition from organic residue. Normally, the quantity of nutrients removed by paddy-wheat from soils exceeded the other two cropping sequences. Being water soluble, exchangeable and available K are very dynamic forms and undergo rapid change with irrigation, salts and organic matter accumulation, therefore these forms may not serve a reliable indicator of K depletion in soils.
95
compared to subsurface horizon in the soils of all cropping sequence except in fertilized plot of paddy-wheat. The soil of all the cropping sequences (control and fertilized) showed increase in non-exchangeable K to a depth of 50 cm indicating the depletion of soil reserves. Relative to the immediate sub-surface horizon, the surface horizon of the control plot of arhar-wheat showed maximum depletion (335 K mg kg-1), followed by paddy-wheat (262.5 K mg kg-1) and maize-wheat (90 K mg kg-1). The boiling 1N HNO3 extractale K ranged from 1160 to 3440 mg kg-1 (Table 2) with an average weighted mean of 1855 mg kg-1. Almost similar depth distribution pattern of non-exchangeable K and HNO3 extractable K indicated major contribution of former in the make up of later. According to critical limit of K availability as 655 mg kg-1 of HNO3 K (Brar and Sekhon, 1976), the soils under study have been rated as high for in HNO3 extractable K. The surface horizon of the soils (except profile P2) showed relatively lower content of HNO3 K than the subsurface horizons. The lower content of HNO3 K in surface horizon might be due to the continuous leachign of K and uptake by crops released from non-exchangeable part to compensate the loss of water soluble and exchangeable K (Brar et al., 2008)
Correlation Between Soil Properties and K Fractions

The correlation coefficient between soil properties and K fractions (Table 3) indicated water soluble K significantly and positively correlated with organic carbon (r=0.48**) suggesting contribution from root biomass, but significantly and negatively correlated with pH (r=-0.49**) possibly due to increasing stability of K minerals with higher pH (Kumar et al., 2006). The exchangeable K had positive but nonsignificant relationship with clay probably due to vey low content and low exchange capacity of the later in these soils (Table 3). The effect of organic carbon on available K was, therefore, more (r=0.28) as compared to clay content (r=0.05). The non-exchangeable K and HNO3 extractable K showed significant positive correlation with silt fraction
Distribution of Slowly Available Potassium

The non-exchangeable K ranged from 1130.0 to 3400.0 mg kg-1 with an average weighted mean of 1816.9 mg kg-1 (Table 2). Unlike the water soluble, exchangeable and available K forms, the non-exchangeable K invariably showed relatively lower content at the surface horizon
Table 3. Correlation coefficient among soil properties and K fractions Sand Water soluble Exch.-K Avail.-K Non-exch.-K HNO3-K 0.0114 0.1044 0.1105 -0.2678 -0.2651 SIlt 0.0269 -0.1795 -0.1719 0.2995* 0.2954* Clay pH EC 0.0967 0.0635 0.0268 OC 0.4799** 0.0900 0.2785 -0.2318 0.1544 -0.0801 -0.0765 0.9253** 0.0401 0.0611 0.0095 0.0323 0.9997** WS-K Exch-K Avail-K Non-ExchK -0.2235 -0.4880** 0.1306 0.0455 0.2105 0.2115 0.1271 -0.0611 0.0743 0.0729
-0.3610* -0.3287* -0.3602* -0.3223*
* Significant at 5% level of significance, ** Significant at 1% level of significance
96
H.S. Jassal, Raj Kumar, Kuldip Singh and N.S. Dhillon

status of soils under continuous cropping and receiving no K applications (Talukdar et al., 1992). A perusal of non-exchangeable K and HNO3 extractable K data revealed relatively lower content of K in control plots than in the fertilized plots suggesting mining of potential K reserve from the soils. The results indicate that the surface horizon of soil under arhar-wheat (control) had the lowest contents of non-exchangeable K and HN03 K, whereas, the soils under paddy-wheat sequence (control) have highest contents. In the control plots, the non-exchangeable K content in surface horizon compared to immediate subsurface horizon decreased to 335 mg kg-1 in arharwheat, 262.5 mg kg-1 in paddy wheat and 90 mg kg-1 in maize-wheat sequences. The similar trend was observed for HN0 3 extractable K in these cropping sequences. Relatively lower content of non-exchangeable K in the surface horizon of arhar-wheat sequence compared to other sequences may be due higher removal and poor recycling of K (Blaise et al., 2005). Although paddy removes more K than arhar, however, excessive irrigation returns more K in paddy.
(r=0.30*) and non-significant (r=0.21) with clay fraction suggesting appreciable amounts of potash rich minerals such as muscovite, biotite and feldspars in silt and illite in clay fractions. The correlation coefficient determined amongst different forms of K recorded significant positive correlation (r=0.92**) between exchangeable K and available K and (r=0.99**) between non-exchangeable K and HN0 3 extractable K. Non-significant positive correlation between exchangeable and non-exchangeable K (r=0.04) suggested their association with different sources i.e., exchangeable K associated more with illite in clay fraction whereas nonexchangeable K more with muscovite, biotite and feldspars in silt fraction.
Effect of Cropping Sequence and Fertilization

In all the cropping sequences, relatively higher content of water soluble K was observed in the fertilized plot than in control plot of respective sequence (Table 2). The control plot under arhar-wheat sequence showed lowest water soluble K, whereas, highest content (wt. mean = 11.6 mg kg -1 ) was recorded in maize-wheat sequence. Among different cropping sequences (control), the surface horizon of arhar-wheat had the lowest content of water soluble K whereas paddy-wheat had the highest. Relatively higher content of water soluble K at surface suggest that this form is little affected by crop use. Exchangeable K content was relatively higher in the surface horizons of fertilized plots compared to control plots suggesting some build-up in the surface horizon on addition of K. The paddy-wheat and arharwheat sequences (control) showed some depletion of exchangeable K in the surface horizon compared to underlying horizon whereas there was accumulation of K in maize-wheat (control) sequence. The soils without K application may not exhibit large-scale depletion of exchangeable K as it replenishes from non-exchangeable pool or organic matter recycling (Talukdar et al., 1992). Except under paddy-wheat sequence, all other soils in respective cropping sequences were relatively higher in available K content in fertilized plot than in control. Under the control condition, the surface horizon showed relatively higher depletion of available K in arhar-wheat and lower in paddy-wheat sequence whereas maize-wheat had some accumulation (Table 2). The exchangeable and available K fractions might not be the good indicators of K depletion unless supplemented with other K fractions as the soils having similar amount of available K release different amounts of K depending on their non-exchangeable K content (Prakash and Siddaramappa, 2001). Furthermore, there are contradictory reports on changes in available K
REFERENCES
Blaise, D., Bonde, A.N. and Chaudhary, R.S. (2005) Nutrient uptake and balance of cotton+pigeonpea strip intercropping on rainfed Vertisols of central India. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 73: 135145. Brar, M.S. and Sekhon, G.S. (1976) Potassium fixation and response of wheat to applied potassium in Punjab soils. J. Res., Punjab Agric. Univ. 13: 136-139. Brar, N.K., Benipal, D.S. and Brar, B.S. (2008) Potassium release kinetics in soils of a long-term fertilizer experiment. Indian J. Ecol. 35: 9-15. Dhaliwal, A.K., Gupta, R.K., Yadvinder-Singh, Sharma, B.D. and Bijay-Singh (2004) Distribution of different forms of potassium in benchmark soil series under rice-wheat cropping system in Punjab. J. Potassium Res. 20: 12-21. Gomez, K.A. and Gomez, A.A. (1984) Statistical Procedures for Agricultural Research, 2nd Edition. John Wile and Sons, New York. Jackson, M.L. (1967) Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, Bombay. Kaur, N. and Benipal, D.S. (2006) Effect of crop residue and farmyard manure on forms on soils of long term fertility experiment. Indian J. Crop Sci. 1: 161-164. Kumar, R. Hundal, H.S. and Benbi, D.K. (2006) Mineral sources of Punjab and its estimation in soils of Punjab, India. In: S.S. Mukhopadhyay, M.S. Brar and P. Sharma (Eds.) Balanced Fertilization for Sustaining Crop Productivity. Proceeding of International Symposium held at PAU, Ludhiana, India, 22-25 November, 2006. Prakash, N.B. and Siddaramappa, R. (2001) Distribution and availability of potassium in red soils of India. In: N.S. Pasricha and S.K. Bansal (Eds.) Potassium in Indian Agriculture. Potash Research Institute of India, Gurgaon (Haryana), pp. 89-107.

Pratt, P.F. (1965) Potassium. In: C.A. Black (eds.) Methods of Soil Analysis, Volume 2: Chemical and Biological Properties. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, USA: 1023-1030. Singh, V., Dhillon, N.S., Kumar, R. and Brar, B.S. (2006) Long-term effects of inorganic fertilizers and manure on phosphorus reaction products in a Typic Ustochrept. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 76: 29-37. Singh, Y. and Singh, B. (2001) Efficient management of primary nutrients in the rice-wheat system J. Crop Prod. 4: 23-85. Soil Conservation Service (1972) Soil Survey Laboratory Methods
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and Procedurs for Colelcting Soil Samples. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Soil Survey Staff (1999) Soil Taxonomy- A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil Survey. Agricultrue Handbook No 436, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. Talukdar, M.C., Khera, M.S. and Barua, T.C. (1992) Kinetics of nonexchangeable potassium release from K depleted Ustochrepts. J. Potassium Res. 8: 38-43.
Received 6 September, 2011; Accepted 7 March, 2012
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 98-101
Forms and Quantity-Intensity Parameters of Potassium Applied to Wheat under Temperate Conditions of Kashmir
J.A Wani, M.A. Malik, M.A. Dar, Farida Akhter and M.A. Bhat
Division of Science Science, S.K.University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Shalimar-191 121,India *E-mail: javaidwani@rediffmail.com.
Abstract A field trial was conducted to study the influence of potassium on forms and quantity-intensity parameters of potassium of soil under wheat. The treatments consisted of 5 levels of potassium (0,20,40,60,80 Kg K2O ha-1) and two methods of application viz single basal and split (1/2 basal+1/2 at tiller initiation stage). All forms of potassium viz water-soluble, exchangeable and boiling HNO3 extractable and lattice potassium increased with increasing levels of potassium and were found to be maximum when potassium was applied @ 80 kg ha-1 in two equal splits except lattice K, which was maximum in treatment where potassium was applied @ 60 kg ha-1. The quantity as well as intensity factors recorded higher values with increasing potassium levels indicating a greater K-release into soil solution resulting in large pool of labile potassium. Higher potential buffering capacity of potassium (PBCk) was found at lower levels of potassium. A significant and positive correlation was found among Q/I parameters whereas a negative and significant relation existed between Q/I and PBCk. Key Words: Potassium, Quantityintensity relations, Wheat, Temperate region
Potassium in soils is known to occur in various forms viz ,water soluble, exchangeable ,non- exchangeable and lattice potassium. However, in the order of their availability to plants the K forms are solution, exchangeable, nonexchangeable and mineral potassium (Martin and Sparks,1983).The different forms of potassium are known to exist in dynamic equilibrium with each other (Maclean,1978).The study of different forms of potassium will serve to work out rational fertilizer dose of this nutrient to crops especially for high yielding varieties of cereals. Potassium when added to soils, gets fixed, and under intensive cropping it is released. Thus any decrease in soil potassium would be made up by the release of non exchangeable to exchangeable form. Since the characterization of dynamics as well as quantification of potassium are necessary for planning long term potassium need of crops (Goswami and Bandopadhyay,1978), the thermodynamic concept is generally advocated for characterizing and assessing the availability of K to the growing plants. In this approach, the quantity (Q) parameters such as labile K(KL), K on specific sites (KO) and K on nonspecific sites (Kx) and intensity (I) parameter such as activity ratio of K(ARo k) are worked out for a greater understanding of the fertility status of any soil. The activity ratio, energy replacement and other thermodynamic functions of the soil have been used to describe the K-availability to plants in modern approach. The Q/I measures the ability of soil to maintain the intensity of soil solution K and is proportional to cation exchange capacity (CEC) of soils. A high value signifies good K supplying power, whereas low suggests need for K fertilization. When Q/I values are low small
changes in exchangeable K produce large differences in soil solution K. By virtue of its higher potentiality, wheat crop is emerging as a potential field crop under valley conditions. Therefore, different forms of K and various thermodynamic parameters of soil K with respect to K nutrition of wheat is required to be worked out so as to rationale K fertilizer management. in general and potassium fertilizer management in general. A research programme was thus undertaken to elucidate the magnitude of changes in different K forms and quantity intensity parameters of K in wheat under temperate conditions of Kashmir valley.

The experiment was undertaken on the research farm of Division of Soil Science, SKUAST-K, Shalimar with wheat (var. HS-240) as test crop. Before sowing a representative composite sample was taken and analysed for different physico- chemical characteristics following standard methods (Table 1). The experiment was laid out in randomized block design with three replications and nine treatments. The treatments included,control (0 kg K2O ha-1), 20 kg K2O ha-1 basal, 40 kg K2O ha-1 basal, 60 kg K2O ha-1 basal, 80 kg K2O ha-1 basal; 20 kg K2O ha-1 (half basal +half at tillering stage), 40 kg K2O ha-1 (half basal +half at tillering stage), 60 kg K2O ha-1(half basal+ half at tillering stage) and 80 Kg K2O ha-1 (half basal +half at tillering stage). Potassium was applied in the form of muriate of potash at the time of sowing and tiller initiation stage as per the treatments. Nitrogen and phosphorus was applied in the form of Urea and diammonium phosphate respectively as per package of practices. The seeds were sown in lines with a spacing
Forms and Quantity - Intensity Parameters of Potassium in Wheat

Table 1. Physico-chemical characteristics of soil of the experimental site Parameter pHw(1:2.5) Electrical conductivity (EC dsm-1) Organic carbon (g kg-1) Available N (kg ha-1) Available-P (kg ha-1) Exchangeable Ca (cmolc kg-1) Exchangeable -Mg (cmolc kg-1) Cation Exchange Capacity (cmolc kg-1) Water soluble potassium Exchangeable potassium (ppm) Available potassium (ppm) 1N Boiling HNO3 potassium (%) Lattice potassium (%) Total potassium (%) value 6.8 0.14 8.8 285.8 19.00 14.10 2.92 19.50 3.02 59.98 63.00 0.722 1.440 2.162
99
initial) when potassium was applied @ 80 kg ha-1 in two splits. This signifies that the application of potassium in splits improves the retention of this element (Mishra et al., 1993). The available potassium increased with increase in the K-levels (Table 2). The highest amount of 66 ppm was observed in treatment, where the Potassium was applied @ 80 kg K2O ha-1 in splits and was higher than the initial value. However, it may be attributed to the higher CEC ,organic matter content and illitic nature of soil (Talib and Verma,1990). The exchangeable potassium increased with increase in K levels (Table 2). The highest amount of Potassium 62.80 ppm was observed in treatment, where potassium was applied @ 80 kg ha-1 in split doses .The increase in retention of exchangeable-K may be attributed to the cation exchange reaction of soil (Esakkimuthu et al., 1975). The data in Table 2 reveals that extractable potassium also increased with increase in level of potassium and was found highest (0.723 %) in treatment, where potassium was given @ 80 kg ha-1 in two splits. This may be attributed due to shifting of equilibrium solution phase to nonexchangeable as well as illtic nature of the clay mineral (Talib and Verma,1990). Thet lattice potassium increased with increasing levels of of potassium upto 60 kg ha-1 after which there was no increase (Table 2 ). The highest content of 1.44 per cent was observed when potassium was applied @ 60 kg ha-1 both as basal and in two splits. This signifies that the mode of application had no significant effect on the content of lattice potassium. The higher content of potassium may be attributed to the higher fixing capacity of soil due to presence of illitic type of clay minerals (Talib and Verma, 1990).
of 25 x 10 cm. After harvest of wheat, composite surface soil samples were collected from each plot separately, analysed for different forms of potassium (Black, 1965) and quantityintensity parameters determined as per the equilibrium method (Beckett,1964) The relationships among different physico chemical-characteristics, forms of potassium and quantityintensity parameters were worked out following the procedures outlined by Panse and Sukhatme (1978).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Forms of Potassium

The perusal of data in Table 2 reveals that there was an increase in water soluble potassium with applied K. It was slightly higher in the treatments where K was applied in two splits as compared to single basal application. The highest content of 3.25 ppm was found (higher than the
Table 2. Effect of potassium application on forms of potassium at harvest K2O applied (Kg ha-1) 0 (Control) 20 (Basal) 40 (Basal) 60 (Basal) 80 (Basal) 20 (Split) 40 (split) 60 (Split) 80 (split) LSD at 5% WS-K(ppm) 2.85 2.94 3.05 3.15 3.22 3.00 3.07 3.15 3.25 0.086 Exch-K(ppm) 47.15 52.06 56.45 60.35 62.28 53.00 56.93 61.35 62.80 0.568 Avail-K(ppm) 50.00 55.00 59.50 63.50 65.50 56.00 60.00 64.50 66.00 0.048 I N HNO3-K(%) 0.716 0.718 0.719 0.721 0.723 0.719 0.720 0.722 0.723 2.640 Lattice-K(%) 1.438 1.439 1.439 1.440 1.440 1.438 1.439 1.440 1.440 0.001 Total-K(%) 2.154 2.156 2.159 2.161 2.162 2.157 2.159 2.162 2.163 0.002
Split :-1/2 basal + 1/2 at tillering stage
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J.A Wani, M.A.Malik, M.A. Dar, Farida-Akhter and M.A. Bhat

were reported by Amrutsagar and Sonar (2000). It was further observed that higher PBC k value were noticed when potassium was applied at lower rates, while lower PBCk at higher rates or PBCk decreased with increasing level of K (Table 3). This might be attributed to more depletion of potassium (Niranjana et al., 2000). All forms of potassium were significantly and positively correlated with OC, Ca , Mg respectively, except I N boiling HNO3- K. A non-significant and negative correlation of pH and EC was observed with all forms of potassium. The relationship between different Q/I parameters and soil properties reveled that OC, Ca and Mg were significantly, and positively correlated with all Q/I parameters except PBCk which showed negative and significant correlation (Table 5). The similar trend was observed by Patiram (1991) and Roy et al. (1991), while studying the correlations between
Quantity- Intensity Parameters

The activity ratio of potassium (AR ) labile K (KL) non specific or coarsely bound K(Ko) and specifically bound K(Kx) increased with increasing levels of potassium (Table 3). The higher value of ARok, KL, Ko and Kx were observed when potassium was applied @ 80 kg ha-1. This indicates that the soil has higher K ion strength in comparison to Ca and Mg in soil solution. The immediate availability of K will be more in this treatment as compared to other treatments. Higher value of ARok showed that these were having enough K so as to maintain the intensity value. Higher Kx indicates higher exchange surface offering a specific binding for K and not for Ca and Mg. This might be due to the higher amount of illitic clay. Lower ARok and KL, KO, Kx values might be due to their higher cation retention power which implies that only a small amount of K would remain in soil. Similar results
k o
Table 3.Q/I parameters of potassium in soil as influenced by potassium application K2O applied before sowing (Kg ha-1) 0 (Control) 20 (Basal) 40 (Basal) 60 (Basal) 80 (Basal) 20 (Split) 40 (Split) 60 (Split) 80 (Split) 5.68 5.20 6.71 8.85 8.95 5.10 6.77 7.95 8.97 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30 0.21 0.25 0.26 0.29 ARoK(mol L-1) 1/2 x 10
3
KL
KO Meq 100 g-1 0.09 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.10 0.12 0.12 0.13
KX
PBCK[meq 100g 1 (mol L-1) x 103]
0.13 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.11 0.13 0.14 0.16
23.80 19.36 17.88 15.56 15.64 19.60 17.72 15.09 14.49
Table 4. Correlation coefficient between physico-chemical characteristics and forms of potassium pH Ws-K Exch-K Avail-k An HNO3-K Lattice K Total-K -0.200 -0.127 -0.128 -0.230 -0.141 -0.096 Ec -0.268 -0.215 -0.216 0.017 -0.253 -0.223 OC 0.671** 0.661** 0.662** 0.210 0.636** 0.633 Ca2+ 0.901 0.934 0.933 0.007 0.860** 0.949** Mg2+ 0.944** 0.942** 0.943** 0.016 0.906** 0.946**
* Significant at 5 % ; ** Significant at 1 % Table 5. Correlation coefficient between physico-chemical characteristics and Q/I parameters of potassium pH AR KL Ko KX PBCk
k e
Ec -0.292 -0.442 -0.320 -0.522* -0.097
OC 0.626** 0.465 0.565* 0.328 0.657**
Ca2+ 0.907** 0.784** 0.799** 0.703** -0.926**
Mg2+ 0.956** 0.915** 0.893** 0.858** -0.906**
-0.196 -0.407 -0.377 -0.401 -0.009
* Significant at 5 %; **Significant at 1 %
Forms and Quantity - Intensity Parameters of Potassium in Wheat

Q/I parameters. It was observed that ARok was significantly and positively correlated with KL, Kx and Ko, indicating existence of equilibrium among various forms of soil potassium estimated by Q/I (Table 6). ARok showed negative relationship with PBC k indicating more release of K in soil solution due to application of potassium to wheat.
Table 6. Correlation among Q/I parameters of potassium at harvest ARok PBCk KX Ko KL -0.956** 0.837** 0.964** 0.940 KL -0.829* 0.958** 0.955** Ko -0.902** 0.831* KX -0.687* -
101
of potassium on yield and nutrient uptakein rice. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci .23 :452-457. Jackson,M.L.(1973) Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice Hall of India (P) Ltd, New Delhi. Maclean,E.O. (1978) Influence of clay content and clay composition on potassium availability. In: Potassium in soils and crops. Potash research Institute of India,New Delhi, pp. 1-19. Martin,H.W and Sparks,D.L.(1983) Kinetics of non-exchangeable potassium release from two coastal plain soils. Soil Sci Am.J. 7 :883-887. Mishra,M.K; Srivastava,P.C. and Gosh, D. (1993) Forms of potassium in relation tosoil properties and clay mineralogy in some profiles of Chambal command area of Rajasthan. J. Potash Res.. 9(2):87-94. Niranjana,K., Srinivasamurthy, C.A., Ramegowda, M. and Srikantha, K. (2000) Q/I relationship of potassium in selected soil series of southern Karnataka. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 48(2): 228233. Panse, V.G. and Sukhatme, P.V. (1978) Statistical Methods for Agricultural Workers.Indian council of agricultural Research, New Delhi. Patiram (1991) O/I relationship and K availability in acid soils . J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 39 :178-180 Roy, H.K., Kumar, A. and Sarkar A.K. (1991) Q/I relation of K in a representative acid sedentary soil of Ranchi. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 39: 175-177 Talib, A.R. and Verma,S.D. (1990) Relationship between different forms of potassium and particle size in benchmark soils of Kashmir. Indian J. Agric Sci. 60(9): 643-644.
* Significant at 5 % ; ** Significant at 1 %
REFERENCES
Amrutsagar,V.M. and Sonar, K.R. (2000)Quantityintensity parameters of potassium as influenced by potash application to sorghum in an inceptisol.J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 48(1): 196199. Black,C.A. (1965) Methods of Soil Analysis.Part 2. American Soc. of Agron. Madison, Wisconsin, p.770. Beckett, P.H.T. (1972) Critical cation ratio.Advances in Agronomy 24: 379-411 Esakkimuthu, Krishnamoorthy, K.K. and Longanathan. (1975) Influence of nitrogen and potassium and methods of application
Received 5 July, 2011; Accepted 25 November, 2011
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 102-107
Evaluating Impact of Watershed Development Programme on Land Resources in Shiwalik Hills of J&K
Narinder Deep Singh
Faculty of Agriculture, Khalsa College, Amritsar - 143 001, India E-mail: ndsingh241074@yahoo.com
Abstract: The present study was undertaken for estimating the impact of Chenani watershed development programme in Udhampur district of Jammu and Kashmir state, in terms of resource availability during 2005-08. A combination of both the conventional and advanced techniques like field visits and satellite images were used for data collection to estimate parameters like change in land use/cover pattern, production capacity of land resources and soil erosion level, for impact assessment of watershed developed programme (WDP). The study showed no significant improvement in the quality of land resources production capacity and soil erosion level in the project area than non project area. Hence, the analysis showed poor ecological viability of WDP due to poor implementation of the programme. Key Words: Watershed, Carrying capacity, Quantitative/Qualitative approach, Discount rate
Since early 1950s India has invested more than Rs. 170 billions (US $ 3.5 billions) on watershed development programmes (WSP) covering more than 45 million ha area, and in the recent years the annual expenditure on these programmes have exceeded Rs. 10 billion which reflects the priority and faith of Indian Government on WDPs for improvement of natural resources (Reddy et al., 2007). Although these WDPs have resulted in increasing cropping intensity, changing cropping patterns, increasing productivity of crops, augmenting underground recharge of water and increasing family incomes and employment opportunities in some areas but these improvements were short lived and WDPs failed to generate sustainability of these improvements. Further more, despite the long history of WDPs, there are no systematic and large scale impact assessment studies on their performance as there is lack of proper indicators and evaluation methods to assess the overall impact of these programmes (Anon., 2001). However, the National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB) in collaboration with National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad (NRSA) identified 147 different districts spread over different agro-climatic zones of the country, having more than 17 per cent area under wastelands. Such wastelands possess great potential of mitigating the biomass requirement of the people living in these areas, if put to optimal and judicious use. The Udhampur District of J&K was one of such district and therefore a WDP for Chenani watershed (Udhampur District) was formulated by Forest Department, Government of Jammu and Kashmir during the year 1990 and was started as a centrally sponsored scheme with the help of NWDB, in 1992. The Chenani WDP was executed in 3300 ha, with financial
implication of Rs. 22.95 millions from the year 1992 to 1997, with the objectives to arrest the problem of soil erosion of the catchment area, rehabilitate the natural forests, afforest/ reforest the agricultural, forestry and other cultivable areas with the green cover to provide fuelwood, fodder, grasses and fiber and update the local ecology and environment of the catchments area of Chenani by adopting various corrective and development measures. The WDP was claimed to be quite successful by the project implementing agency, as it has helped in improving the condition and availability of natural resources considerably in the study area (Anon., 1997). The present study was undertaken for assessing the impact of this particular WDP in terms of resource conditions and availability. As some other WDPs are ongoing in Udhampur district, therefore lessons learnt from this study could be very helpful in making ongoing WDPs more effective, efficient and sustainable. The present study was undertaken during the year 2005-08 with following specific objectives to develop indicators for estimation of impact of WDP on resource condition and availability in the study area and evaluate the impact of watershed development programme on natural resources.

In the present study to assess the impact of WDP in terms of land use pattern and soil erosion level, so as to compare the extent of difference WDP has made in the area regarding natural resources condition and availability in Project Area (PA) where WDP was implemented as compared to area where no WDP was implemented i.e., Non Project Areas (NPA).
Impact of Watershed Development Programme

Preliminary related information was collected from the offices of Revenue Department, Forest Department, District Statistical Department, Department of Water Resources, Department of Animal Husbandry and Directorate of Soil Conservation, Government of Jammu and Kashmir. The secondary data included information regarding area, number of villages, land use pattern, land holdings, number of households, human and animal population, availability of fuel wood, fodder and other by products of natural resources in the study area (PA and NPA separately), pasture and wastelands development in the area. Information regarding WDPs activities undertaken like details of plantations, formation of enclosures, fencing erected, grasses and legumes sown, soil and water conservation methods adopted, assets created and costs incurred on these activities were also collected from forest department. Primary data was collected by using conventional method i.e., personal questionnaire method, where information was collected from 300 households i.e., 150 each from PA and NPA each, regarding production of foodgrains and fodder from agricultural lands, resource condition and availability, benefits of WDP and status of soil erosion. Along with these conventional data, advanced data using the satellite images of 1:50,000 scale of the study area for the year 1991 (before implementation of WDP) and year 2001 (after the implementation of WDP) were procured from National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) Hyderabad. Geographical Information System (GIS) was used for extracting information from images like land use/cover pattern, types and conditions of natural resources, categorization of land resources on the basis of their condition and level of soil erosion were also estimated. These images were also used for verification of the data, which was collected from various other sources. The impact of WDP on indicators like land use pattern, production capacity of land resources and soil erosion level in the study area were estimated using simple averages, frequencies and percentages.
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ii) iii)
Agricultural lands: These lands were categorized into cultivable and uncultivable lands. Scrub lands: Areas under wasteland, pasture lands, open lands etc. come under scrub lands. It was categorized into three sub classes on the basis of Green Biomass Density (GBD) i.e. dense scrub (with GBD>40 per cent), thin scrub (with GBD between 10 to 40 per cent) and degraded scrub (GBD<10 per cent).
Production Capacities
Production capacities in terms of fuelwood, fodder and food grain production from forest lands, agricultural lands and scrub lands were estimated, so as to assess the qualitative change in these resources (if any) due to WDP. In the first phase productivity level of various categories of forests and scrub lands were estimated by using sampling techniques. Five sample plots measuring 20 m x 20 m were laid in each category of forests (dense, moderate and open forests) and scrub lands (dense, thin and degraded scrub) in PA and NPA so as to estimate the annual production of fuelwood and fodder from these land resources. The productivity of crops from the agricultural lands were evaluated from the primary data collected from PA and NPA.
Level of Soil Erosion

In the present study, extent and magnitude of soil erosion was estimated according to the methodology adopted by the Directorate of Soil Conservation, Govt. of J&K, based on parameters like a) loss of top soil, b) slope of the area, c) gully erosion, d) land slides and landslips, e) stream bank erosion, f) land use etc. On these parameters ,soil erosion was measured in terms of six erosion intensity classes (E.I), from E.I class I to E.I VI indicating intensity of erosion problem in ascending order.

