Elements of Hydro L 00 Me Ye

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THE
ELEMENTS OF HYDROLOGY
BY
ADOLPH
F.
MEYER,
C.E.,
Member American
Society of Civil Engineers
Consulting Engineer
Associate Professor of Hydraulic Engineering
University of Minnesota
NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS,

London:
Inc.
CHAPMAN
& HALL, Limited
Copyright, 1917,
BY
(__..
ADOLPH
F.
MEYER
Stanbope iprcss
F.
H.GILSON COMPANY BOSTON, U.S.A.

6-20
PREFACE
The science of hydrology, although
of apphcation.
It is
it
has received relatively
little
attention in the United States until recent years, has a wide
field
fundamental to the solution of
many
prob-
lems in water-power, water-supply, sewerage and sewage disposal,

drainage,
irrigation, navigation,
and
flood
field of
protection and pre-
vention.
Although basic to a large

itself is
engineering science,
hydrology
as
founded upon numerous other sciences, as well

of physical
upon a
large
body
data peculiar to
itself.
Although the material presented in the following pages represents

considerable effort,
it
is
far
from complete, and only the urgent

set forth at least the
need for
a book which should
most impor-
tant physical bases and applications of the fundamental principles underlying the science
of hydrology, induced the author
to prepare the material for publication at this time.
The book
teachers,
is
intended to be of assistance to professional men,

of
and students
engineering.
It
has been prepared
with the view of clearly setting forth fundamental data and considerations rather than of providing either a text or a reference
book, and, of course, not a handbook.
It will
be years before
the fundamental principles and facts underlying the science of
hydrology have received sufficiently general acceptance to per-
mit their condensation into handbook form.
The data and computations presented

pared with the assistance of a paid
to be free from
in this
book were pre-
office staff
and are believed

all
material discrepancies.
While
totals
and
summaries of important data were checked, and many were

double-checked, using the adding machine, the work of tabulating the tens of thousands of precipitation records, for example,
was not duplicated, because the

ill
possibility of errors being
made
IV
in the compilations
PREFACE
which could
affect the final conclusions
was
so small as not to warrant the expense of the extra work.
Endeavor has been made to acknowledge the source

previously published data wherever these are
first
of all
introduced.
Valuable assistance was rendered and courtesies were extended
by
several
Departments
of the
Government,
particularly,
the
Weather Bureau, the Department

logical
of Agriculture,
and the GeoEn-
Survey;
and
of
also
by the University
Engineers,
of Minnesota, the
American Society
gineering
Civil
Engineering News,
Record,
and by numerous other publications and

due the
individuals.
Acknowledgment
Mr. W.
is
also
author's
assistants,
Mr.
George M. Shepard, Mr. E.

J.
Dow
Gilman, Miss Edna Busse,
von Eschen, and
others, for loyal
and capable
months.
service
in the preparation of manuscript.
Some
of these assistants
gave
their undivided attention to this
work
for several
The author
reading.
also appreciates the
work done by
Prof. C.
W.
Nichols and Mr.
M. W. Hewett
in connection
with the proof

f.
Adolph
Minneapolis, Minn.,
January, 1917.
Meyer.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION
Definition of Hydrology
I
Page
1
1 1
Present State of Hj'drology

Application of Hydrology
2
5 5
Water
as a Natural Resource
of
The Subject Matter
Hydrology
CHAPTER
THE ATMOSPHERE:
CIRCULATION
Use
Composition
Properties
II
ITS
TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND

9 9 9
11
Amount
Water in Atmosphere Distribution of Water Vapor

of
12 12 13
13
TEMPERATURE
Source of All Heat
Eflfect of
Water Vapor on Solar Radiation
14 15
15
Measiu-ement of Solar Radiation Amount of Solar Radiation Received

Refraction
18 19 19 21
Temperature Data Thermometers

Daily
Mean
Annual Variation
Periodic Variation
Extremes
of
Temperature
Variation with Altitude Extending Short-term Records
22 23 23 23 27 27
27 29 29 30
PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Amount and
Variation with Altitude
High- and Low-pressure Areas Daily Variation in Pressure Synchronism of Various Phenomena
Vi
CONTENTS
CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
34 34 35 35 36 36 36 38
Wind
Cause
Pressure
of
Winds
Wind Zones
Winds Non- Periodic Winds Anemometers
Periodic
Mean Wind
Velocities in the United States
CHAPTER
WATER:
ITS VARIOUS STATES
Composition
Physical Properties
III
39
39 39 40 41
41 41
41
AND THEIR PROPERTIES
FrazQ
Anchor Ice
Elasticity
Weight Steam
Specific
Heat
Fusion
ITS
Heat Heat
of Vaporization of
42 42 42
THE VAPOR OF WATER AND

Characteristics of
CONDENSATION
'
43
43 43 44 44 45 49 50 53 53 56 61 62 62
Water Vapor
Vapor Pressure
Distribution of
Water Vapor
Relation of Vapor Pressure to Weight of Vapor Change in Vapor Pressure with Temperature
Dew-point Hygrometers Wet- and Dry-bulb Hygrometers Humidity

Density of Air
Specific
Heat
of Air
Dynamic CooUng
Stable and Unstable Air
Effect of
Vapor on Weight
of Air
CHAPTER
PRECIPITATION:
ITS
IV
64
OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION
Dew and
Frost
Rain, Snow, etc
Convective Precipitation Orographic Precipitation Cyclonic Precipitation
64 64 65 65 65
CONTENTS
" Lows " " Highs "
vii
Page
70 70
71
Thunderstorms Weather Forecasts Measurement of Precipitation Standard Rain Gage

Tipping-bucket Gage
77
Marvin Float Gage

Exposure of Rain Gage Measuring Snowfall Snow Surveys Variation of Character of Precipitation with Temperature Ice Storms
Variation of Precipitation with Latitude, Altitude, etc
Irregular Occurrence in United States
78 78 79 80 80 81
Mean Annual
Precipitation
Cycles in Annual Precipitation

Relation Between Length of Record and Extremes of
85 86 87 88 89 93 93
110
Maps
Annual Precipitation of Probable Extremes

United States
of
Annual Precipitation
in
Ill
Monthly Precipitation Determination of True Monthly Mean Excessive Monthly and Daily Precipitation
Typical Excessive Rainstorms Area Covered by Excessive Storms
114
121
122 128
139
Estimating Probable Maximum Precipitation on Watersheds Hourly Rates of Excessive Precipitation Index Map
140
144
150
CHAPTER V
EVAPORATION FROM WATER SURFACES
The Water Cycle
Evaporation Defined Effect of Temperature Effect of Barometric Pressure
Effect of Relative
188
188
190
191
Humidity
192 194
195
Effect of
Wind
Velocity
Relative Effects
197 198 201
Evaporation Formulas Comparison of Evaporation Formulas

Correction for Size of
Methods
of
Pan Measurement
Observed Evaporation Evaporation from Deep Water Evaporation from Snow and Ice
204 205 206 214 218
vm
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
EVAPORATION FROM LAND AREAS
THE RATE OF EVAPORATION
Effect of Temperature
VI
Page
221
221 221 224 225
Effect of Relative
Humidity
Effect of Vegetation
THE EVAPORATION OPPORTUNITY

Effect of Precipitation
226 226 227 228
Effect of Interception Effect of Percolation
Depth
Depth
of Percolation
and Rate
of
Return
of Moisture
by
231
Capillarity
of Water-table
Effect of Vegetation
Effect of Drainage
Observed Evaporation Losses from Land Areas

Irrigation Investigations
Relative Evaporation from

Effect of Character of Soils
Land and Water
235 236 237 238 238 239 240
CHAPTER
TRANSPIRATION.
.
VII
242
Definition
Effect of
Effect of
Effect of
Temperature Humidity
Wind
Effect of Light
Effect of Soil Moisture Effect of Character of Vegetation Effect of Precipitation
Transpiration Proportional to Dry Matter Produced Amount of Transpiration in Inches Depth over Ground
242 242 246 246 246 249 254 256 257 259
Area
CHAPTER
DEEP SEEPAGE
The Underground Reservoir
Artesian Basins
VIII
263
263 264 268 269 272 274
Motion
of
Underground Water
Hazen's Formula
Slichter's
Formula Comparison of Formulas of Slichter and Hazen Measurement of Underflow
276
CONTENTS
ix
CHAPTER IX
Page
RUNOFF
Definition
279 279
Surface Flow
279
Effect of
Effect of Effect of Effect of
and Temperature Physical Characteristics of Watershed Drainage of Upland Drainage of Swamps Lakes and Ponds
279 280 282 283 283

284
Seepage Flow
Effect of
Watershed Characteristics
in
Effect of Character of Precipitation
Changes
Seepage Flow Following Percolation
Depth
of Water-table
Effect of Barometric Pressure
284 286 287 289 289

291
Runoff from Typical Watersheds

Watersheds in the Northwest Watersheds in the East Southern Watersheds Western Watersheds Hj'drographs of Daily Discharge
297 297 297 299 298 308 309 309 310 310 311 313 313 313 318 319 320 321 323
325
The Flood Flow of Streams

floods due to rainfall
Flood Producing Rains Intense Rainstorms as Basis for Flood Estimates
Effect of
Effect of
Watershed Area Shape and Location
of
Watershed
Effect of Soil Effect of Cultural Conditions
Watershed Characteristics Reflected Elk River Flood Root River Flood Wild Rice River Flood Scioto River Flood Ohio River Flood
FLOODS DUE PRIMARILY TO SNOWFALL
Accumulation of Snow Melting of Snow Crow Wing River Flood Little Fork River Flood
in
Floods
325 326 327 327
Effect of temperature and precipitation on winter AND SPRING floods The Ohio River at Pittsburgh The Upper Mississippi River at St. Paul, Minn
329 329 332
CONTENTS
Page
The Red River of the North at Grand Forks Mass Curves of Temperatures Above Freezing
FALL FLOODS
335 335
341 341
FLOOD FLOW FORMULAS

Weight Given to Various Factors by Different Formulas. Fuller Formulas Flood Frequency Suggested Definition of " Normal "
342 342 345 347

348
Data Relating to Some of the Most Severe Floods

summer floods on small watersheds Cane Creek, N. C, Flood
Heppner, Oregon, Flood Monterey, Mexico, Flood
348
348 348 349

351 351 351
winter and spring FLOODS ON LARGE STREAMS

Lower Mississippi River Floods The Rains Causing These Floods
Flood Damage Ohio River Floods Comparative Flood Hydrographs Flood of 1884
Floods of 1913
Seine River, Paris, Flood
353 353 354 355 355 356

357
Low Water Flow

Eflfect of
of Streams
Ground-water Supply
Lake and Swamp Storage Effect of Temperature Observed Low-water Flows
357 358 358 360 362
CHAPTER X
STREAM-FLOW DATA
Need
367
How
The The The The The The The
Data Data are Obtained

of
367 367 367

368 368 370 370 370 371 375 377 379 382
CURRENT meter MEASUREMENTS

Gaging Station Meter Section
Staff
Gage
Hook Gage
Chain Gage Automatic Recording Gage Current Meter Rating the Meter
The Mean Velocity Making the Measurement
CONTENTS
The Field and Office Notes The Discharge Curve
Effect of Ice
xi
Pago
on Discharge
385 386 391 392
OTHER METHODS OF MEASURING STREAM FLOW

Float Measurements Slope Measurements
The Chemical Method

Diajihragm or Traveling Screen
The Pitot Tube The Venturi Meter

Stream-flow Data from Water-power Plants
392 395 400 403 404 406

408
409
Where Stream-flow Data are Published
CHAPTER XI STREAM-FLOW SUPPLEMENTING DATA

Unreliability of Short-term
410
410 413 413 417 421 424 424
Means
Comparative Hydrographs Methods of Computing Runoff The " Water Year " The Author's Evaporation Curve The Author's Transpii-ation Curve
SYNOPSIS OF author's METHOD OF COMPUTING ANNUAL RUNOFF
Computing Annual Yield Computing Monthly Runoff
426 428
CHAPTER
XII
437
MODIFICATION OF STREAM FLOW BY STORAGE

APPLICABILITY DEPENDENT UPON COST
437
RESERVOIR SITES
Location
438
438 438
.
Water Supply Seepage and Evaporation Losses

Spillway Capacity
439 440
441
Dam
Site
Sedimentation of Reservoirs
441
441
EFFECTIVENESS OF RESERVOIR STORAGE

Losses in Conveying Channels
441
Loss Through Temporary Ground-water Storage Retardation of Seepage Flow
Evaporation Loss in Channels Other Factors
443 445 449 449
STORAGE FOR MUNICIPAL PURPOSES

For Water-supply Purposes For Improving Sanitary Conditions
449 449 450
Xll
CONTENTS
Page
STORAGE FOR IRRIGATION STORAGE FOR LOGGING

STORAGE FOR NAVIGATION
Applicability
'
451
452
452 452 453 453
455 455 456 456 458 461 462
The Two Largest Navigation Reservoirs

Effectiveness of Navigation Reservoirs
STORAGE FOR FLOOD PREVENTION

Applicability
Methods Check Dams

Retarding Basins
Impounding Reservoirs
Control of Mississippi River Floods by Reservoirs
STORAGE FOR POWER

Applicability
464
464 465 465 466 467 467 468 470 472
474
Limit of Economical Development Size of Auxiliary Power Plant
The Mass Curve

Regulation to Increase Dependable Flow Regulation to Increase Utilizable Flow
Frequency Curves
Construction of Frequency Curve
CONFLICT OF STORAGE PURPOSES
STORAGE BELOW ORDINARY HIGH-WATER MARK

Ordinary High Water Defined
Storage Limitations
474 477
477
NOTE TO TEACHERS OF HYDROLOGY INDEX
479
THE ELEMENTS OF HYDROLOGY

CHAPTER
I
INTRODUCTION
Definition of Hydrology.
science which treats of the
of the distribution
Briefly
phenomena
and
stated, hydrology
is
the
of water in all its states;
and occurrence
surface,
of water in the earth's in the soil
atmosstrata;
phere,
on the earth's
and rock
life
and
of
of the relation of these
phenomena
to the
and
activities
man.
Present State of Hydrology.
Hydrology
is
essentially a
new
sci-
science.
It is
founded upon other and better-established
ences, such as meteorology, geology, agricultural physics
and
chemistry, and botany, besides upon a rapidly growing body of

physical data peculiar to
itself.
Our present knowledge

is
of the
subject
is
indeed fragmentary and incomplete and
scattered
throughout the literature of engineering and the other sciences mentioned.

hydrology
The complete
lack of books on
the subject of
itself attests
the formative character of the science.
No
guide posts but individual judgment indicate the

field
mode
of
treatment to be followed or the
to be embraced in the
present treatise, and the author freely acknowledges failure to

attain his ideal
extension.
and the need

trusts,
for early
and thorough
revision
and
and
He
however, that the material and methods
of analysis presented will be
found serviceable in both
office
class-room.
Most of the phenomena of hydrology are exceedingly complex, and to the casual observer the irregularities and apparent inconsistencies are often so great as to
make
the existence of
fundamental laws and cause-and-effect relationships seem hopelessly
obscure and even
completely
improbable.
Not with-
.2
all
if
standing this seeming confusion, however, the occurrence of

natural
phenomena
will
be found based upon law and order,
one can only analyze the conditions surrounding these phe-
nomena and evaluate the varying

conditions in each instance.
influences
and
effects of these
In working out the projects of hydraulic engineering, the

engineer faces a real situation that must be
met notwithstand-
ing the incompleteness of our knowledge of the fundamental

principles
and data
is
of
hydrology.
However inadequate the

Moreover,
data, he
forced to
draw conclusions and make recommenda-
tions which often involve considerable expenditures.
the hydraulic engineer cannot safeguard the situation presented
by inadequate data by introducing the usual factor

employed
in structural
of safety
all
work, because
if
he did nearly
the
projects of hydraulic engineering
would become impracticable.
Though
he
is
forced to deal with admittedly incomplete hydrological
data and uncertain, future occurrences of natural phenomena,

usually hmited to factors of safety of about 1.25 to 1.50,
structural engineer, on the other hand, dealing with elabo-
The
rate test data
and material produced according to
specifications
5.
and under supervision, emplo3^s factors

