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References: Book Chapters 16 and 17 Data and Computer Communications, 8th edition By William Stallings
Outline
Fundamentals of Ethernet
ALOHA, slotted ALOHA, CSMA CSMA/CD
Ethernet Examples
10-Mbps Ethernet Fast Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet 10-Gbps Ethernet
Ethernet
Most widely used high-speed LANs
Ethernet (10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps) Fibre channel High-speed wireless LANs
Physical Layer
ALOHA
ALOHA protocol is developed for packet radio networks, but applicable to any shared transmission medium.
A number of stations share the transmission medium. Two or more simultaneous transmissions will cause a collision.
Sender
When station has frame, it sends Station listens for an amount of time If its hears an ACK, fine. If not, it retransmits the frame after a random time If no ACK after several transmissions, it gives up Frame check sequence can be used for error detection
Receiver
If frame is OK and address matches receiver, sends ACK Otherwise, ignores this frame and does nothing
Frame may be damaged by noise or by another station transmitting at the same time (collision). Overlap of frames also causes collision. ALOHA is simple, but very inefficient
Assuming random traffic, the maximum channel utilization is only about 18%
ALOHA
Slotted ALOHA
To improve efficiency, a modification of ALOHA, known as slotted ALOHA , was developed. Time is organized into uniform slots whose size equals the frame transmission time
Need a central clock (or other sync mechanism)
Slotted ALOHA
CSMA
Why ALOHA and slotted ALOHA are so inefficient?
Stations don t check the channel status. They just send out frames without considering whether the channel is free or not, which creates too many collisions.
In fact, it is not difficult for a station to sense the channel status (free or not). CSMA: Carrier Sense Multiple Access
Stations listen to the channel (carrier sense) Stations know whether the channel is free or not Stations transmit only if the channel is free Collisions become rare
Only if two or more stations attempt to transmit at about the same time, collisions could happen.
CSMA (Cont.)
In traditional LANs, propagation time is much less than frame transmission time
Remark: this may not be true for 1Gbps and 10Gbps Ethernet
All stations know that a transmission has started almost immediately by carrier sense Details of CSMA
Stations first listen for clear medium (carrier sense) If medium is idle, transmit the frame If two or more stations start at about the same instant, there will be a collision.
To account for this, a station waits for an ACK If no ACK after a reasonable time, then retransmit
Nonpersistent CSMA
A station wishing to transmit listens to the medium and obeys the following rules:
1. If medium is idle, transmit; otherwise, go to step 2 2. If medium is busy, wait an amount of time drawn from a probability distribution and repeat step 1
Drawback:
Capacity is wasted because medium will generally remain idle following the end of a transmission, even if there are one or more stations waiting to transmit.
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1-persistent CSMA
To avoid idle channel time, 1-persistent protocol can be used A station wishing to transmit listens to the medium and obeys the following rules: 1. If medium is idle, transmit; otherwise, go to step 2 2. If medium is busy, continue to listen until the channel is sensed idle; then transmit immediately. 1-persistent stations are selfish Drawback:
If two or more stations are waiting to transmit, a collision is guaranteed.
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p-persistent CSMA
p-persistent CSMA is a compromise that attempts to reduce collisions, like nonpersistent, and reduce idle time, like 1-persistent Rules:
1. If the medium is idle, transmit with probability p, and delay one time unit with probability (1 p)
The time unit is typically equal to the maximum propagation delay
2. If the medium is busy, continue to listen until the channel is idle and repeat step 1 3. If transmission is delayed one time unit, repeat step 1
Question:
What is an effective value of p?
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Value of p?
Assume n stations are waiting to transmit while a transmission is taking place At the end of transmission, the expected number of stations attempting to transmit is the number of stations ready (i.e., n) times the probability of transmitting (i.e., p): np If np > 1, on average there will be a collision
Repeated attempts to transmit almost guarantee more collisions Retries compete with new transmissions from other stations Eventually, all stations try to send
Continuous collisions; zero throughput
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Collision Detection:
Rules of CSMA/CD: If the medium is idle, transmit; otherwise, go to step 2 If the medium is busy, continue to listen until the channel is idle, then transmit immediately If a collision is detected during transmission, transmit a brief jamming signal to assure that all stations know that there has been a collision and then cease transmission After transmitting the jamming signal, wait a random amount of time, referred to as backoff , then attempt to transmit again (repeat from step 1)
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CSMA/CD Operation
C detects a collision!