The following activities were performed during WDP as per official records of implementing agency i.e., forest department, Government of J&K.
Land Use Pattern

In the land use pattern, the land resources were categorized into forest lands agricultural lands, scrublands and drainage areas. Each category was further subdivided into various groups i.e.,
Closure Formation
For natural and artificial regeneration, closures were formed in forest areas so as to stop all kinds of biotic interferences. During the project period nearly 3270 ha of area were converted into enclosures, with fencing of 69,9731 running foot, to check infiltration of humans and animals so as to save forestlands from encroachment and misuse (Table 1). Every enclosure in PA had been fenced
i)
Forest lands : These lands were categorized on the basis of Crown Density (CD) of trees into dense forests (with CD>40 per cent), moderate forests (CD between 10 to 40 per cent) and open/degraded forests (CD<10 per cent).
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Narinder Deep Singh i) Plantation of trees: To rehabilitate and regenerate the degraded forests in the PA, various species of fast growing trees were planted. A total of 12, 42,188 trees were planted which were raised in nurseries spread over 2.5 ha of area (Anon., 1997). Patches grown : To improve the percolation and permeability of rain water so as to protect the soil from splashing and dashing effects of rain, and conserve moisture in soil, various patches of red clovers, grasses and deodar tree were planted. Seeds of red clover were sown, fodder grasses have been propagated by slips whereas saplings (tree) were raised in the nurseries in polythene bags which were used for growing patches (Table 1).
with pre-stressed cement concrete (PCC) poles with four strands of barbed wire. In all 61,635 PCC poles and 591 quintals of barbed wire were used for this work.
Soil and Moisture Conservation

For the protection and conservation of soil and water in the study area various mechanical and vegetative measures were adopted. Some of the important ones are discussed below: Mechanical measures. The mechanical measures adopted in the WDP in the PA were:-
ii)
i)
Formation of DRSM: In order to absorb and slow down the flow of run off water to reduce soil erosion, 14248 cubic meters of works under dry rubble stone masonry (DRSM) were undertaken. Construction of stone crates: In order to check the rapid flow of water, about 106 crates measuring seven hundred and seventy three (773) cubic metre had been constructed (Table 1).
ii)
iii) Tending of trees: Nearly 72,000 trees were tended to improve their growth and development.
Promoting Fuel Saving Devices

For reducing pressure on forests, 800 fuel saving devices were given to the locals, which include 700 smokeless chullahs, pressure cookers, 2 gobar gas plants, 1 solar light etc. for popularizing the nonconventional energy sources in the area. But the authenticity of official records of implementing agency was doubtful, as they were not in accordance with the situation on ground. Some serious discrepancies were observed while critically analyzing the official records of the project implementing agency, which are discussed below: The comparison of physical and financial targets and their subsequent achievements were made (Table 2) and it
Vegetative measures . Due to high initial cost, continuous maintenance and high level of skill required for the construction of mechanical structures, vegetative measures are considered to be best option for conservation of natural resources. Vegetative measures like planting trees, grasses, strip cropping, mixed cropping etc, not only provide protection to land from soil erosion but also help in increased and continuous production of fodder, fuelwood and foodgrains throughout the year. Various vegetative measures adopted under WDP in the PA during the project periods are discussed below:
Table 1. Physical works undertaken during project period Items of work Area closed (ha) Fencing in rft. (four strands) DRSM (cu.m) Plantation of trees (Nos) Patches Grown a) Red clover b) Grasses c) Deodar Total Tending of Trees Crates laid a) Number b) Area (cum) Fuel saving devices (no.) 200 200 15,000 72,000 20,000 15000 20,000 1992-93 510 92450 3098 2,59,600 1993-94 525 92097 3501 1,65,288
1994-95 630 1,49,704 3320 4,78,113 75,000 8,000 19,000 1,02,000
1995-96 1,173 2,67,108 4252 1,70,302 1,00,000
1996-97 432 98,372 2150 1,70,302 26,000
Total 3270 699731 16521 12,42,188 236000 8000 19000
1,00,000
26,000
2,63,000 72,000 106 773
400
800
Source: Forest Department, Government of Jammu and Kashmir, 1997

was established that except one component of WDP (horticultural plantations) rest all components fell short of the approved targets. The afforestation in forest area fell short by 160 ha and pasture land development by 32 ha. Moreover, as against the sanctioned amount of Rs. 22.95 millions for WDP, a sum of Rs. 20.63 millions could be procured by the implementing agency from the state government, which reflects inefficiency on their part. This has resulted in non fulfilment of many approved targets of the WDP by implementing agency. The number of trees (12, 42, 188) claimed to be planted under afforestation by the implementing agencies during the project, would have required nearly 1100 ha of area at 3m x 3m spacing (and not 1840 ha of area as shown in records) resulting in significant change in land use pattern of the area. But in reality no such drastic change were observed in the land use pattern of the forest area as analysed from satellite images procured from NRSA, Hyderabad. Moreover conversion of dense and moderate forests into degraded forests areas was observed in this study. Furthermore as against target of 3000 m3 area for treatment under soil and moisture conservation, 16,521 m3 areas was treated at much lower cost (Rs. 1.57 millions) than approved target of Rs 1.95 millions. Therefore, significantly more area (13,521 m3) was treated at low cost, which is quite surprising. Some of the major objectives like to encourage scientific agriculture, horticulture, pisciculture, etc. for bringing area under intensive productivity campaign, were completely ignored as none of the works carried out during the project were aimed for fulfilment of these objective. The overhead expenses incurred were Rs 2.91 millions i.e., 14.1 per cent of the total sanctioned amount, which is
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quite significant. It includes expenses incurred on purchase of vehicles (one jeep and two pickup vans), construction of residential quarters for forest officials, construction of stores, purchase of implements, etc. (Table 2).
Change in Land Use Pattern due to WDP

The land use/land cover pattern in the study area as analyzed from satellite images showed significant change in current year (2001) than the base year (1991). This before and after approach showed decrease in total forest area by 4.3% from the base year especially dense and moderate forests by 65 ha and 133 ha, respectively. Whereas, area under degraded forests increased by 63 ha from the base year indicating conversion of area under dense and moderate forests into degraded forests. The significant increase in area under degraded forests from the base year highlights limited or no impact of WDP on land use pattern. However, the agricultural area and scrubs area increased by 166 ha (6.2%) and by 48 ha (2.0%), respectively from the base year (Table 3). It is a matter of serious concern as agricultural lands are more erosion prone and the project area already facing serious problems of soil erosion.
Soil Erosion Level

The various measures undertaken during WDP were aimed at reducing erosion level in the PA. As soil erosion was widely prevalent due to steep slope of the area, faulty methods of cultivation (agricultural lands), deforestation, overgrazing on scrub lands and poor vegetative cover etc., therefore, the extent and magnitude of soil erosion in the PA and NPA were estimated so as to compare the improvement in the PA due to WDP. The land under E.I class VI was considered to be beyond conservation and regeneration, whereas soils under III, IV, V required immediate attention
Table 2. Comparison of physical and financial (Rs. in million) approved and achieved targets of WDP Components of work Approved Targets of WDP Phy. Afforestation in forest area Horticulturalplantations. Pasture land development Soil and moistureconservation Promoting fuel saving devices Overhead expenses G. Total 2000 ha 200 1100 3000 m3 1000 0 3300 ha + 3000 m 3 + 1000 Source: Forest Department, Government of Jammu and Kashmir, 1997 Phy. - Physical; Fin. - Financial Fin. 10.20 1.45 5.70 1.95 0.25 3.40 22.95 Achievements of WDP Phy. 1840 ha 200 ha 1068 ha 16521m3 800 3108 ha+ 16521 + 800 units Fin. 9.35 1.29 5.29 1.58 0.20 2.91 20.63 Difference Phy. 160ha 0 32 ha 13521m3 200 unit 192 ha+ 13521+ 200units Fin. 0.85 0.16 0.41 0.37 0.05 0.49 2.32
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Narinder Deep Singh
Table 3. Change in land use/ land cover in the project area Particulars Forest area a) Dense forests b) Moderate/open forests c) Degraded forests Agricultural area a) Cultivated area b) Uncultivated area Scrub area a) Dense scrub b) Moderate scrub c) Thin scrub Drainage system Residential/commercial areas Total (1+2+3+4+5) 1991 3155 1027 1412 716 2658 2189 69 2460 1385 948 357 489 136 8898 2001 3020 962 1279 779 2824 2454 370 2508 1223 853 432 390 155 8898 Change -135 (4.3) -65 (6.3) -133 (9.4) 63 (8.8) 166 (6.2) 265 (12.1) - 99 (21.1) - 48 (2.0) - 162 (11.7) - 95 (10.0) 75 (21.0) - 99 (20.2) 19 (13.9) -
Source: Satellite Images NRSA; Figures in parentheses show %age change from the base year
for redemption of soil, so that it could be saved from future deterioration and ultimate loss. The soil under E.I classes I and II were having erosion at minimum levels. Nearly 3.8 per cent of the total area in PA and 2.5 per cent in NPA were under E.I category VI. The maximum area in both PA as well as NPA were under E.I category III, IV and V, with 36.2, 25.3 and 14 per cent area in PA and 39, 28.2 and 11.4 per cent in NPA, respectively (Table 4). From comparison of areas of PA and NPA facing various levels of soil erosion problem small difference was observed within the same E.I level of the respective areas. This signifies limited or no significant improvement in soil erosion status of PA due to WDP, as due to high level of siltation in river tawi (because of soil erosion), the Chenani hydel project still faces many problems resulting in reduction in its production capacity. Moreover regular landslides and landslips were reported during monsoon seasons especially in Samroli area of PA, resulting in closure of NH-1A, which highlights the ineffectiveness of measures undertaken during WDP for controlling erosion problem in the area.
Table 4. Soil erosion level E.I class I I III IV V VI Nallahs Total PA 658 (7.4) 975 (11) 3222 (36.2) 2252 (25.3) 1246 (14) 338 (3.8) 207 (2.3) 8898 (100) NPA 761 (9.3)* 630 (7.7) 3192 (39) 2309 (28.2) 933 (11.4) 204 (2.5) 158 (1.9) 8187 (100)
Production Capacity of Land Resources

The overall comparison of PA and NPA production capacities in terms of fuelwood, fodder and food grains sustainably from forest lands, agricultural lands and scrub lands were estimated, so as to assess the qualitative change in land resources (if any) due to WDP. The study revealed overall better situation of production capacity of land resources in the NPA than PA. The dense forests were producing 0.16 quintals ha -1 less fuelwood and 0.42 quintals ha-1 less fodder annually in PA than NPA. Similarly, other categories of forest lands (i.e. moderate and degraded forests) were also producing less fuelwood and fodder in PA than NPA. However, agricultural and scrub lands were showing non-significant/no difference in fuelwood production in PA than NPA. But fodder production from the agricultural and scrub lands showed significant difference i.e., 11.10 quintals ha-1 and 0.48 quintals ha-1, respectively of PA than NPA. The foodgrain production capacity in NPA was also found to be better than PA (Table. 5). Hence the analysis showed no impact of WDP on quality of land resources production capacity, as it was still less than NPA. The WDP implemented in Chenani area of Udhampur district, had limited significant impact on natural resource condition and their availability in view of the exorbitant cost of Rs. 20.63 millions incurred. The satellite images and field visits showed no improvement in vegetative cover and production capacity of land resources in PA as compared with NPA. The study revealed overall better situation of production capacity of land resources in terms of fuelwood, fodder and food grain production in the NPA than PA. The soil erosion problem was quite serious in the PA as significant PA still comes under danger zone i.e. E.I. IV to VI
* Figures in parentheses are in per cent

Table 5. Production capacity (quintals ha-1) of land resources in terms of fuelwood, fodder and food grains in the study area Production capacity A) Fuelwood production 1. Forest area a) Dense forests b) Moderate forests c) Degraded forests 2. 3. 1. Agricultural area Scrub area Forest area a) Dense forests b) Moderate forests c) Degraded forests 2. Agricultural area a) Dry fodder b) Green fodder 3. Scrub area a) Dense scrub b) Moderate scrub c) Thin scrub C) Food grain production a) Maize b) Rice c) Wheat d) Other cereals e) Pulses 1.5 1.6 1.3 0.8 1.1 1.7 1.9 1.2 0.7 1.2 - 0.20 - 0.30 0.10 0.10 - 0.10 2.4 1.8 0.5 3.2 2.28 0.5 - 0.08 - 0.48 4.5 53 4.6 62.10 - 0.01 - 11.10 1.75 1.15 0.70 2.17 1.41 0.76 - 0.42 - 0.26 - 0.06 2.50 1.36 0.35 0.57 0.25 2.66 1.67 0.43 0.55 0.25 - 0.16 - 0.31 - 0.08 0.02 PA NPA Difference (PA-NPA)
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B) Fodder production
(nearly 42 %). Moreover, problems such as regular closure of NH-IA due to landslides after rainfalls specially in Samroli area and siltation problems in Chenani hydel power station clearly highlights the ineffectiveness of WDP activities in controlling erosion problem of PA. The study highlighted decrease in area and tree density in forests, conversion of dense forests into degraded forests, increase in agricultural area and aggravated soil erosion problem in the area which means WDP has been ineffective in fulfilling its objectives.
REFERENCES
Anonymous (1997) Integrated wasteland development project Chenani watershed Udhampur, Annual report, Forest department, Government of Jammu and Kashmir. Anonymous (2001) Mid-term Appraisal of Ninth Five Year Plan, Planning Commission, Govt. of India, New Delhi. Reddy, V.R., Shiferaw, B., Bantilan, M.C.S., Wani, S.P. and Sreedevi, T.K. (2007) Collective action for integrated watershed management in semi arid India: Strategic policy and institutional options, policy brief No. 11, ICRISAT, Hyderabad.
Received 2 February, 2012; Accepted 5 April, 2012
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 108-111
Nitrogen and Spacing Requirements of Promising Hybrids of Indian Mustard (Brassica juncea L. Czern & Coss)
Parminder Singh Sandhu*, S.S. Mahal and Virender Sardana
Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana - 141 004, India *E-mail: parminder1.sandhu1@gmail.com
Abstract: A field experiment was conducted to evalute nitrogen and spacing requirements of promising hybrids of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L. Czern & Coss). Two hybrids (PMH 128 and PMH 145) and variety RLC1 (check) were laid in main plots and in sub-plot combination of nitrogen and row spacing were tested in a split plot design. Among the three nitrogen doses (100 kg ha-1, 125 kg ha-1 and 150 kg ha-1),150 kg ha-1 produced highest seed yield (17.09 q ha-1) and among row spacing, 30 cm produced significantly higher yield of 17.01 q as compared to 40 cm row spacing. There was increase in plant height, dry matter, PAR interception and chlorophyll content while harvest index showed non-significant results, with various nitrogen doses. Key Words: Chlorophyll, Indian mustard, Nitrogen, PAR, Row spacing
In India, rapeseed-mustard is cultivated in about 28 states with a production of 7314.5 thousand tons and productivity of 1190 kg ha-1 (Anonymous, 2010). India is the second largest producer of rapeseed-mustard after China in the world (Kumar, 2008). Among these Brassica species, Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L. Czern & Coss) occupies a prominent position and is cultivated under diverse climatic and agro-ecological conditions in the country. Better ability of Indian mustard to withstand drought and perform well under low moisture conditions has led to increase in area in UK, Canada, USA and Australia by bringing additional area or replacing area under oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.). There is limited scope for further expansion of area under oilseeds in the India because of lack of market infrastructure, mechanization and low yield potential of oilseed crops but a big leap in productivity of oilseeds is required to fulfill the minimum daily dietary requirements of edible oils. The increased production will come from high yielding hybrids/varieties and improved agronomic practices. Nitrogen is the most important nutrient required by plants to perform multiple roles in several metabolic processes that influence growth, yield and quality of crop. There is, thus, need to find out optimum nitrogen and row spacing requirements of promising hybrids of Indian mustard.
organic carbon, low in available nitrogen, medium in phosphorus and potassium. The study was conducted in three replications in split plot design with 2 hybrids (PMH 128 and PMH 145) and 1 variety (RLC 1) as check in main plot and doses of nitrogen (N100, N125 and N150 kg ha-1) and row spacing (30 and 45 cm) as sub plot treatments. Nitrogen was applied in two equal splits first at the time of sowing and second after first irrigation.The sowing was done on October 28 with plot size of 5 x 4.5 m. Optimum plant population was maintained by thinning and gap filling at about 3 weeks after sowing by keeping plant to plant spacing of about 15 cm within rows. Two hoeing were given first alongwith thinning and second was done at about 40 DAS. Two irrigations, 30 and 50 DAS, whereas, the last irrigation was applied at 75 DAS. For plant protection measures, package of practices for rabi crops was followed from time to time Periodical observations were recorded for plant height, dry matter accumulation, interception of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) at 35, 70, 105 DAS and at maturity. Leaf chlorophyll content was recorded before flower initiation, peak flowering and at peak siliquae formation. For plant height ten plants were selected at random and height of each plant was measured from the base to the tip of the plant. For dry matter accumulation, three plants were harvested from 0.5 metre length of the outer row in each treatment. Chlorophyll content in leaves was determined using the procedure of Anderson and Boardmen (1964). A line quantum sensor (Model LI-191-SA) was used to measure the amount transmitted PAR in the wavelength of 400-700 nm. The incoming and reflected radiation measurements were made 1 m above the canopy while

The field experiment was conducted during winter rabi 2009-10 at the Research Farm of Oilseeds Section, Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. The soil of the experimental field was loamy sand in texture, slightly alkaline, low in
Nitrogen and Spacing Requirements of Mustard Hybrids

transmitted radiation were recorded as the base canopy with the sensor base just touching the ground. Per cent interception of PAR by the crop was calculated as:
PAR above the cropPAR at soil surface PAR interception (%) = x 100 PAR above the crop
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The data regarding days taken to flowering initiation, 50 per cent flowering and completion of flowering were observed when at least one fully opened flower appeared in each row, 50 per cent of the total plants in each row had at least one fully opened flower and at least one fully opened flower appeared on all the plants, respectively. Harvest index was calculated as the ratio of seed yield to biomass yield.
per cent flowering but days to initiation of senescence and maturity showed non-significant results. Kumar and Kumar (2004) reported that different cultivars of Brassica juncea took different number of days for 50 per cent flowering which depend upon their genetic constitution. The highest harvest index was registered in RLC 1 (check) followed by PMH 128, and both these registered significantly higher harvest index than PMH 145 (Table 4). Doses of nitrogen. Nitrogen doses did not significantly affect the plant height except at 70 DAS where application of 150 kg ha-1 of N produced highest plant height and it was statistically at par with 125 kg ha-1 of N but significantly better than 100 kg ha-1 of N. the similar trend was observed for dry matter accumulation. Dry matter accumulation by plant at 35 DAS was highest with the application of 150 kg ha-1 of N and it was statistically at par with 125 kg ha-1 of N application significantly higher than 100 kg ha -1 of N application. Similarly, Kumar et al. (1997) reported increase in dry matter with 150 kg ha-1 of N at all the growth stages compared to 100 and 125 kg ha-1 of N doses Chlorophyll content before flowering stage showed non-significant differences, whereas, at peak flowering and peak siliquae formation stage significantly higher chlorophyll content was obtained with 150 kg ha-1 of N application (Table 3). Nitrogen doses showed nonsignificant results for PAR interception at 35 and 105 DAS and at maturity stages except at 70 DAS, where highest interception was obtained in 150 kg ha-1 of N and it was significantly better than 100 kg ha-1 of N but it was statistically at par with 125 kg ha-1 of N application. Application of different N doses failed to influence 50 per cent and 100 per cent

Hybrids/Variety. The plant height continued to increase up to maturity and such an increase was almost linear up to 105 DAS (Table1). The plant height did not differ significantly in different cultivars at different DAS. Dry matter accumulation also showed the same trend except at 105 DAS stage where RLC 1 (check) accumulated significantly higher dry matter in pods than PMH 128 and PMH 145, which were statistically at par with each other (Table 2). Though leaf chlorophyll content in RLC 1 (check) was higher than PMH 128 and PMH 145 at different growth stages, but it was statistically similar. Hybrids and RLC 1 (check) did not differ significantly in their ability to intercept PAR at all the growth stages except at 35 DAS, where fast and vigorous growth of RLC 1 (check) intercepted significantly higher PAR than PMH 145 and PMH 128 (Table 3). Significant differences were observed among hybrids and RLC 1 (check) in attaining different phenophases viz. flowering initiation, 50 per cent and 100
Table 1. Plant height of Indian mustard as influenced by hybrids, doses of nitrogen and row spacing Treatment 35 DAS Hybrids PMH 128 PMH 145 RLC 1 (check) CD (0.05) Doses of nitrogen kg ha-1 100 125 150 CD (0.05) Row spacing (cm) 30 45 CD (0.05) DAS = Days after sowing 17.0 16.9 NS 89.4 87.6 NS 197.4 196.4 NS 202.2 202.1 NS 16.5 17.3 17.2 NS 85.6 88.7 91.1 4.0 192.2 197.5 200.9 NS 200.9 203.3 202.3 NS 16.8 16.9 17.2 NS 90.1 87.2 88.1 NS 196.7 196.2 197.7 NS 200.9 201.2 204.4 NS 70 DAS Plant height (cm) 105 DAS At maturity
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Parminder Singh Sandhu, S.S. Mahal and Virender-Sardana
Table 2. Dry matter accumulation of Indian mustard as influenced of hybrids, doses of nitrogen and row spacing at different growth stages Treatment Hybrids PMH 128 PMH 145 RLC 1(check) CD (0.05) 100 125 150 CD (0.05) Row spacing (cm) 30 45 CD (0.05) 0.93 0.62 0.10 9.40 6.56 0.85 12.25 8.26 1.47 21.62 14.82 2.67 10.55 7.87 0.94 48.77 35.73 4.66 5.00 3.33 0.77 64.55 47.15 4.85 92.88 75.90 15.84 0.76 0.72 0.84 NS 0.66 0.82 0.84 0.13 7.91 7.73 8.29 NS 7.55 7.86 8.53 NS 10.52 9.68 10.57 NS 9.26 10.34 11.16 NS 18.43 17.35 18.87 NS 16.81 18.15 19.68 NS 9.15 9.11 9.38 NS 9.01 9.25 9.38 NS 41.38 40.67 44.70 NS 40.42 41.56 44.78 NS 3.77 3.58 5.15 1.20 3.88 4.10 4.52 NS 54.29 53.82 59.46 NS 53.64 54.84 59.07 NS 85.37 80.41 87.38 NS 81.91 82.67 88.59 NS 35 DAS Plant Leaves 70 DAS Stem Total Leaves 105 DAS Stem Pod Total At maturity Plant
Doses of nitrogen (kg/ha)
DAS = Days after sowing
flowering, initiation of senescence and days to maturity of crop except to initiation of flowering. Row spacing. Row spacing had non-significant effect on the plant height, harvest index and chlorophyll content (Table 3). Among the row spacing significantly higher dry matter accumulation was obtained with 30 cm row spacing as compared to 45 cm row spacing at different growth stages of crop because of more number of plants per unit area. Dahiya (2005) reported higher dry matter accumulation at
closer row spacing as compared to wider row spacing. Interception of PAR was significantly influenced by row spacing at different growth stages except at maturity. At 35, 70 and 105 DAS, crop intercepted significantly more PAR at 30 cm as compared to 45 cm row spacing because of more plants per unit area. Days taken to 50 per cent flowering, 100 per cent flowering and maturity was significantly higher more in 45 cm row spacing as compared to 30 cm row spacing (Table 4) but days taken to initiation of flowering
Table 3. Leaf chlorophyll content and interception of photosynthetically active radiation by Indian mustard as influenced by hybrids, doses of nitrogen and row spacing Treatment Leaf chlorophyll content (mg g -1 of tissue weight) Before flower initiation Hybrids PMH 128 PMH 145 RLC 1 (check) CD (0.05) 100 125 150 CD (0.05) Row spacing (cm) 30 45 CD (0.05) 7.7 7.4 NS 9.9 9.2 NS 11.2 11.1 NS 29.4 24.3 3.0 82.6 78.1 3.9 93.2 91.5 1.7 57.3 56.8 NS 7.4 7.1 7.6 NS
-1
PAR interception (%) 35 DAS 70 DAS 105 DAS At maturity
Peak flowering 9.5 9.6 9.7 NS 8.6 9.9 10.2 1.1
Peak siliquae formation 11.1 10.5 11.8 NS 10.4 11.4 11.6 1.0
26.5 24.4 29.7 3.8 24.9 26.7 29.0 NS
79.5 79.4 82.2 NS 75.6 81.9 83.5 4.7
92.1 91.7 93.4 NS 91.3 92.3 93.5 NS
57.6 54.2 59.3 NS 55.5 57.6 58.0 NS
Doses of nitrogen (kg ha ) 6.9 7.5 7.6 NS
Nitrogen and Spacing Requirements of Mustard Hybrids
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Table 4. Days taken for different phenological observations and harvest index of Indian mustard as influenced by hybrids, doses of nitrogen and row spacing Treatment Flowering initiation Hybrids PMH 128 PMH 145 RLC 1(check) CD(0.05) 100 125 150 CD(0.05) Row spacing (cm) 30 45 CD(0.05) 57.1 57.6 NS 71.0 73.5 1.5 85.1 87.6 1.3 120.4 121.0 NS 146.1 146.5 0.3 20.8 20.7 NS 56.2 58.6 57.3 1.4 56.8 57.6 57.8 0.8 69.4 74.7 72.6 2.5 72.0 72.2 72.6 NS 83.4 88.5 87.1 3.3 85.3 86.3 87.3 NS 118.9 121.6 121.6 NS 119.9 120.9 121.2 NS 146.0 146.7 146.2 NS 146.2 146.3 146.4 NS 21.0 18.9 22.3 2.1 20.7 20.8 20.8 NS 50% flowering Days taken to 100% flowering Initiation of senescence Maturity Harvest index (%)
Doses of nitrogen (kg ha-1)
and initiation of senescence at different row spacing showed non-significant results. The study revealed that hybrids PMH 128 and PMH 145 and variety RLC 1(check) did not differ significantly regarding plant height, dry matter, leaf chlorophyll content and harvest index while RLC 1 (check) intercepted more PAR as compared to hybrids. Nitrogen dose of 125 kg ha -1 was found optimum for hybrids and RLC 1 (check) variety.
Dahiya R (2005) Effect of time of transplanting and inter-row spacing on nitrogen and phosphorous in Canola (Brassica napus L.). M.Sc Thesis, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India. Kumar, A. (2008) Rapeseed-mustard in India: Current status and future prospects. In: Kumar, A., Chauhan, J.S. and Chattopadhayay, C. (Eds.) Sustainable production of oilseeds: Rapeseed-Mustard technology. Agrotech Publishing Academy, Udaipur, pp: 39-52. Kumar, A. and Kumar, S. (2008) Crop growth rate and developmental characteristics of Indian mustard var Vardan to varying levels of nitrogen and sulphur. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 42: 112-115. Kumar, S., Singh, J. and Dhingra, K.K. (1997) Leaf area in relationship with solar radiation interception and yield of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea ) as influenced by plant population and nitrogen. Indian J. Agron 42: 348-351
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2010) http: www.indiastat.com Anderson, J.M. and Boardman, N.K. (1964) Studies on greening of dark brown bean plants VI. Development of photochemical activity. Aust. J. Bot. 17: 93-144
Received 4 April, 2011; Accepted 12 January, 2012
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 112-117
Studies on Growth, Yield and Yield Attributes of Wheat-Mentha Intercropping System in Relation to Planting Methods and Nitrogen Levels
Sumedh Chopra*, Jaspal Singh1 and Satpal Singh
FASS, PAU, Gurdaspur, 1Khalsa College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences, Amritsar *E-mail: sumeshagron.pau@gmail.com
Abstract: A field experiment was conducted during winter to summer seasons of 2006-07 and 2007-08 at Gurdaspur (Punjab) on silty clay loam soil to assess the response of intercropping of wheat and mentha to planting methods and nitrogen levels. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design having two planting methods viz. two rows of wheat (November sown) with 20 cm row spacing and two rows of mentha (February sown) on outer side of wheat rows under flat and bed (37.5 cm top + 30 cm furrow) method covering a total width of 67.5 cm and five levels of nitrogen i.e., 0+0, 90+75, 120+75, 150+75 and 180+75 kg N ha-1 to wheat and mentha, respectively. Bed was significantly higher over flat in yield attributes and grain yield of wheat. Interaction on grain yield of wheat showed the response of flat and bed to 150 and 120 Kg N ha-1, respectively. Both the planting methods were on par in growth, herbage and essential oil yield of mentha during 2006-07 but bed was significantly higher over flat during 2007-08 due to higher rainfall. Bed planting gave significantly higher wheat grain equivalent yield of intercropping system over flat and it increased significantly upto 120 + 75 Kg N ha-1 for wheat and mentha. Key Words: Wheat-mentha intercropping, Planting method, Flat bed, Nitrogen
Intercropping is an important way of increasing production without much increase in the use of inputs. It gives greater stability in yield during aberrant weather conditions and epidemics of disease and pest, which is of considerable importance to subsistent farmers (Tomar et al., 1997). Many reports have clearly advocated the possibility of growing potato, gram, mustard, sunflower, peas, linseed, etc. as intercrop in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Mentha (Mentha arvensis Linn.) is also one such crop, which needs to be tested as intercrop with wheat for higher returns and crop diversification. Method of planting plays an important role in the emergence and establishment of crop seedlings besides affecting soil aeration, temperature, root development, water use and solar radiation. Flat planting is the common practice of raising wheat but bed planting is also gaining popularity due to water saving and higher water use efficiency (Pal, 2003). In an intercropping situation where two or more crops are associated, their fertilizer requirement may vary widely and hence, fertilization becomes more complex (Singh et al., 1996). In wheat-mentha intercropping system, whole of nitrogen to wheat is applied within one month of sowing and to mentha, half nitrogen is applied at the time of planting in the mid season of wheat, and remaining half nitrogen is top dressed after harvesting of wheat crop. So, there is a possibility that mentha crop may use the residual nitrogen applied to wheat and suitable dose for intercropping system are to be evaluated through this study. Considering these
facts, a two year study was conducted to assess the response of intercropping of wheat and mentha in the flat and bed planting methods with various rates of nitrogen application.

A field experiment was conducted during winter (rabi) to summer seasons of 2006-07 and 2007-08 at Village Dalla of district Gurdaspur in Punjab. The soil having pH of 7.9 was high in organic carbon, low in available nitrogen and high in available phosphorus and potassium with silty clay loam texture. The treatments comprising of two planting methods and five levels of nitrogen were tested in randomized block design with three replications. Two rows of wheat (W) with 20 cm spacing and two rows of mentha (M) on outer sides of wheat rows (2:2) were sown under flat planting (FP) and bed planting (BP) covering a total width of 67.5 cm and designated as FP-W+M (2:2) 67.5 cm and BP-W+M (2:2) 67.5 cm, respectively. Five levels of nitrogen i.e. 0+0 (control), 90+75, 120+75, 150+75 and 180+75 kg N ha-1 to wheat and mentha, respectively, were abbreviated as WN 0+MN 0, WN 90 +MN 75, WN 120 +MN 75, WN 150 +MN 75, WN 180 +MN 75 in similar order. The wheat variety PBW 502 was sown on November 3 and 5 during 2006-07 and 2007-08, respectively, using 75 kg seed ha-1. In a single operation, with the help of bed maker-cum-planter, the raised beds of 67.5 cm were
Wheat-Mentha Intercropping Yield

prepared by keeping 37.5 cm as the top of the bed with furrows of 30 cm and two rows of wheat were drilled at 20 cm spacing on the top of the 37.5 cm raised beds. Irrigation water was applied in the furrows between the beds and water was not allowed to reach at the top of the bed by applying 5 cm irrigation on the plot area basis. Bed sown row arrangements were exactly followed in the flat situation and crop was sown in solid rows with the help of seed drill and irrigated with 7.5 cm of depth. Planting of mentha variety kosi was done on February, 7 and 10 during 2006-07 and 2007-08, respectively. In bed planting, two rows of mentha were planted on the bed-top on both sides of wheat rows. In flat situation, similar row pattern was followed. The wheat and mentha were harvested manually on April 13 and June 26 during 200607 and on April 19 and July 10 during 2007-08, respectively. Nitrogen fertilizer was applied through urea to wheat and mentha as per treatment. In wheat, half dose of N was broadcast just before sowing of wheat and the remaining N was top dressed after first irrigation. In mentha crop, half of the N was applied along the mentha rows at the time of planting and remaining half N applied as top dressing after harvesting of wheat crop. In flat, fertilizer was broadcast uniformly but in bed treatment it was applied carefully on the top 37.5 cm width. Recommended dose of phosphorus was applied to wheat at sowing but its application was skipped at the time of planting mentha. All the recommended cultural operations were followed as per packages of practices for rabi (Anon., 2006) and kharif crops of Punjab (Anon., 2007). The essential oil was distilled at harvest stage from 500 g fresh herbage from each treatment with Clevengers apparatus. The per cent essential oil content from fresh
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herbage was calculated on v/w basis. Essential oil yield was computed by multiplying herbage yield (q ha-1) at harvest with essential oil content (%) and expressed in litres per hectare (l ha-1). Leaves and stems of 200 g fresh herbage sample from each plot were separated and weighed after drying first in sun and then in oven. The leaf to stem ratio was calculated by dividing leaf weight with stem weight. Wheat grain equivalent yield (q ha-1) of the system was calculated by summing actual grain yield of wheat and essential oil yield of mentha after converting into wheatequivalent on the basis of prevailing prices. The price of wheat grain and mentha oil was Rs. 850 q -1 and Rs. 490 l-1 during 2006-07 and Rs. 1000 q-1 and Rs. 650 l-1 during 2007-08, respectively.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Effect on Wheat

Growth. The plant height of wheat recorded at harvest stage did not differ significantly due to planting methods (Table 1). The pooled average of two years indicated that increasing levels of nitrogen enhanced the plant height of wheat significantly up to WN120+MN75 and further increase in N at WN150+MN75, though, increased the plant height but the differences were non-significant. However, at highest rate of N application (WN 180+MN 75), plant height was significantly higher over WN120+MN75. The bed planted wheat + mentha was significantly higher in dry matter of wheat over flat planting. Increasing levels of nitrogen increased the dry matter significantly upto WN150+MN75. A reduction in dry matter was observed as the level of nitrogen was increased from N 150 to N180. The decrease in dry matter at higher rate of nitrogen at WN180+MN75 was due to lodging of the crop which might
Table 1. Effect of planting methods and nitrogen levels on growth, yield attributes and straw yield of wheat at harvest (pooled average of two years) Treatments Plant height (cm) 81.5 81.0 NS 65.2 81.0 85.0 86.9 88.0 2.11 Dry matter (q ha -1) 102.1 117.7 3.19 58.4 110.7 123.4 129.9 127.0 5.04 Effective tillers (m-2) 272.7 294.2 5.03 184.3 294.7 309.0 314.3 314.9 7.96 Ear length (cm) 9.38 9.76 0.071 8.43 9.45 9.87 10.05 10.06 0.112 No. of grains ear -1 45.7 48.2 0.89 39.8 46.8 49.1 49.5 49.5 1.41 Test weight (g) 38.37 39.30 0.384 38.22 38.99 39.39 39.12 38.45 0.607 Straw yield (q ha-1) 56.1 63.5 1.59 31.5 59.1 66.5 71.0 70.8 2.51
Planting method FP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm BP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm CD (5%) Nitrogen (kg ha-1) WN0+MN0 WN90+MN75 WN120+MN75 WN150+MN75 WN180+MN75 CD (5%)
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Sumedh Chopra, Jaspal Singh and Satpal Singh

to the grain which adversely affected the test weight and consequently the grain yield. Singh et al. (2000) reported that winter maize + peas fertilized with 150 kg N ha-1 gave highest maize equivalent yield. Interaction between planting methods and different nitrogen levels was significant on the grain yield of wheat during both the years (Table 2). During 2006-07, the maximum grain yield of wheat (54.0 q ha-1) was recorded under Bed + WN120+MN75 which was significantly higher over all the combinations of flat/bed with various nitrogen levels except under Bed + WN150+MN75 (51.5 q ha-1). Both planting methods did not differ significantly at the same level of nitrogen application at WN0+MN0 and WN150+MN75 and the differences were significant at WN 90 +MN 75 , WN 120+MN 75 and WN 180+MN 75. In flat sown wheat, the increasing levels of nitrogen enhanced the grain yield up to 150 kg N ha-1 (49.1 q ha-1) whereas under bed configuration, it increased only up to 120 kg N ha-1 (54.0 q ha-1). As the nitrogen application was increased from 150 to 180 kg ha1 under the flat, the grain yield decreased significantly whereas the decrease in yield on beds was non-significant. The differential response of beds at higher N rates was possibly due to difference in lodging which was higher under flat than beds. Less lodging under beds might be due to more root development which gripped the soil well. During 2007-08, maximum and equal grain yield of wheat (52.1 q ha-1) was recorded under the Bed planting + WN120+MN75 and WN150+MN75 which was statistically at par with Bed planting + WN180+MN75 and significantly higher over other flat/bed planting and nitrogen combinations (Table 2). Both methods of planting did not differ significantly at WN 0 +MN 0 , however, at WN 90 +MN 75 , WN 120+MN 75 , WN 150+MN 75 and WN 180+MN 75 , the bed configuration recorded significantly higher grain yield over the flat. The
have hampered the movement of assimilates to the plants and thereby resulted into less dry matter accumulation. Yield attributes. On pooled average basis, the bed planted wheat + mentha was significantly higher in number of effective tillers m-2, ear length, number of grains ear-1 and test weight over flat planting (Table 1). A significant increase was also recorded in the number of effective tillers and grains per ear up to WN120+MN75, and further increase in nitrogen to WN 150/180 +MN 75 recorded a marginal enhancement. Increasing levels of nitrogen increased the ear length up to WN150+MN75 significantly but further increase in N did not cause significant difference. The application of nitrogen at WN120+MN75 recorded maximum test weight (39.39 g) of wheat which was significantly higher over WN0+MN0 and WN180+MN75. The differences in test weight at WN 90+MN 75, WN120 +MN75 and WN150+MN 75 were not significant. It was also observed that the application of N at WN180+MN75 recorded significantly lower test weight over WN120+MN75 and WN150+MN75 and at par with WN0+MN0 and WN90+MN75. The possible reason for lower test weight at highest rate of N application in WN180+MN75 was possibly due to lodging of the crop which restricted the movement of assimilates to the grain. Grain and straw yield. The bed planted wheat + mentha recorded significantly higher grain yield of wheat over flat planting (Table 2). During both the years, by increasing the level of nitrogen, a significant increase in the grain yield of wheat was recorded upto the application of 120 kg N ha-1 but further increase in nitrogen to 150 and 180 kg ha-1 did not enhance the grain yield significantly. In fact, during both the years, a reduction in grain yield was observed at highest level of 180 kg N ha-1. Decline in grain yield during first year was due to lodging of the crop at WN180+MN75. The lodging of crop might have restricted the movement of assimilates
Table 2. Interactive impact of planting methods and nitrogen levels on grain yield (q ha-1) of wheat during 2006-07 and 2007-08 Treatment WN0+ MN0 FP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm BP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm Mean 19.4 22.7 21.1 WN90+MN75 39.5 48.3 43.9 Nitrogen (Kg ha-1) WN120+MN75 2006-07 45.2 54.0 49.6 2007-08 FP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm BP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm Mean 21.6 25.0 23.3 37.9 48.5 43.2 42.2 52.1 47.2 45.8 52.1 49.0 45.7 51.5 48.6 38.6 45.8 49.1 51.5 50.3 43.6 48.1 45.8 39.3 44.9 WN150+MN75 WN180+MN75 Mean
CD (5%) : P= 1.63, N=2.57 , PxN= 3.64
CD (5%) : P= 1.59, N=2.51 , PxN= 3.54