Although
in
of safety of 4 to
in
most cases human
life is
not so directly concerned

it
the success of the projects of hydrauUc engineering as
is
in those of structural engineering, the probabilities of financial

loss are usually greater in the
former
field.
Since
all
of these
projects are, to a greater or less extent, based

principles of hydrology,
upon the data and

knowledge of
and
is
since the allowable factor of safety

small, the need for a
or " factor of ignorance "
hydrology
is
apparent.
Application of Hydrology.
Each
year sees new improvein the control
ments
in the structures
and machinery involved

hydrology
and
utilization of water,
but the physical data and principles

of
is
upon which the science

fully determined,
founded,
when once
will ever
remain unchanged.
These funda-
mental data and principles find some measure
of application in
INTRODUCTION
nearly every
large
field of
engineering and are, indeed, basic to several
and important fields. Some of these fields of engineering intimately concerned with the amount and rate of most are
rainfall
and the methods
of disposing of the excess
water which,
from their viewpoint and within the confines

serve no useful purpose.
of their field, can
Such disposal
Other
of
water
may
involve
the prevention of floods and the drainage of agricultural lands

or of urban communities.
fields of
engineering are conoff
cerned with the conservation of the rainfall which runs

the land or percolates through the
strata,
soil
from
into the
underlying
and the
utilization of this
water for domestic and manu-
facturing purposes, for the irrigation of arid lands, for the de-
velopment
passengers.
of power,
and
for the transportation of freight

cities,
and
In the development of
engineers are con-
tinually concerned with the flow of streams.
Among
their prob-
lems are the relation of stream flow to water-front improvements, the disposal of sewage and waste, and the control of
flood waters.
Such, in brief, are a few of the fields of engineeris
ing to which the science of hydrology
more or
less basic.
Although hydrology has not, heretofore, been generally considered a fundamental science, yet
it is
a fact that the structures
involved in hydraulic engineering projects far less frequently

fail
to serve their purpose because of fundamental defects in

is
structural design than they do because that design
not based
upon correct hydrological

Although the
profession
principles
and observations.
of the engineering
specialist in
many branches
may
not always, in the solution of his particular
problems, require a broad knowledge of the fundamentals of

hydrology, he
will,
nevertheless, often derive considerable assist-
ance from at least a general familiarity with the natural phe-
nomena that
of
affect the occurrence, distribution,
and
disposition
water on the surface of the earth.
The development
ing
projects
of
our country has kept hydraulic engineer-
and
allied
problems involving the principles
of
hydrology almost continually before the public.
This has given
4
rise to
a great clamor for public funds for river improvement,
reservoir construction,
and drainage, and much misinformation

feasibility of
and misconception regarding the

been manifested at times.
such projects has
As a member
of his
community the
engineer possessed of a knowledge of even the elements of hydrol-
ogy
may
wield an important influence in molding public opinion
regarding the general feasibihty of such projects, even though

the details of the problems involved
may
be quite outside of his
own
specialty
and may require thorough analytical study before

is
their solution
finally
determined.
Through
this influence
on
public opinion the engineer
may
assist
not only in conserving a
natural resource, so far as practicable, but also in conserving

the tax-payer's money.
Among
those
the principal controversial subjects of hydrology are the

interrelationship
of
forests,
concerning
reservoirs,
drainage and stream flow.
The
lay
mind
associates the re-
moval
floods,
of forests
and the drainage
of lands with destructive
without reference to the cause of floods on different
streams or the great variation in flood-producing characteristics of different
watersheds.
No
general deductions of universal

is
applicability can be
made.
Every stream
a problem in
itself.
It follows, therefore, that
much
detailed observation
and study
are necessary to establish fundamental hydrological principles.
Observations indicate that forests

crease floods;
stream flow.
may both increase and demay both increase and decrease The conditions under which these effects may
that drainage
prevail are discussed later.
Another subject regarding which much general misinformation

exists is that of the prevention of floods
by storage
reservoirs.
Projects for the impounding of flood-water so as to prevent
streams from over-flowing their banks and the later utilization

of this stored
water for power development and for increasing
the depth of navigable streams, appeal to
many
people as great
measures of conservation, whereas they are usually good opportunities for the
waste of public funds.
Destructive floods
sel-
INTRODUCTION
dom
occur with sufficient frequency to
make
their water worth
conserving.
Such
floods are
an
evil
that must be passed on

little
back to the sea as expeditiously and with as

for doing
opportunity
damage
as possible.
The quantity of water with Water as a Natural Resource. which mankind is concerned must always remain substantially
the same, but
of.
its
occurrence and
its
distribution over the surface
the earth
is
continually changing.
is
As an
article of use
and
consumption, water
one of those few natural resources the
supply of which remains substantially undiminished because,
through the action of natural laws, water
is
continually per-
forming an ever-recurring cycle of evaporation, condensation
and
precipitation, ad infinitum.
The
earth.
sun's energy vaporizes the water from the surface of the
The vapor thus formed
is
lighter
rise.
than the dry gases of
the atmosphere, and hence tends to

currents, the water vapor
Aided by convection
to place
moves from place
and upward
of expansion
through the
air.
On
rising, it
encounters a rarified atmosphere

for the
and expands.
is
The energy required
work
drawn from the
air itself, resulting in a cooling

falls
and ultimate
to the earth
its
condensation of some of the vapor which

again as rain.
The
precipitated water then starts on
way
back to the ocean.
Some
of
it is
lost
through evaporation and

portion flowing over the
some
is
used by growing plants.
The
earth's surface
and through the rock strata furnishes the water

power and
for transportation.
for consumption, for
The most
its
complete conservation of water can be secured only by

fullest utilization,
for so long as the sun shines, this natural
resource
trol
is
continually being replenished.

of
The
intelligent con-
and conservation
water must be based upon the funda-
mental principles of hydrology.
The Subject Matter

like that
of Hydrology.
sciences,
is
The
field of
hydrology,
of
most other
is
not sharply demarcated.

sciences
The
subject matter
is
largely
drawn from the

In consequence,
upon
to
which hydrology
founded.
it is difficult
determine, in a book of this kind, what material shall be used
and what
shall
be excluded.
In developing the subject the author has followed what from

his viewpoint, acquired
through about
fifteen years of experi-
ence
with
the
practical
problems of hydraulic engineering,
appeared a logical sequence.

tions having direct
Not only the data and
considera-
and frequent application have been included,

hydrology
Subject matter which
but also those facts and principles which are fundamental to a
more detailed study

volume
of
itself.
did not appear to meet either of these requirements

since this
is
was omitted,
not intended to serve as a comprehensive

of the subject of hydrology.
reference
book covering every phase

causes in the natural
Since the sun's heat and the earth's atmosphere are really the
first
phenomena which
Solar radiation
give rise to the
problems of hydraulic engineering, these subjects have been

treated
first,
in
some
detail.
is
the source of
the heat of the earth that causes evaporation and transpiration
and the circulation
of the air
with
its
vapor content.
Unequal
heating of the earth's surface gives
rise
to the great air
move-
ments that largely determine our

droughts.
rainfall,
our floods, and our

sec-
These larger atmospheric movements and the

rise,
ondary circulation to which they give

attendant phenomena, are discussed.
consideration of water in
its
together with the

is
This
followed by a
various states and their properties,
with special emphasis on the characteristics and the effects of

the water vapor of the atmosphere.
The manner
in
which water
is
is
precipitated out of the
air,
how
the precipitation
measured, and
the observed rates of precipitens of thousands of rates
tation are treated quite fully.

of rainfall are
Many
summarized
in
a manner permitting their true

while
still
significance to be readily grasped,
preserving the
original data in sufficient detail to permit of their further analysis,
and the making
of
independent deductions.
severe rainstorms in different parts of the country are

for use in determining channel
The most mapped

Exces-
and spillway
capacities.
INTRODUCTION
eive rates of rainfall are treated in considerable detail
7
and new-
formulas are presented, giving the rates which will be exceeded with average frequencies of once
years.
in
from one to one hundred
The subject of evaporation from water surfaces is next treated. The factors modifying it are discussed and their relative importance is indicated. Some of the best observed data are presented,
both in tabular and
are
in graphical form,
and curves and formulas

Evaporation
suggested
for
is
practical
application.
from
water surfaces
substantially continuous at a uniform rate.

is
Evaporation from land areas

intermittent.
so irregular as to be almost
The amount
of
water evaporated
of evaporation,
from land
areas depends both
upon the rate
and upon the
evaporation opportunity as represented by the available supply

of moisture,
rately.
hence the modifying factors are discussed sepais
Considerable emphasis
laid
upon percolation and
capil-
lary action in different soils
and on the
This
effects of vegetation
is
and
drainage on evaporation losses.

sion of transpiration, its
followed by a discusfactors that modify

it,
amount and the

will
viewed from the standpoint

the
of the effect of transpiration
upon
amount
of precipitation that
find its
way
into the
streams.
of
The
effect of the character of the soil
on the amount
water available for percolation, transpiration, and evaporais
tion in different soils
treated,
and a new method
is
presented
for determining soil moisture in terms of inches of water per
foot depth of soil under field conditions.
Consideration of underground water and

followed by a discussion of runoff.
its
rate of motion
is
This represents the residual
precipitation after evaporation, transpiration,

losses
and deep seepage
have been supplied.
In dealing with the factors that
modify runoff the flow and seepage

flow.
of streams is divided into surface flow
Typical watersheds are studied with a view
to bringing out the extent to which watershed characteristics are reflected in the hydrographs of streams.
rainfall
Floods due to
of floods
and snowfall are analyzed
to
show the cause
8
and the
relative effects of the various flood-producing charac-
teristics of different
watersheds.
The
factors modifying the low-water flow of streams are next
discussed,
and some observed low-water stream-flow data are
presented.
The fundamental
no attempt
is
principles
and
essential facts re-
garding the various methods of obtaining stream-flow data are

discussed, but
made
at a comprehensive treatment
is
of the subject.
For further information the reader
referred
to
Hoyt &
Grover's " River Discharge."
Methods
of supplerainfall
menting stream-flow data by computing runoff from
and other physical data are presented, and

cation of stream flow
finally the modifi-
by storage
is
discussed.
The
cost of storsites,
age, the factors determining the desirability of reservoir

losses
from reservoirs and the storage
of
water for municipal
purposes, for irrigation, logging, navigation, flood prevention
and power purposes are
specifically treated.
Mass curves and

is
frequency curves are explained, with illustrations of the use of

typical curves in water-power studies.
This
followed by a
statement of the extent to which the storage of water for the

various purposes conflict.
Finally,
reference
is
made
to
the
storage of water below ordinary high-water

tions of the country
mark
in those por-
where the law

of the subject
of riparian rights holds.
The arrangement
lowed appeared
matter which has been

it
fol-
logical to the
author and he trusts
may
also
be found convenient and conducive to a clear understanding of

the subject by those
who may have
occasion to use the book.
CHAPTER
II
THE ATMOSPHERE: ITS TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND CIRCULATION

Use.
its
The
in
most important
direct use of the
atmosphere
is
function in providing plants and animals with the carbon
dioxide and the oxygen essential to the chemical reactions of

life,
and
preventing the rapid radiation of heat at night
which would make the earth uninhabitable.

uses of the atmosphere are
its
Minor, indirect
mechanical power to propel
wind
mills
and boats,
to distribute seeds
and to sustain the
flight of birds
and man.
From
the viewpoint of hydrology,

is
perhaps the most important function of the atmosphere
the transportation of water vapor and the absorption of radiant

energy.
Composition.
At
sea-level
elevation
the
atmosphere
is
composed
dioxide,
of substantially 78 per cent of nitrogen, 21 per cent
of oxygen, .9 per cent of argon,
about
.03 per cent of

less
carbon
1
and a greatly varying amount (from

5
than
per
cent
to
per
cent)
of
water vapor, in addition to small
amounts
gases.
of hydrogen,
helium and a few other unimportant

fifty
Above an
altitude of about
miles
the atmos-
phere appears to be composed primarily of hydrogen, which

is
believed to be continually escaping from the earth's atmos-
phere into space.

is
The composition
in Fig.
1,
of the earth's
atmosphere
shown graphically
in the
taken from an
Humphreys,
tory, 1909.
Bulletin of the
article by W. J. Mount Weather Observa-
When
dioxide
is
the percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere drops
below 18^ the candle flame dies out.
The percentage
of carbon
considerably greater over cities than in the country,

9
10
As high
as five to ten times the
particularly in calm weather.
normal proportion
buildings.
of
carbon dioxide has been found in crowded
continuous supply of about 2000 cubic feet of

is
fresh air per hour
required
for
each person in order to
maintain a desirable standard of purity.

Altitude
Pressure
10
mi.JôO
innmm.
in.
^0048-
.00019
.0054 .00021
.0060- .0002}
.0067- .00036
;^^^^'ô^%;;t^:^^jy^^y?^fe;^^
10
,Cai ;bou Dioxide^
N^-?^yiyt^^^^V,y^760 -29.92
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Volume Per cent

Fig.
1.
Distribution of Gases in the Atmosphere
(after
Humphreys).
The
rate of
several gases of the atmosphere exert substantially no
influence over each other except that the dry gases affect the
diffusion
of
water vapor.
each
These gases
exist
purely
as
a mechanical
mixture,
independent of the others;
THE ATMOSPHERE
11
the nitrogen, for example, exists as an atmosphere enveloping the earth exactly as
present.
if
the oxygen and the other gases were not
Considering an average dry atmosphere as having a density

of one,
the density of nitrogen
is
.97,
oxygen
1.11,
in
carbon
dioxide 1.52 and water vapor .62.
Nitrogen occurs
measur-
able quantity to an elevation of about 35 miles above the surface of the earth,
and oxygen to an elevation
of 30
miles.
Carbon dioxide practically disappears at 10
miles,
and water
vapor at 12 miles above the surface of the earth.
We
know,
however, from the appearance of meteors and from the phenom-
enon
of diffraction,
that the atmosphere,

elevation.
even though
rare,
extends to a very
Properties.
much greater The atmosphere
has weight, as manifested by

it
the height of the column of mercury which
supports in the
barometric tube and the height of the column of water which

it
supports below the bucket of a pump;
it is
also highly
comthe
pressible, as manifested
by the action
of the
of the air
pump and
is
inflated rubber ball.
Each gas
atmosphere
compressed
by the weight
is
of the layers of gas above,

all
and consequently
denser at sea level than at
points above that elevation.
If it
were not for changes
in
temperature, the density of the dry

entirely dependent
gases of the atmosphere
would be
upon the
volume
ation.
of each particular gas
above the point under consider-
According to Boyle's law, when the pressure on a given

of gas
is
volume volume
is
doubled, without change in temperature, the

is
of the gas
halved.
When
the temperature of a gas
changed, the volume of the gas, according to Charles' law,

573 for every increase of one degree
increases approximately
in
temperature.
Centigrade.
By means
of
these
two laws
and observed temperatures, the density
of the
dry gases of
the atmosphere at any given elevation can be determined.
The
specific
heat of the dry gases of the atmosphere, measured

is
under the conditions of constant pressure,

water vapor
is
.24,
and that
of
.48 times that of
water
in the liquid state.
12
of
Amount
Water
in the
in
Atmosphere.
The
amount
of
water
vapor present
atmosphere varies greatly from time to
time, but the dry gases do not change materially in quantity
from season to season.