A detects a collision!
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Collision Detection
The amount of time that it takes to detect a collision is no greater than twice the end-to-end propagation delay. Frames should be long enough to allow collision detection prior to the end of transmission. If shorter frames are used, then collision detection does not occur. For 10 and 100Mbps Ethernet, the frame length is at least 512 bits. For 1Gbps Ethernet, the frame length is at least 4096 bits, using carrier extension or frame bursting .
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As congestion increases, stations back off by larger and larger amounts to reduce the probability of collision. 1-persistent algorithm with binary exponential backoff is efficient over a wide range of loads
At low loads, 1-persistence guarantees that a station can seize channel as soon as the channel goes idle At high loads, it is at least as stable as the other techniques
Preamble: 7 octets of 10101010 SFD: 10101011 Length: the maximum frame size is 1518 octets, excluding the preamble and SFD. Pad: octets added to ensure that the frame is long enough for collision detection
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100BASE-X refers to a set of options that use two physical links between nodes: one for ttransmission and one for reception
100BASE-TX for twisted pair 100BASE-FX for optical fiber
Star-wire topology
Similar to 10BASE-T
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Gigabit Ethernet
The Gigabit Ethernet uses the same CSMA/CD frame format and MAC protocol as used in the 10Mbps and 100Mbps version of IEEE 802.3. For shared-medium hub operation, there are two enhancements to the basic CSMA/CD
Carrier extension
Appends a set of special symbols to the end of short MAC frames so that the resulting block is at least 4096 bit-times in duration (512 bit-times for 10/100Mbps)
Frame bursting
Allows for multiple short frames to be transmitted consecutively (up to a limit) without giving up control for CSMA/CD between frames. It avoids the overhead of carrier extension when a single station has a number of small frames ready to send.
Not necessary for Ethernet switches because there is no contention for a shared medium.
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10-Gbps Ethernet
10-Gbps Ethernet can be used to provide high-speed, local backbone interconnection between large-capacity switches.
Our departmental Ethernet uses 10-Gbps Ethernet at the backbone.
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Wireless LANs
Wireless LAN makes use of a wireless transmission medium. Wireless LAN applications
LAN Extension Cross-building Interconnection Nomadic Access Ad Hoc Networking
An ad hoc network is a peer-to-peer network (without centralized server) set up temporarily to meet some immediate need.
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IEEE 802.11
IEEE 802.11 is devoted to wireless LANs.
Consists of MAC and physical layer protocols for wireless LANs
A BSS may be isolated, or may connect to a Backbone Distribution System (DS) through an Access Point (AP)
AP functions as a bridge and a relay point AP could be a station which has the logic to provide DS services AP corresponds to a Control Module (CM) DS can be a switch, wired network, or wireless network
An Extended Service Set (ESS) consists of two or more BSSs interconnected by a DS.
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Physic al Layer
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IEEE 802.11b
2.4-GHz band, data rate at 5.5 and 11 Mbps
At present
IEEE 802.11n: data rate up to hundreds of Mbps
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Access control
Distributed access Centralized access
Security
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collisio n B
Consider the effect of RTS/CTS: RTS alerts all stations within range of source (i.e., A) that exchange is under way; CTS alerts all stations within range of destination (i.e., B).
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(PCF)
Remark: PCF has not been popularly implemented in today s 802.11 products. DCF is widely used.
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4.
To ensure that backoff maintains stability, binary exponential backoff is used. Why not collision detection?
Collision detection is not practical on wireless networks The dynamic range of wireless signals is very large The transmitting station cannot distinguish incoming weak signals from noise and/or effects of own transmission
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Control Frames: RTS, CTS, ACK (Acknowledgement), etc. Management Frames: to manage communications between stations and APs.
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Addresses:
The number and meaning of the 48-bit address fields depend on context source address, destination address, transmitter address, receiver address
Sequence Control:
4-bit fragment number subfield used for fragmentation and reassembly 12-bit sequence number used to number frames between given transmitter and receiver
Frame Body:
MSDU or a fragment of an MSDU
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