flat recorded significantly higher grain yield of wheat up to 150 kg N ha-1 (45.8 q ha-1) whereas the bed responded significantly only up to 120 kg N ha-1 (52.1 q ha-1). During both the years, significantly higher grain yield under bed planting with less nitrogen was due to better nitrogen utilization on beds. As the application of nitrogen on beds was restricted to top bed area (37.5 cm) only and the remaining area under furrow (30 cm) was not applied with nitrogen. Effect of better utilization of N under bed situation was very clear on the growth and yield components and the cumulative impact might have resulted into the interaction between planting methods and nitrogen levels. Bed planting in wheat reduced the soil applied nitrogen losses by reducing leaching and gas emission (Sayre and Moreno 1997) and recorded higher grain yield due to increased N fertilizer efficiency (Khan et al., 1987). The bed planted wheat + mentha recorded significantly higher straw yield of wheat over flat planting (Table 1). The two year pooled data showed that increasing rates of nitrogen application increased the straw yield of wheat up to WN150+MN75 and decreased marginally at WN180+MN75.
115
higher values of growth parameters under bed sown situation during 2007-08 were due to high rainfall of 353.7 mm between 120 days after planting to harvest stage in this year. Higher rainfall between 120 DAS to harvest stage had a negative effect on growth of mentha due to submergence of the crop under the flat bed while it benefited the bed sown treatments possibly due to availability of optimum soil moisture content. During both the years, all the levels of N application at N90/N120/N150/N180 to wheat + N75 to mentha were on par in the plant height, dry matter accumulation and number of stools m-2 of mentha but these levels were significantly higher over the control (WN0+MN0). But, leaf: stem ratio was higher under the control possibly due to less shedding of leaves whereas N fertilized treatments recorded vigorous growth which caused mutual shading of lower leaves causing early senescence and shedding. Kothari et al. (1996) also reported higher leaf: stem ratio of Japanese mint with no application of N. So, it is very clear that nitrogen application to wheat crop did not show any carry over response to all the growth parameters of mentha. Herbage and essential oil yield and essential oil content. During 2006-07, the flat planted wheat + mentha recorded higher herbage and essential oil yield of mentha than the bed planted wheat + mentha, but the differences were not significant (Table 4). Reversely, during 2007-08, bed planted wheat + mentha gave significantly higher herbage and essential oil yield over flat planted wheat + mentha. Better response on herbage yield under bed was due to more plant height, dry matter accumulation and number of stools m -2 (Table 3), which consequently enhanced the essential oil yield. Moreover, the higher herbage yield of mentha during 2007-08 was due to more rainfall of 353.7 mm between 120 days after planting to
Effect on Mentha
Growth. During 2006-07, higher plant height, dry matter accumulation, number of stools m-2 and leaf: stem ratio of mentha were recorded under flat planted wheat + mentha over bed planted wheat + mentha, but the differences were not significant (Table 3). The higher values of growth parameters were possibly due to availability of proper soil moisture under the flat and moisture stress on the beds. During 2007-08 at harvest stage, the plant height, dry matter accumulation, number of stools m-2 and leaf: stem ratio under the bed planted wheat + mentha were significantly higher over flat planted wheat + mentha. The significantly
Table 3. Effect of planting methods and nitrogen levels on growth parameters of mentha at harvest Treatment Plant height (cm) 2006-07 Planting Method (P) FP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm BP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm CD (5%) Nitrogen (Kg ha-1) WN0+MN0 WN90+MN75 WN120+MN75 WN150+MN75 WN180+MN75 CD (5%) 65.1 77.3 76.4 76.1 76.9 5.16 75.9 89.4 88.4 88.7 89.3 6.94 36.1 53.1 52.0 52.2 52.5 4.81 40.9 59.8 59.1 60.0 59.5 4.06 73.9 96.7 96.8 94.8 97.4 4.81 81.6 103.7 103.7 101.4 100.9 5.83 0.88 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.030 1.11 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.027 75.1 73.6 NS 83.8 88.9 4.39 50.3 48.1 NS 54.2 57.5 2.57 93.1 90.7 NS 94.4 102.1 3.69 0.82 0.80 NS 0.98 1.01 0.017 2007-08 DMA (q ha-1) 2006-07 2007-08 No. of stools m-2 2006-07 2007-08 Leaf: Stem ratio 2006-07 2007-08
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Sumedh Chopra, Jaspal Singh and Satpal Singh
Table 4. Effect of planting methods and nitrogen levels on the herbage yield, essential oil yield, essential oil content of mentha and wheat grain equivalent yield Treatment Herbage yield (q ha-1) 2006-07 Planting method FP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm 237.3 BP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm 233.4 CD (5%) Nitrogen (Kg ha-1) WN0+MN0 WN90+MN75 WN120+MN75 WN150+MN75 WN180+MN75 CD (5%) 171.3 252.1 250.8 251.6 250.8 14.62 196.2 280.7 282.5 281.8 281.9 17.11 110.5 153.8 155.4 152.6 153.8 9.24 100.9 131.9 133.7 131.5 130.7 8.01 0.64 0.61 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.021 0.51 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.017 84.8 132.6 139.2 138.3 134.5 5.80 91.4 132.2 137.4 137.7 136.9 7.09 88.1 132.4 138.3 138.0 135.7 4.31 NS 257.4 271.8 10.82 147.1 143.4 NS 120.6 130.9 5.06 0.62 0.62 NS 0.47 0.48 0.011 124.1 127.6 NS 120.1 134.2 4.48 122.1 130.9 2.73 2007-08 Essential oil yield (l ha-1) 2006-07 2007-08 Essential oil content (%) 2006-07 2007-08 2006-07 Wheat grain equivalent yield (q ha-1) 2007-08 Pooled
harvest stage than 70.4 mm during 2006-07. Besides, the prolonged growth period of 12 days during 2007-08 might have resulted into more accumulation of assimilates and consequently the higher herbage yield. But, the growth of mentha under flat planting was adversely affected due to stagnation of water resulting into lower herb yield than bed. Kewalanand et al. (2008) also reported that paired row planting of menthol mint on ridges + onion in furrow (2:2 rows) caused significant enhancement in menthol mint yield. During both the years, all the levels of N application at N90/N120/N150/N180 to wheat + N75 to mentha were at par in herbage and essential oil yield of mentha but these levels were significantly higher over the control (Table 4). Therefore, it may be concluded that application of nitrogen to wheat crop did not influence any parameter of mentha. As application of N to wheat was done as basal and top dressing before the planting of mentha, and possibly used by the wheat crop and N being a very mobile nutrient might have lost by leaching and volatilization. During 2006-07, the essential oil content did not differ significantly due to planting methods (Table 4). However, in the subsequent year, bed planted wheat + mentha recorded significantly higher essential oil content over flat planted wheat + mentha. In general, the essential oil content during 2007-08 was less than 2006-07, which might be due to higher rainfall of 353.7 mm between 120 days after planting to harvest stage during second year as compared to 70.4 mm in the first year. The higher rainfall might have promoted more succulent foliage and possibly diluted the oil preserved in the glands lying in the sub-cuticular region of leaves. Application of nitrogen did not influence the essential
oil content during the both years of experimentation. It was observed that no application of N (Wheat N0+Mentha N0) resulted into higher essential oil content during both the years probably due to higher leaf: stem ratio recorded at harvest stage (Table 3). Effect on wheat grain equivalent yield. During 200607, 2007-08 and on pooled average basis, the bed planted wheat + mentha recorded higher wheat grain equivalent yield of the system over flat planted wheat + mentha (Table 4). The differences were significant during 2007-08 and on pooled average basis. Nitrogen application at N90/N120/N150/ N180 to wheat + N75 to mentha recorded significantly higher wheat grain equivalent yield of the system over control. On two year pooled average basis, increasing levels of N application enhanced the wheat grain equivalent yield upto 120 + 75 kg N ha-1 for wheat and mentha, respectively.
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2006) Package of practices for crops of Punjab: Rabi 2006-07 pp 1-20. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India. Anonymous (2007) Package of practices for crops of Punjab: Kharif 2007. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India, pp. 118-121. Kewalanand, Chilana, K. and Anand, M. (2008) Feasibility of intercropping onion in menthol mint with different planting methods. J. Medicinal Aromatic Pl. Sci. 30: 126-131. Khan, M.B., Gill, M.A. and Zia, M.S. (1987) Cultural and fertilizer management practices for wheat production in Pakistan. Rachis: Barley and Wheat Newsletter 6: 40-42. Kothari, S.K., Singh, V.P. and Singh, U.B. (1996) The effect of row spacing and nitrogen fertilization on the growth and oil yield composition of Japanese mint. J. Medicinal Aromatic Pl. Sci. 18: 17-21.

Pal, M.S. (2003) Future prospects of zero tillage and FIRB planting system in Indian agriculture. Ind. Farmers Digest. April-May, 26-28. Sayre, K.D. and Moreno, R.O.H. (1997) Applications of raised bed planting systems of wheat. Wheat Programme Special Report No. 31: Mexico, CIMMYT: 1-31. Singh, D.P., Rana, N.S. and Singh, R.P. (2000) Production potential and economics of winter maize based cropping systems. Ann. Agric. Res. 21: 472-476.
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Singh, R., Gangasaran, K. and Bandyyopadhay, S.K. (1996) Studies on spatial arrangement and N levels in wheat-gram intercropping system under dry land situation. Ann. Agric. Res. 17: 74-79. Tomar, S.K., Singh, H.P. and Ahlawat, I.P.S. (1997) Dry matter accumulation and nitrogen uptake in wheat based intercropping systems as affected by N fertilizer. Indian J. Agron. 42: 3337.
Received 25 October, 2011; Accepted 20 April, 2012
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 118-122
Evaluation of Bt Cotton as an Integral Component of Integrated Pest Management

Vikas Jindal*, Naveen Aggarwal and Vikram Singh
Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, India *E-mail: vikas_ento@yahoo.co.in
Abstract: Bt cotton hybrid were evaluated as an component of Integrated Pest Management and compared with farmers practice. During 2005-06, the Bt hybrid viz., RCH134 with IPM module was compared with BT hybrid with farmers practice (FP), conventional variety (CV) F1861 with IPM module and F1861 with farmers practice (FP). Later in 2006-2007 and 2007-2008, IPM module with Bt (RCH134Bt) was compared with non Bt version of same hybrid, RCH134 non Bt, with farmers practice. The sucking pests remained almost same in all the treatments in all years of study. The bollworm incidence is quite low in IPM and FP plots with Bt cotton than in conventional variety (F1861). The results indicated that performance of Bt cotton is better in IPM module than non-Bt hybrid in terms of lower incidence of bollworms, higher yield, gross income and cost benefit ratio. Bt cotton hybrids must be used as an component of IPM module to get the highest returns. Key Words: Bt Cotton, Cost benefit ratio, Farmers practice, Integrated pest management
Cotton is an attractive host for several pests and 162 insect pests have been found to be associated with Indian cotton ecosystem from sowing to harvesting (Dhawan, 2004). Of these, nine are considered as key pests in different zones. The bollworm complex {american bollworm Helicoverpa armigera (Hbner), spotted bollworms Earias insulana (Boisduval) and E. vitella (Fabricius), pink bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders)} may lead to complete failure of non Bt cotton crop. For the management of these pests, research over the last 25 years has generated various modules of IPM in different regions of the country. IPM technology has been successfully implemented in rainfed cotton at Astha village in Maharashtra (Singh et al., 2002). In the present era, Bt cotton has proved quite beneficial for managing these bollworms and reducing the use of insecticides. Since the introduction of Bt cotton, its performance was studied for insect pest incidence and economics in comparison to non-Bt cotton cultivars. It has been quite clear from the early studies that Bt cotton is quite effective against bollworms. However, Fitt (2000) stated that Bt cotton technology must not be considered as silver bullets, but should be viewed as a foundation of IPM systems, including biological and cultural control tactics, for sustainable crop production. Therefore, taking these factors in view, the studies were undertaken to evaluate the performance Bt cotton as an integral component of integrated pest management module against farmers practice.
Kharif 2005-06 to 2007-08. During 2005-06, the Bt hybrid viz., RCH134 with IPM module was compared with Bt hybrid with farmers practice (FP), conventional variety (CV) F1861 with IPM module and F1861 with farmers practice (FP). Later in 2006-2007 and 2007-2008, IPM module with Bt (RCH134) was compared with non Bt version of same hybrid, RCH134 non Bt, with farmers practice. The crop was grown in plots measuring 30 x 60 m 2 following PAU recommended practices. The IPM module followed includes first spray of neem based insecticides against sucking pests, use of pheromone traps for bollworms, erecting bird perches and economic threshold level based spray of insecticides, however, in farmers practice only regular sprays at 7-10 days intervals were given. The observations on incidence of sucking pests, bollworms and fruiting bodies damage due to bollworms were recorded from 45 randomly selected plants from each plot at 15 days interval. The sucking pests viz., thrips (nymph and adult), whitefly (adult), jassid (nymph) and aphid (young one and adult) were recorded from 3 top fully opened leaves. The intact fruiting bodies damage and predators population was recorded on per plant basis. The boll and locule damage was observed in bolls collected from 15 randomly selected plants from the field. The yield from each plot was noted and the economics of IPM and farmers practice was worked out. The data were subjected to ANOVA test and the means were compared using Least Significant Differences (P=0.05).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Comparison of Bt and non-Bt Hybrid with IPM and Farmer Practice (FP)
The population of sucking pests viz. jassid, whitefly and

Field experiments were conducted at Regional Station, Punjab Agricultural University, Faridkot for three years i.e.
Evaluation of Bt Cotton
thrips differ non significantly among the three modules tested. The maximum population of thrips, jassid and whitefly were recorded in IPM-Bt, IPM-CV and FP-Bt, respectively (Table 1). The population of aphid was significantly higher on FP-CV than other three modules, but aphid is considered as minor pest in Punjab and occur sporadically, therefore we did not rank modules with respect to aphids. Patil et al. (2004) also recorded the population of sucking pests more or less same in Bt and non Bt cotton hybrids. However, Bambawale et al. (2004) recorded the incidence of all sucking pests, whiteflies, jassids, thrips and aphids were statistically higher in non IPM with conventional cotton as compared to IPM with Bt Mech162, non Bt Mech162 and conventional variety. These variations in results may be due to differences in susceptibility of different hybrids to sucking pests and different location specific modules being followed. The infestation due to bollworms was significantly different in all the modules. The maximum intact fruiting bodies damage was in IPM-CC followed by FP-CC and it was minimum in FP-Bt (Table 2). Similar trend was observed in open boll and locule damage in all the four modules. The results indicated that Bt hybrids with IPM and FP effectively manage the bollworm complex. The findings corroborates with those of Patil et al. (2004) who found significant effect of Bt toxin in Bt cotton (Mech 184 Bt) on bollworms. Bambawale et al. (2004) recorded the minimum damage in IPM plots with Mech 162Bt followed by IPM with conventional cotton, IPM with non Bt and non IPM with conventional cotton. The economic threshold level for sucking pests crossed once in all the four modules and that for bollworms once in BT plot four times in IPM-
119
conventional variety and 2 times in FP-conventional variety (Table3). Similarly, the quantity of insecticides used was higher in FP-conventional variety. The FP-CV required highest plant protection cost as compared to other modules with minimum in IPM-Bt and consequently the yield was significantly higher (34.07 and 33.84 q ha-1) in IPM-Bt and FP-Bt plot compared to IPM and FP with conventional variety (Table 4). Taking into consideration the maximum gross income, cost of cultivation and net profit, the cost benefit ratio was highest (2.63) in IPM-Bt plot, followed by FP-Bt, IPM-CV abd FP-CV. The results clearly indicated that Bt as a component of IPM and with FP recorded highest yield and net returns than conventional variety. The present studies have been supported by Bhosle et al. (2004), Patil et al. (2004) and Prasad et al. (2008). Bambawale et al. (2004) also recorded significantly higher yield in IPM with Mech162 Bt followed by IPM with non Bt Mech162, IPM-CC and on IPM-CC.
Comparison of IPM- Bt with FP-non Bt

During 2005-06, higher seed cotton yield in Bt cotton (RCH134) in IPM plots may be due to higher potential of Bt cotton hybrid than conventional variety (F1861). Therefore, to confirm the potential of Bt cotton as a component of IPM, the experiments were conducted with RCH134 Bt with IPM and non Bt version of RCH with farmers practice during 2006-07 and 2007-08. The results revealed that the incidence of all the sucking pests was almost similar in IPM-Bt and FP-non Bt plots (Table 5). The population of whitefly remained below economic threshold level during both years of study and it did not vary among IPM-Bt and FPnon Bt plots, although it was higher in FP-non Bt plot. Bhosle
Table1. Population of sucking pests in Bt and conventional variety (F1861) under IPM and non-IPM practice during 2005-06 Insect pests Thrips / 3 leaves Aphid / 3 leaves Jassid / 3 leaves Whitefly / 3 leaves IPM-Bt (RCH134) 1.66 1.97 0.96 4.79
a a a a
FP-Bt(RCH134) 0.60 0.86 0.98 5.35

a a a a
IPM-F 1861 1.09 1.58 1.33 4.82

a a a a
FP-F1861 1.58 a 7.11 b 1.21 a 4.17 a
Means followed by same letter are not significant at P=0.05 level by LSD; FP - Farmers Practice Table 2. Bollworm incidence in Bt and conventional variety (F1861) under IPM and non-IPM practice during 2005-06 Parameters IPM-Bt (RCH134) 0.00 7.78 0.3
a
FP-Bt(RCH134) 0.00 0.00 5.60 0.87

a a a a
IPM-F 1861 0.00 0.00

a a c c
FP-F1861 0.00 a 0.00 a 19.57 b 12.88 b 6.25 b
Heliothis eggs / plant Heliothis larvae / plant

Fruiting bodies damage (%) Boll damage (%) Locule damage (%)
0.00
a a
25.36 24.38
0.11 a
0.36 a
11.13 c
Means followed by same letter are not significant at P=0.05 level by LSD; FP - Farmers Practice
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Vikas Jindal, Naveen Aggarwal and Vikram Singh
Table 3. Economic threshold levels and number of sprays in RCH Bt and F1861 under IPM and non-IPM practice during 2005-06 Parameter No. of times ETL crossed for sucking pests No. of times ETL (larva or % damage) crossed for bollworms No of sprays Quantity of insecticides used (g a.i. ha-1) 3 1382.50 4 2395.00 5 3257.50 8 5090.00 1 1 4 2 IPM-Bt (RCH134) 1 FP-Bt(RCH134) 1 IPM-F 1861 1 FP-F1861 1
Table 4. Economics of Bt and conventional variety (F1861) under IPM and non-IPM practice during 2005-06 Parameter *Plant protection cost (Rs ha )
-1
IPM-Bt (RCH134) 1616.00 34.07 62518.45 15598.00 45304.45 2.63
FP-Bt(RCH134) 2266.00 33.87 62151.45 15598.00 44287.45 2.48
IPM-F 1861 2892.00 26.61 48829.35 11925.50 34011.85 1:2.30
FP-F1861 4641.00 27.88 51159.80 11925.50 34593.30 1:2.09
Yield (q ha-1) **Gross income (Rs ha-1) ***Cost of cultivation (Rs ha-1) Net profit (Rs ha-1) Cost benefit ratio
**Rates of different pesticides based on the rate contract by the Store Purchase Organisation, PAU Ludhiana with Pesticides Dealers *Based on MSP fixed for the medium staple cotton by the Agricultural Costs and Prices Commission, Government of India for 2005-06; *** Source: Department of Economics, PAU, Ludhiana Table 5. Population of sucking pests in Bt-IPM and non-Bt farmers plots Insect pests Thrips / 3 leaves Aphid / 3 leaves Jassid / 3 leaves Whitefly / 3 leaves 0.71 0.00
a a
2006-07 IPM-Bt(RCH134) FP-Non Bt 1.19 0.00

a a
2007-08 IPM-Bt(RCH134) 4.83 0.32

a a
Mean IPM-Bt(RCH134) 2.77 0.16

a a
FP-Non Bt 4.66 0.26

a a
FP-Non Bt 2.93 a 0.13 a 1.55 a 4.54 a
1.76 a 3.00 a
1.64 a 3.42 a
1.46 a 5.12 a
1.45 a 5.66 a
1.61 a 4.06 a
Means followed by same letter are not significant at P=0.05 level by LSD; FP - Farmers Practice
et al. (2004) in their studies indicated that IPM module with three different Bt cotton hybrids (Mech 12Bt, Mech 162 Bt and Mech 182Bt) have variable population of jassid as compared to that on FP-non Bt. It was significantly lower in FP-CV than in all the hybrids with IPM after 45DAS and then only Mech12 Bt after 60DAS. Similarly, variable results were reported with different hybrids for thrips. Prasad et al. (2008) reported that sucking insect pest was slightly higher except thrips in Bt hybrids (RCH134) as compared to non Bt version with IPM.
Significantly lower intact fruiting bodies, boll and locule damage was recorded in IPM-Bt as compared to FP-non Bt Table 6. The mean fruiting bodies, boll and locule damage was in IPM-BT cotton than in FP-non Bt. The study clearly indicated the positive effect of Bt as an component of IPM module on bollworm infestation. Bhosle et al . (2004) reported comparatively higher damage of bollworms in FPCV (NHH44) and lower yield than three Bt hybrids with IPM module. Bambawale et al. (2004) reported the per cent
damage to bolls was statistically lowest in Bt Mech-IPM as compared to Non IPM-CC. The square and locule damage was higher in non Bt and Bt (RCH134) under IPM (Prasad et al., 2008) The mean number of times when sucking pests crossed economic threshold level is same (0.50) in both the years of study in both IPM-BT and FP-non Bt module (Table 7). Bollworm infestation did not crossed ETL in IPMBt plots during both the years, while it crossed 2 and 4 times in FP-non Bt plot during 2006-07 and 2007-08, respectively. The mean number of sprays and total quantity of insecticides used was 1.00 and 737.50 g a.i. ha-1 in IPMBt as compared to 7.50 and 3538.25 g a.i. ha-1 in FP-non Bt, respectively (Table 7). Accordingly, the mean plant protection cost in IPM-Bt plot is quite low (575.48 Rs ha-1) as compared to FP-non Bt (5105.45 Rs ha-1). Using Bt hybrid and adopting IPM practices resulted in higher yield (6.61 q ha-1) than using non Bt hybrids with farmers practice. The cost of cultivation was higher in IPM-Bt mainly due to the cost of seed. The net
Evaluation of Bt Cotton
Table 6. Bollworm incidence in Bt-IPM and non-Bt farmers plots Parameter 2006-07 IPM-Bt(RCH134) FP-Non Bt 0.00 a 0.00 9.08 6.38
a b b
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2007-08 IPM-Bt(RCH134) 0.00 a 0.00 1.39 0.00 0.00

a a a a
Mean FP-Non Bt 0.00 a 0.00 5.44 4.83 2.57

a b b b
IPM-Bt(RCH134) 0.00 a 0.00 0.70 1.20 0.42

a a a a
FP-Non Bt 0.00 a 0.00 a 7.26 b 10.28 b 4.48 b
Heliothis eggs / plant Heliothis larvae / plant

Fruiting bodies damage (%) Boll damage (%) Locule damage (%)
0.00a 0.00 0.00 2.39 0.84

a a a a
15.73
Means followed by same letter are not significant at P=0.05 level by LSD; FP - Farmers Practice Table 7. Economic threshold levels and number of sprays in Bt-IPM and non-Bt farmers plots Parameter No. of times ETL crossed for sucking pests 0 2006-07 IPM-Bt(RCH134) FP-Non Bt 0 2 8 3040.75 1 0 1 600 2007-08 IPM-Bt(RCH134) FP-Non Bt 1 4 7 4035.75 0.50 0.00 1.00 737.50 Mean IPM-Bt(RCH134) FP-Non Bt 0.50 3.00 7.50 3538.25
No. of times ETL (larva or 0 % damage) crossed for bollworms No of sprays Quantity of insecticides used (g a.i. ha-1) 1 875.00
Table 8. Economics of Bt-IPM and non-BT farmers Parameter *Plant protection cost (Rs ha )
-1
2006-07 IPM-Bt(RCH134) 625.95 21.03 38585.27 19238.50 18720.82 1.94 FP-Non Bt 5008.40 12.19 22371.92 13728.50 3635.02 1.19 525 21.19
2007-08 IPM-Bt(RCH134) FP-Non Bt 5202.50 16.80 32760.00 13078.50 14479.00 1.79 575.48 21.11 39952.89 18913.50 20463.91 2.05
Mean IPM-Bt(RCH134) FP-Non Bt 5105.45 14.50 27565.96 13403.50 9057.01 1.49
Yield (q/ha) **Gross income (Rs ha-1) ***Cost of cultivation (Rs ha-1) Net profit (Rs ha-1) Cost benefit ratio
41320.50 18588.50 22207.00 2.16
**Rates of different pesticides based on the rate contract by the Store Purchase Organisation, PAU Ludhiana with Pesticides Dealers *Based on MSP fixed for the medium staple cotton by the Agricultural Costs and Prices Commission, Government of India for 2006-07 and 2007-08; *** Source: Department of Economics, PAU, Ludhiana
profit was higher (Rs 20463.91 ha-1) in IPM-Bt plot as compared to FP-non Bt (Rs 9057.01 ha-1). The cost benefit ratio also follow similar trend, higher 2.05 in IPM-Bt as compared to 1.49 in FP-non Bt. Bambawale et al. (2004) also recorded higher seed cotton yield, net returns and B: C ratio in IPM-Bt block as compared to non IPM-non Bt. Bhosle et al. (2004) also recorded higher returns in IPM block. Various studies also showed that Bt cotton hybrids as superior to non Bt hybrid with respect to yield, net return (Patel et al., 2004). The experiment during 2005-06 showed that the IPM practices and Bt cotton hybrids gave better returns than conventional variety and farmers practice. The further studies indicated that Bt must be used as component of IPM for harvesting maximum returns. Rao et al. (2007) found no significant reduction in plant protection expenditure on
adoption of Bt hybrids without IPM practices, however, adoption of IPM practices has lead to reduced use of insecticides and increased profitability. Therefore it can be concluded that rather than using Bt hybrids as silver bullets only these must be used as an component of IPM to harvest maximum economic benefit to growers and society.
REFERENCES
Bambawale, O. M., Singh, A., Sharma, O. P., Bhosle, B. B., Lavekar, R. C., Dhandapani, A., Kanwar, V., Tamhankar, R. K., Rathod, K. S. and Patange, N. R. (2004) Performance of Bt cotton MECH-162 Bt under Integrated Pest Management in farmers participatory field trial in Nanded District, Central India. Curr. Sci. 86 : 900-909. Bhosle, B.B., Rathod, K.S., Patange, N.R. and Adkine, S.J. (2004) Effectiveness of Bt cotton in pest management as an integral component of IPM. In: B.M. Kahdi, H.M. Vamadevaiah, I.S. Katageri, S.N. Chattannavar, S.S. Udikeri and S.B. Patil (Eds)
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International Symposium on Strategies for Sustainable Cotton Production a Global Vision 3 Crop protection, 2325 November 2004, UAS, Dharwad, Karnataka, India, pp-155157. International Symposium on Strategies for Sustainable Cotton Production a Global Vision 3 Crop protection, 2325 November 2004, UAS, Dharwad, Karnataka, India, pp-139142.
Prasad N.V.V.S.D. and Rao, N. H. (2008) Field evaluation of Bt cotton hybrids against insect pest complex under rain fed conditions. Indain J. Entomol. 70 (4): 330-336. Rao, C.A.R., Rao, M.S., Naraiah, P., Malathi, B. and Reddy, Y.V.R. (2007) Profitability of cotton on a pest management continuum in Guntur District of Andhra Pradesh. Agric. Econ. Res. Rev. 20: 273-282. Singh, A., Sharma, A.P., Lavekar, R.C., Bambawale, O.M., Murthy, K.S. and Dhandapani, A. (2002) IPM technology for rainfed cotton. Tech. Bull. 11: 1-36.
Dhawan A K. (2004) Insect resistance in cotton : Achievements and challenges. In : Dhaliwal G S and Singh R (ed) Host Plant Resistance to Insects ; Concepts and Applications. Panima Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, pp 263-314. Fitt, G.P. (2000) An Australian approach to IPM in cotton: integrating new technologies to minimise insecticide dependence. Crop Prot. 19 : 793-800. Patil, B. V., Bheemanna, M., Hanchinal, S. G., and Kengegowda, N. (2004) Performance and economics of Bt cotton cultivation in irrigated ecosystem. In: B.M. Kahdi, H.M. Vamadevaiah, I.S. Katageri, S.N. Chattannavar, S.S. Udikeri and S.B. Patil (Eds)
Received 12 December, 2011; Accepted 4 May, 2011
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 123-130
Farmers Perceived Constraints in the Uptake of Cotton IPM Practices

Rajinder Peshin*, A.K. Dhawan1, Kamaldeep Singh1 and Rakesh Sharma
Division of Agricultural Extension Education, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu 1 Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana - 141 001, India *E-mail : rpeshin@rediffmail.com
Abstract: Adoption and diffusion research in rural sociology, extension education, and agricultural economics is replete with the studies that socio-economic variables affect the adoption or rejection of the agricultural technologies. On the basis of these studies, the farmers are categorised in innovators/laggards. But the limited number of studies undertaken to find out the other reasons for adoption/rejection have comprehensively concluded that the technological attributes affect the rate of adoption, varying between 49 to 87 per cent. The study evaluation of the insecticide resistance management (IRM) based IPM programme in Punjab was undertaken to find out the outcomes of this programme by employing quasi-experimental non equivalent control group design, and the perceived reasons for non-adoption expressed by the 150 IRM trained farmers selected from 15 IRM villages. The constraints in the uptake of IPM practices were: IPM technologies not being compatible with the farming system, benefits of the technology not being visible, risk factors and complexity associated with knowledge intensive practices (software technologies) like ETL. The researchers should re-visit the IPM strategies to develop farmers compatible less complex IPM practices, and to expand the definition of ecosystem further to include farmers by eliciting their knowledge and skills. Extension professionals from the subject matter areas should move from training to education of farmers. Policy makers should take a clear cut stand, whether ecologically viable integrated pest management or integrated pesticide management is the main plant protection strategy? Key Words: IRM, IPM, Cotton IPM, Attributes of IPM, Adoption of IPM, Constraints in Uptake of IPM
Rogers (1983,1995 and 2003) recognized five attributes of a technology affecting the adoption, these are relative advantage, compatibility, observability, complexity and trialability, which in turn affect the rate of adoption by 49 to 87 per cent and. Many adoption studies have shown the importance of these aspects (Fliegel et al., 1967). The adoption of technology for natural resource management and conservation, such as soil conservation, integrated pest management (IPM), irrigation management, are considered apart, from the use of conventional green revolution inputs, such as high yielding varieties, fertilizers and pesticides (Caswell et al., 2000). In comparison with use of single measure such as pesticides, IPM appears, and often is, complex, its effect is rarely immediately observable (Dent, 1995). The constraints in the adoption have been in terms of appropriateness of technology, economic implications, availability of appropriate information, acquiring of knowledge and skills by farmers for applying the IPM in their fields, dissemination of IPM, vast network of chemical industry to lure farmers for using pesticides and appropriateness of technology in terms of it being less complex and compatible with the farming system. Due to complexities of carrying out IPM, it has been difficult for farmers in carrying out IPM practices like ETL (Godell, 1984, van de Fliert, 1993, Eslanda and Heong, 1994, Matterson et al., 1994, Malone et al., 2004). The compatibility of an IPM practice also plays role in its adoption. If IPM practice is not compatible like trash trap in maize (Bentley and Andrews,
1991), it is a limitation in its adoption. Economic returns/ implications of IPM need to be demonstrated to the farmer so that the farmer learns that even buying information and advice can be more profitable than buying chemicals (Lacewell, 1980). Growers perceived that IPM practices are more risky than conventional pest management (Norris et al., 2003), so the risk associated must be decreased to make farmers sure of its economic viability. Dissemination of IPM technology related information in top-down approach is also a constraint in many developing countries (Kenmore et al., 1995) and lack of proper knowledge about different aspects of IPM like agroecosystem analysis and not acquiring required skills for its use act as barriers (van de Fliert, 1993, Merchant and Teetas, 1994). Vast network of pesticide companies in the developed and developing world also lured back the IPM practioners. The pesticide company agents scouting the farmers field and assisting them in making pesticide use decisions act as a barrier for IPM adoption. Counteracting forces even in public extension services confuse the farmers and the lack of commitment of extension agencies to IPM limit the spread and adoption of IPM (van de Fliert, 1993) and lack of master trainers act as obstacle in the adoption of IPM (Matteson et al., 1994). The constraints for different agricultural systems can vary as in most of the Latin American countries there is no public service extension so the farmers are more dependent
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Rajinder Peshin, A.K. Dhawan, Kamaldeep Singh and Rakesh Sharma

of the IRM farmers is given in Table 1. Five cotton IPM practices namely: timely (April) sowing of cotton crop to reduce insect pest losses, cultivation of resistant and transgenic cotton varieties, seed dressing to reduce the impact of sucking pest upto 60-70days after sowing, use of economic threshold levels for making pesticide use decisions and rationalizing the insecticide use based on IRM strategy were selected as indicative of IPM adoption. The data were collected with the help of semi-structured interview schedule.
on agents of chemical industry for information. In the USA, the constraints are in terms of IPM adoption is often more expensive than conventional pesticide based management, due to increased need for population assessment and record keeping, and where it meets economic interest of growers adoption is high. In developing countries counteracting approaches, lack of proper dissemination of technology in a participatory mode are the barriers in the adoption of IPM. For different crops also the constraints differ. The lack of knowledge in terms of comprehension and its applications and lack of skills to use complex practices are the universal constrains reported in numerous studies. In this paper, the constraints in the adoption of selected IPM practices disseminated under the Insecticide Resistance Management (IRM) programme implemented in the state of Punjab are reported. The study intended to analyse how the attributes of innovation effect the adoption of selected IPM practices like timely sowing of cotton crop, adoption of the Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) recommended resistant varieties, seed treatment, use of ETL for insecticides application and IRM strategy for insecticide use, and what are the cotton growers perceived constraints in the adoption of IPM practices.