Northwest, no matter
appear, the total
During the winter months,

thoroughly saturated the
of moisture present in the
in
air
the
how
may
amount
atmosphere
represents less than half an inch of rain.
During the summer
months, on the other hand,

of moisture in
rain.
it is
not unusual for the total amount

of
the atmosphere to equal about three inches
The maximum amount

urally,
of
moisture which
could
possibly
is,
be precipitated from the atmosphere at any one time

the
total
nat-
amount
of moisture
which the atmosphere
contains.
As a matter
of fact, however, only that portion of
the moisture which can be precipitated as the result of the
change
in
temperature accompanying the

level
rise
of the
water
vapor to the upper cloud
can
fall
as rain.
This amount,
uniformly distributed, represents about one-tenth inch of rainfall
in
December and
six-tenths inch in June.

restricted area, larger
The only reason why, over a

of
amounts
is
precipitation
than those above mentioned ever occur,

is
because of the fact that part of the rainfall
derived from
moisture present in the atmosphere over adjoining land or
water areas which

the
restricted
is
brought
in
from
all sides,
by the wind,
to
low-pressure
area under which the

rainfall
maximum
precipitation occurs.
areas.
Heavy
is
can occur only over small
General, well-distributed rains are nowhere excessive.

discussed in detail in a later chapter.
This phase of the subject

Distribution
of
Water Vapor.
The
water vapor
is
not
distributed through the atmosphere in accordance with the
laws of Boyle and Charles because of the fact that under

the
ordinary
conditions
of
the
atmosphere
it
exists
as
nearly saturated vapor, which, with relatively small

in
change
temperature and pressure,
will
be condensed and partly

of the
precipitated.
Under natural conditions the other gases
THE ATMOSPHERE
atmosphere never meet with
sufficient increase in pressure,
13
and
decrease in temperature to reach the Hquid or the sohd state.
Hence, the distribution of water vapor through the atmosphere

is
determined primarily by temperature.
As the amount
of water
its
vapor present
in the
atmosphere
is
dependent mainly upon
temperature, the subject of temper-
ature will be considered before the distribution of water vapor

in the
atmosphere
is
further discussed.
It
may
be remarked at
this point,
however, that about half of the total moisture presis
ent in the atmosphere
found below an elevation of about

it
6000
feet,
and
less
than one tenth of
occurs above an elevation
of 20,000 feet.
Temperature
Source of All Heat.
science of hydrology
of the air,
is
The
the
temperatures with which the
primarily concerned are the temperatures

soil.
the water and
Changes
in
temperature
merely represent changes
in the great velocity
with which the
molecules constituting the various gases, or liquids, or solids are
moving back and forth over

cause of
all
their
minute paths.
is
The ultimate
Radiant energy
changes in temperature
the sun.
reaches us from the sun in the form of waves having various

lengths, but even the longest are inconceivably short.
These
waves travel at the rate of 186,000 miles per second.

tion of the radiant energy from the sun
is
por-
absorbed by the
it.
atmosphere during the passage of the sun's rays through
The radiant energy

of
so absorbed increases the rate of vibration
the molecules of the gases of the atmosphere
that
raises
is,
increases its temperature.
The
portion of the energy which
reaches the earth's surface accelerates the motion of the mole'cules of water, soil
and other material, and hence
the
temperature of those objects.
The
surface of the earth, in turn,
radiates heat outward, thus again increasing the temperature

of the air
above
it.
The heat absorbed by water
areas of given depth for a given
14
rise in
temperature
is
about four times the amount absorbed

to equal depths for the
by equal land areas and

temperature.
ing
same
will
rise in
Various
soils also exhibit different
heat absorb-
and
reflecting properties.
Sand, for example,
absorb
a half
about twice as
times as
much
heat as
humus and about one and
much
as clay.
On
the other hand, during the night,

little
humus
will
quickly radiate into the atmosphere even the
heat absorbed during the day, making highly vegetable

essentially cold soils,
soils
and sandy
soils
essentially
warm
ones.
Effect
of
Water Vapor on Solar Radiation.

absorbed during
The
water
of the
vapor
in the
atmosphere virtually governs the portion

is
solar energy which
its
passage to the earth.
This
is
due to the great changes

its
in the
water vapor content

Just twice as
of the atmosphere and
high specific heat.
much
heat energy
is
required to raise a given weight of water

as
is
vapor one degree
in temperature,
required to raise the
same weight
the
of dry air
an equal amount.
To
raise the
tem-
perature of liquid water one degree requires substantially twice
amount
of heat
energy required to raise the same weight
of water
vapor an equal amount.

of water
The presence
vapor
in the
atmosphere also mateis
rially influences the rate at
which heat
radiated back into
space by the earth during the night time.
Clear nights are rela-
tively cold nights; cloudy nights are invariably
warmer than
they would be
if
the moisture in the atmosphere did not prevent
the rapid radiation of heat from the earth's surface.
The amount
mainly because
of
of solar radiation or insolation received at the
surface of the earth varies greatly with the altitude of the sun,
of the difference in the thickness of the layer travel.
atmosphere through which the rays of the sun must

sunrise, for example, the sun's rays travel
At
through approxi-*
mately 35 times the thickness of atmosphere traveled through

at noon on a
summer
day.
For
this reason
the
amount
of
solar radiation received
by the
surface of the earth varies greatly
with altitude, and also with latitude.
THE ATMOSPHERE
It
15
fires
has also been observed that extensive forest

dust which
is
and
vol-
canic eruptions, through the
emitted into the
atmosphere, substantially reduce, for such considerable periods

of
in
time as a year, even, the amount of solar radiation received
some
localities.
Measurement
and
its
of
Solar Radiation.
The
little
glass
globe
revolving black and white vanes, frequently seen in

is
opticians' windows,
a familiar object to
all.
This principle
its
of the absorption of heat
by black objects and
reflection
by white objects
is
utilized in the construction of pyrheliometers,
instruments
mometer
used for the measurement of solar radiation.
Pyrheliometers consist, essentially, of black and bright bulb
thermometers placed
registers
in
a vacuum.
In general, the black ther-
from 30 to 60 degrees higher than the bright

tops in the bright sunshine, the
thermometer.
On mountain
The
It
temperature of the black bulb thermometer has reached over
230 degrees.
solar radiation
temperatures in the Polar
regions are surprisingly high, largely on account of the absence

of
water vapor.
has been found, for example, that in the
Arctic region, with the altitude of the sun at only about 30

degrees, the
mean black bulb temperature

Fahrenheit,
less
in
June was only about
14 degrees,
than that at Madras, with an
almost vertical sun.
Amount
of
Solar
Radiation
Received.
The
1.2
amount
of
solar radiation received
on a clear summer day on each square

horsepower.
yard of the earth's surface represents about

Fig. 2,
reproduced from the August, 1914, Monthly Weather

is
Review,
a graph of the solar radiation received at

Virginia,
Mount
Weather Observatory,
8,
Latitude 39 4' N., on

in this
May
1913.
Two
curves are shown
diagram.
The upper
curve shows the total amount of solar radiation received from
hour to hour, and the lower curve shows the amount of sky
radiation received at the
same
time.
By sky
radiation
the energy radiated from the sky as recorded

eter
is meant by the pyrheliom-
when completely
shielded from the direct rays of the sun.
16
of solar radiation received at the surface of the
is
The amount
of
earth during the varying seasons and in various locaHties
tremendous importance
in the science of
hydrology because
THE ATMOSPHERE
a normal surface
June.
is
17
in
substantially the
same
December
as in
The
is
intensity of the sun's rays on a clear
December
rela-
morning
a matter of
common
observation.
Fig. 4, prepared
from data given by Moore,* shows the
tive total annual
amount
of solar radiation received at the outer
atmosphere
in various latitudes,
and the portion which reaches

the
earth's
surface,
together
with the portion absorbed by

the earth's atmosphere.
It
will
be noted
of
that while
the
amount
heat and light

40-
received
from the sun at the

is
60"
outer atmosphere
only about
Fig.
4.
Latitude
2| times as great at the equator

as at
lar
Relative Total Annual SoRadiation Reaching Earth.
the
poles,
the
amount
is
actually reaching the earth's surface in the equatorial regions
6 times as great.
Fig. 5
shows the relative
total
monthly radiation as calculated

assuming
on an average, 40 per cent
is
by Angot
to reach the earth at the various latitudes,

that,
of
the daily radiation
ab-
sorbed.
As a matter
is
of fact
considerably more
absorbed,
but on account of the varying

degree of cloudiness the true
total average absorption
by the
of de-
atmosphere
termination.
is
difficult
The reason
growth
the short
one's
for
the
rapid
of all vegetation during

is
summers
of the
middle latitudes
forcibly brought to
attention
by the preceding diagrams.

is,
The amount
of
water used by plants

*
in general, proportional to their growth.

L., Descriptive
Moore,
W.
Meteorology.
18
plants
is
The water used by

flow.
not available as a runoff; conse-
quently solar radiation becomes a factor influencing stream
This phase of the subject
will
be further discussed in a
later chapter.
The
following table
shows the aggregate number

at the
of hours
of daylight, twilight
and night
equator and at the poles.
At the equator
THE ATMOSPHERE
occurs
in
10
best
the morning.
This
is
the
period
suited
for
astronomical observations and accurate survey work.
During;
these periods objects appear steady in the object glass of the

telescope, as
is
well
known
to
all
surveyors.
is
The unsteadiness
particularly
of objects during the daylight hours
caused mainly by the
unequal refraction of
light.
Snow always has a

data
the
for
bad
efTect.
Temperature
States,
Data.
Temperature
in
the
United
which are of great service
field
of hydrology,
are collected and published by the
Weather Bureau of the Depart-
ment
of Agriculture.
Observations are
made
at a total
of
nearly 6000 stations.
Only about 200
of these, however, are

full set of
paid observer stations, equipped with a
instruments
and at which
are observed.
all
the principal
phenomena
relating to the weather as "cooperative
About 4200 stations are known
oi>server stations," at
tion except in the
which the observer receives no compensa-
form of certain publications of the Weather

stations
Bureau.
The remaining
river
are
special
paid
stations
at which only certain observations are
conditions,
stages,
cord only rainfall
made relating to crop The cooperative observers reand maximum and minimum teniperature,
etc.
and make notes regarding the general condition

shows a typical cooperative observer station.
ters are located in the shelter
of
wind and
Fig. G
weather, early and late frosts, appearance of aurora, etc.
The thermomeis
and the
rain gage
at the right.
Thermometers.
The
maximum thermometer
the
used by the
Weather Bureau
and bulb.
that
consists of a long graduated
mercury tube
constricted so
its
Just above
bulb the tube

after
is
when the mercury contracts

height, the
having reached
maximum
column breaks at the constricted
.section,
leaving the upper portion registering the
within a few tenths of a degree.

subject
sooner,
to
slight
maximum temperature When the thermometer is

the
jarring
registers
or
vibration,
column breaks
it is
and hence
more accurately, than when
kept perfectly quiet.
20
Fig.
6.
Typical Cooperative Observer Station.
THE ATMOSPHERE
The minimum thermometer
hol contracts,
is is
21
with alcohol.
In the
filled
is
tube of the thermometer an index

carried
floated which, as the alco-
downward by the
surface tension of
its
the liquid.
When
the alcohol expands after having reached
minimum
up with
temperature, the liquid does not carry the index

it.
The accuracy
of
such a thermometer
is
about
half a degree.
Both maximum and minimum thermometers

desired, a reof Fig. 7,
are kept in a nearly horizontal position.
Where
is
a continuous record of temperature
is
cording thermometer, such as the

used.
"Thermograph"
Fig.
7.
Thermograph.
air
Daily
Mean.
The
maximum
temperature
air
usually
occurs soon after noonday, and the

usually occurs just before sunrise.
minimum
It
temperature
has been found that,

the
to
on an average, the mean of the
maximum and
is
minimum
.5
temperatures in any 24-hour period

less
about
.4
degrees
of the
than the true mean daily temperature.

readings
the 8
is
The mean
p.m.
9 A.M. and the 9 p.m.

low.
also
about half a degree

8
The mean
of
a.m.
and
readings
is
22
about
.2
or
.3
of a degree low.
One
fourth of the
sum
of the
is
7 A.M. plus the 2 P.M. plus twice the 9 p.m. temperatures
almost exactly equal to the true mean daily temperature.

single day's observations, of course,
A.M.
4
may
depart considerably
M.
10 13
4
P.M.
6
from the above expressed

8
10
13
I'lt.Oo'ngeii
mean
daily
relationship.
Daily
Variation.
The
In-
temperature changes
on the earth's surface vary

>io
greatly with latitude.
asmuch
H
Fig
as the
sun shines
for 12 hours at the equator
and then disappears

hours,
it
is
for 12
evident
that
the daily changes in tem-
THE ATMOSPHERE
23
24
THE ATMOSPHERE
25
26
trated
by
Fig. 13,
reproduced from Sir John Moore's "Meteoris
ology."
This figure
a graph of the reduction in temperature

sent
recorded by
" sounding balloons "
up
to high altitudes.
20
Temperature
330 240
In
Degrees Fahrenheit
250 260
270
Temperature Absolute
Fig. 13.
Relation
between Temperature and Altitude as determined by " Ballons-Sondes " (after Moore).
is
After an elevation of about seven miles

noted, there
is
reached,
it
will
be
no further reduction
in
temperature.
Below
that elevation the average slope of the lines in Fig. 13 indi-
THE ATMOSPHERE
cates
27
an average reduction
in
temperature of one degree in

This reduction
in
300
feet,
as previously stated.
temperature
has a tremendous influence on the condensation and precipitation of water.

will
Water vapor moving upward a given distance

a*
encounter
it
very
much
greater change in
temperature
than
could ever encounter in moving the same distance
horizontally along the surface of the earth.
This phase of the
subject will be further discussed in connection with rainfall.
Extending Short-term Records.

of
Inasmuch
as observations
temperature have been made for varying periods of time at
the different Weather Bureau stations in the United States,

it is
frequently necessary to supplement and extend shortfor the
term records
purpose of securing a satisfactory com-
parison between prevailing temperatures at two given stations.
similar need for the extension of short-term records exists

to prepare
maps showing lines of equal temperature, or isotherms. Under such circumstances, instead of using the mean of a varying number of years' records, it is best to compare the mean temperature at the short-term station with the mean temperature for the same period of years at
when attempting
the nearest, similarly located, long-term station, and then to
assume that the same relationship would

long-term means at these two stations.
of periodic changes in
exist
between the
the effect
In this
way
temperature
is
eliminated, as the short-
term mean might cover a
series of either
warm
or cold years.
Pressure of the Atmosphere
Amount and
Variation with Altitude.
The force of gravity

level.
acting on the molecules of the various gases of the air causes
the atmosphere to exert a pressure on the surface of the earth,
averaging substantially 14.7 pounds per square inch at sea
This pressure
is
equal to the pressure of a water column 33.8
feet high, or a
mercury column 29.9 inches high.

is
The
of a
usual
way
of
of
measuring barometric pressure

in
by means
column
mercury
a mercurial barometer, although the aneroid
28
The
pressure of the atmos-
barometer serves a similar purpose.
phere diminishes with altitude approximately in accordance
with the following simple equation, which serves every ordinary

engineering purpose.
altitude in
Log barometric
-280
'
pres. in ins.
mercury
=
-
1.47712
Degrees F.
-20
1
ft.
64,000
Temperature
-100
I
-260 -240 -220 -200 -180 -160 -140 -120

I 1 J I
-80
I
-60
I
-40
I
20
I
40
J
60
)
80
I
Absolute Temperature
100
120
140
160 180
Degrees C.
240 260
200
220
280
300
THE ATMOSPHERE
Table
1
29
gives the
pressure of the atmosphere at various

level,
elevations above and below sea

different
according to several
measures having
common
application.
High- and Low-pressure Areas.

upward, causing some of the
Local heating of portions of

upper layers to flow
with a consequent
area,
the earth's surface results in an expansion of the atmosphere

air in the
outward and away from the heated
reduction in barometric pressure over that area.
During the
summer months
and a region
there
is
a permanent region of low barometric
pressure over northwestern United States
and Western Canada,

Ocean
to the west.
of high pressure over the Pacific

is
During the winter months the condition

tions in temperature, the land area being
reversed.
result in
These
permanent regions of high and low pressure
from varia-
warmer
summer and
cooler in winter.
Usually, as soon as the difference in pressure
between a low- and a high-pressure area becomes greater than

about one half an inch of mercury, a well-defined easterly
cyclonic
movement
sets in.
While these storm centers travel
over different routes, most of them find their

the St. Lawrence valley.
way out through
Daily Variation in
irregular variations
Pressure.
Aside
from the large and

baromet-
due to the passage
of storms, the
30
ric
pressure has been found to vary in semi-diurnal waves,
as
shown
in Fig.
15 based on data given
by Hann
reaching
the principal
the principal
maximum
at about 10 o'clock in the forenoon,
and
minimum at about 4 o'clock in the afternoon. The secondary maximum occurs shortly before midnight, and
A.M.
M.
8 10
12
P.M.
2
12
10
12
g+i.oo
THE ATMOSPHERE
wave form
pressure
as
31
of
shown
in Fig. 19.*
Above an elevation
about
2500 meters or one and one half miles both temperature and
remain substantially constant throughout the day.

is
This fact
well
shown by
4 G
Figs. 19
and 20.*
oi.m.2
32
1875
1880
1885-
Fig. 18.
Variations in
Solar and Terrestrial
Phenomena
(after Bigelow).
THE ATMOSPHERE
33
Fig. 19.
Diurnal
Temperature
Wave
changing to Semi-diurnal
Wave
at
Altitude of about 400 meters, and vanishing at Altitude of about 2500
meters (after Bigelow).
Fig. 20.
Semi-diurnal Pressure Wave vanishing at

meters (after Bigelow).
Altitude of about 2500
34
Circulation of the
Atmosphere
Wind
Pressure.
Winds
are important
phenomena
to the
engineer, both from the viewpoint of the pressures produced on
structures
and
of the excessive rates of rainfall
made
possible
only through the circulation of the atmosphere.