Constraints in timely sowing of the cotton crop. Along with cultivation of early maturing resistant varieties, the time of sowing plays an important role in reducing the pest damage and pesticide use. The manipulation of sowing time helps to minimize the buildup of Helicoverpa armigera (ABW) and Bemisia tabaci (whitefly) and timely sowing crop escapes damage from these pests (Dhawan, 1999). Though the IRM farmers having knowledge about the timely sowing was 93 per cent (Peshin et al., 2007) but only 74 per cent farmers adopt this practice (Peshin et al., 2009) as there are a number of impediments faced by the farmers in completing timely sowing of the crop. The IRM farmers who had either sown cotton crop in April as well as May, or had sown only in May or later, reported that shortage of canal irrigation is the most important constraint in timely sowing of the cotton crop. The IRM farmers who had partially sown in April, 79 per cent of them reported shortage and non-availability of canal water as the limiting factor in completing the sowing in April, and 38 per cent, reported that poor quality of ground water is another important constraint (Table 2). The incomplete/late harvesting of wheat also limits the complete sowing of the cotton crop in April. The IRM farmers who had sown the whole area under cotton crop late also reported the irrigation water being the limiting factor. The different constraints as reported by IRM farmers are listed in Table 2. The researchers should take the limitations faced by the farmers into consideration before recommending such practices which are partially compatible with the farming system in Punjab. Here the technology recommended does not fit with the farming system. Timely sowing does not fit in the wheat-cotton crop rotation but fits rapeseed mustard-cotton crop rotation. A farmer in village Malwala, district Bathinda has solved the problem of shortage of canal water for irrigation, by applying the pre-sowing irrigation in the standing wheat crop few days before harvesting of the wheat crop, and on harvesting of the wheat crop the farmer immediately goes

A quasi-experimental design of research was employed for conducting the evaluation study of the IRM-IPM programme. A with/without, and before/after design was applied in villages covered under the IRM-IPM programme (experimental group-with IRM intervention) and villages not covered under the IRM-IPM programme (control groupwithout IRM intervention) for assessing the benefits of the IRM-IPM programme. The constraints in the adoption of the IRM-IPM practices were studied only in the IRM project area. The constraints were measured as the impediments faced by the farmers in the adoption of selected IPM practices, and were measured in terms of percentage of farmers reporting the constraint in the adoption of a particular practice. The study was conducted in three cotton-growing districts of the State of Punjab: Bathinda, Ferozepur and Mansa. These districts were selected purposively as they were being covered under the IRM-IPM programme, and account for 70 per cent (356,000 out of 509,000 ha) of the total area under cotton cultivation in Punjab. A sample of 150 farmers from 15 randomly selected villages, where the IRM-IPM programme was implemented, was selected for the study (experimental group). From hereon, these villages will be referred to as IRM villages, and their farmers will be referred to as IRM farmers. The descriptive statistics
Constraints in the Uptake of Cotton IPM

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the IRM farmers District Bathinda Education (% farmers) I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Illiterate Upto primary Middle Matric 10+2 Graduate and above 6 10 18 36 14 16 84 461.2 415.8 53.0 7.6 9.22 6 20 46 28 Area under cotton crop(ha) Percentage area under cotton crop 313.0 67.87 8 18 26 36 8 4 66 675.0 611.8 74.8 11.6 13.50 4 12 40 44 428.2 63.44 16 12 26 32 14 0 64 377.0 352.4 29.6 5.0 7.54 2 24 56 18 217.65 57.73 10 13 23 35 12 7 71 1513.2 1380.0 157.4 24.2 10.09 4 19 47 30 958.85 63.37 District Ferozepur District Mansa Overall for three districts
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Telephone connection (% farmers) Total operational land (ha) holding (i + ii - iii) I. II. III. Owned Leased-in Leased-out
Average operational landholding(ha) I. II. III. IV. 1-2ha (small) 2 4ha (Semi-medium) 4 10ha (Medium) >10ha (Large)
for land preparation and completes sowing in the month of April, even though his total land holding is 25 hectares and had cultivated cotton on 10.4 hectares. The constraints in the timely sowing are mainly the incompatibility of the technology and physical problem of the irrigation water. Thus, the farmer blame bias of the researchers and extension functionaries is proved to be incorrect. Constraints in the adoption of PAU recommended varieties other than Bt cotton. The introduction of Bt cotton in the state of Punjab has totally changed the cotton growing scenario. Before the introduction of Bt cotton in 2005, 79 per cent farmers had already cultivated the Bt cotton in 2004. The adoption of the other recommended but non-Bt varieties was not encouraging. The number of IRM farmers cultivating recommended resistant non- Bt varieties was very less. The respondent IRM farmers were asked in open ended question to rank in order, the three important characteristics of a variety, which influences their decision to adopt a variety. The results are given in Table 3. Rank one was given to higher yielding by 58 per cent, resistant varieties by 27 per cent and authentic seed/early maturity by five per cent of the IRM farmers. Rank two was given to higher yielding by 29 per cent, resistant varieties by 32 per cent, and good loculi
size/lint quality by 13 per cent of the IRM farmers. Rank three was given to higher yielding by eight per cent, resistant varieties seven per cent, and authentic seed and early maturity by five per cent of the IRM farmers. The constraints encountered by the farmers in timely sowing of the cotton crop were mainly the incompatibility attribute of the technology and problems of irrigation water. Thus, the farmer blame bias of the researcher and extension professionals is contradicted. But in case of Bt cotton, a hardware technology, the relative advantages were visible without any complexity involved as perceived by the farmers, the rate of adoption was fast. Farmers started getting aware about the existence of Bt-cotton in 2000 and by 2004 awareness-knowledge were 100 per cent and it formed S-shaped curve (Figure 1). The majority of the IRM farmers, 71 per cent had come to know about Bt-cotton in 2002 and 2003 . The sources of information was other farmers (76%), representatives of companies (19%), newspapers (11%), Arthias (5%). Interpersonal communication channels were the main source of diffusion of this innovation. This implies that farmer to farmer diffusion was effective , in case the technology is predominantly hardware and the economic benefits are visible.
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Table 2. Constraints in the adoption of timely sowing Constraint Shortage/non-availability of canal water Poor quality (No. 2/No. 3) of tube well water Late/incomplete harvesting of wheat crop Delayed land preparation More land holding/not possible to complete sowing in April Timely sowing Mustard + cotton crop rotation n= Multiple response Decimals rounded up to nearest whole numbers Some farmers apply pre-sowing irrigation in standing wheat crop Table 3. Important attributes for adoption of a particular cotton variety as ranked by the IRM farmers Attribute of variety Rank I Higher yield Resistant to pest Early maturing Good quality seed Good loculi size/lint quality Less water requiring 58 27 5 5 1 3 Ranking (% farmers) Rank II 29 32 9 3 13 3 Rank III 8 3 11 5 0 3 District wise % age of farmers Bathinda 88 25 25 18 8 0 40 Ferozepur 80 33 4 0 0 7 45 Mansa 71 56 10 2 7 0 41 Overall %age of 3 districts 79 38 13 6 5 2 126
Decimals rounded up to nearest whole numbers
The rate of adoption of Bt-cotton also formed S shaped curve (Fig. 1), which is in agreement with Rogers (1983) diffusion theory. The Bt cotton technology is similar to the green revolution technologies (high yielding varieties, fertilization, pesticides), so the rate of adoption was fast as cotton growers were rewarded with less bollworm problem and higher yields. Against four per cent adoption in 2002, rate of adoption multiplied four times in 2003 and during 2004 rate of adoption was 72 per cent before the official release and recommendation. The rate of adoption of Bt cotton increased to 95 in the subsequent years. The attributes of Bt-cotton as reported by IRM farmers were resistance to boll-worms, higher yielding, saving on pesticide expenditure, timely wheat sowing (relative advantages and observability); easy to adopt and compatible (compatibility); high cost of seed, more water requiring, higher fertilizer dosages, susceptible to CLCuV and tobacco caterpillar (non-compatibility), but no complexity was reported by the farmers. The majority of the IRM farmers (52%) had not procured Bt-cotton seed from authentic sources in 2004. Some farmers had even procured from Gujarat state, and were sure of the authencity of seed (43%). Role of public service extension does not count if the technologies are developed
by the private sector and are economically viable. Extension or no extension, the farmers adopt the technologies which have visible relative advantages. Constraints in the adoption of seed treatment. The major constraints reported by 93 IRM farmers, for not treating the seed were in terms of lack of knowledge (51%), no previous experience (29%), seed treating chemicals not available locally (5%), chemicals being poisonous and laborious practice (2%). The other reasons given by the IRM farmers (18%) were that there is no benefit of seed treatment (no observability), IRM programme started late and farmers gained knowledge about seed treatment when sowing was complete (10%). Table 4 gives an overview of the reasons and constraints for not treating seed. Constraints in the adoption of ETL. Waibel (1986) and Smith et al. (1988) showed that economic threshold level (ETL) based pesticide use had economic benefits but its uptake by the farmers was negligible. The Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India recommended an ETL for cotton jassid (Amrasca biguttula) in 1979 (PAU, 1979), and for whitefly ( Bemisiatabaci) and bollworm complex (Helicoverpa armigera, Earias vitella and Pectinophora gossypiella) in 1991 (PAU, 1991). The cotton farmers in Punjab had no knowledge about ETL, prior to the start of
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Fig. 1. Rate of adoption of economic thresholds and Bt cotton
Table 4. Adoption of seed treatment/treated seed and reasons for its adoption Practice/Reason Seed treatment/treated seed i. ii. Seed treatment# Treated seed# 90 13 90 10 48 95 40 2 14 5 0 43 Decimals rounded up to nearest whole numbers District wise percentage of farmers Bathinda Ferozepur 45 10 35 55 49 77 23 0 0 9 4 22 Mansa 92 2 92 8 49 100 11 4 2 6 0 45 Overall percentage of 3 districts 75 8 72 25 146 94 25 3 6 6 1 110
No seed treatment/treated seed n Reasons# i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

#
As seed already treated Delayed attack of jassid Good germination Less disease infestation/CLCuV No termite damage Given by dept. of Agric. for trial n Multiple responses,
the insecticide resistance management based IPM programme in 2002. Though, it has relative advantage over prophylactic pesticide spray, its adoption was zero in cotton in Punjab (Peshin et al., 2009). During the implementation of the IRM programme 35,25 and 33 per cent farmers adopted the ETLs for Jassid, whitefly and American bollworm, respectively but once the IRM intervention was
withdrawn adoption rate showed a down ward slide. The constraints limiting the adoption of ETL were similar in terms of complexities. The constraints expressed by 88 IRM farmers, were that determining ETL is time consuming (26%), lack of proper knowledge, comprehension and skill (20%), laborious (22%), pest population never being below ETL in case of ABW and whitefly (8%) (Table 5).
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Table 5. Constraints/reasons in the adoption of economic threshold level (reasons other than constraints also included) Constraint/Reason District-wise percentage of farmers Bathinda (n=19) i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Time consuming General observation enough to take decision Lack of knowledge/comprehension and skill Risk involved Laborious and difficult to calculate frequently Application of insecticides as a preventive major based on our past experience Use pheromone traps ABW and whitefly ix. x. Application of insecticides at egg stage of the pest No benefit of ETL 11 0 Decimals rounded up to nearest whole numbers 3 5 0 0 3 2 viii. Pest population never below ETL in case of 5 5 0 11 0 14 3 0 6 7 1 8 16 42 21 16 21 Ferozepur (n=36) 31 25 17 19 17 Mansa (n=33) 27 36 24 21 27 Overall percentage of 3 districts (n=88) 26 33 20 19 22
Multiple response,
One of the attributes of ETL expressed by farmers was risk which was not forming the part of semi-structured questions related to attributes of ETL, but in case of open ended questions related to constraints, risk was reported as a constraint by 19 per cent of IRM farmers (Table 5). The other reasons for not adopting ETL were: insecticides are applied as preventive measure (7%), their past experience and general observations were enough to take pesticide related decisions (33%). No benefit of ETL was reported by two per cent of the 88 IRM farmers. The ETL not being adopted puts a question mark on the applicability of this practice at farmers level in Punjab and taking it as indicator for determining the level of IPM adoption. Use of pesticides according to good agricultural practice. Pesticide based pest management in itself is a complex technology for farmers to efficiently adopt (Litsinger et al., 2009). It is a mix of software (consisting of knowledge base) and hardware (consisting of inputs) technology. Hardware in terms of the pesticides, and software in terms of selection of a right pesticide against a particular pest, right dosage, right dilution and right time of application. Hardware side of technology is dominant and its adoption is faster as compared to software side of a technology (Rogers, 2003). The pesticide based pest management requires higher levels of knowledge and greater skills on the part of farmers in terms of selecting a right pesticide, pesticide dosage and dilution (spray volume). Most pesticides are only toxic to a specific pests, can be washed away by rain, can drift with wind, require being placed on a specific part of the plant and must be diluted correctly. The State of Punjab being the Leader of the Green Revolution in India, the pesticide use is also the highest. But the use of pesticides
according to correct dosages, right timing and application technology is not upto the accepted norms. The farmers either under dose or overdosed the insecticides in cotton (Table 6). Under the IRM oprogramme endosufan insecticide was recommended as the recommended insecticide against Jassid. Farmers were reluctant to use it, as they felt intoxicated after its spraying. The Excel pesticide company was selling endosufan as IPM pesticide. The farmers were ahead of the scientists, because they have real life experiences and now there is a hue and cry for banning endosulfan in India.
Table 6. The adoption of correct and incorrect dosages of insecticides by the IRM farmers Insecticide Alphamethrin Cypermethrin Fenvalerate Acephate Chlorpyriphos Ethion Monocrotohos Profenophos Quinalphos Triazophos Acetamirid Indoxacarb Spinosad Incorrect dosage (% farmers) 71 92 90 24 49 33 22 25 25 36 89 5 67 Correct dosage (% farmers) 29 08 10 66 51 63 88 75 75 64 11 95 33
The reasons given by 117 IRM farmers, who had partially or completely adopted IRM strategy of insecticides use, are reported in Table 7. The cotton growers in Punjab have suffered heavily due to losses caused by insect-pests

mainly bollworms between 1995 to 2003, so the farmers were keen to know about the recommendations of the PAU for insecticide use. The reasons for partially or completely following IRM strategy was to reduce insecticide expenditure (34%), reduce insecticide use (15%), to rotate the insecticide during cropping season (10%), to avoid tank mixing (11%) and for trial purpose (14%). One of the important reasons reported by the IRM farmers was that the IRM staff created credibility (12%) and availability of IRM staff for advice (6%). Some of the farmers (5%) reported that they used IRM strategy only for using correct dosage. The other reasons listed by the IRM farmers were to avoid resistance in pests, avoid resurgence of whitefly by avoiding synthetic pyrethroids, increase time interval between two applications and avoid first spray of monocrotophos 36SL to conserve natural enemies. As was in the case of ETL, 30 per cent of the 80 IRM farmers reported that following the IRM strategy for insecticides use the most important limiting factor was risk. Ten percent of the farmers reported tank mixing of insecticides gives better results than IRM recommendation and especially in case American boll worm and spotted boll worm are present at the same time (14%). Ten per cent of farmers also reported that when infestation of bollworms and tobacco caterpillar in severe tank mixing is the only
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option and an equal number of farmers reported that the advice given by dealers/other farmers was followed for taking the pesticide decisions. Two per cent of the 86 IRM farmers reported that pesticide companies even lay the trials of using tank mixtures so experimentation and trial should be laid to make them observe the results of IRM-IPM strategy of insecticide use. The detail list of reasons and constraints are given in Table 7. In the green revolution era the emphasis was on enhancing the mutual linkages between research, extension and farmers (Roling, 1996) for dissemination and adoption of hardware technologies (high yielding varieties, fertilizers and pesticides) through top-down technology dissemination. The experiences with efforts to introduce IPM practices through transfer of technology (ToT) paradigm did not work. The research and extension beliefs and modes changed with the time (Chambers, 1991). In 1950s and 1960s, the farmers were categorized into adopters/laggards and explanation for non-adoption was ignorance. In 1970s and 1980s explanation for nonadoption of technologies was farm level constraints (incompatibility of technology with the farming system). The key prescriptions were extension/remove constraints and activities were training and input supply. In 1990s, the questions were being asked about the technology, whether
Table 7. Constraints in the adoption/partial adoption of insecticides as per IRM strategy* Constraint/Reason District wise percentage of farmers Bathinda (n=8) i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Risk involved in following IRM strategy Decision of elders for tank mixing of insecticides Followed other farmers/dealers advice Tank mixing of insecticides gives better results In case of two pests present at the same time, tank mixing needed (eg. ABW+SBW) In case of severe infestation of ABW/TCP tank mixing of insecticides effective Tank mixed initially before developing confidence in IRM staff viii. Endosulfan 35EC intoxicating ix. Time interval between two pesticide application decreased and spraying cost increases without tank mixing x. xi. xii. Pesticide companies lay trails of tank mixing/using mixed insecticides Difficult to give up old habits Trial should be laid by IRM staff for seeing is believing 0 0 0 0 3 5 3 0 3 3 3 5 2 3 2 2 0 0 0 10 3 15 0 5 5 5 3 9 13 13 8 10 25 13 13 14 37 13 0 25 Ferozepur (n=40) 30 0 5 28 Mansa (n=38) 24 5 18 21 Overall percentage of 3 districts (n=86) 30 3 10 24
xiii. During full-moon night spraying pesticides essential *Multiple response,
Decimals rounded up to the nearest whole numbers
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research and extension in the Third World: Do we really want IPM to work? Bulletin of Entomological Society of America, 30: 18-26. Kenmore, P.E., Gallangher, K.D. and Ooi, P.A.C. (1995) Empowering farmers: experiences with integrated pest management. Entwicklung and Landlicher Raum 1/95: 27-28. Lacewell, R.D. and Taylor, C.R. (1980). Benefit-cost analysis of Integrated Pest Management Programs. Proc of Seminar and Workshop. Pp 283-302. CICP- USAID. Malone, S., Herbert, D.A. Jr., and Pheasant, S. (2004) Determining adoption of integrated pest management practices by grains farmers in Virginia. J. Extension 42: 1-7. Matteson, P.C., Gallagher, K.D. and Kenmore, P.E. (1994) Extension of integrated pest management for pant hoppers in Asian irrigated rice: Empowering the user. In: R.F. Denno and T.J. Perfect (Eds) Ecology and Management of Plant hoppers. Chapman and Hall, London. Merchant, M.E. and Teetas, G.L. (1994) Perception of Texas farmers and pest management advisors on integrated pest management of sorghum insect pests. South Western Entomology, 19: 237248. Norris, R.F., Caswell-Chen, E.P. and Kogan, M. (2002) Concept in Integrated Pest Management. Prentice-Hall of India Private Ltd, New Delhi. PAU (1979) Package of Practices for Crops of Punjab Kharif. Directorate of Extension Education, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. PAU (1991) Package of Practices for Crops of Punjab-Kharif. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Peshin, R., Dhawan, A.K., Vatta, K. and Singh, K. (2007). Attributes and socio-economic dynamics of adopting Bt-cotton. Economic and Political Weekly 42:7280. Peshin, R., Dhawan, A.K. , Kranthi, K.R. and Singh, K. (2009). Evaluation of the benefits of an insecticide resistance management programme in Punjab in India, International J. Pest Management 55(3):207-220. Rogers E M (1983, 1995, 2003) Diffusion of Innovation. Free Press, New York. Roling, N. (1994). Facilitating sustainable agriculture; turning policy models upside down. In: B.J.I. Scoones and J. Thompson (eds) Beyond Farmer First, IT Publications, London, pp 248248. van de Fliert, E. (1993) Integrated Pest Management : Farmer Field School Generate Sustainable Practices. Wageningen Agricultural University Papers 93.3 van den Berg, H; Ooi, P.A.C., Hakim, A.L., Ariawan, H. and Cahyana, W. (2004) Farmer Field Research: An Analysis of Experience in Indonesia. FAO-EU IPM Programme for Cotton in Asia FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand.
it fits the farmer and emphasis was on farmer participation activities. Thus management of different factors namely farmers participation, farmers experimentation, choices, etc. are required for developing farmers compatible technologies. The results provide empirical evidence that the attributes of the IPM practices are the dominant variables affecting the adoption or rejection. Thus researchers must take into consideration the area specific farming system and also involve the active farmers in the refinement and validation of the technologies before their release. The recommendations in the Package of Practices, published by the PAU should be tested for its adoptability at the farmers level; otherwise such technologies should not be recommended where chances of adoption are bleak. Many agricultural researchers and policy makers have suggested to expand the definition of ecosystem further to include humans. Farmers are seen as part of their farming systems, interacting with their crops through their knowledge, skills and mutual cooperation.
REFERENCES
Benthley, J. and Andrews, K. (1996) Trough the road blocks: IPM and Central American small-holders. Sustainable Agricultural Programme Gatekeeper Series 56. International Institute for Environment and Development, London. Caswell, M., Fuuglie K., Ingram, C., Jam, S. and Kascak, C. (2000) Adoption of Agricultural Production Practices-Lesson Learned from the US Department of Agriculture Area Studies Project. Economic Research Services, USDA. http://www.usda.org. Chambers, R. (1991). Scientists or resource poor farmer-whose knowledge counts? In: Proceedings of a Seminar on Crop Protection for Resource Poor farmers. CTA/NRI, Isle of Thorn, UK, Nov.4-8, pp1-15. Dent, D. (1995) Integrated Pest Management. Chapman and Hall, London. Dhawan, A.K. (1999) Major insect pests of cotton and their integrated anagement. In: R.K. Upadhay, K.G. Mukerji and O.P. Dubey (Eds.) IPM Systems in Agriculture Vol 6 Cash Crops. Aditya Books Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, pp 165-225. Escalanda, M.M. and Heong, K.L. (1994) New developments and need for training IPM. Proc 16th session of FAO/UNEP Panel of Experts on Integrated Pest Control 25-29 April, FAO, Rome. Fliegel, F.C. (1967) Innovation in India: The Success or Failure of Agricultural Development Programmes in 108 Indian Villages. National Institute of Community Development, Research Report 9, Hyderabad. Godell, G.E. (1984) Challenges to integrated pest management
Received 5 February, 2011; Accepted 6 December, 2011
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 131-134
A Case-Study of Two Sunscreens that May Prevent Apoptotic Sunburn

Chanda Siddoo Atwal
Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA E-mail: chanda@kapoorcompanies.com
Abstract: Two new sunscreen formulations were tested for their respective ability to block peeling, or, apoptosis following exposure to solar radiation. The active ingredients utilized were zinc oxide and melanin. A slight pinkish sunglass line appeared on the nose following the trial with the zinc oxide sunscreen. Although probably representing some degree of immediate pigment darkening and persistent pigment darkening in response to UVA radiation, the line was none of the expected melanin colours in the eumelanin or pheomelanin range {brown, black, yellow, or red}. In the case of the melanin sunscreen, a sunglass line was visible after one hour of sun exposure on both nose and cheeks while no acute redness or inflammation was observed. Once again, the sunglass line was pinkish and there was some slight stinging during sun exposure possibly indicating a little sunburn. Since there was no peeling even 96 hours after sun exposure with either sunscreen, this indicates that both these formulations may be somewhat effective in preventing the apoptotic phase, but not necessarily the inflammatory phase, of UVB-induced sunburn by uncoupling the two events. Key Words: Sunscreens, Zinc oxide, Melanin, Peeling, Sunburn, Apoptosis
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun is a major cause of skin cancer and accounts for 1.3 million new cases in the USA alone each year. It is classed as a complete carcinogen in that it has the capacity to induce carcinogenesis without the presence of any other stimuli (Shannon et al., 2004). Solar UV radiation is largely comprised of UVB (280-320 nm) and UVA (320-400 nm) wavelengths. UVB radiation has been associated with sunburn, immunosuppression, photoaging, skin cancers and DNA lesions. The latter include cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers and 6,4 pyrimidine pyrimidone. UVA radiation, which represents 95 per cent of the total UV received at ground level, is less energetic than UVB. It has also been associated with immunosuppression, photoaging, and mutagenesis (Bernerd et al., 2003). According to the albino hairless mouse model, both UVB and UVA can be involved in the development of cutaneous cancers including squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) and basal cell carcinomas (BCC). However, the relative efficiency of UVA in inducing these carcinomas is approximately 10,000 times lower than UVB and much higher doses of UVA are required (Routaboul et al., 2002). Both UVA and UVB act by causing programmed cell death [apoptosis] which has been linked to carcinogenesis (Siddoo-Atwal, 2009)). Thus, ideally, sunscreen products should provide efficient protection against both UVB and UVA radiation. The natural human sunburn cycle (without the use of any sun lotions or sunscreens) is approximately one week in length (7 days) from start to finish. Macroscopically, it consists of three phases including inflammation, new tissue
formation, and apoptosis (visible peeling). The inflammatory phase consists of redness and inflammation commencing 20-30 minutes from the time of initial sun exposure. It spans grossly 2-3 days, but can last up to 5 or 6 days depending upon UV intensity. New tissue formation is stimulated some time after initial exposure and it is complete within one week. In the last apoptotic phase, the top layer of dead skin cells sloughs off to reveal a new tissue layer beneath. This process follows on from the inflammatory phase and is complete approximately 7 days following exposure. Previously, it has been shown that sunburn can also occur despite the use of sunscreen (15 SPF) during winter months in a temperate climate (Siddoo-Atwal, 2011a). In addition, sunburn may still occur while wearing stronger sunscreens (30 SPF). Although they may attenuate or even eliminate the first phase of redness and inflammation, the second and third phases may not be prevented. Since it is the last apoptotic phase that has been linked to carcinogenesis, this would appear to reflect an inherent weakness in the general composition of many sunscreens available to the consumer. It also brings into question the efficacy and safety of sunscreens which effectively block inflammation, but are unable to prevent peeling following sun exposure in providing protection against skin cancer (Siddoo-Atwal, 2011b).

In the current case-study, two new sunscreen formulations were tested for their respective ability to block peeling, or, apoptosis following exposure to solar radiation.
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was found to absorb light nicely in the UVB and UVA2 (320340 nm) ranges, while it was only moderate in the UVAI range (340-400 nm) (Fig. 2). In fact, the comparative graph of mass extinction coefficients showed that zinc oxide absorbed light slightly better than the melanin over a range of various UV wavelengths (Fig. 3). Thus, since zinc oxide alone appeared to be an adequate sunblock at this concentration, it was reasoned that these two ingredients should provide even greater sun protection together as they would cover more surface area of the skin. The experimental model was similar to the one previously described (Siddoo-Atwal, 2011). The subject sat outdoors or walked at noon facing the direct sunlight on a clear, sunny day. Each experiment lasted between 30 and
The first was a preparation of pure zinc oxide (7.5%) in a creme base rather than the microfine or nano form which is currently a popular ingredient of sunscreens (Pinnell et al., 2000). The second was a preparation of melanin (50 mg/ ml) extracted from black sesame in a creme base containing zinc oxide (7.5%). Zinc oxide has been used for centuries as a specialized skin ointment and it was known as pushpanjan in Ayurvedic medicine. It was chosen for its property as the broadest spectrum UVA and UVB reflector that is approved for use as a sunscreen by the FDA. It acts as a physical sunblock by scattering ultraviolet light more effectively than other substances. Moreover, it is photostable (Mitchnick et al., 1999). Zinc oxide has the added advantage of sitting on the surface of the skin without being absorbed into it which may not be the case with the microfine or nano form. Melanin was chosen because it is the natural sunscreen of the human body, which usually protects itself from solar radiation by increasing melanin production. It ranges in colour from red and yellow {pheomelanin} to brown and black {eumelanin} with the latter being the most effective (Chintala et al., 2005). It likely acts as a chromophore by absorbing light energy and undergoing a subsequent conformational change involving the excitation of electrons. The resulting energy may be converted into lower energy radiation and heat which can be dissipated. However, certain individuals are not able to produce enough melanin to fulfill this function and the result is sunburn. Thus, there is reason to suppose that it may be one of the most suitable ingredients for a commercial sunscreen. Previously, it has been shown that bacterial-derived melanin can provide photoprotection against UVA-induced cell death (Geng et al., 2008). Therefore, in this study, melanin derived from black sesame (Sesamum indicum ) was selected for its potential application as an active sunscreen (courtesy of Lingonberry Organic Foodstuffs, China). Various tests were carried out on the melanin to determine its chemical purity as it is not a common commercially available compound. There were no aerobic or anaerobic bacteria detected in the sample. It was also negative for mycobacterium and fungus. In addition, there was no contamination with any type of dead bacteria {courtesy of Professor Paul J. Hergenrother, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois}. Absorbance studies carried out on the zinc oxide and melanin confirmed their physical properties (courtesy of Matthew Brichacek and Professor PJ Hergenrothers Lab). The zinc oxide at 7.5% was found to be a good reflector in the UVB and UVA ranges (Fig. 1) . The melanin at 0.4 mg/ml
Fig. 1. ZnO absorbance
Fig. 2. Melanin (Sesamum indicum) absorbance
Sunscreens may Prevent Apoptotic Sunburn
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Fig.3. Comparison of mass extinction coefficients
60 minutes following the application of sunscreen, which was applied at least 15 minutes prior to exposure. The control experiment was performed under the same conditions without the application of any sunscreen or sun lotion. Photographs of the face were taken 48 to 72 hours from the time of commencement of initial sun exposure which was deemed as 0 hours at approximately noon on the day of trial. All experiments were conducted between the months of late May, June, August, and early October at Ambleside beach or on the mountainside in West Vancouver, British Columbia (Canada). These same results were repeatedly observed under comparable conditions.
three phases of inflammation, new tissue formation, and apoptosis. In addition, the dark flesh-pink coloration only occurred on the nose and slightly on the cheeks while there was no sunglass line on the cheeks with the zinc oxide sunscreen. This seems to follow a localized sunburn pattern in susceptible areas like the nose and cheeks rather than the usual diffuse suntan pattern suggesting another component to the reaction. In contrast, it is interesting to note that the suntan pattern is ordinarily uniform because pigment-producing melanocytes are evenly distributed throughout the basal epidermal layer of the human skin. Moreover, IPD is said to fade rapidly in 24 hours and PPD within several days, while this coloration persisted for up to a week. Therefore, there could be some overlap with the inflammatory phase of the sunburn cycle suggesting a combination of IPD, PPD, and redness caused by inflammation. There was also a slight stinging and burning sensation on the face up to 24 hours following sun exposure consistent with an inflammatory reaction. In the case of the melanin sunscreen, a sunglass line was visible after one hour of sun exposure on both nose and cheeks while no acute redness or inflammation was observed. Once again, the sunglass line was pinkish and there was some slight stinging during sun exposure possibly indicating a little sunburn. However, the coloration on the nose and cheeks was more uniform with this sunscreen suggesting a greater ratio of IPD/PPD to inflammation than with the first sunscreen. In addition, the colour faded within several days. This could potentially be an interesting observation because while UVA can cause erythema, which is unlikely to serve any supportive function, IPD, or, delayed UVA tanning may actually play a protective role against UVB exposure (Kaidbey and Kligman, 1978). Since there was no peeling even 96 hours after sun exposure with either sunscreen, this indicates that both these formulations may be somewhat effective in preventing the apoptotic phase, but not necessarily the inflammatory phase, of UVB-induced sunburn by uncoupling the two

A slight pinkish sunglass line appeared on the nose following the trial with the zinc oxide sunscreen. Although probably representing some degree of immediate pigment darkening (IPD) and persistent pigment darkening (PPD) in response to UVA radiation, the line was none of the expected melanin colours in the eumelanin or pheomelanin range {brown, black, yellow, or red}. In support of this, as UV intensity increases in summer months, the subject experiences an inefficient pigment darkening process {IPD within an hour} simultaneously with sunburn including all
Fig. 4. A. Control, B. Zinc oxide sunscreen, C. Melanin + Zinc oxide sunscreen.
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Chanda Siddoo Atwal

M., Spritz, R.A., Ben, S., Novak, E.K., Tan, J. and Swank, R.T. (2005) Slc7a11 gene controls production of pheomelanin pigment and proliferation of cultured cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102(31): 10964-10969. Geng, J., Tang, W., Wan, X., Zhou, Q., Wang, X.J., Shen, P., Lei, T.C. and Chen, X.D. (2008) Photoprotection of bacterial-derived melanin against ultraviolet A-induced cell death and its potential application as an active sunscreen. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol 22(7): 852-858. Kaidbey, K.H. and Kligman, A.M. (1978) Sunburn protection by longwave ultraviolet radiation-induced pigmentation. Arch. Dermatol. 114: 46-48, 1978 Mitchnick MA, Fairhurst D, Pinnell SR. (1999) Microfine zinc oxide (Z-cote) as a photostable UVA/UVB sunblock agent. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 40(1): 85-90. Pinnell, S.R., Fairhurst, D., Gillies, R., Mitchnick, M.A. and Kollias, N. (2000) Microfine zinc oxide is a superior sunscreen ingredient to microfine titanium dioxide. Dermatol. Surg. 26(4): 309-314 Routaboul, C., Denis, A. and Bohbot, M. (2002) Proposal for a new UVA protection factor: use of an in vitro model of immediate pigment darkening. Eur. J. Dermatol 12(5): 439-444. Shannon, R. S., Farrukh, A., Moammir, H. A. and Nihal, A. (2004) Modulations of critical cell cycle regulatory events during chemoprevention of ultraviolet B-mediated responses by resveratrol in SKH-1 hairless mouse skin. Oncogene 23: 51515160. Siddoo-Atwal, C. (2011a) Sunburn with sunscreen-a case study. Science 2.0, published online on April 20, 2011. Siddoo-Atwal, C. (2011b) A case study of apoptotic sunburn with sunscreen. Indian J. Ecol. 38(2): 300-301. Siddoo-Atwal, C. (2009) AT, apoptosis, and cancer: A viewpoint. Indian J. Ecol. 36(2): 103-110.
events (Fig.4A,B,&C). The inflammation may also represent some degree of UVA-induced erythema. As zinc oxide is a known UVAI blocker at 7.5% and since it is UVAI that causes IPD, it is unlikely to be the sole cause of the change in coloration observed in these trials. Although not an ideal result, these two sunscreen formulations are preferable to those which prevent the inflammatory but not the apoptotic phase of sunburn which has been linked to carcinogenesis. Currently, the sun protection factor (SPF) of a sunscreen is based on its ability to block erythema and immediate pigment darkening (IPD). However, neither of these biological parameters has been linked to skin cancer. Therefore, certain scientists have recommended using another criterion that is more representative of long term UV cutaneous damage such as apoptotic sunburn cells. The term tumour protection factor (TPF) has been proposed to describe it. Thus, it seems possible that a solution as simple as melanin could finally provide the protection required against this deadly disease.
REFERENCES
Bernerd, F., Vioux, C., Lejeune, F. and Asselineau, D. (2003) The sun protection factor (SPF) inadequately defines broad spectrum photoprotection: demonstration using skin reconstructed in vitro exposed to UVA, UVB, or UV-solar simulated radiatio Eur. J. Dermatol. 13(3): 242-249. Chintala, S., Li, W., Lamoreux, M.L., Ito, S., Wakamatsu, K., Sviderskaya, E.V., Bennett, D.C., Park, Y.M., Gahl, W.A., Huizing,
Received 10 November, 2011; Accepted 4 March, 2012
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 135-137
Melia dubia : A Potential Species for Agroforestry Under Different Agro-Climatic Conditions of Haryana State of India
Jagdish Chander
Research Circle, Haryana State Forest Department, Pinjore-134 102, Haryana, India E-mail: jchander845@gmail.com
Forests have been serving mankind since the beginning of this universe. It is not possible to sum up the importance of forests in just a few words. The world over the forests are considered as the repositories of biological diversity, they harbour the rare and endangered species of plants and animals. Leave the tangible benefits in terms of timber, fuel wood, fodder, fibre and medicinal herbs, the intangible benefits of the forests are incalculable. The air we breathe, the water we drink, the food we eat are the products of forests and its biological biodiversity. But in spite of the fact that the forests are vital for mankind, the forests are disappearing all over the world. Loss of forest is the major cause for global warming and need to be protected all over the world irrespective of whether it is underdeveloped or developing or the developed country. Though many alternatives of wood are available but nothing can replace wood. Therefore, it is important to meet the timber requirement of the people and industries though conserving the forests, biological diversity in-situ and extending the tree cover outside forests including on farm. Besides meeting the requirement of wood for timber and pulp, the agroforestry on farmland will ease pressure on forests and will help in conserving the flora and fauna of that area. Trees on the farm have been adopted due to their high economics in the north-western states of India. Farmers need quick returns, and poplar and eucalyptus have fitted well into the system of agroforestry of Haryana and adjoining states because they grow faster than any other indigenous tree species. They have brought prosperity to the people by giving quick returns. However, they too have limitations. Poplar grows only in a limited zone with well drained neutral soil and does not perform well in high temperature conditions (beyond 45OC) prevailing in the region during summer months. Eucalyptus Gall Wasp (Leptocybe invasa) is threatening Eucalyptus farming and this species too does not grow in semi-arid tracts. Further, there is a need to diversify species under agroforestry system and monoculture is always dangerous. Therefore, Melia dubia (syn. M. composita) is an another species that fits into the
system well with much market demand.
Melia dubia belongs to Meliaceae and is a tall tree with smooth bark, which is reddish-brown when young, turning grey brown on maturity. It grows straight attaining a height of about 20 m in its natural habitat. The length of the straight bole is about 9m, which is a very good length for any broad leaved species. The beautiful serrated leaves and purple flowers make it an ornamental tree. It is deciduous in nature and sheds its leaves by end of December allowing much needed sunshine to reach the ground, which makes it a suitable species for agroforestry. The species is likely to be a viable option for adoption by the farmers with economic gains at short rotation. Research emphasis has been given on M. azedarach and M. volkensii but very little has been attempted on Melia dubia (Stewart and Blomley, 1994; Luna et al., 2006; Chauhan et al., 2008). Therefore, to facilitate the farmers, information has been generated on the important aspects of plantation management of this important species.
The study was conducted in Pinjore, Panchkula, Bithmarha, Sohna and Jhumpa areas of Haryana and Mohali of Punjab. To introduce M. dubia in Haryana, seeds of M. dubia were procured from plus trees selected by the Punjab State Forest Department located at Mohali in February 2005 and three thousand plants were raised in polybags in Rawalwas nursery in Hisar district. Plantation was done in July 2006 at a place called Khedar (semiarid zone) in Hisar district alongwith other species namely Albizia procera, Azadirachta indica, Ailanthus excelsa and Cordia dichotoma. The annual rainfall here is around 300mm. It is stabilized sand dune and the texture of the soil is sandy loam (pH of the soil is 8.2). Four hectare area was allotted to each species.
M. dubia was introduced in Panchkula district of Haryana in 2007. The soil is clay loam and pH is around 7.5. The annual precipitation here is around 1000 mm. In the same year, its plantation was also raised in Jhumpa Forest Research Station of Haryana Forest Department. The soil and climatic conditions here are almost similar to
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fact that they have narrow genetic base and are prone to attack by pests. Additionally, Eucalyptus and poplar have their limitations for adoption on semi-arid and arid conditions. Therefore, a species with wider adaptability was needed and M. dubia is a recent introduction in Haryana. The final results are not available but the initial results indicate that M. dubia can adapt in Haryana in clayey, loam and sandy loam soils in all bio-geographical regions of the state. As regards biomass production in semi-arid region, it is better than Ailanthus excelsa (local fast growing tree), whereas, the results are comparable with eucalyptus and poplar in Shiwalik foothills and the central plains. M. dubia has performed much better than the local M. azedarach in terms of growth, bole length and form. Out of all species i.e., Albizia procera, Azadirachta indica, Ailanthus excelsa and Cordia dichotoma planted in Khedar in 2006, M. dubia grew fastest and made the barren land green within a year. The plantation of M. dubia done in Panchkula in 2007, had high survival rate and has put on excellent growth. The results obtained from planting M. dubia in Panchkula and Khedar have proved that it can grow and adapt well in all parts of the state except the pure sand. The frost is of common occurrence throughout the state but it is more severe in Jhumpa and Khedar area but M. dubia was not affected either by frost or by high temperature. Species has also been tested positive on extreme temperature conditions. It thrived well under extreme temperature conditions of 48oC in summers and zero degree in winters in Haryana. In the western parts of Haryana, extremely harsh conditions are experienced during summer months. Onfarm raising of M. dubia may moderate the high temperature for better crop yield. Wheat (Triticum aestivum) was also grown with M. dubia at Panchkula and yield of wheat during three years of cultivation have been presented in table 1. It was noticed that yield of wheat during first year was 1.98 tons per hectare. The maximum yield without trees was 2 tons. So during first year, there was no significant effect in the yield of wheat, however, during second and third year, the yield of wheat was significantly less though the reduction in yield was not only due to competition but also due to reduced effective area for crop. Infact, M. dubia is a deciduous species and it
Table 1. Wheat yield under M. dubia canopy Year of plantation 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 Control Wheat yield (tha-1) 1.98 1.55 1.20 2.00
Khedar. The plantation in Panchkula and Jhumpa was done at a spacing of 4mx3m to facilitate the movement of tractor for ploughing. The plants were irrigated once in a month. The study trial for the selection of superior genotype was layed out at two places viz., Bithmarha and Sohna located in western and southern Haryana. Both of these sites are located in semi-arid tract and receive an annual rainfall of about 400mm. The tree-crop interface studies [M. dubia (dek)-Triticum aestivum (wheat)] were conducted at Jhumpa in semi-arid tract and Panchkula in Shiwalik foothills. The plantation at both the sites was done in July 2007. In Panchkula, wheat was grown upto three years starting from winters of 2007 and at Jhumpa, the crop was raised during third year of the plantation only. The study on the tolerance of M. dubia to high temperature and frost, plantations were established at Khedar, Bithmarha, Panchkula, Jhumpa and Sohna. The observations were recorded during peak winters and peak summer period. To study the end uses of wood of M. dubia, logs were arranged and converted to veneer, chairs and table at the Saw Mill of Forest Department, Haryana. The sawing properties, nail holding capacity, polish taking quality and wood turning capacity were studied. The views of the carpenters using M. dubia wood at timber market Mohali were also recorded as expert input. Paper making quality was got analyzed in the laboratory of Star Paper Mill at Saharanpur (Uttar Pradesh, India). Marketing of produce is an important aspect of interest for the adopters. The average current rates per cubic meter of popular agroforestry tree species namely poplar and Eucalyptus were collected from Haryana and Punjab timber market to compare the current prevailing rates of timber with M. dubia. The data were suitably analyzed to draw proper inferences. The adoption of the technologies/species depends upon the attitude and the perception of the stakeholders. The attitudes of foresters and farmers of Haryana for making M. dubia an integral component in regular planting programme were also recorded. The views of large number of farmers were taken in this regard including the views of frontline staff and officers. Haryana is an agrarian state, where the tree cover is much below (6.8%) than the minimum required percentage (20%) as envisaged in the National Forest Policy. The only option is to extend trees on the farmland but all tree species can not fit into the agro-ecosystem. The tree species should be fast growing and intercultivated cause minimum competition of resources with the crops. Eucalyptus since sixties and poplar since late seventies are being grown by the farmers of Haryana and adjoining states but it is also a
Melia dubia is a Potential Species for Agroforestry

Table 2. Comparison among three important agroforestry species for paper making qualities and timber sale prices S. No. 1 2. 3. 4. Paper quality test Pulp yield (%) Bulk density (kg m-2) Kappa number (at 17 % active alkali) Timber sale prices (Rs. m-3)
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Eucalyptus tereticornis
50 225 12.1 5000
Populus deltoides
50.20 207 13.1 4500
Melia dubia
49.8 194 14.9 4000
allows sunshine to reach on the ground during winters without any significant hindrance. The decrease in yield was because of the reason that significantly more space was left unploughed and uncultivated to avoid injury to the roots. It can be concluded that the crops can be grown with M. dubia atleast upto three years.
has wide adaptability. Therefore, growing M. dubia in Haryana on a large scale would boost economy equally in all parts of state. Out of 100 persons interviewed for its adoption, everyone was in favour of growing M. dubia in Haryana on a large scale. M. dubia grows much faster than the indigenous M. azedarach (Chauhan et al., 2008). Besides the bole of M. dubia is straighter and less branchy, thus facilitates intercultivation of crops underneath. The survival of M. dubia is also higher than other tree species because the leaves are not a good fodder and the animals eat it only in scarcity. The instant greening is the most important reason for the love of foresters towards M. dubia. People of Haryana have gone crazy after M. dubia and want to plant more and more of it on their farms. The wider adoption of this species in Haryana and adjoining states requires attention on low cost vegetative propagation technology and tree-crop interface research for economic and environmental benefits.
M. dubia wood was found to take the polish well and its nail holding capacity it self was good. The wood turns well, the carpenters love to work on it for furniture making. Pin hole borer (Dinoderus) and powder post beetle (Lyctus) cause heavy damage to furniture and plywood, etc. M. dubia furniture is being used in Forest Department office since 2008. Neither veneers nor the furniture has been attacked by powder post beetles. No termite attack has been noticed, hence, it can be concluded that M. dubia wood is not attacked by powder post beetles. M. dubia wood was got analyzed for paper making qualities and the results are presented in table 2. It is evident that pulp yield of M. dubia is comparable with eucalyptus and poplar. The bulk density is little lower and the kappa number little higher than eucalyptus and poplar, indicate that it is not bad to use for paper making. Though M. dubia is little on the lower side for paper quality but is comparable with eucalyptus and poplar, thus, selling of wood of M. dubia due to its diverse uses will not be a problem.
The average market rates of M. dubia are less than eucalyptus and poplar, yet the timber rates are comparable (Table 2). Grewal (2000) also suggested the on-farm profitability of M. azedarach. It is so because eucalyptus and poplar have limited zone of establishment and M. dubia
REFERENCES
Chauhan, R., Chauhan, S.K. and Saralch, H.S. (2008) Melia azedarach. Bulletin pubished by Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, PAU Ludhiana, 48p. Grewal, S.S. (2000) Evaluation of drake (Melia azedarach) raised in agroforestry systems by farmers of Punjab Shiwaliks. Ind. J. Soil Consv. 28: 253-255. Luna, R.K., Singh, B. and Sharma, S.K. (2006) Assessment of 51 progenies of Melia azedarach Linn.-A promising agroforestry tree. Ind. For. 132: 941-951. Stewart, M. and Blomley, T. (1994) Use of Melia volkensii in a semiarid agroforestry system in Kenya. Commonwealth Forestry Review 73: 128131.
Received 16 January, 2011; Accepted 18 May, 2011
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 138-140
Response of Potting Media and Sunshine on Bougainvillea Cultivars

Ravipal Singh and R.K. Dubey*
Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana - 141 004, India *E-mail:rkdubey.flori@gmail.com
Bougainvillea is one of the most useful plants for landscaping in almost all the parts of the World. Schoelhorn and Alavrez (2002) recorded that the bloom cycles of bougainvillea are typically from four to six weeks. The plant requires little water to flower. In India, Bougainvillea grows best in all the parts of the country but its cultivation is limited in temperate climate with heavy snowfall and severe frost. It generally fails to flower in shade and the color of the bract is never bright (Randhawa and Mukhopadhyay,1986). In north Indian plains, especially in Punjab, most varieties bear bracts from September to December and again from February to June. Plant growth in compost-based media containing peat or bark was equal to or better than that in two commercial media composed primarily of bark or peat. (Ticknoor et al.,1985). Increased land costs in urban areas resulted in less space for the plants and people prefer raising indoor plants in pots, thus, the environmental conditions like sunshine and temperature is not adequate. Therefore, the investigation was carried out to categorize the different cultivars of Bougainvillea according to their response to the different sunshine hours and potting media.
The present experiment was carried out at Landscape Nursery unit, Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana during the year (2008-10). Five different potting media i.e., soil, soil + leaf mould (1:1), soil + vermicompost (1:1), soil + FYM (1:1) and coco peat + vermicompost (1:1) were used for standardization of optimum potting media for quality pot production of Bougainvillea. Ten varieties (Torch glory, Zakeriana, Shubhra, Thimma, Mahara, Meera, Mohan, Lady Mary Baring, Mrs. H. C. Buck and Scarlet Queen) were exposed to variable sunlight treatments like 4 hours, 8 hours and full sunlight by constructing a temporary structures (Fig. 1) in the East- West direction being covered their top and sides with the black polythene sheet for providing the shade to the plants after exposing them to 4 hours and 8 hours sunlight. Dimensions of the temporary structure (shed) was 25 (L) x 22 (B) x 6 (H1) x 3 (H2).Each structure accommodates 450 pots of bougainvillea plants. The vertical hanging was also given to provide the shade to pot plants under different sunshine hours. The length of the vertical hanging was adjusted according to the varying angle of the
Fig.1. Side view of specially designed structure showing both the hangings (horizontal and vertical) in different
Response of Potting Media and Sunshine on Bougainvillea

Table 1. Influence of potting media on bracts/plants in Bougainvillea Media Soil Soil + Leaf mould (1:1) Soil + Vermicompost (1:1) Soil + FYM (1:1) Cocopeat + Vermicompost (1:1) C.D ( 0.05) Sept. 3.30 3.72 3.51 2.35 1.65 0.22 Oct. 4.96 6.19 5.64 3.19 2.47 0.42 Nov. 6.93 10.08 7.29 4.04 2.93 0.34 Dec. 4.38 4.64 4.30 1.56 1.14 0.10 Jan. 2.63 2.88 2.71 1.19 0.99 0.17 Feb. 0.87 1.11 0.89 0.49 0.42 0.10 Mar. 4.26 5.54 5.00 4.16 4.01 0.10 Apr. 5.16 12.11 6.64 4.70 4.26 0.31 May 5.85 13.22 7.12 5.12 4.67 0.24 June 6.12 13.87 7.88 5.22 5.09 0.28
139
July 6.88 15.22 8.16 6.00 5.66 0.28
Table 2. Influence of sunshine on bracts/plants in Bougainvillea Sunlight 4 hours 8 Hours Full sunlight C.D (0.05) Sept. 2.55 3.15 3.02 0.17 Oct. 4.10 4.87 4.51 0.32 Nov. 5.56 6.59 6.61 0.26 Dec. 2.71 3.61 3.23 0.78 Jan. 1.23 3.36 1.65 0.13 Feb. 0.48 1.04 0.75 0.78 Mar. 4.47 5.82 5.15 0.78 Apr. 5.12 6.36 6.03 0.44 May 5.32 7.01 6.89 0.17 June 5.61 7.59 7.48 0.22 July 5.85 8.39 8.26 0.21
sun in different months during the experiment. The ten experimental varieties selected were. The experiment was laid out in FCRD (Factorial Completely Randomized Block Design). The Bougainvillea plants about 1-1.5 years old was transplanted in 8 inches size earthen pots in three replications. Observation like number of bracts/plant in different potting media and colour of bracts during opening and senescence was recorded and was interpreted in different months. The data showed significant influence of potting media on number of bracts/plant in bougainvillea (Table1). Among various potting media, soil + leaf mould (1:1) recorded maximum number of bracts/plant from September (3.72) to July (15.22) followed by soil + vermicompost (1:1) except in the month of Feb, while minimum number of bracts/plant were recorded in cocopeat + vermicompost (1:1) during September (1.65) to July (5.66). More number of bracts/ plant in soil + leaf (1:1) mould may be attributed due to high (36.59) C:N ratio of the media as compared to 14.3 C:N
ratio of soil + vermicompost (1:1). Less number of bracts/ plant were found during the months of December- January in all the media. This might be due to the periodic flowering character of the different cultivars of Bougainvillea. Sunlight duration of 8 hours (8.39) resulted in maximum number of bracts/plant. Number of bracts (8.26) in full sunlight was found to be at par with 8 hours sunlight (Table 2). Hackett and Sachs (1965) recommended that flowering can be increased in bougainvillea by increasing light intensity through improved plant spacing. Further, it was confirmed by (Dol et al., 1992) that quality of potted flowering plants (generally placed in shaded area) is often greatly affected by poor environmental conditions, such as low light intensity, high or low temperature, variation and water stress. Wurr et al. (2000) found that light is an essential prerequisite factor for the plant growth and development. Criley (1977) reported that 8 hours day length was significantly more effective than 14.0 - 14.5 hours day length. Rate of progress to flowering increased linearly with temperature and with
Table 3. Number of bracts/plant in different varieties of Bougainvillea Varieties T. Glory Zakeriana Shubhra Thimma LadyMaryBaring Mrs.H.C. Buck Mohan Mahara Scarlet Queen Meera C.D (0.05) Sept. 5.44 4.69 5.44 3.88 0.24 2.44 3.72 1.93 0.31 Oct. 8.89 6.04 1.10 6.93 5.55 4.49 0.11 3.62 5.54 2.65 0.34 Nov. 9.54 6.47 2.27 6.88 12.80 9.18 1.30 4.57 5.63 3.90 0.34 Dec. 3.29 2.05 3.95 1.87 3.86 2.53 2.94 5.57 1.06 4.93 0.31 Jan. 5.05 0.16 3.99 6.15 5.47 0.14 Feb. 0.99 1.39 1.19 0.73 1.36 0.92 1.00 0.14 Mar. 6.19 9.26 5.12 4.13 1.93 6.71 5.01 6.00 8.11 6.33 0.16 Apr. 7.78 11.00 6.84 7.00 13.26 6.88 5.96 7.85 10.09 7.54 0.44 May 8.12 11.88 7.62 7.84 14.56 7.22 6.99 8.46 11.26 8.12 0.34 June 9.36 12.97 8.00 8.63 17.22 8.54 8.12 9.35 12.59 9.46 0.34 July 10.58 13.78 8.69 9.11 19.12 9.87 9.54 10.11 14.12 10.19 0.38
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Ravipal Singh and R.K. Dubey

flowering of Pansy cv. Universal violet (Viola x wittrockiana Gams). Annals of Bot. 80: 107-112. Chen, Z., Sachs, R. and Heckett, W. P. (1979) Control of flowering in Bougainvillea San Diego Red metabolism of benzyl adenine and action of gibberellic acid in relation to short day induction. Plant Physiol. 64(4): 646-651. Criley, R. A. (1977) Year around flowering of double bougainvillea. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 102(6): 775-778. Dol M., Mizuo, T. and Imanishi, H. (1992) Post harvest quality of Impatiens Walleriana hook . as influenced by silver thiosulphate application and light condition. J. Japan Soc. Hort. Sci. 61: 643-649. Golstev, V., Zaharieva, I., Lambrev, P., Yordanov, I. and Strassar, R. (2003) Simultaneous analysis of prompt and delayed chlorophyll a fluroscence in leaves during the induction period of light to dark adaptation. J. Theor. Biol. 225:171-83 Hackett, W. P. and Sachs, R. M. (1965) Factors affecting flowering in Bougainvillea. Calif. Agri. 19:47-56. Munir, M., Jamil, M., Baloch, J. and Khattak, R. K. (2004) Impact of light intensity on flowering time and plant quality of Antirhinum cv. Chimesnhite. J.Zhejiang Uni.Sci. 3: 1634-1636. Randhawa, G. S. and Mukhopadhyay, C. S. (1986) Floriculture in India. Allied Publishers Private Limited, pp.171-78 Schoelhorn, R. and Alavrez, R. (2002) E. Warm climate production guidelines for Bougainvillea Univ. Florida/IFASExtn. 874. Ticknoor, R. L., Hemphill, D. D. and Flower, D. J. (1985) Growth response of Photima, Thuja and nutritional concentration in tissue and potting medium as influences by composted sewage sludge, peat, bark and saw dust on potting media J. Envi. Hort. 3(4): 176-180. Wurr, D. C. E., Jane, R. F. and Lynn, A. (2000) The effect of temperature and day length on flower initiation and development in Dianthus allwoodii and Dianthus alpines . Scientia Hort. 86: 57-70.
increase in photoperiods (Adams et al., 1997). The maximum number of bracts (19.12) per plant was observed in variety Lady Mary Baring in the month of July. Numbers of bracts in different varieties were found to be minimum in months from December- February except Shubhra, Mohan, Mahara and Meera. This may be due to the frequent rains and fog, which reduced the solar radiation intensity and sunshine hours. No flowering was observed in varieties Torch Glory, Zakeriana, Lady Mary Baring, Scarlet Queen and Mrs. H. C Buck in the month of January and February. This may be due to resting period of these varieties. It was found that all varieties flowered profusely in soil + leaf mould (1:1) media under different sunshine conditions. Varieties like Shubhra (12.99), Mohan (10.98) and Mahara (13.09) showed maximum number of bracts/ plant in 4 hours sunshine duration. Golstev et al. (2003) recommended that extremely high irradiation destroys photosynthetic pigments. Chen et al. (1979) also reported that short day promotes flowering in Bougainvillea. Varieties like Zakeriana (12.26), Thimma (9.11), and Scarlet Queen (14.12) were found to have maximum number of bracts/ plant in 8 hours sunshine duration. Other varieties like Torch Glory (11.21) and Lady Mary Baring (19.1) showed maximum number of bracts/plant in full sunlight conditions. Munir et al. (2004) found that photoperiod and temperature are major influencing factors on time of flowering.
REFERENCES
Adams, S. R., Pearson, S. and Headly, P. (1997) Effect of temperature, photoperiod and light integral on the time to
Received 4 August, 2011; Accepted 5 February, 2012
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 141-142
Efficient In vitro Sterilization Technique for Micropropagation of Banana (Musa acuminata) cv. Grand Naine
Pooja Manchanda*, Ajinder Kaur and S. S. Gosal
School of Agricultural Biotechnology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, India *E-mail: poojamanchanda5@gmail.com
Banana (Musa spp.) is the fourth most important food commodity that grows throughout in humid tropics and subtropics with an annual production of 97.5 million tonnes (Ganapathi et al., 2008). Application of micropropagation technique for large scale production of elite clones of banana is an effective and superior alternative to propagation through conventional cuttings of Musa spp. In vitro propagation technique for banana (Musa acuminata L.) cv. Grand Naine involves various steps, i.e., establishment of aseptic cultures, shoot multiplication, induction of rooting, hardening and transfer of plantlets to soil. The maintenance of aseptic (free from all microorganisms) or sterile conditions is essential for successful tissue culture procedures. To maintain an aseptic environment, all culture vessels, media and instruments used in handling tissues, as well as explant itself must be sterilized. Various sterilization agents are used to decontaminate the tissues. These sterilants are also toxic to the plant tissues, hence proper concentration of sterilants, duration of exposing the explant to the various sterilants, the sequences of using these sterilants has to be standardized to minimize explant injury and achieve better survival. Two different chemicals, 0.1% carbendazim (BavistinTM from BASF India Ltd, Mumbai) and mercuric chloride (HgCl2) were used for the present study to reduce the incidence of both fungal and bacterial contamination and to standardize the best sterilization protocol for in vitro culture of banana cv. Grand Naine. The suitable explants were prepared from young suckers (3-13 cm diameter), carefully removed from the field by digging a trench around the sucker to completely detach it from the banana mother plants and brought to the laboratory. All the soil was removed by washing them thoroughly under running tap water for 10-15 min. The roots and leaf sheaths of the suckers were removed with the help of a sharp knife. The shoot-tip explants were prepared by removing extraneous corm tissue from suckers. Shoottips, containing several sheathing bases enclosing axillary buds measuring about 4.5-5.5 cm in length were isolated. These shoot-tips were first washed with TeepolTM for 4-5
minutes and then in running tap water for 5-10 minutes to remove the detergent. The pale-white tissue-block of banana containing shoot-tips and rhizomatous bases were surface sterilized with 0.1% carbendazim on a rotary shaker for which appropriate duration (25, 35, 45 and 55 min.) was standardized to make the explants free from any fungal contamination. This treatment was followed by washing them in running tap water for 4-5 min contained in culture jars were taken in a laminar air flow cabinet (Klenzaides, Bombay) where these were further sterilized with mercuric chloride (HgCl2) for which optimum concentration out of 0.1 and 0.2 per cent, and duration of 5, 8, 10 and 12 minues were tested, to prevent bacterial contamination. This treatment was followed by rinsing the explants thrice in sterile distilled water. The surface sterilizing solution was prepared fresh every time. The exposed tissue from cut ends of each sterilized block was removed to obtain a 2-3 cm portion containing intact apex and one or more pairs of leaf primordia together with 3.5-4.0 cm of rhizomatous base. The explant in this form was used for inoculation. All glassware and instruments were thoroughly washed and dried at 80C. Distilled water and glassware used for explants were autoclaved at 15 psi for 45 min. Implantations of sterilized explants were done using Murashige and Skoog basal medium. The cultures were placed in culture growth room. The observations were recorded regularly till 30 days for the growing cultures. The experiment was repeated three times in completely randomized block design with twenty explants per replication. Statistical analysis was done using CPCS-1 software package developed at Punjab Agricultural University. The data on the effect of pre-treatment with fungicide and the duration of exposure on explant survival percentage are presented in Table 1. Cultured explants showed 100 per cent contamination and did not survive when no treatment of bavistin was given. There was significant reduction in per cent contamination with pre-treatment of explants with bavistin on a rotary shaker. Among the various
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Pooja-Manchanda, Ajinder-Kaur and S. S. Gosal

Table 2. Effect of mercuric chloride (HgCl2) treatment (following antifungal treatment) on per cent explant contamination and survival in banana cv. Grand Naine Concentration (%) Control 0.1 Duration of exposure (min.) 5 8 10 12 0.2 5 8 10 CD(0.05) 100 (89.96) 77.61 (61.73) 61.66 (51.73) 50.8 (45.44) 44.33 (41.72) 62.18 (52.04) 50.38 (45.19) 42.13 (39.21) 1.49 Contamination* (%) Explant survival* (%) 0 (0) 21.86 (27.86) 47.03 (43.28) 55.7 (47.89) 53.3 (46.87) 26.34 (30.86) 17.75 (24.90) 14.06 (22.01) 0.995
durations of treatments, bavistin for 45 min was found best and significantly effective than the other treatments, in which 57.71 per cent uncontaminated explants were obtained and the per cent explant survival was 55.63. The survival per cent was significantly reduced at lower durations, which was 17.74 and 51.07 per cent at 25 and 35 minutes, respectively. Although percentage of contaminated explants could be reduced when treatment was given for 55 minutes but at the same time, explant survival rate was reduced to 47.11 per cent. The use of antifungal agents to minimize the contamination of in vitro cultures in Musa spp. has been demonstrated by Nandwani et al. (2000).
Table 1. Effect of pre-treatment of explants with bavistin 0.1% on per cent explant contamination and survival in banana cv. Grand Naine Duration of exposure (min.) 0 (Control) 25 35 45 55 CD (p = 0.05) Contamination* (%) 100*(89.96)** 82.55(65.28) 66.77(54.77) 57.71(49.42) 35.18(36.36) 1.02 Explant survival* (%) 0.00(0.00) 17.74(24.89) 51.07(45.59) 55.63(48.21) 47.11(43.32) 0.887
*Figures in parentheses are arc-sine transformed values.
* Figures in parentheses are arc-sine transformed values.
Among the various combinations and concentrations of HgCl2 tested, the HgCl2 @ 0.1 per cent for a duration of 10 minutes was found best and significantly effective than other treatments, where 55.7 per cent survival of uncontaminated explants was obtained (Table 2). The treatment with shorter durations (5 and 8 minutes) showed significantly less explant survival percentages of 21.86 and 47.03, respectively. An increase in the concentration of HgCl2 (0.2%) and increase in duration of sterilization resulted in drying out and death of explants. The reduction in explant survival percentage with increase in the duration of exposure might be due to phytotoxicity caused by mercuric ions (Hg2+) present in mercuric chloride. Thereafter, the explants were established in the medium after the removal of dead tissues. Effectiveness of mercuric chloride for sterilization of explants collected from field-grown suckers of banana has been reported by many workers (Shiragi et al., 2008; Kacar et al., 2010). However, the kind, concentration and duration of sterilization treatment required vary with the degree of contamination, type and hardiness of explants.
Thus, in the present study, an effective sterilization technique for suckers of banana cv. Grand Naine was worked out. It was established that treatment of field collected suckers first with 0.1% bavistin solution for 45 min and then with 0.1% HgCl2 for 10 min helps in achieving more than 50 per cent reduction in contamination due to fungus and bacteria, respectively and more than 55 per cent explant survival. This sterilization may be followed for other banana cultivars also.
REFERENCES
Ganapathi, T.R., Sidha, M., Suprasanna, P., Ujjappa, K.M., Bapat, V.A. and DSouza, S.F. (2008) Field performance and RAPD analysis of gamma-irradiated variants of banana cultivar Giant Cavendish (AAA). Intl. J. Fruit Sci. 8: 147-159. Kacar, Y.A., Bicen, B., Varol, I., Mendi, Y.Y., Serce, S. and Cetiner, S. (2010) Gelling agents and culture vessels affect in vitro multiplication of banana plantlets. Genet. Mol. Res. 9: 416424. Nandwani, D., Zehr, U., Zehr, B.E. and Barwale, R.B. (2000) Mass propagation and ex vitro survival of banana cv. Basrai through tissue culture. Garten Bauwissen Chaft 65: 237-240. Shiragi, M.H.K., Baque, M.A. and Nasiruddin, K.M. (2008) Eradication of banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) and banana mosaic virus (BMV) from infected plant of banana cv. Amritasagar through meristem culture. South Pacific Studies 29: 17-41.
Received 12 July, 2011; Accepted 14 January, 2012
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 143-144
Effect of Some Bio-pesticides and Chemical Pesticides on Survival of Larval Parasitoid Bracon hebetor Say (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)
Lakshman Chandra Patel* and Anirudhya Pramanik1
Ramkrishna Ashram KVK, Nimpith Ashram, South 24 Parganas, W.B. 743 338, India 1 AICRP on Plant Parasitic Nematodes, BCKV, Kalyani, Nadia, W.B., India, India *E-mail: lakshman_patel@rediffmail.com Bracon hebetor Say is an effective bio-control agent as larval parasitoid of some lepidopteran insect-pests. It can be easily mass multiplied in the laboratory and released into the crop field for bio-control (Khan et al., 2009). In recent years, the adoption of bio-intensive pest management approach has been stressed but this strategy requires attention on the impact and selectivity of the bio-pesticides and insecticides either singly or in combination on natural enemies. The conservation of natural enemies like B. hebetor through effective integration of these pesticides would be a valuable bio-intensive pest management (BIPM) options for many crops. The selective insecticides, less toxic to natural enemies than to target pests, are helpful in integration of biological control and chemical applications (Hull and Beers, 1985). Croft (1990) concluded that most of the conventional insecticides have harmful effects on nontarget organisms including natural enemies. Apart from this, neem based botanicals have also shown toxicity to B. hebetor (Raguraman and Singh, 1998). Among the new chemistry insecticides spinosad was highly toxic to Bracon mellitor (Kovalankov, 2002). Danfa and Valk (1999) documented 100 per cent mortality of Bracon hebetor against Metarhizium sp. and Beauveria bassiana. The effect of Bacillus thuringiensis on Bracon instabilis was studied by Salama et al. (1996), who reported prolonged immature stages of Bracon followed by reduced emergence of adults with less fertile females. Acknowledging the available literature, it is not enough to get a clear picture of the selectivity of bio-pesticides and insecticides to be used along with the Bracon hebetor in a sustainable bio-intensive pest management. So, the present study was conducted with an objective of finding selective bio-pesticides and modern chemical insecticide either single or their different combinations against B. hebetor when the later can be used in integration with them for management of important lepidopteran larvae.
Studies on the toxic effect of bio-pesticides, synthetic insecticides and their combination to natural larval parasitoid Bracon hebetor was conducted in the Laboratory condition in completely randomized block design and each treatment was replicated thrice. The larval parasitoid B.
hebetor used in this study was obtained from the bio-control laboratory, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal. For such study, glass tube of 15 x 2.5 cm size was smeared with 0.5ml of pesticide solution. Freshly emerged 10 adults of B. hebetor were transferred into each treated tube. The tubes were then covered with a cotton cloth and honey (5%) was provided as food with the help of cotton swab at the top of the cloth. Mortality of the adult larval parasitoids was recorded at every one day interval upto 4 days after treatment. The Data collected on adult mortality were subjected to statistical analyses after angular transformations and the means were separated by DMRT (Gomez and Gomez, 1984).
The detailed results of the present research on the toxic effect of bio-pesticides, chemical pesticides and some of their different mixtures on larval parasitoid B. hebetor is presented in Table 1. M. anisopliae was at par with untreated control with no mortality. All other treatments as compared to untreated check differ significantly in terms of mortality of adult Bracons. Among chemical insecticides, the cartap hydrochloride @ 0.1% proved highly toxic with 100 per cent mortality. At par mortality was recorded at different time intervals in separate mixture of cartap hydrochloride with bio-pesticides Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki and Metarhizium anisopliae at half of their recommended doses. The complete mortality was observed for both of the mixtures at four days after treatment. In comparison to this, the new chemistry insecticide flufenoxuron was relatively more safe causing only 16.92 per cent mortality to adult Bracon hebetor exposed to four days after treatment. It was statistically at par with Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki, neem oil and Beauveria bassiana at different time hours. After four days of exposure, among microbial pesticides, B. thuringiensis caused relatively more mortality (13.43%) followed by B. bassiana (9.70%) and M. anisopliae (nil). The separate mixture of neem oil with B. thuringiensis and M. anisopliae were relatively safer than cartap hydrochloride 50 SP mixtures. The very negligible per cent of contact toxicity was recorded for adult Bracon hebetor to Bacillus thuringiensis
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Lakshman Chandra Patel and Anirudhya-Pramanik
Table 1. Toxicity of microbial, botanical, chemical pesticides and their mixtures on adult of larval parasitoid Bracon hebetor Dose Adult mortality (%) of Bracon hebetor (Days after treatment) 1 2 6.73ef 0.00e 7.25ef 10.83de 11.62de 100.00a 23.33e 63.33b 17.78cd 60.00b 4 13.43d 0.00e 9.70d 10.83d 16.92cd 100.0a 30.00b 100.00a 25.00bc 96.67a
Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki 5% WP @ 0.1% Metarhizium anisopliae 1% W/W @ 0.5% Beauveria bassiana 1% W/W @ 0.5% Neem oil 5000 ppm @ 0.2% Flufenoxuron 10% DC @ 0.1% Cartap hydrochloride 50 SP @ 0.1% Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki 5% WP @ 0.05% + Neem oil @ 0.1% Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki 5% WP @ 0.05% + Cartap hydrochloride 50 SP @ 0.05% Metarhizium anisopliae 1% W/W @ 0.25% + Neem oil 0.1% M. anisopliae 1% W/W @ 0.25%+ Cartap hydrochloride 50 SP @ 0.05%
*No mortality was recorded in untreated control
3.03e 0.00e 3.92e 7.50de 6.73de 100.00a 20.06 c 53.33b 12.22d 55.00b
*In a column, means followed by same alphabet are not significantly different (P=0.05) by DMRT
var kurstaki. This particular information is indirectly accordance with the result obtained by Salama et al. (1996). Although, 100 per cent mortality of the parasitoid was reported by Danfa and Valk (1999) when exposed to M. anisopliae and B. bassiana but in this study both the fungal pathogens were safe to Bracon hebetor. Such contradictory finding might be due to differences in strains of both the entomopathogens. Aqueous suspension and ethanolic extract of neem seed kernel (NSK) were safe to Bracon hebetor in respect of ovipositional deterency, toxicity (Raghuraman and Singh, 1998), which more or less corroborates the present findings. In this present study, the new generation insecticide flufenoxuron was less toxic to Bracon hebetor, although Khan et al. (2009) proved slightly harmful to harmful effect after 48 hours of application of the other new generation insecticides like emamectin benzoate, abamectin, spinosad, indoxacarb and methoxyfenozide at different doses. The complete mortality was observed in the adults treated with recommended dose rate of conventional insecticide cartap hydrochloride just after 24 hours of application. Moreover, the separate mixture of the same with Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki and Metarhizium anisopliae at half of their recommended dose were not also safe at all to Bracon after 96 hours of application. These results are indirectly supported with those obtained by Reddy et al. (1997) and Mandal and Somchoudhury (1995), who reported the toxicity of the conventional insecticides to Bracon hebetor. It can be concluded that the bio-pesticides such as Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki, Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria bassiana and neem oil either solo or their mix application may be used with Bracon hebetor in biointensive pest management. Safe insecticide like
flufenoxuron may be integrated with bio-pesticides and Bracon hebetor for successful implementation of lepidopteran pest eradication as well as insecticide resistance management.
REFERENCES
Croft, B. A. ( 1990) Arthropod Biological Control Agents and Pesticides. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Danfa, A. and Valk, H.C.H.G. (1999) Laboratory testing of Metarrhizium spp. and Beauveria bassiana on Sahelian nontarget arthropods. Biocontrol Science and Technology 9(2): 187-198. Gomez, K. A. and Gomez, A. A. (1984) Statistical Procedures for Agricultural Research. John Wiley and Sons, New York. pp. 680. Hull, L.A. and Beers, E.H. (1985) Ecological sensitivity modifying chemical control practices to preserve natural enemies. In: Biological pest Control in Agricultural Ecosystem . Acad. Press, Orlando, Fla., pp. 103-121. Khan, R. R., Ashfaq, M., Ahmed, S. and Sahi, S.T. (2009) Mortality responses in Bracon hebetor (Say) (Braconidae: Hymenoptera) against some new chemistry and conventional insecticides under laboratory conditions. Pak. J. Agri. Sci. 46(1): 30-33. Kovalankov, V.G. (2002) A biomethod for condition of arthropods resistances to insecticides. Zahista-i-Karantin-Res-Tenni. 5: 18-19. Mandal, S.K. and Somchoudhury, A.K. (1995) Bioefficacy of commercial formulation of insecticides against Bracon hebetor (Say). Ind. J. Entomo. 57: 50-54. Raguraman, S. and Singh, R.P. (1998) Behavioural and physiological effects of neem (Azadirachta indica) seed kernel extracts on larval parasitoid. Bracon hebetor. J. Chem. Eco. 24(7): 12411250. Reddy, G.R., Sreelatha, S. and Divakar, B.J. (1997) Toxicity of six insecticides to two species of Bracon. Ind. J. Plant Prot. 25: 135-136. Salama, H.S., Zaki, F.N. and Sabbour, M.M. (1996) Effect of Bacillus thuringiensis endotoxin on Apanteles litae Nixon and Bracon instabilis Marsh. (Hym.: Braconidae), two parasitoids of the potato tuber moth Phthorimia operculella Zeller (Lep., Gelishiidae). J. Appl. Entomo. 120 (1-5): 565-568.
Received 12 December, 2011; Accepted 4 March, 2012
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 145-147
145
Adsorption and Leaching Behaviour of Sulfosulfuron