Until the failure of the great steel bridge across the River Tay,
in England,
in structures
on December 28, 1879, the subject of wind stresses
had received
little
attention.
Today the engineer
who
neglected at least to consider the possible effect of wind
pressures in the design of a structure would be remiss in his duty.
The values
to
assume
for
wind pressures and the determination

is
of the resulting stresses,
however,
no simple matter.
foot,
The wind
surface,
is
pressure, in
pounds per square
on a normal
approximately equal to .004 times the square of the

in miles per hour,
wind velocity
in
times the barometric pressure

30.
inches mercury, divided
by
pressure of 50
lb.
per
square foot, for example, under normal barometric pressure,

represents a wind velocity of about 112 miles per hour; 30
lb.
per square foot represents a wind velocity of about 86 miles per

hour.
These wind pressures represent th6 highest pressures to

" Twisters "
it is
be expected during " straight blows."
torna-
does produce wind pressures against which

to design.
impracticable
Wind
velocities in tornadoes
have been estimated

barometric
at 300 to 500 miles per hour, with wind pressures of about 300
lb.
per square
foot.
The sudden reductions
in
pressure in
a tornado cause great outward pressures on closed
buildmgs, resulting in the blowing open of doors and windows,
and other manifestations
of explosive action.
* gives
The
following table
by Moore
the
common name and
significant facts
*
regardmg various wind

W.
L.,
velocities:
Moore,
Descriptive Meteorology, 19n.
THE ATMOSPHERE
Name
35
36
in
downward, resulting
belts are
low humidity and light
rainfall.
These
known
as the calms of Cancer
and
of Capricorn.
From
latitudes 30 degrees
toward the
poles, covering
most
of
the temperate and more densely populated portions of the earth's

surface, there
is
the region of the prevailing westerlies, domi-
nated by areas of low and high barometric pressure resulting
from the unequal heating of the land and water masses.
These
low- and high-pressure areas follow each other across the continent at average velocities of 25 to 30 miles per hour, or 600
to 700 miles per day.
The winds accompanying
these cyclonic
movements
are the
only permanent winds with which we, in the United States, are
concerned.
Ball Bearings
pecial Brass Coupling
They
are the winds
that determine our weather, our

rainfall,
our
floods
and
our
droughts.
Pipe 2 3 long
Periodic Winds.
In
addition
\ IK
PiP C-jupling
to the permanent general circulation
above discussed, there are

winds which are
importance over
c
Iron Step
2* Pipe 12'0'long
rtain periodic
of considerable
Contact Box
Contacts
restricted
areas.
Among
and
these
Hole for Cable'
Iron Step
are the monsoons, land and sea

breezes,
mountain
valley
2'Pipe i
long
breezes.
'Iron Step
Non-periodic.
'Shoes for
Bolts
- In
the region
cy-
of the prevailing
/^Quy Rods
(3)
^êsterlies,
clones
and anti-cyclones are oc-
FiG.
21.
Wind
Vane and Ane- casionally accompanied by high

winds, such as the hurricane of
mometer.
the
West
Indies,
the typhoon, the fohn, chinooks, bhzzards
and tornadoes.
Anemometers.
States
Wind
velocity
is
measured by the United
Weather Bureau, mainly by Robinson cup anemometers,

These instruments are so placed as to
illustrated in Fig. 21.
THE ATMOSPHERE
37
8 7
6 5
11
10
9
38
record approximately the wind velocity at an elevation of about
30 feet above the general level of the surrounding country.
Mean Wind
the monthly
parts
of
Velocities in the United States.
Fig.
22 gives
mean wind
velocity at typical stations in various
the United
States.
In the Northwest the highest
average wind velocity occurs in the spring, at a time when the
temperature
is rising.
This results in very high rates of evapo-
ration immediately preceding and during the spring break-up,
and accounts,
in a measure, for the disappearance of the winter
snowfall and the freedom from extreme floods experienced
by
the Northwestern States at times

favorable for high water.
when
all
other conditions are
CHAPTER
III
WATER: ITS VARIOUS STATES AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Composition.
Water
is
in
the chemically pure state of the
composition
H2O
not found in nature.
As
it
occurs on the
or less organic
surface of the earth, water always contains
more
and inorganic material
in solution
and suspension.
The im-
portance to be attached to the impurities contained in water
depends upon the contemplated use of the water.

sirable for domestic purposes, water
To be
de-
must be
of a high standard
of purity, not only as to chemical constituents, vegetable
and
animal matter carried, but also as to odor, color and

be desirable for steam making, condensing and
taste.
To
allied purposes,
water should be reasonably free from sediment and incrustating

materials.
To be
useful for
power and navigation purposes,
water
may
be of almost any degree of impurity, although the
water of streams having their source in glaciers sediment to an extent sufficient to
may
contain
make
it
unfit even for use in
water-power development.
often be
sive
In high-head projects provision must
made
for screening
and sedimentation to prevent exces-
wear on the water-wheels.
Physical Properties.
cal
Perhaps the one most important physiis its
property of water
expansion upon freezing.
Water
inis
creases in density until a temperature of 39.2 F. or 4 C.
reached, after which
it
slowly expands
until at 32 F. or 0
upon
solidifying,
it
expands about 10 per cent.

i.e.,
After solidifica-
tion, It again contracts,
increases in density, with decrease
in temperature.
The
shown
effect of
temperature and pressure on the state of water
is
in Fig. 23,
39
40
30
25
gso
Sl5
10
WATER
water a turbid appearance.
Frazil forms
41
most
freely in flowing
It
water on cold, cloudy days with an upstream wind. forms
never
under
ice
cover,
but the crystals are carried
under
the ice covering the quieter water, adhere to the sheet of ice
above and accumulate at times

obstructed.
until
the entire channel
is
Anchor
Ice.
On cold clear nights, when the radiation of heat

of the earth
is
from the surface
very rapid,
ice needles
known
as
" anchor ice," closely resembling frazil in appearance, form, particularly
on dark-colored objects, on the beds of rather shallow,

of water.
open bodies
Crystals of frazil floating in the water
become entangled
in the
anchor
ice
formed on the bed
of the
stream and help to build up the mass.
During the daytime the

it
heat of the sun detaches anchor ice and brings
to the surface
ice
where
it
floats
away, usually to
become lodged under the
cover of quieter water.
Anchor
ice,
and
particularly- frazil, often seriously obstruct
canals and penstocks and require careful consideration in the
design of works for the utilization of water in cold climates.

Elasticity.
The
lb.
modulus
of elasticity of water
yîr
is
approxi-
mately 295,000
per square inch or
that of
steel,
and
it
transmits sound and stress at the rate of substantially 4700 feet

per second as against a rate of transmission of 1050 feet per
second for
air at 0 F.
Weight.
cubic foot.
The weight of pure water at 39.2 F.

and the water
of the
is
62.4 lb. per
At boiling temperatures, the weight has decreased

Mineral spring waters weigh as high
to 59.7 lb. per cubic foot.
as 62.7 lb.; sea water 64 lb.;
Dead Sea and
Great Salt Lake, Utah, weighs as
much
as 73 lb. per cubic foot.
For ordinary computations, the weight of fresh surface waters
may
be taken as 62.5
lb.
per cubic foot.
This
it
is
substantially
correct
and
is
often a convenient figure because
represents just
1000 ounces avoirdupois.
Steam.
At temperatures of
100 C. or 212 F. under stand-
ard atmospheric pressure, water, upon the application of sufl&cient
42
from the Hquid to the gaseous state known as
heat, passes freely
steam, with an increase in volume of 1658 times.

Specific Heat.
To raise the temperature of

lb.
gram
of water
1 C. requires the application of

larly,
1
one calorie unit of heat.
Simi-
to raise
of water 1 F. requires the apphcation .of
British thermal unit (B.t.u.) of heat.
In other words, the heat
required to raise the temperature of a unit volume of water

1
degree
is
really the
measure
of these heat units.
The heat required

of
to raise the temperature of a given weight
water
degree would raise the temperature of the same weight
of ice 2 degrees, of brick, or stone,

steel,
about 5 degrees, and of iron or
about 9 degrees.
of
The tremendous capacity

graphically
giooo
water for storing heat energy
is
shown
in Fig. 24.
900
1^
800
700
i
200
100
a)
WATER
The Vapor
Characteristics of
of
43
Condensation
Water and
Its
Water Vapor.
Water in the gaseous state

air
has a specific gravity of .022 as compared with dry
and con-
forms approximately, though not exactly, to Boyle's law, which

states that
if
the temperature of a gas

its
is
kept constant, the prod-
uct of
its
pressure times
volume
also remains constant.
Water
vapor also roughly obeys Charles' or Gay-Lussac's law, which

states that
if
the volume of a gas
is
kept constant, the pressure

its
which
it
exerts against the walls of
container decreases
in
direct proportion to the
change in temperature measured from

i.e.,
what
is
known
as " absolute zero,"
a temperature of 273 deall
grees below zero. Centigrade, at which
molecular motion
is
believed to cease.
As water does not turn
freely into the gaseous
state at temperatures below 100
C, under normal barometric

air,
pressure, whereas the other gases of the atmosphere vaporize

freely at temperatures far
it
below those of the coldest outside
might be expected that the nearly saturated vapor

its
of water
would, in
behavior,
deviate
somewhat from Boyle's and
Charles' laws.
Vapor Pressure.
visible,
If
a drop of water, so small as to be scarcely
were introduced into the vacuum over the mercury of a

of,
barometer at a temperature
into vapor
say, 80 F., the water
would turn
and depress the mercury column about
1 inch.
The
further addition of small globules of water would not result in

further vaporization or further depression of the mercury column
except for the scarcely perceptible volume of the liquid added.
Now, the
yet
it
actual weight of the added globule of water was negli-
gible, especially
when compared with a liquid
13.6 times as heavy,

i.e.,
depressed the column of mercury about an inch,
it
exerted a pressure on the top of the mercury column equal to a
depth of over
foot of water.
is
This pressure which the water
in its gaseous state exerts
variously called " vapor pressure,"
" vapor tension," " elastic pressure " and " gaseous pressure."
It is the
same kind
of pressure as that exerted
by steam
in the
44
This vapor pressure or gaseous pressure
cylinders of an engine.
is
a function of the temperature.

If,
now, the temperature of the water on top of the mercury
is
raised to 100 F.,

will
more
of the water will vaporize

If
and the merthe tempera-
cury column
ture
is
be depressed about 2 inches.
raised to 150 F. the

if
mercury column
is
will
be depressed
about 7.5 inches and
the temperature
raised to slightly above

full
212 F. the mercury column will be depressed *the

i.e.,
30 inches,
the vapor pressure of the water will be exactly equal to the
pressure of the atmosphere and the liquid will " boil "
freely
If,
vaporize
we
in-
until
it
has
all
changed
its state.
instead of heating the water over the mercury column,

lifted the
had
barometer tube partly out
of its
cup so as to
crease the space above the
column
of
mercury, some water would
have vaporized, but the
height of the
mercury column above the
surface of the mercury in the cup would have remained the same,
until saturation.
Distribution of
Water Vapor.
In the free air of the earth the

its
water vapor exists in an almost saturated form, and

tribution
currents.
is
dis-
dependent mainly upon temperature and convection

elastic pressure of
The
water vapor
is
a reasonably
it
accurate measure of the weight of a unit volume of vapor, but

is
not,
by any means, a measure
of the weight,
on a unit area, of
the entire column of vapor above that area.
Relation of Vapor Pressure to Weight of Vapor.
If
water
in
vapor followed Boyle's
law exactly, the weight of vapor
a given volume would be directly proportional to the elastic

pressure exerted
by the vapor
*
at the
same temperature.
Ac-
cording to Marvin:
iTLT
Weight
-i,
01
vapor
percu.
ft.
in inches mercury ^ pressure t?'''-'""'' m grams ("vapor rr '" = 11.7449 + .002037 degrees F. 32)/;

,
-.
'
'V
* Marvin, C. F., Professor "Psychrometric Tables," 1912.
of
Meteorology, U.
S.
Weather Bureau,
in
WATER
45
Table 2 gives the weight of a cubic foot of water vapor at

different temperatures
and percentages
of saturation.
Change
in
Vapor Pressure with Temperature.

in
Table
gives the elastic pressure,
inches mercury,
as determined
experimentally by Regnault and Marvin, of saturated vapor at

various temperatures.
tially
Values below 32 degrees
differ
substan-
from those given by Broch.

identical.
Above 32
degrees, Broch's
and Marvin's values are
46
TABLE 2. WEIGHT OF A CUBIC FOOT OFj AQUEOUS VAPOR AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES AND PERCENTAGES OF SATURATION
(U. S.
Temp.,
Weather Bureau)
WATER
47
TABLE 2. WEIGHT OF A CUBIC FOOT OF AQUEOUS VAPOR AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES AND PERCENTAGES OF SATURATION. Continued
(U. S.
Temp.,
Weather Bureau)
48
TABLE
3.
ELASTIC PRESSURE OF SATURATED WATER VAPOR AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES

(U. S.
Weather Bureau)
Air
WATER
At
0 F. the vapor pressure
is
49
doubled for an increase of 13
degrees in temperature.
crease of 19 degrees,
is
At 50 degrees it is doubled for an inand at 100 F., the maximum vapor pressure
'doubled for an increase of 23 degrees in temperature.

open-air
At
ordinary
tempera-
tures, then,
the elastic pres-
sure of saturated water vapor

is
substantially doubled
for
every 20 F. increase in temperature.
The amount
in
of
water vapor
the
atmosphere
may
be
determined directly with some
form
of
dew-point apparatus,
or indirectly
by means
of wet-
and dry-bulb thermometers,

or
by means
of
substances
etc.,
such as hair, wool,
which
are sensitive to moisture.
Dew-point Hygrometers.
All direct
hygrometers
utilize
Fig. 25.
the principle that at a given
Typical
Dew-point Ap-
paratus.
temperature and pressure only

a certain definite
space,
amount
of
water vapor can occupy a given

is
and that as soon as the space

be deposited.
saturated with moisture,
dew
will
Fig.
25 shows a typical dew-point apparatus.
It
consists
essentially of:
a.
thin polished silver cup, cemented

of a glass tube,
upon the lower end
and
filled
with some volatile liquid, such
as sulphuric ether.
b.
long tube joined to a rubber aspirator and extending
through the stopper
in the
upper end of the glass tube

liquid.
to below the surface of the volatile

c.
tube extending a short distance through the stopper,
50
and serving to carry
apparatus.
d.
off
the fumes generated in the
dehcate thermometer extending through the stopper

in the glass tube,
liquid.
and having
its
bulb immersed
in the
By means
causing
it
of the aspirator, air is forced
through the tube
(b)
to bubble up through the ether, vaporizing some of the
ether, and, consequently, cooling the silver cup.

air
The
outside
coming
in contact with the silver
cup
is
is
cooled to the same
temperature.
When
this
temperature
is
sufficiently
low so that
the vapor in the outside air

tion,
condensed to the point of satura-
dew
is
deposited on the outside of the silver cup.
The
maximum vapor
at which
pressure which corresponds to the temperature
dew
will just deposit
on the
silver cup, represents the
actual vapor pressure in the air at the time.

refrain
The observer must

air
from breathing on the apparatus, but the
may
ad-
vantageously be given a very gentle motion by light fanning.

Indirect hygrometers consist of wetters,
and dry-bulb thermomewhich are sensitive do not give very
and
of instruments
depending for their action on substances

salts,
such as hair, wool and certain mineral

to moisture.
Hygrometers
of the latter class
accurate results, and need frequent comparison with wet- and
dry-bulb hygrometers to
make
their readings of
much
value.
Good hair hygrometers are the best instruments in this class. Wet- and Dry-bulb Hygrometers. Indirect hygrometers,
or
psychrometers, utilizing wet- and dry-bulb thermometers in the
determination of vapor pressure, depend upon the principle that
evaporation results in cooling.
The wet-bulb thermometer

is
is
wrapped with a
silk or
muslin wick, one end of which

air
immersed
in distilled water.
When
containing unsaturated vapor flows

it
past the moist wick surrounding the wet-bulb thermometer,
absorbs some of the water in vapor form.

of the
The transformation
and
water from the liquid to the vaporous state consumes heat,
resulting in a reduction in the temperature of the moist wick,

its
enclosed thermometer.
WATER
By comparison
51
of the depression of the temperature of the
wet-bulb thermometer for given readings of the dry-bulb ther-
mometer and a given barometric

of a
pressure,
with simultaneous
determinations of the temperature of the dew-point, by means
dew-point apparatus, and a consideration of the funda-
mental principles underlying the action of the wet- and dry-bulb

thermometers, formulas have been derived and tables prepared
from which the relative humidity, or the vapor pressure,

I'ead directly for
may
be
a given depression of the wet-bulb thermometer

of the dry-bulb
and a given reading
thermometer.
Fin. 26.
Sling and Whirling Psychrometers.
Stationary wet- and dry-bulb thermometers are frequentlj'
used indoors but do not give accurate results unless vigorously
fanned before reading.
Sling or whirling psychrometers
are
regularly used outdoors in the shelters at the telegraphic reporting stations of the United States
Weather Bureau
at which
52
WATER
53
twice-a-day determinations of relative humidity are regularly
made.
Humidity.
chrometers.
Fig.
The
the
''
26 shows typical sling and whirling psy-
ratio of the actual
vapor pressure to the maxi-
mum
pressure of saturated vapor at the given air temperature

relative
constitutes
humidity."
is
The
actual
weight of
water vapor per unit of volume

lute humidity."
usually designated the " abso-
Both
relative
and absolute humidity show considerable variaand

in different localities,
tion with the seasons
depending
pri-
marily upon the temperature and the moisture supply.
The
about
average relative humidity for the entire earth's surface
is
80 per cent.
States
is
The mean annual relative humidity

in Fig. 27.
in the
is
United
shown
High
relative
humidity
found along
the seashore, and low relative humidity in the region east of the
Rocky Mountains.
Changes
in
relative
humidity with season are graphically

In general, the higher the temperature
shown
in the
in Figs.
28 and 29.
the lower the relative humidity, because of a prevailing deficiency
supply of moisture.
Figs. 30 to 38
show typical daily changes

an-d actual
in air in
temperature,
relative
humidity
vapor pressure
zone.
Minnesota, in
California
and
in the
Panama Canal
synopsis of weather conditions accompanies the graphs to
permit of an intelligent study and interpretation of the data.
Knowing
the actual vapor pressure, the temperature of the
dew-point can be readily determined.

considerable importance, because
it is
This temperature
is
of
substantially the limit to
which the temperature of the night

fact that the heat liberated
air
may
fall,
because of the
when dew
is
deposited tends to pre-
vent the temperature from falling below that of the dew-point.