S. K. Randhawa and Amandeep Singh Brar*
Department of Agronomy Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, India *E-mail: aman_pau@yahoo.com
Sulfosulfuron is a main member of the sulfonylurea family of herbicides used widely throughout the world for the control of broadleaf and grassy weeds in a range of crops. The fundamental mode of action for sulfosulfuron and indeed all sulfonylurea herbicides entails inhibition of acetolactate synthase (ALS) an essential enzyme in aliphatic amino acid synthesis (Maheshwari and Ramesh, 2007). The sulfonylurea herbicides are mainly degraded by nonbiological chemical hydrolysis and soil micro organisms. Some parts of the herbicides are also lost from the upper soil layers as they leach down from the surface to the lower layers. Excessive mobility and persistence of sulfonylurea herbicides in soils may cause groundwater contamination and phytotoxicity to rotational crops. This movement of herbicides in the soil profile is also dependent upon soil factors such as pH, clay and organic matter (Yaron, 1989; Ramesh and Maheswari, 2003). Sulfonylurea herbicides are weak acids and they exist primarily in the anion form in agronomic soils. Consequently, sulfonylurea herbicides are generally weakly adsorbed by soil (Eleftherohorinos et al., 2004). The adsorption and leaching behaviour determine the persistence of a herbicide. Thus, adsorption and leaching behavior of sulfosulfuron need to be studied for determining the persistence of sulfosulfuron. Hence, the present study was conducted. An experiment was conducted during 2005 in the herbicide residue laboratory of the department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana to study the adsorption and leaching behavior of sulfosulfuron. The soil was loamy sand in texture (sand 71.2 %, silt 12.3 % and clay 15.8 %) having pH 8.2, organic carbon 0.32 and EC 0.2 dS m-1. The type of soil selected was loamy sand because it is the predominant type of soil in Punjab. Sulfosulfuron at field rate for wheat crop i.e., 25 g ha-1, double (50 g ha-1) and four times (100 g ha-1) the field rate was used to study the adsorption and leaching behaviour. For this study, PVC columns having 10 cm internal diameter and 65 cm length were used. Each column was divided into two longitudinal segments by cutting the columns lengthwise in the middle. The two column
segments were then rejoined by using the plastic tape. Soil representing different soil depths (0-10, 10-20, 20-30, 3040, 40-50 and 50-60 cm) was taken from the field, dried in shade, ground, sieved and filled in soil columns depth wise with constant gentle shaking. The base of each column was closed by tying a muslin cloth to it. The top of the soil columns was covered with 2 cm of sand so as to prevent crust formation resulting from the addition of water which may hamper the downward movement of water. Columns were then placed on the plastic funnels adjusted on the tripod stands and connected to the beakers meant to collect the leachate. Water was added on the surface of columns and the columns were covered from the top by using aluminium foil to prevent any evaporation from the surface. Columns were brought to the field capacity by adding water from the top and waiting till dripping stops from the base. Herbicide doses corresponding to 25, 50 and 100 g ha-1 were calculated on the basis of surface area of the top of the columns, dissolved in 5 ml of water and added over the soil surface in the columns. Herbicide was then leached with 20 ml water and the leachates collected after 24 hours were analyzed by HPLC for the detection of residues. Thereafter, 25 ml of water was added on the surface of the columns after every 24 hours and leachates collected everyday were analyzed. The leachates were collected for 10 consecutive days. The leachates thus collected were acidified using 2 per cent phosphoric acid and partitioned with dichloromethane. The dried sample was taken in acetonitrile for injection into HPLC. The percentage recovery of sulfosulfuron from the fortified sample of water was found to be 91 per cent. On the eleventh day, the soil columns were longitudinally cut open using a sharp knife into two parts by tearing the plastic tape holding the two column segments together. Two parts of column were taken as two replicates. Depthwise sampling of soil profile in the column was done by taking samples from both the segments. Soil depth from 010 cm formed the first sample with subsequent 10 cm depths forming the remaining samples. The samples were taken up to 60 cm depth. The soil was dried in shade, ground,
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S. K. Randhawa and Amandeep Singh Brar
Table 1. Concentration of sulfosulfuron in leachate taken at different intervals Sampling intervals (days after treatment) 25 g ha-1 (X) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0.06 0.10 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.01 BDL BDL 50 g ha-1(2X) 0.11 0.19 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.02 0.01 BDL 100 g ha-1(4X) 0.19 0.24 0.11 0.10 0.08 0.03 0.02 0.01 Concentration of sulfosulfuron (ppm) in leachate at different concentrations
BDL-Below detectable limit residue was below BDL after 8 day
sieved and weighed. The soil was analyzed for the sulfosulfuron residue by using HPLC on Waters 600 Controller and Pump and Waters 2487 Dual Absorption Detector. The percentage recovery of sulfosulfuron from the fortified sample of soil was found to be 86 per cent. The results obtained from the analysis of leachates collected from the column base (Table 1) revealed that on first day the concentration of sulfosulfuron residues in leachates was 0.06, 0.11 and 0.19 ppm under X, 2X and 4X dose, respectively. Assuming the concentration of sulfosulfuron residues in leachates as 100 per cent on first day, the concentration of sulfosulfuron residues in leachates, on second day, increased to 166.7, 172.7 and 126.3 per cent and, on third day, the concentration of sulfosulfuron residues in leachates decreased to 83.3, 72.7 and 57.9 per cent under X, 2X and 4X dose, respectively. The concentration of sulfosulfuron residues, on fourth day, again reduced to 50.0, 54.5 and 52.6 per cent against 37.3, 54.5 and 42.1 per cent under X, 2X and 4X dose, on fifth day respectively. Whereas, on sixth day, the concentration of residues of sulfosulfuron in leachates further reduced on seventh day, reached below detectable limit (<0.01ppm) under X dose and it was reduced to 9.1 and 10.5 per cent under 2X and 4X dose, respectively. Further, on eighth day,
the concentration of residues of sulfosulfuron in leachates reduced to below detectable limit under both X and 2X dose and it was 5.3 per cent under 4X dose. On ninth and tenth days, the concentration of residues of sulfosulfuron was below detectable even at 4X dose of sulfosulfuron. The concentration of sulfosulfuron residues took 7-9 days to go below detectable limit indicating that sulfosulfuron persists for a long time. These observations gain support from the findings of Eleftherohorinos et al. (2004) who also reported that sulfonylurea exhibit persistence even at low rates of application. The analysis of soil column revealed the highest concentration of sulfosulfuron residues in the top 0-10 cm depth (Table 2) while there was decrease in the residue concentration in the soil at 10-20 cm and 20-30 cm soil depths under all the doses of herbicide. With every increase in soil depth from 30-40 to 40-50 and 50-60 cm, the concentration of sulfosulfuron from residue increased. The results indicated that at higher rates, sulfosulfuron takes more time to leach down below detectable limit. Adsorption of sulfosulfuron was more in the top 0- 20 cm soil depth and again in 30 to 60 cm soil depth. It might be due to the presence of organic matter in the plough layer (0-20 cm) and due to higher clay content in the lower layers because
Table 2. Concentration of sulfosulfuron in soil taken at different depths from the soil column Soil depth (cm) Concentration of sulfosulfuron (ppm) in soil at different concentrations 25 g ha-1 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.06 50 g ha-1 0.11 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.07 100 g ha-1 0.22 0.13 0.06 0.12 0.14 0.17
Adsorption and Leaching Behaviour of Sulfosulfuron

as we go deeper in the soil profile clay content increases. Further, with the increase in the concentration of sulfosulfuron there was increase in the adsorption. Srivastava et al. (2006) also reported that herbicide leaching was more and adsorption was less in sandy soil and trend was reverse in clay soil. From the above studies, it may be concluded that the concentration of sulfosulfuron residues was higher in the leachates and it took more time to go below detectable limit with the higher dose of application. Adsorption of sulfosulfuron was more in the soil profile where organic matter and clay content was higher and further, adsorption was more with higher dose of application.
147
REFERENCES
Eleftherohorinos, I., Dhima, K. and Vasilakoglou, I. (2004) Activity, adsorption and field persistence of sulfosulfuron in soil. Weed Sci. 32(3): 274-285. Maheswari, S. T. and Ramesh, A. (2007) Adsorption and degradation of sulfosulfuron in soils. Environ. Monit. Assess. 127(1-3): 97-103. Ramesh, A. and Maheswari, S. T. (2003) Dissipation of sulfosulfuron in soil and wheat plant under predominant cropping conditions and in a simulated model ecosystem. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51(11): 3396-3400. Srivastava, A., Agarwal, V., Srivastava, P. C., Guru, S. K. and Singh, G. (2006) Leaching of sulfosulfuron from two texturally different soils under saturated moisture regime. J. Food Agric. Environ. 4(2): 287-290. Yaron, B. (1989) General principles of pesticide movement to groundwater. Agric. Ecosystem Environ. 26(3-4): 275-297.
Received 14 September, 2011; Accepted 10 February, 2012
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 148-150
Screening of Seed Sources and Development of Powdery Mildew of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.
K.S. Ahlawat*, J.C. Kaushik1, O.P. Lathwal and Avtar Singh2
1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kurukshetra-136 118, India Department of Forestry, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125 004, India 2 PAU Regional Station,Bathinda-151 001, India *E-mail:ahlawat19799@gmail.com
Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.) is an important broad-leaved tree species of Indian subcontinent occurring naturally from Indus to Assam. Its heartwood is strong and durable, brown with dark figuring for which it is prized for furniture and general wood work. It is extensively planted under social forestry programme in northern Gangetic plains. In the recent past, large scale mortality of shisham has been recorded in different parts of India. Besides the biotic causes, a number of stress factors such as changing climatic conditions, water logging, longer dry spell, root injury, soil compaction and salt accumulation are responsible for shisham mortality (Shera and Saralch, 2006; Chauhan et al., 2007). A number of leaf spots and powdery mildew fungi attack the foliage of shisham. Powdery mildew is an important foliage disease caused by Phyllactinia dalbergiae Prioz. is wide spread in occurrence throughout the Indian subcontinent (Joshi and Baral, 2000). Nautiyal (2007) has also highlighted the growing problems in shisham and required improvement strategies. However, meager information is available about the role of climatic factors and development of powdery mildew of shisham. Hence, the present investigation was undertaken to screen the seed sources for disease resistance and development of powdery mildew of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. The present studies were carried out at the experimental farm of Department of Agroforestry, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar (20o10/ N, 75o46/ E, 215 m above mean sea level), situated in the arid region of north-western India. The maximum temperature during summer months ranges between 42 to 450C while the minimum temperature during winter months sometimes goes as low as 0oC or less sometimes even than that. The average annual rainfall is about 350-425 mm, 75 per cent is received from July to September and a few showers of cyclonic rains are received in winter or late spring. In order to find out the role of weather parameters on disease development, the data on disease intensity were recorded
on three years old plantation under natural conditions at an interval of 15 days from the initiation of disease. Simultaneously, the data on weather variables viz., maximum and minimum temperature, relative humidity (morning and evening) and rainfall (mm) prevailing during the period of study were obtained from Department of Meteorology, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar. Screening of forty seed sources of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. available at the research area of department of agroforestry, Hisar was undertaken to find out the relative resistance against powdery mildew disease under natural conditions. The seed sources were graded under six different categories as immune (zero per cent leaf area mildew), resistant (1-10 per cent leaf area mildew), moderately resistant (11-20 per cent leaf area mildew), moderately susceptible (21-40 per cent leaf area mildew), susceptible (41-60 per cent leaf area mildew) and highly susceptible (61-100 per cent leaf area mildew). Hundred leaves were randomly graded from each seed source and were examined carefully to calculate the per cent disease intensity [{sum of all numerical rating/(total number of leaves observed x highest grade)} x 100]. Out of the forty seed sources screened, none of the seed sources was found immune to the disease. Nine seed sources registered in the resistant group, nine in moderately resistant group and seven seed sources in moderately susceptible group. Rests of the seed sources were found susceptible to highly susceptible group (Table 1). The pattern of disease progression amongst the nine seed sources recorded as Kurukshetra-419, Haldwani-24 and Unna-Makdnmpur-52 (resistant), Manipur forest fatehpur-56, Dabwali-26 and Haldwani S.B.412 (moderately susceptible), Tanakpur N.B.-431, Dabwali-210 and Sirsa274 (highly susceptible). The environmental variables viz., temperature, relative humidity and rainfall are the most crucial, because they affect the pathogen. The disease appeared after the light showers in the last week of July and first week of August. During July to August maximum temperature ranged between 34.3-35.1oC and minimum
Table 1. Reaction of different seed sources of Dalbergia sissoo against powdery mildew disease under field conditions Cultivar Nil Dabwali-74,Progeny test-35,Kurukshetra-419, Haldwani-290, Provenance test-4, Haldwani-24, Unna-Makdnmpur-52, Haldwani-411, Haldwani292 Dabwali-467, Dabwali-203, Haldwani-5, Sirsa (Best)-17, Dabwali-62, Mahender nagar (Nepal)-442, Haldwani-25, Patiala-57, Haldwani-I-23 Haldwani S.B.-412, Dabwali-269, Provenance test-39, Sirsa-209,Manipur forest fathepur-56, Provenance test -16, Provenance test-48 Sirsa -215, Sirsa-218, Tanakpur N.B.-432, Provenance test-271, Etahawa-54, Sirsa-214, Ludhiana-107, Provenance test-53
Reaction Category
Immune
Resistance (R)
Moderately Resistant (MR)
Moderately Susceptible ( MS)
Susceptible (S)
Highly Susceptible (HS)
Dabwali-210, Tanakpur N.B.-431, Haldwani-409, Sirsa-274, Provenance test-34, Sirsa-453, Sirsa-I-75
Table 2. Per cent disease intensity in resistant, moderately and highly susceptible seed sources of shisham at fortnightly interval Disease intensity (%) Moderately susceptible seed sources Unnamakdnmpur-52 Traces 1.00 2.68 2.71 2.80 3.80 6.60 7.20 8.00 8.62 9.55 7.97 4.86 3.60 3.06 2.94 11.92 16.45 18.49 21.00 21.25 22.45 22.45 2.00 8.00 Traces 6.46 5.19 3.82 Traces 2.62 4.24 8.19 11.62 15.43 17.69 19.45 27.85 28.49 29.68 30.15 Traces fatehpur-56 Manipur forest Dabwali-26 Haldwani S.B.-412 Traces 4.85 6.28 9.18 15.00 18.43 21.45 30.89 31.69 36.00 36.49 38.25 Highly susceptible seed sources Tanakpur N.B.-431 Traces 4.89 8.23 10.69 18.30 23.62 30.23 45.10 54.65 60.13 62.43 65.13 69.85 Traces 8.62 9.23 35.29 21.23 30.39 40.62 51.30 58.72 64.13 68.69 72.13 75.00 Traces 4.23 8.69 17.62 24.82 33.49 45.28 58.43 62.00 75.13 80.00 87.00 87.65 Dabwali-210 Sirsa-274 Haldwani-24
Date of observations
(Fortnight)*
Resistant seed sources
Kurukshetra-419
July II
August I
August II
September I
September II
Traces
October I
1.00
October II
2.53
November I
2.70
November II
2.70
December I
3.00
December II
5.90
January I
6.50
January II
6.50
149
*I- First fortnight of month
II- Second fortnight of month
150 temperature ranged between 23.0-24.7oC. The morning relative humidity was in the range of 81.4-82.8 per cent, while in the evening, it was between 59.1-66.1 per cent. The disease increased with the decrease in mean temperature and increase in percent relative humidity from September onwards. The maximum disease intensity was recorded in the month of January when temperature ranged between 4.4-20.10C and relative humidity ranged between 63.4-97.0 per cent. With the progress of time, the disease continued to increase in all the nine seed sources but varied in disease intensity. In resistant seed sources (Kurukshetra419, Haldwani-24 and Unna-Makdnmpur-52), the disease appeared in the second fortnight of September in traces and progressed at slow rate and reached to maximum in January (Table 2). In moderately susceptible seed sources (Manipur forest fathepur-56, Dabwali-269 and Haldwani S.B.-412), the disease appeared in first fortnight of August and progressed further upto January. Raghu and Mallaiah (1999) also observed that powdery mildew appeared on Dalbergia sissoo in the month of August and maximum was recorded in the month of January. In highly susceptible seed sources (Tanakpur N.B.-431, Dabwali-210 and Sirsa274), the disease appeared in the second fortnight of July in traces and highest disease intensity was recorded in January. The disease intensity in highly susceptible seed sources were also in variable ranges from 69.85 (Tanakpur N.B.-431) to 87.65 per cent (Sirsa-274). From the above study, it may be concluded that none of seed sources was immune to the disease. The disease appeared in first fortnight of August and continued to increase with decrease in mean temperature and increase in relative humidity. Appearance of Phyllactinia dalbergiae appeared for a longer period of six months indicated that it could withstand wide range of temperature and relative humidity. The maximum disease intensity was recorded in January when mean temperature was 12.4oC and mean relative humidity was 79.1 per cent. The disease intensity also varied among different sources ranging from 6.50 (Kurukshetra419) to 87.65 per cent (Sirsa-274).
REFERENCES
Chauhan, R., Garg, R.K., Chauhan, S. and Saralch, H.S. (2007) Tree mortality in Northern states of India-A review. In: Proc. of Regional Seminar on Mortality of Agroforestry Trees, D.P.S. Nandal and J.C. Kaushik (Eds.) at HAU Hisar, pp. 11-17. Joshi, R.B. and Baral, S.R. (2000). A report on dieback of Dalbergia sissoo In Nepal. In: Proc. of the Sub-Regional Seminar on Dieback of Sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo), Katmandu, Nepal, 2528 April 2000. pp.17-22. Nautiyal, S. (2007) Dalbergia sissoo (shisham) mortality viz-a viz improvement strategy for future. In: Proc. of Regional Seminar on Mortality of Agroforestry Trees, D.P.S. Nandal and J.C. Kaushik (Eds.) at HAU Hisar, pp. 27-34. Raghu, R. and Mallaiah, K.V. (1999). Studies on foliar diseases of tree legumes caused by Cercosporaceous fungi. Ind. For. 125:313-315. Shera, P.S. and Saralch, H.S. (2006) Insect-pest and diseases of shisham (Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.): A overview. In: Shisham and Kikar Mortality in India (S.S. Gill, S.K. Chauhan, H.N. Khajuria and R. Chauhan, Eds.), Agrotech Publi. Academy, Udaipur, pp.17-39.
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 151-152
Management of Root-Knot Nematode Meloidogyne javanica in Pigeonpea through Seed Treatment

Tarique Hassan Askary
Division of Entomology, Shere-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Shalimar, Srinagar- 191 121, India. E-mail : tariq _askary@ rediffmail.com
Table 1. Effect of different treatments on plant growth characters of pigeonpea and nematode population
Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.) is considered as one of the most important pulse crop grown in India and is well adapted to tropical and sub-tropical conditions. It is highly vulnerable to many plant parasitic nematodes and among them root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne javanica has emerged as potential threat to its production throughout the country. This nematode is widespread in all the pigeonpea growing states of India (Ali and Askary, 2001) and its management is yet to be perfected because most of the nematicides are generally expensive and requires a large quantity for its soil application. Therefore, the present study was conducted to find out an economically successful option through pre-sowing seed coating with different chemicals, bioagents and botanicals in the management of M. javanica on short duration pigeonpea cv. UPAS 120. The study was carried out during kharif season at experimental research field of Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur. Seeds of Pigeonpea cv. UPAS 120 were used in the experiment. There were eight treatments including check (Table 1). Treated seeds were sown at a spacing of 4520 cm in 44m M. javanica infested sick microplots. One treatment of untreated seeds was taken as check plot in the experimental study. All the treatments including check was replicated three times. Data regarding symptoms and other plant characters were recorded on the basis of regular field observations. The experiment was terminated at maturity i.e., 135 days after sowing. The present study indicated an increase in fresh and dry shoot and root weight, shoot length, number of rhizobial nodules per root system and yield of pigeonpea in seed treated plots as compared to check (Table 1). The below ground symptoms such as egg masses, number of galls per root system as well as nematode population in soil was significantly less in all the treatments as compared to untreated plots. These findings are in confirmation with the work done by other researchers (Dahiya and Singh, 1985; Das and Mishra, 2000, 2003; Haseeb and Shukla, 2002). Although all the treatments were significantly effective in reducing the nematode infection on pigeonpea plants as
Weight of seeds (g)/ plot (44m)
1910.0
1850.0
1730.0
1660.0
1610.0
1935.0
1970.0
1140.0 69.0 64.0 25 2.1 6.0 6.7 114.7 Check (Untreated) 2.3 2740
Nematode population/ Kg soil
1530.0
1610.0
1835.0
1910.0
1940.0
1495.0
1470.0
Number of galls/ root system
39.0
40.0
44.0
35.0
28.0
30.0
25.0
Egg masses/ root system
31.0
24.0
27.0
33.0
35.0
40.0
18.0
Total nodules/ root system
Dry root weight (g)
3.2
3.0
Fresh root weight (g)
2.7
2.4
2.9
3.4
10.1
3.8
9.2
Dry shoot weight (g)
8.9
8.8
9.3
4.1
3.9
3.6
3.4
2.5
3.6
Fresh shoot weight (g)
10.2
10.2
10.5
4.4
9.6
Shoot length (cm)
9.3
9.2
172.2
Paecilomyces lilacinus @ 2% 183.5 of 108 spore/ml of suspension
167.3
159.2
157.5
179.5
190.3
Chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 1%
Aspergillus niger @ 2% of 108 spore/ml of suspension
Dimethoate 30 EC @ 0.8%
Triazophos 40 EC @ 3%
Neem seed powder @ 5%
Calotropis procera @ 1%
CD (P=0.05)
Treatments
9.3
1.1
9.7
0.1
0.7
9.7
9.8
0.8
8.3
44
40
38
41
40
46
48
6.8
6.3
155.4
179.4
152
Tarique Hassan Askary

Dahiya, J.S. and Singh, D.P. (1985) Inhibitory effects of Aspergillus niger culture filtrate on mortality and hatching of larvae of Meloidogyne spp. Pl. and Soil 86: 145-146. Das, D. and Mishra, S. D. (2000) Effect of neem seed powder and neem based formulations as seed coating against Meloidogyne incognita, Heterodera cajani and Rotylenchulus reniformis infecting pigeonpea. Curr. Nematol. 11: 13-23. Das, D. and Mishra, S.D. (2003) Effect of neem seed powder and neem based formulations for the management of Meloidogyne incognita, Heterodera Cajani and Rolylenchulus reniformis infecting pigeonpea. Ann. Pl. Prot. Sci. 11: 110-115. Haseeb, A. and Shukla, P.K. (2002) Management of wilt disease of chickpea by the application of chemicals, biopesticides and bio-agents under field conditions. Curr. Nematol. 13: 61-63.
well as increasing the plant growth characters and yield, however, the most promising was neem seed powder followed by Paecilomyces lilacinus, Calotropis procera, Aspergillus niger, dimethoate and chlorpyriphos. The least effective among all the treatments was triazophos. Such findings assure that seed treatment is an economic and effective method in the management of root-knot nematode in pigeonpea.
REFERENCES
Ali, S.S. and Askary, T.H. (2001) Taxonomic status of phytonematodes associated with pulse crops . Curr. Nematol. 12: 75-84.
Received 25 June, 2011; Accepted 15 February, 2012
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 153-155
Standardization of Method for Soil Arthropods Extraction by Tullgren Funnel

Romila Akoijam* and Badal Bhattacharyya
Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat-785 013, India *E-mail: romilaakoijam@yahoo.com
The Tullgren funnel is a device used to extract small invertebrate animals from soil samples (Tullgren, 1918). The sample is placed in a container with a base made from gauze with a mesh designed to hold soil particles but permit the organisms to pass. The container is arranged over a funnel, with a source of light above (Michael, 2009). The Tullgren funnel works on the principle that most organisms move away from bright light and very warm/dry conditions. They move to the bottom of the samples, fall through the fine sieve into a collecting vessel, and are preserved for examination (Michael et al., 1975). However, no realistic information is available on the standardization of soil arthropods extraction by using Tullgren funnel. For effective extraction of soil arthropods from soil samples by using Tullgren funnel within a specific time, it is necessary to standardize the method of extraction of soil arthropods. A well-defined standard method would be of immense help in investigations regarding soil arthropods as their effective extraction would be possible within a short period of time. Three ecosystems (dairy farm, orchard and tea garden) were selected inside the campus of Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam. Soil samples were collected randomly from six different spots by using rectangular soil sampler (30 X 11 X 8 cm) upto a constant depth of 10 cm (from surface) from each of the ecosystem. The soil inside the sampler was taken out without disturbing the soil profile and the soil arthropods were extracted by using Tullgren funnel. The soil arthropods were extracted by using 40, 60 and 100 watt electric bulbs, keeping in low, medium and high light intensities for 12, 24, 36, 48 and 72 hours of exposure. The low, medium and high light intensities for 40, 60 and 100 watt electric bulbs were measured by using a luxmeter. The light intensities at 40 watt electric bulbs at low, medium and high intensities were 300, 2000 and 4500 lux, respectively. At 60 watt electric bulbs, 750, 2700 and 6200 lux were recorded for low, medium and high intensities, whereas, 1200 (low), 8200 (medium) and 15700 lux (high) were recorded at 100 watt electric bulbs. The soil temperature was recorded by using
soil thermometer and the moisture content was determined by Gravimetric method (Kishore et al., 2008 ). The collected soil samples were analyzed in the funnel and due to the light and heat gradient as well as the effect of gravity, the soil arthropods moved downwards through the mesh sieve that was attached at the bottom of the funnel. The extracted soil arthropods were collected in collecting tubes (40 ml) containing 70 per cent ethyl alcohol. The ethyl alcohol containing soil arthropods were transferred into a clean petridish for counting and sorting out. The populations of extracted soil arthropods (no. m-2) were estimated by using the following formula (Singh et al., 1978) P = (10,000 X)/ [(B L) n] Where, P = Population of soil arthropods per m2 X = Number of soil arthropods extracted from the funnel B = Breadth of the rectangular soil sampler (cm) L = Length of the rectangular soil sampler (cm) n = Number of samples per ecosystem When the Tullgren funnel was operated for 12, 24, 36, 48 and 72 hours with 40 watt electric bulbs at low, medium and high light intensity, the maximum population of soil arthropods (5241.9 m-2) was extracted by Tullgren funnel at high light intensity (4500 lux) upto 72 hours of exposure (Table 1). It was also observed that beyond 72 hours, very negligible population of soil arthropods were extracted by the funnel and at this exposure time, the soil samples were observed to be too dried and friable because of the constant heat generated by the 40 watt electric bulbs at high light intensity. The reason for getting highest population of soil arthropods for 72 hours of exposure reflects the inability of soil arthropods to tolerate the 40C temperature generated for 72 hours of exposure, which finally leads to vertical movements of the soil arthropods to the collecting tubes. Further, it can be mentioned that as a general behavior, most of the soil arthropods avoid light and many of them do not possess specialized eyes, well-developed tactile and
154
Romila Akoijam and Badal Bhattacharyya

chemoreceptors and communication signals. Most of them absorb and lost water through their integument and are highly dependable on water-saturated atmosphere for their existence (Didden, 1983). Therefore, after 72 hours of exposure, the soil moisture content was drastically reduced up to the extent of 1.76 per cent, which created an adverse environmental condition for the survival of soil arthropods (Table 2). The heat generated by the funnel at 72 hours of exposure might have adversely affected and killed other soil fungi and bacteria leading to exhaustion of food for soil arthropods. The second highest population of soil arthropods (3514.8 m-2) was obtained with 40 watt electric bulbs for 48 hours of exposure at high light intensity (Table 1). While using 60 watt electric bulbs, the highest population of soil arthropods (3120.9 m-2) was observed at 72 hours of exposure in high light intensity (Table 1). It was the third highest population of soil arthropods extracted per m2 in all the observations. Tripathi and Sharma (2005) collected soil fauna by using 60 watt electric bulb in Tullgren funnel at 24 hours of exposure but they did not extend the exposure time beyond 24 hours. However, Masan (2007) extracted different mite species by using Berlese-Tullgren funnel with 60 watt electric bulbs at an exposure of 48-72 hours. At 12, 24, 36, 48 and 72 hours of exposure in high light intensity (6200 lux), the soil arthropods populations were 60.6, 363.6, 1212.0, 1696.8 and 3120.9 (m-2), respectively (Table 1). By using 100 watt electric bulbs, the maximum number of soil arthropods (1787.7 m-2) was extracted at high light intensity at an exposure of 72 hours (Table 1). This rate of extraction was found to be considerably low as compared to the rate of extraction by using 40 and 60 watt bulbs. It may be due to the fact that the 100 watt bulbs generated comparatively more heat (38, 46, 53, 61 and 84C at 12, 24, 36, 48 and 72 hours of exposure, respectively) inside the funnel, which was not found congenial for the survival of the soil arthropods (Table 2). The intense heat by 100 watt electric bulbs caused increase in soil temperature leading to moisture deficit inside the funnel and hence, most of the soil arthropods either they became inactive or died. Various groups of soil arthropods like collembolans, soil mites, pseudoscorpions and many unidentified species were recorded from all the observations. Among them, nine morphologically dissimilar types of collembolans and eleven morphologically dissimilar types of soil mites could be recorded. The findings drawn from this investigation will pave the way for other researchers to extract maximum numbers of soil arthropods within a short period of time by using Tullgren funnel. The methodology described in this paper may be
72 hours Table 1. Soil arthropods population extracted by Tullgren funnel by using 40, 60 and 100 watt electric bulbs from different ecosystems 48 hours Population of soil arthropods/ sq. m at five exposures (time)
151.50 30.30 60.60 242.40 121.20 60.60 60.60 242.40 575.70 60.60 303.00 939.30 1424.10 303.00 818.10 2545.20 515.10 333.30 363.60 1212.00 333.30 151.50 272.70 757.50 Diary farm Orchard Tea garden Total 60 watt** Diary farm Orchard Tea garden Total 100 watt*** Diary farm Orchard Tea garden Total 40 watt* 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 90.90 0.00 0.00 90.90 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 60.60 0.00 0.00 60.60 151.50 90.90 30.30 272.70 60.60 0.00 0.00 60.60 0.00 30.30 0.00 30.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 121.20 0.00 60.60 181.80 121.20 30.30 60.60 212.10 90.90 0.00 30.30 121.20 181.80 30.30 90.90 303.00 666.60 181.80 363.60 1212.00 121.20 151.50 90.90 363.60 121.20 90.90 30.30 242.40 60.60 0.00 0.00 60.60 90.90 30.30 30.30 151.50 272.70 30.30 121.20 424.20 333.30 60.60 90.90 484.80 212.10 181.80 151.50 545.40 242.40 60.60 212.10 515.10
818.10 1787.70 90.90 666.60 303.00 1060.50 1212.00 3514.80 636.30 666.60 242.40 424.20 212.10 606.00 1090.80 1696.80 515.10 484.80 121.20 181.80 242.40 424.20 878.70 1090.80 *40 watt - L: Low light intensity (300 lux), M: Medium light intensity (2000 lux) and H: High Light intensity (4500 lux); **60 watt -L: 750 lux, M: 2700 lux and H: 6200 lux and ***100 watt - L: 1200 lux, M: 8200 lux and H: 15700 lux
36 hours 24 hours 12 hours
Bulb
Ecosystems
181.80 151.50 121.20 454.50 151.50 90.90 121.20 363.60 878.70 151.50 545.40 1575.60
1212.00 303.00 393.90 1908.90 727.20 333.30 606.00 1666.50 909.00 212.10 666.60 1787.70
2787.60 818.10 1636.20 5241.90 1484.70 606.00 1030.20 3120.90 818.10 333.30 484.80 1636.20
Method for Soil Arthropods Extraction