Fig. 14, p. 28, gives a typical graph of the variation in relative
humidity with altitude up to an elevation of 10 miles.

Density of Air.
previously stated,
The
is
total weight of the air at sea level, as
equivalent to the weight of 29.9 inches of
54
on
WATER
mercury or 33.8
feet of water.
55
of a unit
The weight
is
volume
of
air at sea level elevation
and 0 C.
If
.00129278 times the weight
of an equal volume of water.
the entire atmosphere, then,
were of the same density as the
air at sea level, the total
depth
56
of
uniform density, the reduction in pressure would be in direct
In the atmosphere of the
proportion to the increase in altitude.
earth the reduction in pressure becomes continually less for every
succeeding uniform increase in altitude.

in Fig. 14, p. 28.
This fact
is
illustrated
O 3
Synopsis of Weather
1
>
o
ffi
42 "3
g
10
TEMPERATURE, RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND ACTUAL VAPOR PRESSURE AT MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA.

Augusts,
1916.
Higb barometrio
pressure. Northerly
winds shifting to southeasterly and increasing to 18 miles per hour. 50 per cent possible sunshine. Previous day
cloudy with
.12
inches rain.
12
10
12
Noon
Fig. 30.
P.M.
Specific
Heat
of Air.
Whenever a unit volume of dry air

its
is
permitted to expand under constant pressure, while being heated,

.2375 unit of heat
little
is
is
required to raise
temperature
1 C.
more than one quarter

in the
(.2867) of the heat energy applied
expended
work
of expansion,
and the remainder (.7133

air.
or .1694 heat units) goes to heat the

air is
If
is
the volume of the
kept constant, only .1694 unit of heat
required to produce
figure
is
the same increase in temperature.
The former
known
latter,
as the specific heat of dry air at constant pressure,

as the specific heat at constant volume.
and the
WATER
57
so
a
h
ft,
ft
50
58
04
P50
^1
si
as
20
B30
WATER
100
59
90
S u
3
80
"55
-5
7(1
a O
g
fa
a,
S60
50
ix,p
40
60
AIR
&% a
i)3o
TEMPERATURE, RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND ACTUAL VAPOR PRESSURE

AT
ANCON CANAL ZONE WET SEASON

-<
H
10
Data from "The Panama Canal" by General Geroge W. Goethals

1916
12
10
A.M.
Noon
Fig. 37.
P.M.
100
90
80
o 60 g a J, o
t.
(iH
30
> O _ i S20
t
S a
WATER
Dynamic
air,
61
is
Cooling.
is
If,
now, no heat
communicated
air will
to the
and the pressure

its
reduced jj^ part, the
expand fj^
part of
will
volume, and the heat used in the work of expansion

air itself, resulting in a cooling of .2867
it
be drawn from the
degree.
To
cool dry air 1 C.

its
must be permitted to expand
777^^ part of
volume.
In a homogeneous atmosphere of
uniform, sea level density, a volume of air raised 100 meters
would encounter a reduction

cooling of 1 C.
Similarly a
1 F.
of t^Tt ^^ pressure, resulting in a volume of air raised 185 feet would
expand and cool

air
This assumes that the given volume of
would be raised so rapidly as not to receive heat from the surair.
rounding
The expansion
vapor,
of
rising
air
containing unsaturated water
by giving a
larger space to the
same number
of molecules
of vapor, results in a reduction in
vapor pressure proportional to
the reduction in barometric pressure.

cooling of the air with
its
On
the other hand, the

of
vapor content, through the work
expansion, decreases
its
capacity for vapor to a greater extent,
hence, condensation will ultimately occur.
The
distance in feet,
which unsaturated water vapor must
rise
above the earth's
surface to effect condensation of the vapor through the cooling

resulting from expansion
is
approximately equal to 225 times the
difference, in degrees Fahrenheit,
between the ordinary
air
tem-
perature and
its
dew-point temperature.
containing 'saturated water vapor cools
air
Ascending
air
much
more slowly than dry

liberated supplies
because the reduction in temperature
results in a condensation of
some
of the vapor,
and the heat so
some
of the heat required in the
work
of exit
pansion, thus preventing the air from cooling as rapidly as
otherwise would.
The higher the temperature

it
of the air the
more water vapor

the slower
it
would contain at saturation, consequently,

rising.
would cool upon
At
sea-level, for
example,
saturated vapor at a temperature of 32 F, would cool 1 F. in

rising
285
feet.
1
If
the temperature of the vapor

feet.
is
68 F.
of
it
would cool
degree in rising 425
At an elevation
about
62
2^ to 3 miles, where the
maximum
storm development occurs,

1
vapor at a temperature of 50 F. would cool about

rising
degree in
425
feet,
because the same amount of heat liberated in
condensation of vapor has a greater effect in preventing the cooling of the less dense
air.
Stable and Unstable Air.

rated vapor,
of ascent,
Inasmuch as air containing

in
sa,tu-
upon
air
rising, cools 1
degree for about every 425 feet
and as the reduction

averages
it
temperature of the undisturbed
surrounding
degree for every increase of about 300

rising saturated air
air,
is
feet in altitude,
must be apparent that
continually
warmer than the surrounding unsaturated

rise,
and
therefore has an increasing tendency to

precipitation of its vapor content,
i.e.,
with the resulting

air is in
such
unstable
equilibrium.
Air containing unsaturated water vapor, however, upon being
given an impulse upward, cools
degree for the

it
first
185 feet of
ascent above the earth's surface; hence
quickly becomes cooler
and consequently heavier than the surrounding undisturbed

atmosphere and tends to
such
fall
back to
its original position, i.e.,
air is in stable equilibrium.
Effect of
of water
Vapor on Weight
is
of Air.
Since the specific gravity

six tenths of the specific
it
vapor
only a
little
more than
gravity of dry air at the same temperature and pressure,
follows
that the pressure of water vapor at a given temperature
is
greater
than the pressure of an equal amount of dry

temperature.
air at
the same
At a temperature
of
80 F., for example,

is
the
inch
maximum
elastic pressure of
water vapor
equal to about
of mercury.
cubic foot of dry air at 80 F. and 30 inches

lb.
barometric pressure weighs .0735
If
part of the air
is
replaced
is
by water vapor under the same pressure

be displaced.
until the space
satwill
urated with vapor, about one thirtieth of the volume of air
The
elastic pressure will

air
remain the same but the

will
weight of the cubic foot of

.0726
lb.
and vapor
be reduced to
The weights
of
dry
air
and
of air containing saturated
water
WATER
vapor at the given temperature,
i.e.,
63
air a(
100 per cent relative
humidity, and under 30 inches barometric pressure, arc graphically
shown
in Fig. 39.
0.01
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.08
"Weight-Pounds per Cubic Toot
Fig. 39.
Effect
of
Temperature on Weight of Dry and Moist Air under Pressure of 30 Inches Mercury.
CHAPTER
IV
PRECIPITATION: ITS OCCURRENCE DISTRIBUTION
AND
is
Dew
cooled
and
Frost.
Whenever
the water vapor in the air
down below the temperature corresponding
to the pres-
sure of saturated vapor,

cles,
condensation occurs on dust parti-
globules of water, grass, or other foreign objects.
During summer nights grass and other forms of vegetation,

being good radiators of heat, soon cool
air to a point
down
is
the surrounding
where some of the moisture

If
precipitated out in
is
the form of dew.

F.
the dew-point temperature
below 32
and the night

frost.
cool,
moisture
may
be condensed out in the
form of hoar
In arid regions
dew
is
often an appreciable source of water

it
supply for the scant vegetation found in such regions, as
forms mainly on the plants and not on the barren

Rain, Snow, etc.
soil.
Condensation of moisture out of the atmossnow or

hail.
phere above the immediate surface of the earth occurs on dust

particles or
suspended globules of water and takes the form
of fog, cloud, rain,
The condensation which

is
re-
sults in the precipitation of
moisture from clouds

i.e.,
caused by
what
is
known
as
"dynamic cooling,"
of heat in the
the cooling resulting

of expansion of the
from the consumption
work
rising vapor, as previously explained.

It is a
common
misconception that almost
all
of the rain
which
falls
on the land comes from moisture evaporated from
the ocean.
As a matter
fallen
of fact,
the greater portion of the

is
rain which falls in the United States

after
water re-precipitated
having
as rain
and having evaporated from the

of the rainfall
land area.
Only that portion
which runs
off
64
PRECIPITATION
65
through the streams back into the ocean represents water
which was evaporated from the ocean.

resents rain which
land,
fell
The remainder
rep-
on the land, was evaporated from the

reis
condensed from the atmosphere over the land, and
pjtc'ipitated as rainfall.
The
portion of the rainfall which
derived from the moisture evaporated over the ocean varies

in different parts of the country.
In those regions where the

greater portion
of
prevailing
winds
are off the
ocean, the
the rainfall naturally represents moisture evaporated from the

ocean.
Among
such
regions are the Pacific
slope
and the
region bordering the Gulf of Mexico.
The Upper
of
Mississippi
and Missouri valleys and the eastern slope
the
Rocky
Mountains are typical

rainfall
of the areas
which derive most of their
from moisture evaporated from the land.

Precipitation.
Convective
principal air
In
the
equatorial
regions
the
The result of these vertical or convection currents is that the air in moving upward expands and cools, causing precipitation. The heating of the lower strata of air during the forenoon accentuates the upward movement, causing daily rains during the afternoon. The radiation
is
movement
vertical.
of heat during the early evening usually arrests the convection
currents,
and
results in a cessation of rainfall.
Orographic Precipitation.
In the mountainous regions, such

is
as on our Pacific Coast, the air
forced
upward when
it
reaches
the mountain ranges, expands, cools and precipitates

ture.
its
mois-
Fig. 40,
from the June, 1914, Monthly Weather Review
illustrates the
formation of clouds and the precipitation of mois-
ture in this manner.
On
the leeward side of the mountains, the air descends, absorbs
moisture, and gives rise to arid regions.
Cyclonic Precipitation.
As
stated, briefly,
on page
29, the
unequal heating of the earth's land and water masses results

in
more
or less
permanent regions
is
of high
and low barometric and 42,* which give
pressure.
This fact
*
shown
in Figs. 41
Courtesy Giiiu and Company.
66
the
mean
sea level isobars, or lines of equal barometric pres-
sure, for the world, during
January and July.

inch
of
A mean
will
differ-
ence equal to about half an
mercury
be noted
This
between the pressure over the oceans and over the land.
difference
is
sufficient to set the air
masses in motion.
is
The maximum development
of storms
limited to an aver-
age elevation of about three miles.
Fig. 40.
Mount Lowe,
shows
Cal., during the
Rain
of
February
20, 1914.
Fig. 43
in a general
way
the
mean
tracks of the highStates.
and low-pressure areas across the United

tracks.
Individual
storms, of course, usually depart considerably from the
mean
This
is
well illustrated in Fig. 44 taken from "
Weather
Forecasting in the United States," U. S. Weather Bureau, 1916.
The
the
rate of translation of these storm centers depends
upon
table
pressure
gradient
between
them.
The
following
gives the
wind velocity resulting from given differences
in pres-
sure between two localities 500 miles apart.

Pressure gradient, inches mercury in 500 miles
(67)
(68)
PRECIPITATION
69
Fig. 43.
Mean
Tracks and Average Daily Movement of Storms in the United States.
Fig. 44.
Paths
of
North
Pacific
Lows, January, 1900-1909.
70
The monthly mean
velocity of cyclones
and anticyclones
is
passing over the United States between 1878 and 1904

in the following table:
shown
AVERAGE VELOCITY OF STORMS IN UNITED STATES

U.
S.
Weather Bureau, 1878-1904
(Velocity in miles per hour)

Jan.
Year
Cvclones
^(3276)
34.8
Anticyclones
(1587)
29.5
PRECIPITATION
and not the
activity
is
71
currents.
result
of
local
convection
Cyclonic
limited to the lower layer of air about five miles in
thickness,
above which the temperature changes are shght.

is
In the upper levels of the fleecy, cirrus clouds there
the
permanent eastward
per hour.*
drift of air at velocities of
about 90 miles
Thunderstorms.
During
warm weather
is
cyclonic areas are
usually accompanied
by thunderstorms.
of June, 1914,
Fig. 45 taken
from the
Monthly Weather Review

matic representation of
a typical diagramFig. 46
a thunderstorm, and
shows the
changes in meteorological elements during such a storm.
The
upward
of the
rush of moist air in a cyclone results in the formation
cumulus clouds typical
of thunderstorms.
Fig. 45.
air;
Diagrammatic Representation
air;
D, descending
hail;
wind gust; H,
A, ascending of a Thunderstorm. storm collar (Sturmkragen) S, roll scud; D, T, thunder heads; R, primary rain; R', secondary rain.
C,
;
thunderstorm, as the
name
implies,
is
a storm accompanied
by lightning and thunder and,

lightning of the thunderstorm
of
falling
usually, precipitation.
Accord-
ing to Simpson t the electricity whose discharge constitutes the

is
generated by the breaking up

currents.
rain
drops
is
encountering strong upward

carried
The
*
resulting spray
upward and the small
drops,
phase of the subject see Professor Bigelow's International Cloud Observations," Annual Report, Chief of Weather Bureau, 1898-1899, and Monthly Weather Review, November, 1914,
For a
fuller discussion of this
report,
"The
and
t
April, 1916.
Simpson, Dr. G.
C,
in
Memoirs, Indian Meteorological Department.
72
fall
through coalescence, soon grow so large as to
again.
Coacharge
lescence and disruption proceed rapidly and the
electrical
within
the
cloud grows.
The
positive
charge in the cloud
draws an excess of negative
electricity to the
ground underneath
or to a nearby cloud until a current of electricity, visible as

6 7 8
C
PRECIPITATION
Atlantic
73
less
and
Pacific coasts
where they occur

is
frequently,
the average occurrence of thunderstorms
from 50 to 75 a year.
of April
By
far the greater
number occur between the months
and September.
In general the frequency varies from about
75 a year in the Gulf region and in
New
Mexico to 20 a year
less
along the northern border of the United States with

10 a year, on an average, in the Pacific Coast states.
19(H
than
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
1913
a *1
to
74
gi|ii:-:
^_
3|l I! I
3-
il
|liJilp|;|
PKKCll'lTATlON
75
76
PRECIPITATION
Weather Forecasts.
77
forecasts
Daily
weather
arc
made
by the United States Weather Bureau on the

reporting stations.
basis of the pre-
ceding twenty-four hours' observations at about 200 telegraphic
These forecasts take the form

probabilities,
of official
statements of
weather
weather
maps,
special
warnings to lake and coasting vessels, flood warnings, instructions to shippers,
and the display
of
weather
flags.
All obser-
vations used in forecasting the weather, such as observations

of
barometric pressure, temperature, direction and velocity of
wind, relative humidity, precipitation and sunshine, are

at 8 A.M.
made
Wash-
and 8
p.m. 75
Meridian time, and the data are imoffice
mediately telegraphed in cipher to the main

ington and also to a
are stationed.
at
number
of large cities
where forecasters
Here the data are quickly transferred to a base map, the forecasts made, and the " Daily Weather Map " immediately printed and placed in the mails so as to be available for use by the general public as promptly as transportation
facilities
permit.
Figs.
49 to 51
11, 13
show
typical " Daily
Weather Maps "
for
February
and
15, 1915,
with the exception of the Minof observations at the
neapolis local forecast

principal
and the record
telegraphic
reporting stations.
in
Except
for
the re-
duction in scale
and difference
drafting,
these figures are

issued
exact copies of the actual daily weather

local
office
maps
by the
on the given dates.
low-pressure area
The path of the dominating has been added to the maps to facilitate their
study and interpretation.
Any
person thoroughly familiar with the phenomena and the
principles that underlie our weather conditions can
do consid-
erable " forecasting," even without the aid of
any instruments,
by merely observing the outstanding weather characteristics in his locality. The wind is perhaps the best weather indicator.
Its significance is succinctly stated
on the " Daily Weather
Map
"
in the following language:
78
Wind-Barometer Indications
"
When
the wind sets in from points between south
and southeast and the barometer falls steadily a storm is approaching from the west or northwest, and its
center will pass near or north of the observer within
12 to 24 hours with wind shifting to northwest by

of southwest
way
and west.
When
the wind sets in from
points between east

falls
and northeast and the barometer

is
steadily a storm
its
approaching from the south or
southwest, and
center will pass near or to the south
or east of the observer within 12 to 24 hours with wind

shifting to northwest
of the storm's
by way
of north.
The
rapidity
approach and
its
intensity will be indiof the fall in the
cated by the rate and the
amount
barometer."
Measurement
recorded
these
in
of
Precipitation.
Precipitation
" regular "
is
regularly
the
United States at nearly 6000 stations.

or
is
Of
about 200 constitute the

stations,
" telegraphic-
reporting "
at which a full
as
record
kept of such
meteorological
phenomena
amount and
rate of precipitation,
temperature, relative humidity, direction and velocity of wind,

sunshine, the occurrence of frosts, aurora, thunderstorms and
the
like.
At most
of the
remaining stations, known as " coopis
erative observer " stations, record

snowfall,
kept only of rainfall and

temperature, and general
as
frost,
maximum and minimum

regarding
like.
information
auroras,
such
phenomena
sunshine,
and the
Standard Rain Gage.
Cooperative
observers are furnished
with a standard rain gage, Fig. 52, and
maximum and minimum

is
thermometers.
in Fig. 6,
typical cooperative observer station
shown
page 20.
rain gage consists of a funnel-shaped collector
The standard
eight inches in diameter at the top,
a measuring tube C,
i.e.,
20 inches high and 2.53 inches in
diameter,
one tenth
PRECIPITATION
79
the area of cross section of the receiver, an overflow attach-
ment
and a measuring
stick
graduated to read directly to

FRONT ViEW
VERTICAL SECTION
inches depth of precipitation.
Rain
falling into the receiver
runs
down through
e
the small
opening
tube
into the measuring
C where
If
the depth can be
measured with the graduated

stick.
the rainfall exceeds
2 inches, the measuring tube
overflows into B, from which
the
observer later
refills
the
standard rain gage
tube
C for measurement. When used as a snow
gage
Fig. 52.
the funnel
ing tube
and the measur-
are
removed and the overflow cylinder
is
used
to catch the precipitation directly.
Tipping-bucket Gage.
At
of
the regular Weather Bureau sta-
tions,
where a
is
continuous record
rainfall
obtained,
as the
record-
ing gage
known
" tippingin Fig.
bucket " gage illustrated

is
53
employed.
Rain
is
falling into the
collector,
eter,
which
12 inches in diam-
runs into the bucket through
a funnel attached to the bottom of

the collector.
into
The bucket
and
is
is
divided
two
parts,
trunnions so
mounted on placed that when one

is
part of the bucket
filled,
it
tips
over and empties

Fig. 53.
its
contents into
Tipping-bucket Rain
Gage
the reservoir below.
The bucket
it
is
usually adjusted so that
tips for
each one-hundredth inch
rainfall.
At high rates
of rainfall,
amounting
to a bucketful every few seconds, a correction
must
80
be
made
is
to the record because each bucket, during the tipping
motion, becomes overfilled.
By means
of
an
electrical circuit
which
closed
and opened at each

is
tip of the bucket,
each one-
hundredth inch of rain

record sheet.
tion are
recorded by a pen on a clock-operated

of the total
Check readings
amount
of precipita-
made by measuring
the water in the reservoir.
Marvin Float Gage.
Another
is
type of recording rain gage
which has wide application
the
Marvin
54.
float gage, illustrated
in
Fig.
An
8-inch
collector
protected by a 21-inch windshield

gathers the rainfall into a reservoir.
record of the precipitation
is
se-
cured by means of a float on the

surface of the water in the reservoir actuating a pen which traces
the
record
on
clock-operated
record sheet.
The recording apthe
paratus
portion
is
contained in the square

apparatus.
is
of
An
eight-day record
secured with-
out attention and the precipitation

Fig. 54.
Marvin
Wind
can be estimated from the record

PUoat
Gage
with
sheet
to
hundredths of an inch.
of kerosene
Shield.
About one fourth inch

is
kept on the water in the receiver to prevent evaporation.

total capacity of 10 inches rainfall
The gage has a
and may be
conveniently emptied through the spigot provided, which permits draining the receiver only to the point where the float
has returned to the zero mark.
number of other automatic rain gages, used outside U. S. Weather Bureau, are on the market.
Exposure
of
of the
Rain Gage.
Rather
is
more important than

is
the selection of the rain gage, however,
the placing of
it.
The primary
table gives
disturbing influence
the wind.
The
following
some observations
of the
decrease in the
catch
PRECIPITATION
of the rain gage with increase in elevation of the gage
81
above
the surface of the ground, primarily, because of the effect of
the wind at the higher levels.
Elevation of
82
of the gage in this case
The catch
was only
.43 inch
although
the total snowfall was 1.41 inches.
The Weather Bureau has long required

measure the snow upon the ground
spots where
in
its
observers
to
one or more selected
experienced
judgment indicates that a normal

of snowfall
is
and representative depth

factory locations
in
to be found.
Satis-
are usually afforded

clearings in
by small open
places
wooded parks, small
deep woods with some
underbrush or among rather open second growth.

the gage as a " cookie cutter " a cylinder of
By
using
secured which can be melted by the addition of

of hot water
new snow can be a known quantity
and the equivalent

is
rainfall
determined.
its
When-
ever the snow

is
not melted or weighed
water equivalent
determined by the conventional ratio of ten volumes of snow
to one
volume
of water.
it
Although
this constitutes a satisfactory
average ratio,
deviates widely from the truth at times.

is
In
southern latitudes the snow

applies.
is
moist and a higher ratio usually
In the latitude of northern Minnesota the snowfall
usually lighter, and 11 to 12 inches and occasionally as high
as 30 inches of
new snow
are required for one inch of water.
As the percentage
cipitation
of precipitation
which occurs as snow
is
usually quite small, however, the resulting error in annual preis
much
less
than the probable error in the ratio
might indicate.
A map
The
of the
mean annual
snowfall in the United States
is
given in Fig. 56.

great depth to which
snow
falls in places in
the
West
is
well illustrated in Fig, 57 taken
from the May, 1915, Monthly
Weather Review.
When
melts as
plicable,
rain, sleet
it
and snow occur together, or when the snow

ground measurements are obviously inapof the type illustrated in
falls,
and a shielded snow gage
Fig. 58
must be resorted
best
to.
The
total
method
of determining the water content of the
layer of
snow on the ground
at
any time during the
PRECIPITATION
83
84
season
is
by means of weighing a cylinder of snow cut from the by means of tubes. One type of tube in use by
snow
layer
Fig. 57.
Snowfall at Hobart Mill, Cal.
Fig. 58.
Marvin Shielded Snow Gage.

is
the Weather Bureau

length.
2f inches in diameter and of varying One end of the tube is fitted with a toothed steel
cutting edge.
The
outside
is
provided with a scale of inches.
PRECIPITATION
85
shortly
Snow
Surveys.
Snow
surveys,
made
before
the
spring break-up, are often of considerable service in the
moun-
tainous regions of the

of
West
in predicting
the probable supply
water which
will
be available during the succeeding irriga-
FiG. 59.
Apparatus used
of
in
Snow
Surveys.
lion season.
in
The apparatus
is
essential for such
work
is
shown
Fig. 59
and the character
the
country in which such

in
surveys have been made,

of snow, especially in
shown
rough country,
is
The depth determined much more

Fig.
60.
frequently than
its
density.
On
a topographic
is
map
or sketch
of the region, the extent of
snow cover
shown, together with
86
the depth and density of the snow as determined by the survey.
From
area,
these data the equivalent depth of rainfall over the entire
and hence the approximate available water supply,
is
determined.
Fig. 60.
Typical Country
air
in
which Snow Surveys were made.
Variation of Character of Precipitation with Temperature.
Although the surface
temperature
is
not an unfailing indica-
tion of the character of precipitation
by any means, the Weather
Bureau records indicate a reasonably constant relationship from

year to year in the Northwest.
Fig. 61
shows the monthly mean, and the mean
maximum
PRECIPITATION
87
and minimum temperatures, and the approximate percentage

of total
precipitation which falls as

of the year, at St. Paul
snow during the various

For
months
and at Moorhead, Minn.
a monthly mean temperature of

23 degrees, the
mean
of the
maxap2^ so
imum
daily temperatures
is
proximately 32 degrees, and for a
monthly mean temperature

degrees,
of 41
the
mean
of
the miniis
mum
daily
temperatures
ap-
proximately 32 degrees.
About 30 per cent

cipitation
of the pre-
occurs as snow
the monthly
when mean temperature is

all
40 degrees, and practically

it
of
occurs as snow
is
when the mean

S o H
25
temperature
below 20 degrees.
Ice Storms.
The
surface air
is
temperature, however,
not
al-
aC .i:20
540
o80^
100'
ways an indication
England,
nia,
of the char-
acter of precipitation.
In
New
New
in
York, Pennsylva-
and
Ohio
the states north of

in
the
River,
particular,
rain occasionally falls

freezing.
when the
is
surface air temperature
is
below
ice
The
fell
result
an
ice
storm.
In one
New
England
storm, rain
when the
surface air temperature was 23 degrees
below freezing.*
While the picture presented by an ice-coated out-of-doors
is
truly wonderful, the destruction wrought to telegraph, telephone
and power-transmission wires and to

is
trees
is
often severe as
well illustrated in Fig. 62. f

*
Ice Storms of New England by Chas. F. Brooks, Cambridge, 1914. Variations in Precipitation as Affecting Waterworks Engineering,
by
Carl P. Birkiubine,
Am. W. W. Assoc,
Vol. 3, No.
1,
March, 1916.
88
Birkinbine states that of 211 storms, 42.5 per cent showed a

sleet thickness of less
than one-quarter inch; 29.4 per cent showed
a thickness of from one-quarter to one-half inch; 19.9 per cent from one-half to one inch; and
ing of
8.1 per cent
showed an
ice coat-
more than one
inch.
Fig. 62.
Results
of
an Ice Storm.
Ice storms are usually very local in character
and cannot be
to be
predicted with any great certainty.
They appear
essential
most
prevalent in the regions of moderate winter temperature and
heavy winter
of
precipitation.
is
The
to
the formation
an
ice
storm
a stratum of air with temperature above
freezing overlying a stratum of air near the earth's surface
whose temperature
of objects
is
below freezing.
is
Usually the temperature
on the earth's surface
also
below freezing.
Variation of Precipitation with Latitude, Altitude, etc.

general, precipitation
is
In
greatest at the equator
and becomes
gradually less towards the poles.

of
In the regions of the tropics

is less
Cancer and Capricorn the precipitation
than on either
PRECIPITATION
side of this region,
89
air currents, as
on account
of
downward
previously explained.
Precipitation appears to increase with altitude up to about
3000
for
feet
and then
to decrease, although this does not hold
mountain
regions
air
where
the
winds
are off the
ocean.
Wherever the
motion
is
currents
are off
the ocean
and
upward
induced by the elevation of the land, precipitation
increases with altitude to greater elevations than 3000 feet.
Regions near the ocean
may have
high or low precipitation,

off
depending almost entirely upon whether the winds are

ocean or
off
the
the land.
Irregular Occurrence in United States.
In
all
the region of
of the
cyclonic precipitation which covers practically
United
States east of the

fall
Rocky Mountains,
great variations in rain-
are usual occurrences.
On
the whole, the greater the depth
of precipitation in the path of the
storm the smaller the area
over which the precipitation extends.
good conception
of the irregular
manner
in
which precip-
itation occurs can be secured
from a study
in the
of Figs. 63 to 66
showing monthly precipitation
United States for July,

these
August and September,

on a larger
scale,
still
1915.
Were
maps prepared
greater irregularities would be shown.

rain
Regions that have
little
one month, have considerable
the next and vice versa.
For example,
in July, the precipitation in southeastern
Iowa
in
was about 10
September
St.
it
inches, in
August
it
was
less
than 2 inches and
was between 6 and 8
inches.
The
region about
Louis had between 6 and 8 inches of rain in July, over 10

In
inches in August and less than 2 inches in September.
August the
precipitation
varied from less than 2 inches at

St. Louis,
Keokuk, Iowa, to over 10 inches at
Mo., about 150
miles distant, and from over 15 inches in southwestern Arkansas

to less than 4 inches in the southeastern part of the
same
state.
Other
in the
irregularities,
equally great, are to be found
elsewhere
United States and in almost any month of any year.
90
v^.^^
PRECll'lTATlON
91
92
Couriexy U.
.S.
Geological Hurtry.
MAP OF UNITED
Red lines and
STATES,
SHOWING MEAN ANNUAL PRECIPITATION

Fi". 67.
Ptepared by Henfy Ganne
figures indicate average annual precipitation in depth in inches
mainly from data ol the United States Geological Sury. and United States Weather Bu
PRECIPITATION
93
Fig
66.
Profile along
September 35th Parallel showing Irregularity of Precipitation during July, August and September, 1915.
Mean Annual
in
Precipitation.
is
The mean annual precipitation

in Fig. 67.
the United States
shown
As longer records
become
available, these averages
may
be changed somewhat.
The annual
precipitation at
any given station varies considBinnie * concluded that a thirtyin error
erably from year to year.
year-mean would probably be
about 2 per cent; a
twenty-year mean 3j per cent; a ten-year
mean 8j
per cent;
and a
five-year
mean might be
in error
15 per cent.
Records of mean annual precipitation are not of
much
service,
however, in the design of most works for the utilization or

control of water.
The
runoff resulting from the average pre-
cipitation can seldom be utilized.
Records of exceptionable
conditions are of
more importance, on the whole, than records

_
Precipitation.
of average conditions.
Cycles
in
Annual
Graphs
of
annual
and
progressive
* Binnie,
mean annual
Sir Alexander,
precipitation together with frequency
Rainfall, Reservoirs,
and Water Supply, 1913,
p. 10.
94
number
of long-term stations
curves of annual precipitation at a

in the
70
United States are shown in Figs. 68 to 105.
60
50
:S
40
30
a 20
ANNUAL PRECIPITATION
AT
NEW BEDFORD, MASSACHUSETTS

During period of
10
101 years
Fig. 68.
60
;50
40
2 30
120
AT
BOSTON, MASS,
10 During Period of 97 Years
Fig. 69.
60
50
40
I
30-
'20
AT PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND
During Period of 83 Years
10
Fig. 70.
50
40
30
a
-< 20
IN
NEW ENGLAND STATES

10
Fig. 71.
(95)
96
70
60
50
9 40
30
20-
AT
CINCINNATI, OHIO
10
Fig. 72.
60
50
a 30
g20-
AT
PORTSMOUTH, OHIO
10-
Fig. 73.
PRECIPITATION
97
so-
AT MARIETTA, OHIO
During Peciod of 93 Years
lo
0000
Fig. 74.
60
50
40
=3.30
3 20
IN
UPPER OHIO RIVER VALLEY

10
o 3
Fig. 75.
98
70
60
50
40
::
30
20
AT
D.C. During Period of 63 Years
10
WASHINGTON,
Fig. 76.
PRECIPITATION
99
AT SAVANNAH. GEORGIA
10
Fig. 77.
100
Oi
o^
Fig. 78.
PRECIPITATION
ro
101
60
50
40
30
20
AT SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI
10
Fig. 79.
60
40
20
AT
SAINT PAUL, MINNESOTA
During^ Period of 78 Years
O 5
Fig. 80.
102
40
AT HAVRE, MONTANA
Fig.
8L
30
^20
,<^10-
AT SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH
During Period of
40
Years
Fig. 82.
80r
AT
EL PASO, TEXAS
Fig. 83.
Fig. 85.
(103)
104
110
100
90
80
60
-H
50
40
30
AT ASTORIA, OREGON
During Period of
61
Years
20
10
Fig. 86.
106
70
60
60
.a
S 50 u
a
1"
a
.2
40
S
.*
'S
S 30
-< J
20
:io
SO
70
a 50
o.
40
FREQUENCY OF ANNUAL PRECIPITATION AT WASHINGTON, D.C.