Table 2. Average temperature of soil samples recorded in Tullgren funnel operated by using 40, 60 and 100 watt electric bulbs in different light intensities at different exposure time
155
48 hours
tested to standardize other types of funnels like Berlese and OConnors funnel to draw a logistic conclusion extraction of soil arthropods with high levels of precision. The use of proper type of funnel for extracting soil arthropods depending on the physico-chemical properties of soil will further intensify and generate more information on taxonomic identity, species richness, distribution pattern, biology and behavior of soil arthropods. Furthermore, the role of soil arthropods and other microflora as possible bioindicators of the polluted and degraded soil ecosystem can be investigated effectively by using the above standardized method. The effect of global climatic change on soil arthropods and their ability to recover after the cessation of a climatic disturbance needs further comprehensive research.
(1.759)
(1.028)
72 hours
34.50
39.50
30.00
35.00
34.00
42.00
32.50
36.00
52.00
61.00
44.50
70.00
(0.426)
40.00
55.00
84.00
29.00
32.00
40.00
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to Dr. Y.S. Mathur, Ex. Net Work Coordinator, All India Network Project on white grubs and other soil arthropods, Agricultural Research Station, Durgapura, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India for his encouragement during the period of investigations.
32.00
Time of exposure (hours)
36 hours
39.00 33.50
30.00
49.50
53.00
REFERENCES
Didden, W.A.M. (1983) Ecology of terrestrial Enchytraeidae. Pedobiologia 37: 2-229. Kishore, D. K., Sharma, S.K. and Pramanick, K.K. (2008) Temperate horticulture: current scenario. New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi. Masan, P. (2007) Olopachys (Olopachylaella) gronychi subgen. nov., sp. nov., a new species of mite from Bulgaria (Acari: Mesostigmata: Pachylaelapidae). Zootaxa 1509: 31-39. Michael, A. (2009) A Dictionary of Zoology. Oxford University Press. pp. 554.
*Figures in the parentheses are the moisture per cent values
28.00
30.50 34.00 31.00
24 hours
30.00
28.00
38.00
46.00
36.50
27.00
29.00
32.50
Michael, A., Tribe, Michael Eraut and Roger K. Snook (Eds.) (1975) Ecological principles. Interaction between organisms and their living environment. Cambridge University Press, pp. 65. Singh, J., Mahajan, S.V. and Singh, R.K. (1978). Sampling, extraction and precision regarding some statistical studies for population ecology of soil mesofauna. Bull. Entomol. 19: 130-145. Tripathi, G. and Sharma, B.M. (2005) Effects of habitats and pesticides on aerobic capacity and survival of soil fauna. Biomed. Environ. Sci. 18(3): 169-175. Tullgren, A. (1918) Ein sehr einfacher Auslesgeapparat fur Terricole, Tierformen. Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Entomologie 4: 149150.
28.50
30.00
38.00 30.00 34.50
L: Low, M: Medium and H: High light intensities
12 hours
27.00 26.50
temperature*
28.00
29.00
Received 30 December, 2011; Accepted 5 April, 2011
(21.24)
(21.24)
26.00
Bulb(watt) Initial
26.00
100
40
60
(21.24)
(C)
26.00
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 156-157
Strategies to Enhance Fish Production from Ox-bow Lakes of Muzaffarpur, Bihar

Sujeet Rajak*, Arpita Sharma, S.K. Chakraborty, S.C. Rai, Dilip Kumar and A.K. Jaiswar
Central Institute of Fisheries Education (CIFE), Deemed University Indian Council of Agricultural Research Seven Bungalows, Versova, Mumbai 400 061, India *E-mail: sujeet.rajak@gmail.com
Present annual fish production of the Bihar state is 2.88 lakhs tones, which makes it fourth among all states. About 1.5 lakhs tonnes comes from capture fisheries resources comprising rivers and rest from culture resources, which is about half of the annual requirement/ consumption of 4.56 lakhs tonnes. To bridge the gap, it is essential to focus attention to promote aquaculture by achieving optimum sustainable yield from flood plain wetlands particularly from Ox-bow lake by ecological management and fishery enhancement strategies. Vaas (1997) and Ayyappan (2006) has reported the importance of floodplain wetlands for fishers. Despite abundant aquatic resources in terms of about 3,200 km of rivers, 100,000 hectares chaurs and floodplain wetlands, 9,000 hectares of ox-bow lakes or mauns, 7,200 hectares of reservoirs and 69,000 hectares of ponds and tanks, fish supply is short of demand in the State of Bihar. Abraham (1990) has suggested pen nursery technology for the development of fisheries of Ox-bow lakes and reservoirs. Realizing the importance of Ox-bow lakes, a study was conducted in the year 2010 with an objective of documenting the problems of fishers and suggesting strategies. In Bihar, Muzaffarpur District of Trihut division (2607 N and 8524 E) is very rich in water bodies. In the present study, an attempt was made to study the existing management practices followed in the two lakes Sikandarpur and Manika, Muzaffarpur, North Bihar. The data has been collected by interacting with fishers, society heads, head of SHGs and Department of Fisheries officials. The problems faced by 100 fishers from Sikandarpur Ox-bow lake and Manika Ox-bow lake were recorded through interview method. In the study, the area was the households dependent on the Sikandarpur Ox-bow lake and Manika Ox-bow lake. List of the households dependent on the two Ox-bow lake was procured. It was found that there were 350 and 150 households dependent on the Sikandarpur and Manika lake, respectively.
A total of 50 households each form both the lakes were selected randomly. Interview schedule was administered to the head of the household usually a male. In case where the head of the household was absent or not available, the lady of the household was interviewed. A total of 80 men and a total of 20 women comprised the sample. Management practices adopted . Fisheries cooperative society or the Self help Group (SHGs) sources fish seeds from Government department at subsidized cost rates. They follow the fishing ban during breeding season and during religious festivals, which helps in stocking. Weed manifestation ( Eicchornia, Hydrilla Vallisneria, etc.) is present in both the lakes, mainly there is a serious problem of water hyacinth. Farmers who are members of co-operative society takes the responsibility of removing the weeds manually from the lakes with the help of boats and fishers. Fishers catch fish with the help of traditional fishing gears and crafts. They have their ancestral crafts like dengi (small boat). The gears, which they use for catching the fish are gill net locally called Phansi net, cast net called Jaliya, drag net called Mahajaal. The floats of the nets made up of plastic and round in shape are used. They also use thermo coal. Sinkers are made up of cast iron, iron and burnt clay/soil. Nylon threads are used to make the nets. It is coloured (one to five times in a year) to extend the life of the net. Sometimes the fishers rear the seeds in a confined area to grow it to fingerling size then they stock the lake. But usually it is not practiced because fishers cannot monitor this all the time. For catching the fish they set their gill net in the night and in early morning they remove the net with the help of boats. They also take the help of boats and swimmers to operate the cast net and drag net. Fishers manage both the lakes with the help of co-operative called Matasya Jalaj Sahakari Samiti. During monsoon and post-monsoon season fishers give fish holiday or ban fishing for the juveniles to grow. This is a natural way of giving fish holiday. There is no regular practice of stocking the lakes with cultured seed.
Enhance of Fish Production from Ox-bow Lakes

The mesh size regulation is not followed, they are fishing with gill net, drag net and cast net. The mesh is determined roughly with their fingers. They only try to not catch the fish, which are less than 100g. In Manika lake fish stock is managed at a place with the help of bamboo reeds and strips, which acts as barrier, because water level is very low at some places. Water, soil and weed management. On the issue of water quantity, construction of earthen banks to prevent outflow of rainy water, and to reduce seepage and maintaining inflow of water is required. Department of Fisheries (DoF)/fishery society/SHG should have control or say for sluice gate operation to maintain water level in case of flooding or shortage of water. In Manika lake, there should be intake and outflow of water by construction of sluice gate. As regards to soil and water quality periodical checks, reduction in sewage waste, maintaining the growth of plankton, spray of lime and disiltation is suggested. To reduce pollution, flow of sewage water should be diverted in other suitable direction or it should be collected and poured only after mechanical/chemical purification, washing of clothes and waste disposal should be controlled, Earthen embankments should be constructed and not concrete embankment. Weed infestation has to be kept under control manually or stocking of herbivorous fish. Lake management . With reference to lake management, good quality and quantity of seed supply has to be ensured, only the fishes of proper growth and weight should be marketed, artificial feed for the fishes may be added regularly in lake. Community and society should come together to solve the problem of poaching. Regulation of mesh size is required and spray of lime may be done in addition to development of diagnostic kits. Nursery ponds for rearing of juveniles providing water intake by pump house. Under infrastructure, storage, cold chain, auction site, fish market, society office should be constructed. Cage culture can be started. Human resource management. As regards to human resource management, capacity development programmes on pisciculture, pen/cage culture, mesh size regulation, Integrated farming, alternative livelihoods should be strengthened. Department of Fisheries (DoF) needs to be strengthened and regular visits by DOF are required. Literacy programmes for fishers, awareness of government schemes, support through mass awareness through communication media, participation of youth (men and
157
women) in fisheries. Community management practices and training on financial management (book keeping, accounts etc), organization management, team work and leadership is required. As regards to financial management, provision of credit facilities, financial inclusion is required.
Fig. 1. Strategy for Ox-bow lake management
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Dr. W.S. Lakra, Vice Chancellor/Director CIFE, Mumbai for his valuable help and support for the work. The authors are also thankful to all fishers, Department of Fisheries Bihar who provided the information.
REFERENCES
Abraham, M. (1990) Pen nursery technology for the development of fisheries of Ox-bow lakes and reservoirs. In: A.G. Jhingran, V.K. Unnithan and A. Ghosh. Contribution to the Fisheries of Inland Open Water Systems in India. Published by the Inland Fisheries Society of India, Barrackpore, Part I, pp.71-76. Ayyappan S. (2006) Oxbow lake fisheries. Handbook of Fisheries and Aquaculture. ICAR, pp. 1-12. Bhowmik, M.L. (1990) Pen culture- A means for higher fish yield from Ox-bow lakes. In: A.G. Jhingran, V.K. Unnithan and A.Ghosh. Contribution to the Fisheries of Inland Open Water System in India, Part I Published by the Inland Fisheries Society of India, Barackpore, pp.46-52. http://planningcommission.nic.in/data/central/ index.php?data=centab http://ahd.bih.nic.in/Docs/ICAR-Report-Fisheries-Dev-Bihar.pdf Vass, K. K. (1997) Floodplain wetlands - An important inland fisheries resources of India. In: V.V. Sugunan and M. Sinha (Eds) Fisheries Enhancement of Small Reservoirs and Floodplains Lakes in India. Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, Bulletin No. 75, pp.238-242.
Received 27 November, 2011; Accepted 5 April, 2012
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 158-159
Effect of Residue Management Practices and Nitrogen Levels on Soil Properties, Yield and Uptake of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium in Soybean Sown after Preceding Wheat Crop
K. S. Saini and S. K. Chongtham
Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana - 141 004, India
Soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill) is a native of Asia. As a leguminous crop, soybean fixes atmospheric N through symbiotic association with Bradyrhizobium japonicum (syn. Rhizobium japonicum). About 25 to 75 per cent of the crops total N requirement is supplied through symbiotic N-fixation in soybean. The management of the preceding wheat crop residue by turning it into soil can be a better option to reduce N dose of the succeeding soybean crop. This may help in better N mobilization from wheat straw in soil, thus increasing available N supply to crop besides improving soil properties such as organic carbon content, nutrients availability and their uptake. The present investigations were conducted to study the performance of soybean with crop residue management practices and nitrogen levels in terms of yield, nutrients uptake and soil properties. Present studies were undertaken during kharif season of 2009 at the Students Research Farm, Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. This tract of India falls under Trans-Gangetic Agro-climatic Zone with sub-tropical climate. The soil of the experimental field was loamy sand in texture and alkaline in reaction (pH 8.1). The soil tested low in organic carbon (0.30%), available nitrogen (145.63 kg ha-1), medium in available phosphorus
(12.70 kg ha-1) and available potassium (189.66 kg ha-1). The experiment was conducted in split plot design with three replications comprising of three residue levels {full (RF), half (RH) and no residue (RO)} in main plots and four nitrogen levels {125% N (N125), 100% N (N100), 75% N (N75) and 50% N through inorganic source+ 50% N through FYM (N50 + N50 FYM)} in sub plots. The residues of preceding wheat crop were kept as per treatments (full, half and no residue) in main plots and these were turn down into experimental field with rotavator on April 21, 2009. The crop variety SL 525 was sown on June 15, 2009 and harvested on October 28, 2009. Recommended dose of nitrogen dose for soybean is about 32 kg N ha-1. The total amount of rainfall received during crop season was 901.7 mm. The crop was raised as per the package of practices of Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Chemical analysis of seed, straw and soil were conducted after the harvest of the crop using standard analytical methods. The perusal of data (Table 1) revealed that crop residue management practices did not significantly affect organic carbon (%) in soil at 0-15 cm and 15-30 cm soil depth. However, the organic carbon increased with increasing level of residues incorporation of preceding wheat crop. Similarly
Table 1. Effect of crop residue management practices and nitrogen levels on organic carbon, available N, P and K in soil after harvest Treatments Residue management (RM) RO (No residue) RH (Half residue) RF (Full residue) CD (p=0.05) Nitrogen levels (N) N75 (75%) N100 (100%) N125 (125%) N50 fertilizer + N 50 FYM CD (p=0.05) Interaction (RMxN) 0.37 0.39 0.40 0.42 NS NS 0.32 0.31 0.31 0.33 NS NS 164.56 170.10 172.35 173.15 NS NS 12.60 12.71 12.35 12.75 NS NS 185.14 183.93 187.21 186.35 NS NS 0.36 0.38 0.44 NS 0.30 0.31 0.33 NS 164.76 168.25 171.10 NS 12.21 12.45 12.48 NS 184.85 187.21 185.11 NS Soil organic carbon (%) 0-15 cm 15-30 cm Available N (kg ha-1) Available P (kg ha-1) Available K (kg ha-1)
Yield and Nutrient Uptake in Soyabean

Table 2. Effect of crop residue management practices and nitrogen levels on N, P and K content and total uptake by soybean Treatments % N content Seed Residue management (RM) RO (No residue) 6.16 0.81 0.83 0.92 NS 0.82 0.85 0.88 0.86 0.02 NS 126.44 134.35 149.29 NS 125.95 140.18 141.54 139.48 2.67 NS 0.70 0.71 0.73 NS 0.69 0.71 0.73 0.72 NS NS 0.24 0.24 0.25 NS 0.22 0.25 0.26 0.25 NS NS 19.86 21.13 23.64 NS 19.16 22.04 22.12 22.59 NS NS 2.04 2.05 2.08 NS 2.05 2.08 2.05 2.06 NS NS 0.78 0.84 0.91 NS 0.82 0.85 0.87 0.84 NS NS 60.82 66.53 75.52 NS 63.92 69.14 69.00 69.51 NS NS 15.95 17.04 18.22 NS 15.99 17.35 17.21 17.83 0.76 NS Straw Total N uptake (kg ha-1) Seed Straw % P content Total P uptake (kg ha-1) Seed Straw % K content Total K uptake (kg ha-1) Seed yield (q ha-1)
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Straw yield (q ha-1) 36.25 37.62 41.35 NS 37.68 38.88 38.76 39.02 1.24 NS
RH (Half residue) 6.11 RF (Full residue) 6.06 CD (p=0.05) Nitrogen levels (N) N75 (75%) N100 (100%) N125 (125%) N50 fertilizer + N50 FYM CD (p=0.05) 0.29 Interaction (RMxN) NS 5.77 6.27 6.22 6.19 NS
different nitrogen levels did not significantly affect the soil organic carbon. The effect of residue management practices on available N, P and K was also found to be non-significant. However, increasing trend with increase in residue incorporation was observed in available N and P except K in soil. Similarly, available N in soil increased with increasing N level, however this increase was not significant. The data in Table 2 revealed that the different crop residue management practices did not influence significantly on nutrient contents namely, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in seed and straw and their total uptake. Similar trend was recorded under different nitrogen levels on nutrient content and total uptake except in case of nitrogen content in seed and straw and their total uptake. Application of N125 resulted in highest total N uptake (141.54 kg ha-1), which was significantly higher than N75 (125.95 kg ha-1), but was statistically at par with N100 (140.18 kg ha-1) and N50 fertilizer + N50FYM (139.48 kg ha-1). This is in agreement with findings of Sharma and Gupta (1992), Patel and Chandravanshi (1996) and Chauhan et al. (2005). The interactional effect was found to be non-significant. The effect of crop residue management practices on seed and straw yield was also non-significant. These results confirm the findings of Khelkar et al. (1991) and Singh et al. (2001). Crop residue management practices did not affect straw yield significantly. The maximum straw yield was recorded at N50 fertilizer + N50 FYM (39.02 q ha-1), which was significantly higher than that of N75 level (37.98 q ha-1), but was statistically at par with that of N125 (38.76 q ha-1) and
N100 (38.88 q ha-1). This is in agreement with findings of Singh and Bansal (2000) and Singh et al. (2001). Different residue management practices did not influenced the percentage of N, P and K content in seed and straw and total uptake. Similarly nitrogen levels of N100 and N125 did not showed any superiority in terms of total uptake of P and K and soybean seed and straw yield, but the integrated use of chemical fertilizer and Farm Yard Manure (N50 + N50 FYM) resulted significantly higher than nitrogen level of N75.
REFERENCES
Chuahan, S., Sheoran, P., Singh, M. and Kumar, M. (2005) Nutrient uptake and yield of soybean as influenced by nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization. Haryana J. Agron. 21: 190-191. Khelkar, P. M., Jadhao, S. L., Shinde, V. U. and Malvi, S. D. (1991) Response of soybean (Glycine max) varieties, plant densities and fertilization. Indian J. Agron. 36: 414-415. Patel, S. R. and Chandravanshi, B. R. (1996) Nitrogen and phosphorus nutrition of soybean ( Glycine max) grown in vertisol. Indian J. Agron. 41: 601-603. Sharma, R. A. and Gupta, R. K. (1992) Response of rainfed soybean (Glycine max )-safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) sequence to nitrogen and sulphur fertilization in Vertisols. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 62: 529-534. Singh, S. P. and Bansal, K. N. (2000) Response of soybean (Glycine max) to nitrogen, its application time and sulphur. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 70: 34-36. Singh, S. P., Bansal, K. N. and Nepalia, V. (2001) Effect of nitrogen, its application time and sulphur on yield and quality of soybean (Glycine max). Indian J. Agron. 46: 141-144.
Received 4 February, 2011; Accepted 8 November, 2011
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 160-163
Sowing Time, Seed Rate and Planting Method Effect on Nitrogen Uptake and Quality of Bread Wheat
Balkaran Singh, R.S. Uppal and R.P. Singh1
Deptt. of Agronomy, 1Deptt. of Plant Breeding and Genetics Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, India E-mail: balkaransandhu@gmail.com
Wheat is the most important winter cereal crop of the country and cultivated on an area of 27.2 mha with an annual production of 74.9 mt at an average yield of 2.8 t ha-1 (Anon., 2008). It has been projected that to feed 1.3 billion population and diversified uses, India will have to produce at least 109 million tones of wheat by 2020 AD, which might be possible through elevating the productivity up to 4 t ha-1 (Kulhari et al., 2003). The grain yield and quality are influenced by seed rate, time of planting and appropriate planting methods along with nutrient management, irrigation, etc. Optimum seed rate is essential for maintaining plant population, which plays an important role in increasing productivity and improving quality. Low plant population per unit area is one of the major constraints for low yield. Optimum plant number per unit area of a crop varies with seed size, genotype, sowing time and season (Pandey and Prakash, 2003). The seed rate requirement also varies with planting method. Sowing time is one of the most important management factor involved in obtaining higher yield. Timely sowing of wheat crop generally improves the yield and quality parameters like protein content. Under late sowing situations, wheat yield is adversely affected due to low temperature during germination, causing delayed emergence and during early crop establishment period resulting in slow growth and its exposure to higher temperature during reproduction phase reduces the period of grain filling. However, the protein content, -carotene content and sedimentation value is significantly higher in late sown crop as compared to timely sown crop (Singh and Jain, 2000). This improvement is mainly an account of shrivelling of grains due to improper filling, leading to the higher proportion of browny layers. Yellow berry was negatively correlated with seed protein and higher in early sown crop as compared to late sown crop. The selection of suitable method of sowing may also be important for the placement of seed at proper depth, which ensures better emergence and subsequent crop growth. Furrow irrigated raised bed system (FIRBS) is a recently introduced concept in wheat sowing to obtain better crop performance. In bed
sowing, the planted area does not come in direct contact with irrigation water. Since the wetted surface area in bed sowing is less in comparison to conventional flat sowing, the water requirement for irrigation is also less, therefore, keeping above points in view the present investigation was carried out to study the N-uptake and quality characteristics of wheat under different seed rate, sowing time and planting methods. The field experiment was conducted during rabi season 2008-09 at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana on sandy loam soil, low in available N (133 kg ha-1) and medium in available P (14 kg ha-1) and K (227.5 kg ha-1) with pH-8.0. The experiment was replicated thrice in split plot design with three sowing time viz., 25th October, 5th November and 15th November and two planting methods viz., bed planting and flat sowing as main plot treatments while sub-plot treatments consisted of four seed rates (87.5, 100, 112.5 and 125 kg ha-1). The crop received a uniform dose of nutrients @ 125 kg N, 62.5 kg P2O5 and 30 kg K2O ha-1 through urea, single super phosphate and muriate of potash, respectively. Half of the nitrogen and full dose of phosphorus and potash were applied as basal dose at the time of sowing. The remaining nitrogen was applied after first irrigation at crown-root initiation. The crop received six irrigations at different growing stages. To check the weed growth, one hand hoeing was followed after first irrigation. Clodinafop 15 WP and 2,4-D were applied to control the growth of grassy and broad leaf weeds, respectively. Rogor 30 EC (dimethoate) was applied to control aphids at grain filling stage. Propaconazole 25 EC was applied at milk stage to check the infestation of head scab. The crop sown on 25th October took 141 days to maturity as compared to 147 and 145 days for the 5 th and 15 th November sowing respectively. The yield was recorded at maturity and quality parameters like grains appearance score, grain hardness, test weight, protein content, yellow berry content, sedimentation value and beta carotene contents were analyzed in the laboratory using standard methods. The grain appearance score was determined subjectively by
Nitrogen Uptake and Quality of Bread Wheat

visual observation on the merits of luster, color, shape and size. Grains of each sample on the basis of these features were graded on a scale 1-10. For grain, hardiness tester (OSK 8055, OGAWA SEIKI CO, LTD Tokyo Japan) was used. Test weight was determined using the apparatus developed by Directorate of Wheat Research, Karnal, India. Protein content in grains was determined using, Infratec 1241 (FOSS) near infrared transmittance grain analyzer. The SDS sedimentation value of the wheat whole meal samples was determined using the method of Axford et al. (1979). Yellow berry grains were separated manually and weighed. The separated yellow berry grain weight was converted into percentage by weight. Saturated butanol was used to extract the B-carotene pigment. The data generated was statistically analyzed. The crop sown on 15 th November produced significantly higher grain and straw yield but was statistically at par with the crop sown on 5th November than sowing on 25th October. This might be due to the more number of days taken to maturity i.e., 147 and 145 for 5th and 15th November sowing, respectively as compared to141 days for crop sown on 25th October. The early sown crop received mean high temperature at early growth stage as compared to optimum temperature for normal date of sowing. Due to this the crop were able to synthesis more of the photosynthates and thereby increased the yield. Sowing time significantly influenced the nitrogen uptake and quality parameters of wheat. The nitrogen uptake by the grains was significantly higher when the crop was sown on 15th November which
161
was statistically at par with the crop sown on 5th November and than the 25th October sown crop. The nitrogen uptake by the straw and total nitrogen uptake of wheat crop as a whole were also significantly higher in the crop sown on 15th November as compared to the crop sown on 25 th October and 5th November. This was due to the higher grain and straw yield (Table 1). The crop sown on 15th November also had maximum protein content in its grains, which was statistically at par with that of crop sown on 5th November and significantly higher than the crop sown on 25th October due to the more nitrogen content in the grains. The effect of sowing time was also significant on the grain protein harvest. However, the wheat crop sown on 15th November gave significantly higher protein harvest in grains than that sown on 5th November and the crop sown 25th October. The protein harvested in grains was significantly higher due to significantly higher grain yield and protein content (Table 1) observed for the 15th November crop as compared to other sowing dates. Bangarwa and Ahlawat (1996) and Kumar and Kumar (1997) also reported that the protein content had the highest additive environmental effect in 15th November and lowest in sowing of 1st November sown crop. The incidence of yellow berry was significantly higher in the crop sown on 25th October as compared to crop sown on 5th November and 15th November. Yellow berry is negatively correlated with protein content of grains. The higher yellow berry in early sowing date of 25th October might be due to the lower protein content in grains (Table 1). Sharma et al. (1999) also reported that the incidence of yellow berry
Table 1. Effect of sowing time, planting method and seed rate on nitrogen concentration, uptake and protein content in grain and straw of bread wheat Treatment Grain yield (q ha-1) Sowing time 25th October 5th November 15th November CD (P=0.05) Planting Method Bed Planting Flat sowing CD (P=0.05) Seed rate (kg/ha) 87.5 100 112.5 125 CD (P=0.05) 51.17 52.16 54.38 54.46 1.09 56.69 57.51 60.47 60.72 NS 93.15 94.92 99.49 99.61 1.98 29.82 30.96 34.42 35.11 0.72 122.97 125.88 133.91 134.72 2.51 11.46 11.44 11.50 11.51 NS 5.87 5.98 6.27 6.27 0.18 53.31 52.77 NS 58.87 58.82 NS 97.23 96.36 NS 32.21 31.94 NS 130.44 128.30 NS 11.47 11.49 NS 6.12 6.07 NS 47.02 55.60 56.51 1.72 52.27 61.52 62.76 2.40 83.89 101.67 104.83 3.16 27.85 32.61 35.27 1.35 111.74 136.27 140.10 4.32 11.24 11.51 11.68 0.28 5.28 6.41 6.60 0.20 Straw yield (q ha-1) Grains Nitrogen uptake (kg ha-1) Straw N uptake (total) (kg ha-1) Protein content (%) Protein harvested (q ha-1)
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Balkaran Singh, R.S. Uppal and R.P. Singh
Table 2. Effect of sowing time, planting method and seed rate on quality parameters of bread wheat Treatment Sowing time 25 October 5 November 15 November CD (P=0.05) Planting Method Bed Planting Flat sowing CD (P=0.05) Seed rate (kg/ha) 87.5 100 112.5 125 CD (P=0.05) 76.34 76.46 76.49 76.65 NS 12.19 12.37 12.64 12.81 NS 45.35 46.35 45.30 45.35 NS 3.87 3.94 3.97 3.89 NS 29.94 30.24 2958 30.10 NS 76.45 76.52 NS 12.39 12.62 NS 45.72 45.45 NS 3.89 3.95 NS 29.98 29.96 NS 76.08 76.64 76.74 NS 12.38 12.57 12.56 NS 43.50 45.68 47.59 2.22 3.83 3.95 3.98 NS 33.24 28.94 27.73 0.40 Test weight (kg hectolitre-1) Grain hardness (kg) SDS-sedimentation value (cc) Yellow pigment content (ppm) Yellow berry (%)
decreased significantly with successive delay in sowing, whereas, the sedimentation value increased with delay in sowing. Sowing time did not produce any significant effect on test weight, grain hardness and beta-carotene content of wheat grains. The planting method did not differ significantly in respect of grain yield, straw yield, nitrogen uptake, protein content and quality parameters of wheat. Significantly higher grain yield was recorded with 125 and 112.5 kg seed rate ha-1 from 87.5 and 100 kg seed ha-1. The straw yield of wheat crop was not significantly influenced at different levels seed rates. The different seed rate had no significant effect on the protein content in grains, however nitrogen uptake was maximum in the crop sown with 125 kg seed ha-1 used. This might be due to higher grain and straw yield due to the higher population under higher seed rate. The total protein harvested in grains increased with increase in seed rate from 87.5 kg seed ha-1 to 125 kg seed ha-1 and maximum protein was harvested in grains with 112.5 and 125 kg seed ha -1, which was significantly higher than 100 kg seed ha-1 and 87.5 kg seed ha-1. The protein harvested in grains was significantly higher due to significantly higher grain yield in higher seed rate. The different seed rates did not influence significantly on the test weight, sedimentation value, yellow berry content, grain hardness and beta carotene. The result confirms the findings of Pandey et al. (2004). Thus, it was concluded that grain yield, straw yield, nitrogen uptake and protein content in the grains were
maximum at 15th November sowing, which was statistically at par with sowing time of 5th November. Among different seed rates, the maximum grain yield and nitrogen uptake of wheat was obtained with 125 kg ha -1 , which was statistically at par with 112.5 kg seed ha-1 and significantly higher than 87.5 and 100 kg seed rate.
REFERENCES
AACC (1990) Approval methods, Association of cereals chemists, ST. Paul, Minnesota, USA Anonymous (2008) Website: http// www.indiastat.com Axford, D. W. E., McDEnmott, E. E. and Radman, D. G. (1979) Note on sodium dodecyl sulphate test of bread making quality comparision with Pelshenke and Zeleny Test. Cereal Chem. 56(6): 582-584. Bangarwa, K. S. and Ahlawat, T. R. (1996) Effect of date of sowing on grain yield and quality in macaroni wheat. Annals of Agri. Bio. Res. 1(1-2):73-74. Kulhari, S. C., Sharma, S. L. and Kantwa, S. R. (2003) Effect of varieties, sowing dates and nitrogen levels on yield, nutrient uptake and quality of durum wheat. Ann. Agric. Res. 24(2): 332-336. Kumar, R. and Kumar, S. (1997) Effect of time of sowing and nitrogen application on marcaroni wheat for yield and some quality parameters in sandy loam soil of Haryana. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 67(11): 543-544. Kumar, R., Nanwal, R. K. and Agarwal, S. K. (2006) NPK content and uptake as affected by planting systems, seed rates and N levels in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Haryana Agric. Univ. J. Res. 36: 93-96. Pandey, A. K. and Prakash, V. (2003) Response of wheat varieties to seed rates under rainfed condition. Ann. Agric. Res. 24(3): 567-569.
Nitrogen Uptake and Quality of Bread Wheat

Pandey, I. B., Bharati, V., Bharati, R. C. and Mishra, S. S. (2004) Effect of fertilizer levels and seed rates on growth and yield of surface-seeded wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) under lowland rice ecosystem of north Bihar. Indian J. Agron. 49(1): 43-45. Sharma, S. K., Sardana, V. and Randhawa, A. S. (1999) Effect of time of sowing and levels of the NPK fertilizers on the grain yield and yellow berry incidence in duram wheat. J. Res.
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Punjab Agric. Univ. 36(1-2): 9-13.

Singh, N. B. and Ahmad, Z. (1997) Response of wheat (Triticum aestivum) varities to different dates of sowing. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 67(5): 208-211. Singh, A. K. and Jain, G. L. (2000) Effect of sowing time, irrigation and nitrogen on grain yield and quality of duram wheat. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 70(8): 532-533.
Received 7 January, 2011; Accepted 17 November, 2011
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 164-166
Performance of Direct Seeded Rice as Influenced by Variety and Date of Sowing

U. S. Walia*, S. S. Walia and Shelly Nayyar
Department of Agronomy,Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, India *E-mail: waliaus@rediffmail.com
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important crop grown in Asia under varying hydrological conditions. It has gained popularity because of food habit, its high yield potential as well as assured procurement at minimum support price by the Government. In Punjab, rice is a major kharif crop cultivated on an area about 2.8 million hectares with total production of 10.8 million tonnes (Anon., 2012). Rice seedlings are transplanted after puddling and this operation requires large amount of irrigation water. Before the start of rice cultivation on large scale i.e., during 1960s, the underground water level of Punjab state was very shallow and with the increase in cropping intensity/ continuous cultivation of puddled transplanted rice, water table has declined drastically. It is estimated that in major rice growing areas of the state, the ground water is declining at the rate of 0.23 meter per year (Gupta et al., 1995) causing serious concern and raising doubt about the future sustainability of rice-based system in the state. Therefore, need has acutely been felt to develop technically viable and economically feasible alternate technique for growing rice in this area. Already, various resource conservation technologies for rice have been developed and used in Indo-Gangetic plains. Direct seeding of rice under unpuddled conditions is one such technique for better water use efficiency (Mann et al., 2004), labour and cost-effective (Pandey and Velasco, 1999). It matures earlier (7-10 days) than the transplanted rice due to absence of transplanting shock (Dhyani et al., 2005) and allows timely planting of succeeding wheat crop. Direct seeded rice accounts for 36 per cent of the total rice cultivated area in India (Nageshwari and Subhramaniyan, 2004). The direct seeded rice (DSR) was initiated on approximately 500 acres of field located in 13 districts of Punjab, which would be expanded up to 20,000 acres in five districts of Punjab in the next 3 to 5 years. It is now fast replacing traditional transplanted rice areas with good drainage and weed control (Balasubhramanian and Hill, 2000). The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of date of sowing and varieties on growth and crop yield of direct seeded rice.
A field study was conducted during Kharif 2006 and 2007 on loamy sand soil, which was low in available N and medium in available P and K on the experimental farm of PAU, Ludhiana. Experiment was laid out in split plot design by keeping two varieties of rice (PR115 and PR116) in the main blocks. Four date of sowings i.e., 8, 15, 23 and 30 June during the respective years, were in the sub-plots. These treatments were compared with conventional practice of transplanting during both years. A seed rate of 40 kg ha-1 was used in all the direct seeding treatments. Sowing of direct seeded rice was done manually in the dry conditions and the seed was hand drilled by keeping row to row spacing of 20 cm. Light irrigation was applied immediately after sowing and later on irrigations were applied at an interval of 3-4 days. Pre-emergence application of pendimethalin at 0.75 kg ha-1 was made within 2 days of sowing and besides the application of herbicides, two hand weeding were also given to keep the crop free from weeds. The direct seeded crop received 150 kg N ha-1 in three splits, i.e., during third, sixth and ninth week after sowing, whereas transplanted crop was supplied with 120 kg N ha-1 in three splits, i.e., 1/3rd each at transplanting, third and sixth week after transplanting. Fifty kg zinc sulphate ha-1 was also applied at sowing. The plots to be puddled were surrounded by bunds of 15 cm height and flooded with 57 cm of water. The plots were kept moist for the 15 days with light irrigation at alternate day intervals and thereafter, irrigation was applied 3 days after the ponded water infiltrated in the plots. The irrigation was continued till 15 days before the harvesting of crop. The irrigations were stopped during rains and further continued at 3 days interval. Plant height recorded up to the base of flag leaf of two varieties was found to be similar (Table 1). The crop raised by transplanting rice seedlings technique recorded significantly higher plant height as compared to direct seeded crop sown on 23rd June and 30th June. However, plant height of transplanted crop was at par with the crop sown on 8th June and 15 June. The differences in number of effective tillers m-2 recorded at harvest were found to be
Varietal and Date of Sowing Response on Direct Seeded Rice

Table 1. Plant height and effective tillers of rice as influenced by variety and date of sowing Treatment 2006 Varieties PR 115 PR 116 LSD (P= 0.05%) Sowing time Direct Sowing on 8th June Direct Sowing on 15th June Direct Sowing on 23rd June Direct Sowing on 30th June Transplanting 4th July CD (P = 0.05) 58.7 56.9 55.6 53.1 61.0 5.1 62.9 55.0 45.9 47.4 62.6 4.1 311.5 302.5 291.0 302.5 306.4 14.6 317.0 286.5 102.5 104.5 324.0 52.0 57.2 56.8 NS 56.2 53.4 NS 310.5 301.5 NS 243.0 217.5 14.1 Plant height (cm) 2007 2006 Effective tillers m-2 2007
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non-significant during 2006, however, during 2007, PR 115 produced significantly higher tillers m-2. During 2006, crop sown on 23rd June recorded significantly lower effective tillers m-2 as compared to transplanted and direct seeded rice sown on 8th June. During 2007, crop sown on 23rd June and 30th June recorded significantly lower effective tillers m-2 than the transplanting and direct-sown rice on 8th and 15th June. The lower effective tillers m-2 in direct seeded rice sown on 23rd and 30th June during 2007 were due to severe attack of stem borer in these treatments. Panicle length of PR 115 and PR 116 was similar during both the years of study (Table 2). Panicle length of the crop sown on 23rd and 30th June was found to be significantly lower than the crop sown on 8th and 15th June and transplanting treatments. Direct sowing of rice on 8th and 15th June yielded at par with conventional puddled
transplanted rice (Table 2). Late sowing of direct-seeded rice (23rd and 30th June) resulted in significantly lower grain yield as compared to transplanted rice. There was drastic reduction in yield with delayed sowing during 2007, which may be due to severe attack of stem borer on these plots. Lower yields of direct-seeded rice sown on 23rd and 30th June were due to less number of effective tillers and smaller panicle length as compared to other treatments. On an average of two years, transplanted and direct seeded rice sown on 8th, 15th and 23rd June recorded 121, 108, 90 and 28 per cent higher yield, respectively, than direct seeded rice sown on 30th June. Gill et al. (2006) observed that the crop sown on 1st June gave grain yield at par with 10th June and significantly higher by a margin of 9.4 q ha-1 than 20th June sown crop. All interaction effects were found nonsignificant.
Table 2. Panicle length and grain yield of rice as influenced by variety and date of sowing Treatment 2006 Varieties PR 115 PR 116 LSD (P= 0.05%) Sowing time Direct Sowing on 8th June Direct Sowing on 15th June Direct Sowing on 23rd June Direct Sowing on 30th June Transplanting 4th July CD (P = 0.05) 27.1 26.9 21.5 19.4 28.4 2.6 27.4 25.3 22.3 21.8 28.1 2.3 44.09 42.65 35.80 31.66 47.53 6.19 53.61 46.62 24.04 15.22 55.93 9.41 25.4 24.1 NS 25.6 23.6 NS 41.94 38.75 NS 42.25 35.91 NS Panicle length (cm) 2007 2006 Grain yield (q ha-1) 2007
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REFERENCES
Anonymous (2012) Package and Practices for Kharif crops of Punjab. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Balasubramanian, V. and Hill, J. (2000) Direct wet seeding of rice in Asia: Emerging issues and strategic research needs for the 21st Century. Paper presented at Annual Workshop of the Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh. Dhyani, V. C., Singh V.P. and Singh, G. (2005) Response of rice crop establishment and weed management. Indian J. Weed Sci. 37: 260-262. Gill, M. S., Kumar, A. and Kumar, P. (2006) Growth and yield of rice (Oryza sativa) cultivars under various methods and time of sowing. Indian J. Agron. 51: 123-127.
Gupta, R. D., Mahajan, G. and Goyal, B. R. (1995) Availability and quality of ground water in Punjab state. In: Water Management. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India, pp 18-42. Nageshwari, R. and Subhramaniayan, B. (2004) Influence of delayed basal dressing and split application of nitrogen in wet-seeded rice (Oryza sativa). Indian J. Agron. 49: 40-42. Mann, R.A., Munir, M. and Haqqani, A.M. (2004) Effect of resource conserving techniques on crop productivity in ricewheat cropping system. Pak. J. Agric. Res. 18: 58. Pandey, S. and Velasco, L. (1999) Economics of direct seedling in Asia: Patterns of adoption and research priorities. Int. Rice Res. Newslett. 24: 611.
Received 4 July, 2011; Accepted 5 April, 2012
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 167-168
167
Effect of Fruit Maturity and Temperature on Seed Germination in Summer Squash (Cucurbita pepo L.)
Namarta Gupta*, S.S. Bal1 and H.S. Randhawa1
Seed Technology Center, 1Directorate of Seeds, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, India *E-mail: namjindal70@yahoo.co.in
Physiological maturity (PM) of the seeds is the stage at which the seeds attain its maximum dry weight and represents maximum viability and vigour of the seed. The change that occurs in the seeds beyond PM is mainly due to dehydration without any accumulation of reserves. During this period of dehydration, there is no change in the seed quality in some of the crops. But in others maximum seed quality in terms of germination is attained some times beyond PM. So optimum time of harvest is very important. This necessitates accurate and precise determination of physiological maturity of the crop for the harvest of high quality seeds. Harvesting the seeds at optimum fruit maturity immensely declines the loss of the seed due to germination and vigour. Since the fruit colour serves as effective visual morphological index for physiological maturity therefore it was correlated with the seed quality. Further there are reports of dormancy in summer squash which is more pronounced at lower temperature and being altered at high temperature. Cucurbits are warm climate crops which are both cold weather and frost sensitive and most of them require relatively high temperatures for germination (Nerson, 2007). Minimum and maximum germination temperatures have been reported from 15 and 45C, respectively, with large differences among cultivars (Singh, 1991). Thus, objective of the study was to investigate the effects of fruit colour at the time of seed extraction, different germination temperatures and fruit storage on germination and various vigour parameters of Cucurbita pepo L. seeds and to provide some practical suggestions. The experiment was conducted at the experimental area of Seed Technology Center, PAU, Ludhiana. The crop was sown during the first week of March 2010. At the time of harvesting, the fruits were classified into three categories i.e., light yellow, deep yellow and deep orange. The seeds thus extracted were subjected to analysis of seed quality parameters viz., percentage germination (Anon., 1996), fresh and dry weight of seedlings, root length, shoot length, vigour index I and II (Abdul Baki and Anderson,1973) and 100 seed weight. The germination tests were conducted
using three replications of 50 seeds in each using roll towel paper method. The germination was recorded on 8th days per ISTA methods (Anon.,1996). The vigour index I (percentage germination x seedling length) and vigour index II ( percentage germination x dry weight of seedlings) were computed adopting the method of AbdulBaki and Anderson (1973). In the present study, the significant differences were observed among the different harvest stages with respect to seed quality parameters. All the quality parameters like percent germination, fresh and dry weight of seedlings, root length, shoot length, vigour index I and II and 100 seed weight increased as the stage of harvesting advances. The seeds obtained from earlier stages were immature, poor and under developed which is evident from lower 100 seed weight (4.03g in light yellow, 3.08g in orange yellow). As the fruit weight increased with the maturity stage (from 2.01 in light yellow, 3.08 in orange yellow to 3.57g in deep orange), the 100 seed weight also increased from 2.02 in light yellow and 3.08 in orange yellow to 7.14g in deep orange. The higher 100 seed weight at deep orange stage could be due to further accumulation of photosynthates in the seed. The deep orange coloured fruits recorded maximum percent germination, fresh weight and dry weight of the seedlings as compared to the fruits harvested at earlier stages. The seeds extracted from fruits from light yellow colour had germination less than 50 per cent germination (Table 1). However, when seeds were extracted from fruits ripened to orange yellow colour, their germination increased to 77.5 per cent. Seeds from deep orange coloured fruits achieved the maximum germination of 92.5 per cent. The fresh and dry weight of the seedlings was maximum at deep orange. Similarly the higher vigour index of the seedling at deep orange stage indicated that seed possesses maximum dry weight (0.041 g in deep orange as compared to 0.025 g and 0.034 g ) and vigour (Vigour Index II 18.96 at deep orange as compared to 13.33 and 6.51 at earlier stages) at the stage of physiological maturity. However in some of the crops PM occurs a little before the
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Table 1. Effect of different maturity stages of fruits and temperature on seed quality parameters in summer squash (Cucurbita pepo L) Fruit Maturity Stage Temperature (28C) Deep orange orange yellow Light yellow Temperature 22C Deep orange Orange yellow Light yellow 67.5 62.5 45.0 20 18 15 17 14 14 37 32 29 0.973 0.816 0.665 0.035 0.033 0.025 2497.5 2000.0 1305.0 11.81 10.31 5.54 92.5 77.5 52.5 25 22 20 20 19 16 45 41 36 1.11 0.861 0.697 0.041 0.034 0.025 4162.5 3177.5 1890.0 18.96 13.33 6.51 % Germination Shoot length (cm) Root length (cm) Seedling length (cm) Fresh weight (g) Dry weight (g) Vigour index I Vigour index II
harvest maturity as in capsicum (Naik et al., 1996; Alan and Eser, 2008) and is correlated to high respiration rate and photosynthetic partitioning at the time of seed maturity. When the fruits were stored for a few weeks, they showed declined percentage germination due to the development of micro flora on the pulp of fruit and even the seeds. This was attributed to the reason that harvesting period of the seed crop (end June and July) coincides with the arrival of hot and humid monsoons which result in the development of the inoculums. When the seed germination was tested at two different temperatures, the per cent germination was more at all the three stages (being 52.5 in light yellow, 77.5 in orange yellow to 92.5 in deep orange) at 28 0C as compared to the germination per cent at 220C (being 4..05 in light yellow, 62.5 in orange yellow to 67.5 in deep orange). This is attributed to the optimum temperature for the activation of biochemical reactions in the cell and activation of the enzymes needed for the germination process. Our findings are in accordance with the findings of Milani et al. (2007) that optimum germination temperatures range from 20 to 32C while 15 and 38C are the minimum and maximum germination temperatures, respectively.
Thus, from the study, it can be concluded that fruit of deep orange colour in summer squash (PCK-1) may be harvested for wet seed extraction, surface dried to have best quality seeds. The fruits should not be stored for seed extraction for days or weeks. The seeds show higher germination per cent at 280C.
REFERENCES
Abdul-Baki, A.A. and Anderson, J.D. (1973) Vigour determination in soybean by multiple criteria. Crop Sci. 13: 630-633. Alan, O. and Eser, B. (2008) The effect of fruit maturity and postharvest ripening on seed quality in hot and chronic pepper cultivars. Seed Sci. Tech. 36: 467-474. Anonymous (1996) International rules for seed testing (ISTA): rules. Seed Sci. Tech. 24 Suppl.: 29-356 Milani, E., Seyed, M., Razavi, A., Koocheki, A,, Nikzadeh, V., Vahedi, N., MoeinFard, M. and Gholamhossein Pour, A. (2007) Moisture dependent physical properties of cucurbit seeds. Int. Agrophys. 21: 157-168. Naik, L.B., Hebber, S.S. and Doijode, S.D. (1996) Effect of fruit maturity on seed quality in capsicum (Capsicum annuum L.). Seed Res. 24: 154-155. Nerson, H. (2007) Seed production and germinability of cucurbit crops. Seed Sci Biotechnol. 1: 1-10. Singh, D.K. (1991) Effect of temperature on seed germinability of Momordica charantia cultivars. New Agriculturist 2: 23-26.
Received 5 July, 2011; Accepted 4 March, 2012
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 169-171
Evaluation of N, P, Zn Complex Fertilizer for its Efficiency using Wheat as Test Crop in IndoGangetic Alluvial Soils of Northwestern India
B.S. Brar, D.S. Benipal* and Jagdeep Singh
Department of Soil Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, India *E-mail: dsbenipal@Yahoo.com
Wheat, being the most important cereal crop is of great significance in agriculture for triggering green revolution and will also play a vital role in stabilizing national food supply in coming decades. Phosphorus is the backbone of any fertilizer management programme and plays a key role in energy related activities and development of root system (Mehta et al., 2005). Zinc has been rated as the fifth most important plant nutrient ranking behind nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulphur. Zinc plays an important role in sustaining yield and quality of crops and is removed by crops in large quantities. The need for applying micronutrient fertilizers to soils of Punjab was first felt with the appearance of zinc deficiency in rice and wheat. The adoption of intensive agriculture in irrigated areas involving cultivation of high yielding crop cultivars, use of high analysis macronutrient fertilizers, decreased use of organic manures and crop residues resulted in depletion of micronutrient reserves in soils due to bumper crop harvests. The deficiency of zinc is mainly associated with soils having coarse texture, high pH, low organic matter content and high calcium carbonate content in the soils (Takkar et al.,1999).The efficiency of applied P rarely exceeds 30 per cent and that of Zn more than 10 per cent in the soil (Nayyar et al., 1990).Therefore, repeated application of phosphorus over the years leads to its build up and interactions in soil and/or plants affecting crop production. However, both P and Zn deficiencies occur simultaneously as compared to other nutrients in Indian soils. Hence, it may be worthwhile to apply P and Zn together, which may boost up the use efficiency of both the nutrients. In India, zinc enriched diammonium phosphate and nitrophosphorus fertilizers have also been found to be effective in rectifying zinc deficiency in crops (Savithri et al. 1999). The information on Zn and P relationship in an important crop like wheat is not adequate, especially in situations where both the interacting nutrients (P and Zn) are deficient in soil. Keeping the above facts in view the present investigation was carried out for two years to study the effect
of soil application of different levels of phosphorus and zinc on their uptake, response and yield of wheat. A field experiment was conducted at PAU, Research Farm on wheat for two years in rice-wheat cropping system using wheat as test crop situated 30O 54 N latitude 750 46E longitude at 280 m above mean sea level. The soils at PAU Research farm were loamy sand, non-calcareous, Typic Ustochrepts. The pH of the field under investigation was 8.2, the electrical conductivity (EC) of the field was 0.22 d Sm-1 and the field was poor in organic carbon (3.2 g kg-1) as determined by standard methods. The soil tested low in available P (11.5 kg ha-1) determined by the method given by Olsen et al. (1954) and in available Zinc (0.50 ppm) determined by the method given by Lindsay and Norwell (1978 ). The treatments included two phosphorus levels P0 and P66 kg P2O5 ha-1 with four Zn levels of 0, 1.8, 5 and 10 kg i.e., ha-1. Zinc was applied through mosaic complex fertilizer N: P: Zn (10:50:1.5) in some treatments and through zinc sulphate in other treatments. The experiment was conducted in randomized block design with three replicates. The grain and straw yield of the crop were recorded and total uptake of nutrients were also analyzed. The agronomic efficiency (AE) and nutrient use efficiency (NUE) were computed using the following formulae:
Grain yield in fertilized plot- Grain yield in control AE = (kg grain kg-1 Amount of nutrient applied nutrient applied) Nutrient uptake in fertilized plot- Nutrient uptake in control NUE (%) = x 100 Amount of nutrient applied
The grain and straw yield of wheat increased significantly with the application of 60 kg P ha-1, it improved further to the tune of 5.1 and 4.2 q ha-1 when 5 kg zinc was added through zinc sulphate along with 60 kg P ha-1 over control. The grain and straw yield of wheat for both the years were at par when zinc was applied through mosaic zinc
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B.S. Brar, D.S. Benipal and Jagdeep Singh
Table 1. Grain and straw yield of wheat (q ha-1) as affected by levels and sources of P and Zn fertilizers (mean of two years) Treatments P0 Zn0 P60 Zn0 P60 Zn5 P60 Zn1.8+3.2* P60 Zn0(DAP) P60 Zn1:8* P60 Zn1.8 P0 Zn5 P60 Zn10 P60 Zn1.8+3.2 CD (0.05) Grain 33.5 42.8 47.9 47.6 44.6 47.6 47.3 43.9 44.7 47.2 4.1 Straw 57.6 68.6 72.8 79.1 74.2 76.9 76.8 75.5 71.6 78.5 6.1 % increase over control (grain) 27.7 42.9 42.1 33.1 42.1 41.2 31.0 33.4 41.0 % increase over control (straw) 19.9 26.4 37.3 28.8 33.5 33.4 30.3 24.0 36.3
* Applied through 10-50-0-1.5Zn
complex fertilizer. The grain and straw yield of wheat were also similar by the application of 1.8 and 5.0 kg Zn ha-1 indicating that 1.8 kg zinc ha-1 is sufficient to meet the crop requirement in terms of increasing yield. (Table 1).In a field experiment in wheat paddy system Khan et al. (2007) found that direct application of 5 and 10 kg zinc ha -1 to paddy gave an increase of 39 and 45 per cent, respectively. With the application of 60 kg P, the grain and straw yields of wheat for the years 2004-05 and 2005-06 increased by 27.7 and 19.9 per cent over control, which may further increased to the tune of 42.9 and 26.4 per cent with the application of 5 kg zinc along with 60 kg P ha-1. The trends in grain and straw yield of wheat remained almost same when the dose of zinc was 1.8 kg ha-1 and it was applied either through zinc sulphate or through mosaic zinc complex fertilizer indicating that 1.8 kg zinc ha-1 is sufficient for the requirement of wheat crop and both the sources of zinc were at par in increasing the wheat crop yields. In alluvial soils of Punjab. Brar et al. (2006) also evaluated this complex fertilizer on
paddy and found that the grain yield of paddy increased significantly when zinc was applied through N P Zn complex fertilizer either alone or in combination with zinc sulphate. In a six year experiment, the mean response to zinc on a Fatehpur loamy sand soil was 1.9 q ha-1 (Chandi and Takkar,1982). On moderately alkaline soil, according to Takkar and Randhawa (1978) the response of wheat to the zinc varied from 8 to 17 q ha-1. In a field experiment, total N uptake increased significantly with the application of P, it further improved with the addition of zinc (130.8 kg ha-1). Total N uptake was highest in plots where NPZn compex fertilizer was applied (141.7 kg ha-1) and lowest in control. Similar type of trends were observed in total K uptake in the crops for both the years. The uptake of N and K also increased significantly with the application of P and zinc indicating synergistic effect of integrated application of these nutrients. Total uptake of P increased significantly with the application of P, its content improved when 5 kg Zn was applied along with P. Increase in P uptake with P application
Table 2. Nutrient uptakes by wheat as affected by levels and sources of P and Zn fertilizers (mean of two years) Treatments N P0 Zn0 P60 Zn0 P60 Zn5 P60 Zn1.8+3.2* P60 Zn0(DAP) P60 Zn1:8* P60 Zn1.8 P0 Zn5 P60 Zn10 P60 Zn1.8+3.2 CD (0.05) 80.6 107.6 130.8 141.7 122.5 131.7 115.0 110.3 139.8 128.4 15.8 Total nutrient uptake (kg ha-1) P 13.4 17.6 21.3 22.5 21.5 19.3 21.2 17.5 18.0 22.6 2.7 K 69.0 75.6 98.2 122.0 99.0 113.8 106.4 96.4 97.7 116.4 13.4 (g ha-1) Zn 177.0 228.1 293.9 323.8 244.9 281.7 275.7 242.3 259.3 223.9 38.2
Evaluation of N, P, Zn Complex Fertilizer

Table 3. Agronomic efficiency and apparent recoveries of phosphorus and zinc by wheat (mean of two years) Treatments Agronomic efficiency for P (kg grain kg-1 P applied) P0 Zn0 P60 Zn0 P60 Zn5 P60 Zn1.8+3.2* P60 Zn1.8* P60 Zn0 (DAP) P60 Zn1.8 P60 Zn1.8+3.2 44.8 22.7 23.5 19.0 39.2 17.0 21.8 24.1 16.4 19.3 17.6 22.1 15.8 17.3 Apparent P recovery (%) Agronomic efficiency for Zn (g grain kg-1 Zn applied) 57.3 61.3 69.4 59.8 58.2 5.1 5.6 13.3 4.8 11.6 Apparent Zn recovery (%)
171
has also been observed by Setia (2002). The contents of total P uptake in grain and straw of wheat were almost similar when the Zn was applied either through heptahydrate or mosaic zinc complex fertilizer. The increase in P uptake was insignificant when the dose of zinc was enhanced from 1.8 to 5.0 kg Zn ha-1. Total uptake of zinc also increased significantly with the application of zinc at both the levels i.e., 1.8 and 5.0 kg Zn ha-1. Total zinc uptake was minimum in control (177.0 g ha-1) and maximum in plots where mosaic zinc complex fertilizer was added (323.8 g ha-1). When both the levels of zinc (1.8 and 5.0 kg zinc kg ha-1) were compared, increase in total uptake of zinc was insignificant. The agronomic efficiency of P over control was 41.8 kg grain kg-1 P applied and it reduced with the application of zinc, similar trends were observed in apparent recovery of P (Table 3). Value of agronomic efficiency of applied zinc was highest (69.4 g grain kg-1 zinc) at its lower level of application in mosaic zinc complex fertilizer treated plots followed by zinc sulphate ( 59.8 g grain kg-1 zinc) treated plots. So from the present investigation it is concluded that the fields deficient in P and Zn, the N, P, Zn complex fertilizer can be used for obtaining higher crop yields.
24(S): 389-392. Chandi,K.S. and Takkar,P.N. (1982) Effect of agricultural system on micronutrient transformation. Pl. Soil. 69 :423-436. Khan, R., Gurmani, A.R., Khan, M.S. and Gurmani, A.H. (2007) Effect of zinc application on rice yield under wheat rice system. Pak. J. Biol. Sci.10:235-239. Lindsay,W.L. and Norwell, W.A. (1978) Development of DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese and copper. Soil Sci. Soc.Am.J. 42:421-428. Mehta,Y.K., Shaktawat, M.S. and Singhi,S.M. (2005) Influence of S, phosphorus and farmyard manure on yield attributes and yields of maize (Zea mays) in Southern Rajasthan conditions. Indian J. Agron. 50 (3):203-205. Nayyar, V.K.,Takkar, P.N., Bansal, R.L., Singh, S.P., Kaur, N.P. and Sadana, U.S. (1990) Micronutrients in soils and crops of Punjab. Res. Bull. Depaprtment of Soils. Punjab Agric. Univ. Ludhiana, India, pp. 148. Olsen, S.R., Cole, C. V., Watanabe, F.S. and Dean, L.A. (1954) Estimation of available P by extraction with sodium bicarbonate. USDA Circ 939. Takkar, P.N. and Randhawa, N.S. (1978) Micronutrients in Indian agriculture. Fert. News 23: 3-26. Takkar, P.N., Chhibba, I. M. and Mehta, S. K. (1999) Twenty years of coordinated research on micronutrients in soils and plants. Bull. I. Indian Inst. Soil Sci., Bhopal, India, pp. 314. Savithri, P., Perumal, R. and Nagarajan, R. (1999) Soil and crop management technologies for enhancing rice production under micronutrient constraints. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys. 53:83-92. Setia, R.K. (2002) Chemical pools of nutrients and their dynamics in soils under continuous maize-wheat system. M.Sc. Thesis, Punjab Agric. Univ., Ludhiana.
REFERENCES
Brar,B.S., Benipal, D.S., Singh, Jagdeep and Mavi,M.S. (2006) Evaluation of NPZn complex fertilizer for its efficiency using rice as test crop in an alluvial soil of Punjab. Environ. Ecol.
Received 20 June, 2011; Accepted 4 January, 2012
Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 172-173
Effect of Bio-fertilizers in Combination with Chemical Fertilizers on Growth and Yield of Broccoli (Brassica oleracea Var. italica Plank)
Pradeep Kumar, Sanjay Kumar*, Yogesh Chandra Yadav and Adesh Kumar
Department of Applied Plant Science (Horticulture) Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University Lucknow-226 025 (UP), India *E-mail: sanjay123bhu@gmail.com
Sprouting broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica Plank) is the most important winter vegetables in India, which belongs to family Brassicaceae. It is herbaceous annual vegetable grown for its green tender curd and biennial for seed production. United States of America is the largest producer of broccoli in the world. In recent year, cultivation of broccoli has gained momentum in India. The progressive use of fertilizers along with inorganic fertilizers may be the right answer to increase the productivity. The bio-fertilizers denote all the nutrient inputs of biological origin for plant growth. They possess unique ability to enhance productivity by biological nitrogen fixation and solublization of insoluble phosphate or producing hormones, vitamins or other growth factors required for plant growth. In recent years, uses of microbial inoculants as source of bio-fertilizers have become a hope for most of the countries as far as economical as well as environmental concerns. Therefore, in developing countries like India, it can solve the problem at high cost of fertilizer and help in saving the economy of the country. The present study aimed to assess the performance of broccoli under inorganic chemical and biofertilizers conditions. The field experiment effect of bio-fertilizers with chemical fertilizers on growth and yield of broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica Plank) cv. Fista was conducted at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow during 2009-10 in randomized block design with three replications. There were ten treatments combinations of NPK and biofertilizers. The plants were randomly selected and three plants were tagged in each plot in the beginning for recording various observations on 45th, 60th, 75th and 90th day after transplanting on ten growth, yield and yield attributing traits viz., height of plant (cm), number of leaves per plant, leaf length (cm), leaf width (cm), leaf weight per plant (kg), stem diameter (cm), curd diameter (cm), gross weight of plant (kg), net weight of curd (kg) and yield (q ha-1).
The effect of different treatment combinations of chemical fertilizers along with bio-fertilizers on growth and yield of curd are given in Table 1. The maximum plant height and number of leaves per plant on 45th and 90th day after treatment (DAT) was recorded in treatment PSB + 50% P and recommended dose N & K followed by Azotobacter + recommended of NPK and PSB+75% P and RD of N and K. The maximum length and breadth also showed the same trend. The maximum length of leaf, curd diameter gross weight of plant and net weight of curd gross weight of plant and net weight of curd was recorded in PSB + 50% P and recommended dose N & K through chemical fertilizers followed by Azotobacter + recommended of NPK and PSB+75% P and RD of N and K at 90th DAT. The yield was significantly affected by various bio-fertilizers treatments. The maximum yield (362.96q ha-1) was obtained by PSB + 50% P and recommended dose N and K through chemical fertilizers and was significantly superior over all the treatments and control. Same findings were found by the Bhattacharya et al. (1997) and Singh et al. (2006). The minimum yield (285.18q ha -1) was observed with recommended dose of chemical fertilizers (control). On the basis of above observations, it could be concluded that the application of PSB+50% P and recommended dose (150, 60 & 60 kg ha-1) of NPK through chemical fertilizers proved best for higher curd yield of broccoli.
REFERENCES
Bhattacharya, P., Jain, R.K., Paliwal, M..K. and Argar, M.Y. (1997) Effect of azospirillum and azotobactor on growth, yield and quantity of knol-khol (Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes L.) Veg. Science 24(1): 16-19. Singh, R., Chaurasia, S.N.S. and Singh, S.N. (2006) Response of nutrient sources and spacing on growth and yield of broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica Plank). Veg. Science 33 (2): 198-200.
Table 1. Effect of different treatment combinations of chemical fertilizers along with bio-fertilizers on growth and yield of broccoli Height of plant (cm) 90th 45th DAT DAT 22.40 23.62 24.10 27.98 28.20 26.92 26.12 25.82 25.90 24.98 3.30 4.08 0.109 0.129 3.25 46.23 8.30 15.20 41.10 47.10 9.10 16.10 41.26 47.45 9.58 16.02 42.14 1.710 1.660 1.600 0.139 48.90 9.64 16.50 43.09 1.850 49.10 9.83 17.12 44.73 2.004 50.41 10.90 18.12 48.90 2.190 1.51 1.32 1.20 1.12 1.10 1.05 0.14 49.25 10.60 17.42 46.72 2.106 1.51 46.48 8.60 15.87 40.99 1.840 1.19 3.16 3.50 3.50 3.34 3.20 3.10 3.08 2.95 0.25 42.90 7.90 15.21 38.74 1.840 0.98 3.04 41.98 6.80 14.50 38.32 1.190 1.06 2.27 10.82 11.26 11.45 12.80 13.47 12.45 12.14 11.40 11.20 11.08 0.272 Number of leaves per plant 45th 90th DAT DAT Leaf length (cm) 45th 90th DAT DAT Leaf width (cm) Stem diameter (cm) Curd diameter (cm) Gross weight of plant (kg) 2.31 2.78 3.15 3.96 4.59 3.54 3.25 2.96 2.88 2.58 0.27 Net weight of curd (kg) 0.750 0.794 0.847 0.972 0.980 0.968 0.940 0.820 0.805 0.800 0.10 Yield (q ha-1)
Treatments
Recommended dose of NPK
285.18 294.07 313.70 360.00 362.96 358.51 348.14 303.70 298.14 296.29 0.93
Azotobactor+50% N and RD of P and K
Azotobactor+75% N and RD total
recommended dose of P and K
Azotobacter + recommended of NPK
PSB +50% P and RD of N and K
PSB+75% P and RD of N and K
PSB + RD of NPK
PB+50% P and RD of N and K
Effect of Bio-fertilizers of Broccoli
PB+75% P and RD of N&K
PB + RD of NPK
CD (0.05)
RD: Recommended dose of N,P and K 150, 60 and 60 kg ha-1, respectively DAT= Days after transplanting PSB= Phosphate Solublizing Bacteria PB= Phosphobacteria
173
Received 24 July, 2011; Accepted 14 January, 2012
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Number 1 June 2012

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Volume 39

INDIAN ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY

R. Peshin A.K. Sharma T.R. Sharma S.K. Raina

V. Durga Rani Haseena Bhaskar S.B. Das Veena Khanna

Sanjeev Chauhan R.K. Pannu Kiran Bains V.K. Patil B. Mandal

G..K. Taggar V. Kaul T.R. Sharma S.B. Das

S.K. Bal J. Mukerjee A.P. Singh K.S. Shylaraj

Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1)

Indian Journal of Ecology

112 118 123 131

143 145 148 151 153 156

158 160 164 167

Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 1-5

Indian Journal of Ecology

MATERIAL AND METHODS Study Area and Sample Collection

Satish Kumar Sinha

Relationship of Tree-ring Width with Weather Parameters

Response Function Analysis

Tree Growth and Climate Relationship

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Satish Kumar Sinha

Relationship of Tree-ring Width with Weather Parameters

Received 10 August, 2011; Accepted 11 December, 2011

Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 6-10

Indian Journal of Ecology

Land Transformation and Urban Sprawl Mapping of Amritsar City

MATERIAL AND METHODS Satellite Data Used

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Source: Economic Advisor, Statistical Abstract of Punjab, 2007.

* Total study area of 485.91 km2.

Land Transformation and Urban Sprawl Mapping of Amritsar City

Received 8 August, 2011; Accepted 4 January, 2012

Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 11-17

Indian Journal of Ecology

Agro-Climatic Resource Inventory Characterization of Punjab State in Spatial Domain

31.63 N 31.12 N 30.17 N 30.92o N 31.33o N 30.93 N

30.33 N 31.38 N 32.03 N 32.28 N 30.67 N 31.33o N 29.53o N 30.38o N 29.17 N

Climatic Data Collection

MATERIAL AND METHODS Location and Description of the Study Area

Method of Patching Climatic Data

Agro-climatic Resource Inventory Characterization

Climatic Data Analysis

Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) Calculation

Statistical Evaluation of the Generated Data

Length of Growing Period (LGP) Calculation

Procedure for Zoning and Overlaying of Thermal and LGP Layers

Extraction of Area of Interest

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Patching of Climatic Data

Map Preparation in Arc GIS

Compilation of Climatic Resource Inventory

Agro-climatic Resource Inventory Characterization

Fig. 1. Thermal zones of Punjab

% TGA 0.7 10.0 57.9 29.5 1.9

Annual average temperature 25-26oC

Length of Growing Period (LGP) Layer

Fig. 2. Length of growing period (LGP) zones of Punjab

Fig. 3. Thermal - LGP zones of Punjab

Delineation of Thermal-LGP zones

Agro-climatic Resource Inventory Characterization

Received 7 June, 2011; Accepted 3 March, 2012

Indian J. Ecol. (2012) 39(1) : 18-22

Indian Journal of Ecology

MATERIAL AND METHODS