1852-19U
10
20
25
50
75
(63 years)
Per cent of Total Time
Fig. 95.
108
50
30
PRECIPITATION
109
no
100
90
80
70
60
250
40
30
20
110
While attention has been called to the occurrence of natural
phenomena
in cycles, a
study of variations in annual rain-
fall in
the United States tends to indicate a lack of correlation
between solar phenomena and precipitation.

If
high and low annual precipitation occurred in synchro-
nism with sun spots, one would expect to find the extremes
of precipitation occurring simultaneously over large areas,
least, yet the graphs for Boston,
at
New
Bedford and Providence
stations which are relatively close together
show most
strik-
ing divergence from the expected correspondence.
The same
conclusion holds with respect to the three Ohio River stations,
Marietta, Portsmouth and Cincinnati.
study of the graphs of Figs. 68 to 86 shows cycles of such
irregular length,
magnitude and diversity with respect to time
as to lead one to believe that the at
amount
is
of
annual precipitation
any given observation station
a chance occurrence rather
than the effect of a regularly- varying cause.*

Relation Between Length of Record and Extremes of Annual
Precipitation.
of
Efforts
to
show a
relation
between length
record and
maximum and minimum

In general,
annual precipitation
it is,
lead to erroneous conclusions.
of course, true
that the longer the term of years over which records extend,
the higher the

tions,
maximum and
the lower the
minimum.
rule.
ExcepThis
is
however, are about as frequent as the
well illustrated
by the records
for St. Paul, Minn., Cincinnati,
Ohio,
in
New
106.
Bedford, and Boston, Mass., graphically presented
Fig.
The recorded maximum annual

in
precipitation at
St. Paul, for
example, occurred in the 13th year of the record

the 74th year of the record.
and the minimum occurred

Moreover, the 74th year
of the
minimum was
only about two thirds
minimum
for the preceding 73 years.
At
St. Paul,
New
Bedford and Cincinnati, the

ning of the record.
maximum
it
occurred near the begin-
At Boston
occurred near the middle.
At
*
St.
Paul and Cincinnati the

p. 18.
minimum
occurred near the

Henry
in Bulletin
Secular Variation of Precipitation discussed by A. J.
D, Weather Bureau, 1897,
PRECIPITATION
end
of the record.
111
it
At
New
Bedford and Boston
occurred
near the beginning.
I
"S
35
20
15
10
5
112
PRECIPITATION
113
114
Precipitation.
Monthly
The
amount
shorter the unit of time, the

of precipitation
greater the diversity in
which
may
The curves of Figs. 109 to 120 show the maximum, minimum and mean monthly precipitation; the precipitation for each month of the wettest year and of
be expected in the given time.
the driest year, together with frequency curves of monthly
Months
24
23
22
^1 20
19
18
17
(5 16
^''
gl4
P.
Sl3
12
ill
o
+j
^10
ft
PRECIPITATION
117
118
PRECIPITATION
119
120
PRECIPITATION
121
Webster's International Dictionary defines " normal " as the

" ordinary or usual
It
condition,
is
is
degree,
quantity or the
like;
average;
mean."
apparent that the average or mean

not,
monthly
or usual "
precipitation
by any means,
difficulty
" the
ordinary
monthly
rainfall.
The
with the application
of this definition lies in the fact that identical recurrences of
natural
phenomena
are extemely rare.
However, the amount

in
of precipitation
which occurs most frequently
any given
period of time would appear to best meet the condition imposed
by the
It
definition.
is
would seem that the normal condition
that which pre-
vails the greatest portion of the time,
whether the phenomena
be annual, monthly or daily precipitation, or lake or river stage.
The "normal," according to

inflection.
this definition,
can usually be readily
determined from the frequency curve by noting the point of
On some
of the curves the
change of curvature
is
so gradual, however, that the point of inflection cannot readily
be ascertained.
If
more than one
half the total
number
of
months over which
records extend, have no rainfall, for example, then the nor-
mal condition
still
is
zero
monthly
rainfall,
though the average

rainfall
may
be one or two inches or more.
The normal
during
months when any

of
rainfall occurs would, of course,
be a quantity
some magnitude.
Determination of True Monthly Mean.
A map of the greatis
est recorded
monthly
rainfall in
Minnesota
shown
Fig. 121.
variation in rainfall from less than 2 inches in the northwest
corner of the State, to more than 14 inches in the southeast

corner, will be noted, notwithstanding the generally
cipitation over the whole State,
heavy pre-
When an
of
accurate
is
mean
rainfall
over an area such as the State
Minnesota
desired,
it is
necessary to determine the average
precipitation from an isohyetal
map
as
such as Fig. 121.
The
mean
derived from a simple average of the observed quantithe different

stations,
ties at
published by the
Weather
122
By
determining the true
Bureau, gives 8.34 inches.
mean
from the map, the low precipitation over the northeastern

part of the State, in which relatively few observation stations
are located, receives
to 7.57 inches.
its
proper weight and the
mean
is
reduced
RAINFALL MAP OF MINNESOTA

~r
'
SHOWING
ISOHYETALS FOR JUNE, 1914
Fig. 121.
Excessive
a
Monthly and Daily

of the results of a in
Precipitation.
Fig.
122
is
summary
study of the records of daily
and monthly precipitation

bama.
Minnesota, Ohio, Kansas and Ala-
The frequency
of occurrence of
both daily and monthly
PRECIPITATION
precipitation
123
was worked up on
large-scale logarithmic crossof the results

is
section paper, and merely a summary
presented.
The base
data,
upon which the conclusions

in
of Fig. 122 are based, of stations
are summarized
Tables 4 and
5.
As the number
per unit area varied somewhat in the different states, the data
were reduced to the basis of one

square miles.
rainfall station for
each 500
For example,
in eastern
Kansas, there was one
DAILY PRECIPITATION
ALABAMA
MONTHLY PRECIPITATION EXCEEDED WITH GIVEN
EXCEEDED WITH GIVEN FREQUENCY

IN MISSISSIPPI
VALLEY
^^ Once in 100 Years

in 25 Years in 10 Years Reduced to Basis of Data
f^^ Once IHI Once
One
Rainfall Station for every 500 Sq. Miles
10
>,q
ALABAMA
?8
EasternSection
Sectiuu
Middle
-Section-
Fig. 122.
station for each 643 square miles.
The number
of
recorded
daily rainfalls of
all
magnitudes
in this section of
the State was
increased in the ratio of 643 to 500 for the purpose of reducing
the observed precipitation
to the
equivalent of one rainfall
station for every 500 square miles.
The
states selected are be-
lieved to be typical of the larger portion of the United States
east of the
basis
for
pected to
Rocky Mountains and to afford as satisfactory a estimating the amount of rain which may be exfall in a day and in a month in these regions as
present records furnish.
124
4.
TABLE
RECORDS
72 stations
OF EXCESSIVE DAILY PRECIPITATION
1180 square miles per station
State of Minnesota
PRECIPITATION
125
TABLE
4.
RECORDS OF EXCESSIVE DAILY PRECIPITATION {Continued)
State of Kansas (eastern section) 42 stations 643 square miles per station
126
TABLE
4.
RECORDS OF EXCESSIVE DAILY PRECIPITATION (Concluded)
State of Kansas (middle section) 38 stations 710 square miles per station
PRECIPITATION
127
TABLE
128
TABLE
5.
RECORDS
OF EXCESSIVE MONTHLY PRECIPITATION {Concluded)

Precipitation
inches per month
State of Alabama, 1894-1913 incl.
64 stations
485
total
286
859
142
93
812 sq. mi. per sta.,
Cumulative
1344
573
365 223
130
74
47
25
17
Once
Frequency
in given
number
of years
9l|
|0.59|0.92|l.38|2.16|3.55| 6.l|l0.7|l6.8|31.6r 46|
13l| 263| 394|
788
Typical Excessive Rainstorms.
study has been made of
typical storms of greatest recorded intensity in different parts

of the United States.
Figs. 123 to 126
Maps
9.
of these storms are presented in
and the data on which the isohyetals are based
are given
in
Tables 6 to
The
relation
between amount
is
of precipitation
and area covered by these severe storms and

128.
shown
in Figs. 127
The
Beaulieu, Minnesota, and the
Fort Madison, Iowa, storms were also studied in connection

with the resulting floods on the Wild Rice River and Devil's
Creek, respectively;
are also
hence the watersheds of these streams
shown on the maps. The storm paths are well indicated by the shape of the isohyThe Iowa storm came from the West, the Minnesota etals.
storm from the Northwest, and the Arkansas and
Illinois
storms
from the Southwest.

24 hours.
The
first
two storms lasted
less
than
The Arkansas storm was a part
of the destructive
West Indian hurricane of August, 1915, and lasted 2^ days. The Cairo, Illinois, storm extended over three days and was
the greatest of
all
in extent
and
intensity.
No
serious floods
resulted, however, because this
storm centered over the lower

valley storm of
reaches of large streams.

to 27, 1913, while of
The Ohio
March 23
dented stages on
much less many streams
severity, resulted in unprece-
because the heaviest precipi-
tation occurred over the headwaters of the smaller northern

tributaries.
PRECIPITATION
129
Aagna
Fergus Falla
0.56
Fort Ripley
Long
Prairie
U.05
Fig. 123.
Map
of Beaulieu,
Minnesota, Storm, July 20, 1909. one-day Storm.
Less-than-
130
1-3
a O
of
ptH
PRECIPITATION
131
132
Area
Tkousaad Square
Fig. 127.
6
Itfiles
1 S
Cairo, Illinois StormOct. 4-6, 1910
Portion Centering at Hardy
Portion Centering ai Qalconda
RELATION OF DEPTH OF PRECIPITATION
TO
AREA COVERED BY STORMS
I
I
10
12
13
14
Area - Thousand Square Miles
Fig. 128.
^FarmerRliursj
^rlnkle^
Fig. 126.
Map of Cairo,
Illinois,
Storm, October,
4, 5, 6,
1910.
Three-Hay Storm.
PRECIPITATION
133
TABLE
6.
DATA
FOR BEAULIEU, MINNESOTA, STORM

July
20, 1909
(Less than 24 hours)
Station
*
t
Precipitation for 24 hours ending
Rain
fell
on morning when measured, during night of 19th to 20th, 5.30 p.m. to 10.30 p.m.
134
7.
TABLE
DATA
FOR FORT MADISON, IOWA, STORM

June 9-10, 1905
(Less-than-one-day storm)
Precipitation
inches
Plotted
Station
9th
lOth
Chariton
Iowa
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
4.22
Corydon
Oskaloosa Albia
T
1.30
Downing
Sigourney
T
0.09
05
Washington Mt. Pleasant

Stockport
Keosauqua
Bonaparte Gorin Columbus, Jet Wapello Burlington
Ft.
0.10 02 0.06
Madison
La Harpe Keokuk Warsaw

Colchester Astoria Peoria Knoxville
" "
111.
2.18
om
0.04 1 25 0.15 0.32
Galva Cambridge Aledo
" " " " " "
3.56 1.20 3.44 3.28 2 73 1.72 7.20 10.63 11.09 12.10 1.83 1.44 2.00 6 04 6.40 10.25 2 62 4.00 4.70 2.14 2.54 2.75 2.98 2.85 78
4.22 3.56 2.50 3.44 3.28 2.82 1.72 7.25 10 63 11.09 12.10 1.83 1.54 2.02 6 10 6.40 10.25 4.80 4.00 4.75 2.18 3.79 2.90 3.30 2.85 0.78
Precipitation
PRECIPITATION
135
TABLE
8.
DATA
FOR HARDY, ARKANSAS, STORM

August 18-20, 1915
(Two-and-a-half-day storm)
Station
136
TABLE 8. DATA FOR HARDY, ARKANSAS, STORM (Concluded)

August
18-20, 1915
(Two-and-a-half-day storm)
Extent of storm area in square miles
Precipitation
Center at
Center at
Marshall
Hardy
Entire storm
Over
" " " " "
8 inches. 9 10
11
12,600 6,100 2,380
6,400 4,000 1,010
19,000 10,100 3,390
12 13
970 460 170
970 460 170
PRECIPITATION
137
TABLE
9.
DATA
FOR CAIRO, ILLINOIS, STORM

4, 5, 6,
October
1910
(Three-day storm)
Precipitation
inche.s
7th
Station
3d
4th
5th
6th
Plotted
Perry ville Jackson Marble Hill
Mo.
" " " " " " "
111.
2.80
3.52 0.43
Doniphan
Sikeston
T
0.11 0.11 0.25 0.76
*New Madrid
Caruthersville
Koshkonong
Sparta
Carbondale Equality *New Burnside
Cobden
Golconda
Cairo
Chester
Edwardsville
*E. St. Louis
Mascoutah
Carlyle
Mt. Vernon
St.
Peter Flora
Olney
Sumner
*Mt. Carmel Albion
Fairfield
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
*'
1.29
0.28 0.20
0.81
2.40 2.01 5.50 5.20 4.15 1.35 2.18 4.42 5.24 0.11 5.10 4.95 4.47 2.96 0.42 0.62
1.40 4.18 1.55 3.40 2.69 3.41 3.10 3.42 3.85 3.97 2.23 0.72 2.25 2.80 1.38 3.00 2.16 1.72 0.68 1.14 0.68 0.50 0.83
t
4.25 5.47 4.86 4.60 7.99 4.77 0.98 3.05 0.03 2.87 2.10 0.45
T
0.19 0.42
T
0.17 1.23 0.13 1.32 0.20 0.70 1.34
0.95 0.90 1.05 0.93 1.90 6.24 3.00 0.60 0.51 1.07 2.04 5.86 1.10 2.24 0.42 1.13 0.50 2.33 0.45 0,60 1.64 0.35 0.85 0.52 0.87 2.76 1.23
1.31 1.40 1.35
0.11
1.37
0.02
5.75 7.58 6.65 7.27 11.40 13.30 10.25 3.38 3.84 9.74 12.75 12.09 10.80 15.18 9.66 5.07 3.97 2.98 3.32 4.10 6.27 3.65 6.75 5.61 7.33
Corning Pocahontas
Black Rock
Alicia
Jonesboro
*Batesville
Newport
Marked
Earl
Tree
Spring
Mammoth
Hardy Calico Rock

Bee Branch
" Ark. " " " " " " " " " "
0.06
"
"
"
Conway DoddCity
Mo.ssville
0.27
" "
T
0.04
Lutherville
"
"
Dardanelle
*
1.60 1.03 0.12
2.14 2.59 4.95 2.70 4.32 0.20 4.38 2.41 1.88 3.35 2.00 8.50 0.65 2.79 0.60 3.52 1.32
1.00
6.00 7.45 0.84 0.90 0.65 1.00 2.50 0.86
0.52 3.44
it is
6.50 5.70 9.20 13.99 4.97 3.46 5.14 3.68 11.50 2.34 2.79 2.20 5.07 4.88
measured,
Precipitation for the 24 hours ending on the
morning when
Precipitation included in that of the next measurement.
138
9.
TABLE
DATA
FOR CAIRO,
ILLINOIS,
STORM (Continued)
October 4, 5, 6, 1910 (Three-day storm)
PRECIPITATION
139
TABLE
9.
DATA
FOR CAIRO,
ILLINOIS,
STORM
(Concluded)
October 4, 5, 6, 1910 (Three-day storm)
140
Estimating Probable
Maximum
Precipitation
on Watersheds.
By superimposing storm
be made of the probable
maps upon maps
of the watersheds
of different streams in the region in
which the storms occurred,
giving due consideration to storm paths, a good estimate can
maximum amount
of
precipitation
which
may
be expected on the watershed in the given time.
Prentice
2.12
Fig. 129.
Map
of Stanley, Wisconsin, Storm,
October
6,
1911.
Average
Precipitation over Black River
Watershed above Black River
Falls, 3.00 ins.
For example, the Stanley, Wisconsin, storm of October

Fig. 129,
sults in
6,
1911,
when moved a
little
further to the east, Fig. 130, re-
an increase in the 24-hour average precipitation on the
watershed above Black River Falls from 3.00 to 3.69 inches.
The
Beaulieu,
Minnesota,
storm of July, 1909, would have
caused an average precipitation of 6.1 inches over the water-
shed of the Black River above Black River Falls and 7.2 inches
PRECIPITATION
over the watershed above Neillsville.
141
Merrill, Wisconsin,
in
The
storm of July, 1912, would have resulted
an average pre-
cipitation over these watersheds of 4.8 inches
and
6.4 inches,
respectively.
This Merrill storm, averaging 4.1 inches over the
watershed of the Wisconsin River above Wausau caused a flood

at
Wausau which was
1.8 feet higher
than the highest previous
^ Downing
SCALE OF MILES
10
20
30
40
Fig.
130.
Stanley,
Wisconsin,
Storm
of
October
6,
1911,
transposed.
Average Precipitation over Black River Watershed above Black River

Falls, 3.69 ins.
record,
that of September,
1881.
It
is
interesting
to
note,
however, that notwithstanding this fact the Beaulieu, Minnesota storm of July, 1909, would have caused a
cipitation,
viz.,
still
greater pre-
6.4 inches, over this watershed.

Illinois
From
a study of Wisconsin and

*
rainfall,
Stewart
Stewart, C. B., West. Soc. Engrs., 1913, p. 290.
142
concluded that once in about 50 years the following amounts

of precipitation
might be expected
in the given time
and over
areas of from 500 to 2500 square miles.
PROBABLE MAXIMUM RAINFALL OCCURRING ABOUT ONCE IN FIFTY YEARS
PRECIPITATION
143
144 Hourly Rates
of
Excessive
Precipitation.
in
In
of
municipal
improvement work, particularly
the
design
sewerage
and drainage systems, and works

running
off
for the collection of
water
from small watersheds, the amount
of precipitation
less
which
may
be expected in one or two hours, and in

is
than
hourly periods of time,
of great importance.
The frequency
be expected to
with which given rates of precipitation
may
recur should be the basis of design, but whether an installation
which
is
designed to care for

1
all
rates of precipitation that
may
comin-
be expected once in
year, or once in 10 or 100 years, or in

interval, will best serve a given
any intermediate time
munity, the engineer must determine in each individual

stance.
In the following pages, the author has summarized most
of the available data relating to excessive precipitation in the
United States east of the Rocky Mountains, and has presented

a number of new formulas giving the amount and rates of precipitation
will
from 5 to 120 minutes time which, on an average,

1
probably be exceeded once in intervals of from
to 100
years.
Most
tofore,
studies of rates of excessive precipitation,
made
here-
have been based upon an analysis
of the records of single
observation stations.
In view of the irregular manner in which
precipitation occurs, with respect to time, in
any given
locality,
however, the records of a single station furnish a far
less satis-
factory basis for a conclusion regarding the frequency of given

rates
of
excessive
precipitation
locality.
than
the records of several
stations in the
same
Intense rainstorms usually cover only a few square miles.
Observation stations
as
five or ten miles
apart usually show about

of excessive
much
dissimilarity in the rates
precipitation
during intense rainstorms as stations 50 or 100 miles apart.
As there are only about 200 Weather Bureau

are being secured,
stations in the
United States at which continuous records of precipitation

it is
apparent that only a very few of the
excessive rainstorms which actually occur, are being recorded.
PRECIPITATION
In a few of the larger
are maintaining a
cities, of
145
course, municipal organizations
number
of observation stations
and are thus
obtaining more complete data.
The
records of adjacent observation stations well indicate
the irregular
manner
in
which excessive precipitation occurs.

1,
During the
(Fig.
New York
City storm of October

rain
fell
1913, for example,

at
132) twice as
much
in
two hours
Borough
Hall in the Borough of Richmond, than at the United States
Weather Bureau station

miles away.
in
the Borough of Manhattan, five
It is safe to
say that, taking the country as a

of
whole, doubling the

stations
number
Weather Bureau observation

of records of excessive preof several
would double the number
cipitation obtained.
For the same reason, the records
stations in one region are virtually equivalent to a longer record
at a single station.
One record supplements the

is
other,
making
a combined record which
far
more representative
of the rates
of precipitation to be expected in the given region than the
records of a single station.
Table 11
is
summary
of the
number
of intense rainstorms
during which given rates of precipitation have been exceeded

at 43 United States
Weather Bureau stations during the 19
years between 1896 and 1914.

of
The
extent to which the records

in the
one station supplement those of another

is
same part
of
the country
apparent from a study of this table.
Stations
with a disproportionate number of very excessive storms have

usually had a deficiency of
ordinary storms.
Other stations
that have experienced
many short storms have had comparatively
few long ones and
vice versa.
In studying the observational data, the entire 1962 storms
were
first
analyzed, and the greatest
amount
of precipitation
which occurred at any time during the storm within a continuous period of determined.
5, 10, 15, 30, 60,
100 and 120 minutes time was
first
If
a storm lasted only 60 minutes, the observed
precipitation in that length of time
was considered as
also havthis
is
ing fallen within
100 and 120 minutes time.
While
146
assuming the precipitation which oc-
virtually equivalent to
curred in a given period of time as having been uniformly

distributed over that time,
nevertheless,
it is
believed that
the estimates of the lengths of time required for the runoff
from a given precipitation to reach various points of concentration in a sewer system, for example, are usually far
in error
more
than the assumption of uniform, or progressively de-
creasing, rates of precipitation over periods of 15, 30, 60, or even
120 minutes of time.

the
In other words, the author believes that
amount
of precipitation
which
falls
in
a given period of
time, even though not uniformly distributed over that time,
nevertheless furnishes information which
is
fully as accurate as
the other information and assumptions which enter into the
computations of runoff into sewerage and drainage systems.
The
restriction of precipitation studies to storms of
uniform
rates does not appear warranted.
Table 12 gives the observational data for 100 typical intense

storms in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains
and
Figs. 132 to 138
show graphically the
precipitation during
a few of the most exceptional storms, both in proper sequence

of time as
it
actually occurred, and also
when arranged
in the
order of
maximum accumulated amounts

is
of precipitation in
the given time intervals.
Table 13
summary
of these storms giving only the
most
exceptional rate of precipitation, together with similar records

of the
most exceptional
earlier rainstorms.
From
the records of the individual observation stations, the
rate of precipitation which
would probably be exceeded with

5
frequencies of once in
1, 2,
and 10 years were
first
selected.
Stations showing similar rates were placed in one group.
These
all
data appear in Table
14.
From
1, 2, 5,
the combined records of
the
stations in each group the rates of precipitation which
would
probably be exceeded in
10, 25,
50 and 100 years were
then determined and formulas worked up which best fitted the

observational data.
It
was found that the precipitation varied
PRECIPITATION
147
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
LOO
no
130
Time - Minutes
Fig. 132.
3.0
Maximum
52.0
al.O
6.0
5.0
4.0
S3.0
ZZ-0
1.0
PRECIPITATION
most nearly as the formula
tation
in
149
Q =
in
At
,
where
is
the precipi-
inches,
the
time
minutes, and
and
are
constants.
The frequency of different rates of precipitation

where
varies approximately as /^"^

of years
represents the
number
than
.2
between recurrences of rates of precipitation exceed-
ing the given intensity.

for 5rates,
The exponent
.3.
of
is
less
and 10-minute rates and greater

varying from about .15 to
for 100-
and 120-minute
The
author's formulas for the five groups of stations in the
United States east of the Rocky Mountains, together with the precipitation to be expected in given time intervals of less than
two
hours, with frequencies of from once a year to once in 100 years,
are given in Table 15.
It is believed
that the rates of precipi-
tation here given furnish a better basis for design than those
determined from the records of individual stations.
Considering
a long period of years, the amounts and rates of precipitation

given by the formulas of this table will
equal frequency.
all
be exceeded with
As the records
of
no stations used
in this
study of excessive
it
precipitation extend over
more than 19
years,
would obvi-
ously be impossible to determine, from the records of one station,
the probable intensity of rates of precipitation which occurred
with
less
frequency than once in 5 or 10 years.
The combined
which have
records, however, indicate that
some
of the storms
occurred within the last 20 years are not likely to recur at

the same station with a greater frequency than once in 100 or
more
years.
For example, at Galveston, Texas, three storms have occurred

in recent
years which had an intensity which
is
to be expected
only about once in 100 years.

the precipitation
In
all
three of these storms
amounted
to over 6 inches in
is
two hours.
The
exceptional character of these storms

fact that
well indicated
by the
no other storms occurred
in the 19 years
fell
from 1896 to
1914 in which more than 4 inches of rain
in
two hours
150
of
The storm
still
August
8,
1906, at Madison, Wisconsin,
was
more exceptional
in character for this region. yet, not
Over 4| inches
of rain fell in
two hours,
another rainstorm occurred
at this station during the period from 1905 to 1914 in which
the precipitation exceeded 1^ inches in two hours.

able that the storm of August
this station in several
8,
It is
prob-
1906, will not be equaled at
hundred years.
fell
Other storms in which rain
at rates that will probably
not be equaled, at the given stations, in several hundred years

are the storms of
August
23, 1906, at
Kansas City, Mo.,
of
Ocof
tober 13, 1913, at
New York
City,
Borough
of
Richmond,
June
18, 1911, at
Augusta, Ga., and of April 29, 1905, at Taylor,
Texas.
Table 16 gives the principal formulas proposed
in the past for
the determination of rates of excessive precipitation in different

sections of the United States.
By
reference to Table 15 the
precipitation given
by these formulas can be compared with

139 shows the location of Weather Bureau
that given
by the author's formulas.
Index Map.
Fig.
observation stations used in the rainfall studies just discussed
and the boundaries

for
of the areas to
which the several formulas
frequency of excessive rates of precipitation apply.
PRECIPITATION
151
-û^^rN-V -ill
'<3;.s'
5*
152
TABLE 11. SUMMARY OF RECORDS OF INTENSE RAINSTORMS AT FORTY-THREE STATIONS 1896-1914

Group No.
1
(57 Station-years)
Precipitation in 5 minutes
PRECIPITATION
153
TABLE 11. SUMMARY OF RECORDS OF INTENSE RAINSTORMS AT FORTY-THREE STATIONS 1896-1914 (Co/ihnuerf)
Group
1
(57 Station-years)
Precipitation
154
TABLE IL SUMMARY OF RECORDS OF INTENSE RAINSTORMS AT FORTY-THREE STATIONS 1896-1914 (Cont'd)

Group No. 2
(260 Station-years)
TABLE 11. SUMMARY OF RECORDS OF INTENSE RAINSTORMS AT FORTY-THREE STATIONS 189(5-1914 (Conf'rf)
Group No. 2
(260 Station-years)
156
TABLE 11. SUMMARY OF RECORDS OF INTENSE RAINSTORMS AT FORTY-THREE STATIONS. 1896-1914 (Cont'd)
Group No. 3
(317 Station-years)
PRECIPITATION
157
TABLE 11. SUMMARY OF RECORDS OF INTENSE RAINSTORMS AT FORTY-THREE STATIONS. 1896-1914 (Cont'd)
Group No. 3
(317 Station-years)
158
TABLE n. SUMMARY OF RECORDS OF INTENSE RAINSTORMS AT FORTY-THREE STATIONS 1896-1914 (Con^rf)

Group No. 4
Precipitation
(73 Station-years)
PRECIPITATION
159
TABLE 11. SUMMARY OF RECORDS OF INTENSE RAINSTORMS AT FORTY-THREE STATIONS 1896-1914 (Cont'd)
Group No. 4
Precipitation
(73 Station-years)
160
TABLE 11. SUMMARY OF RECORDS OF INTENSE RAINSTORMS AT FORTY-THREE STATIONS 1896-1914 (Concl'd)
Group No.
Precipitation in 15 minutes
5 (38 Station-years)
PRECIPITATION
IGl
TABLE
12.
DATA
FOR 100 TYPICAL INTENSE RAINSTORMS 1896 1914

Time
in minute-s
Station
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
60
80
100
120
Abilene, Texas,
May
22, 1908
.
Obs. precip.
0.35 0.52 0.82 1.06 1.42 1.77 2.10 2.41 2.56 2.60 2.70 3.17 4.17 4 42
Increment Max. precip.
0.350.17 0.30 0.24 0.36 0.35 0.33 0.31 0.15 0.04 0.10 0.47 1.00 0.25
. .
0.36 0.71 1.04 1.35 1.59 1.89 2.06 2.41 2.56 2.60 2.70 3.17 4.17 4.42
Abilene, Texas,
Oct. 22, 1908
Obs. precip. Increment Max. precip.
0.06 0.16 0.41 0.71 0.80 0.89 1.05 1.35 1.70 1.92 2.27 2.50 3.2913 94 0.06 0.10 0.25 0.30 0.09 0.09 0.16 0.30 0.35 0.22 0.35 0.23
79
65
0.35 0.65 0.87 1.04 1.22 1.38 1.54 1.76 1.93
11
2.27 2.50 3.29 3.94
Abilene, Texas,
July
31, 1911
.
Obs. precip.
0.24 0.70 J. 03 1.36 1.69 2.02 2.32 2.76 3.01 3.14 3.46 3.65 0.24 0.46 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.30 0.44 0.25 0.13 0.32 0.19
0.46 0.79 1.12 1.45 1.78 2.08 2.52 2.77 3.01 3.14 3.46 3.65
Anniston, Ala.,
Sept.
5,
1906
.
Obs. precip..
0.29 0.86 1.45 2 10 2.65 2
3.25 3.43 3.50 3.56 3.60

18 0.07 0.06 0.04
0.29 0.57 0.59 0.65 0.55 0.32 0.28

.
0.65 1.24 1.81 2.36 2.68 2.97 3.25 3.43 3.50 3.56 3.60
Anniston, Ala.,
April 22, 1909
Obs. precip.
0.24 0.36 0.64 1.07 1.42 1.67 1.95 2 0.24
2.17 2.29 2.56 2.84

Asheville, N.
12 0.28 0.43 0.35 0.25 0.28 0.14 0.08 0.12 0.27 0.28
0.43 0.78 1.06 1.31 1.59 1.73 1.95 2.09 2.17 2.29 2.56 2.84
C
.
Aug. 12, 1911 Obs. precip. Increment Max. precip.

Asheville, N.
0.38 0.75
I.-IO
1.45 1.79 2.12 2.40 2.53 2.65 2.67

12 0.02
0.38 0.37 0.35 0.35 0.34 0.33 0.28 0.13

.
0.38
75 1.10 1.45 1.79 2.12 2.40 2.53 2.65 2.67
C
.
June 12, 1914 Obs. precip. Increment Max. precip.

Atlanta, Ga.,
0.70 0.89 0.91 0.94 1.02 1.09 1.12 0.70 0.19 0.02 0.03 0.08 0.07 0.03 0.70 0.80 0.91 0.94 1.02 1.09 1.12
July
23, 1898
.
Obs. precip.
0.27 0.67 0.90 1.19 1.47 1.74 1.85 1.962.02 2.09 2.29 3.38 4.03 4.32

.\tlanta, Ga.,
0.27 0.40 0.23 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.11 0.110.06 0.07 0.20 1.09 0.65 0.29
.
0.40 0.67 0.92 1.20 1.47 1.74 1.85 1.96 2.02 2.09 2.29 3.38 4.03 4.32
Mar. 15, 1912 Obs. precip. Increment. Max. precip.
0.13 0.25 0.40 0.63 0.86 1.05 1.54 1.66 1.78 1.88 2.26 2.78 3.37 0.13 0.12 0.15 0.23 0.23 0.19 0.49 0.12 0.12 0.10 0.38 0.52 0.59
..
0.49 0.68 0.91 1.14 1.29 1.41 1.54 1.66 1.86 2.01 2.26 2.78 3.37
162
TABLE
12.
DATA
STORMS 1896-1914 (Continued)

Time
in
FOR
100
TYPICAL INTENSE RAINminutes

40 45 50 60
No.
Station
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
80
100
120
Atlanta, Ga.,
Aug.
20, 1914
Obs. precip
0.90 1.02 1.33 1.67 1.96 2,44 2.89 3.03 3,19 0,40 0.12 0.31 0.34
29 0.48 0.45 0.14 0,16 0.93 1.22 1,56 1.87 2.01 2.44 2.89 3.03 3,19
J.,
Increment Max. precip

Atlantic City, N.
May
31, 1906
Obs. precip
1.19

Augusta, Ga.,
0.36
1.19
June
18, 1911
Obs. precip
1.80 2.11 2.26 2.46 2.65 2.77 2.88 1.24 0.31 0.15 0.20 0.19 0.12 0.11 1.80 2.11 2.26 2.46 2 65 2.77 2.88

Baltimore, Md.,
Aug. 25. 1911 Obs. precip Increment Max. precip

Bentonville, Ark.,
April 23, 1908
0.75 1.30 1.74 2.22 2.30 0.56 0.55 0.44 0.48 0.08
1.11 1.55 2.03 2.22 2.30
Obs. precip
0.14 0.40 1.04 1.59
76 1.81 1.88
0.06 0.26 0.64 0.55 0.17 0.05 0.07

1.19 1,45 1.62 1.68 1.76 1.81 1.88
Ala.,
Birmingham,
July
24, 1910
Obs. precip
0.57
1.17 1.60 1.87 1.97 1.99 2.01 2
2.23 2.37

Bismarck, N. D., Aug. 9, 1909 Obs. precip Increment Max. precip
Buffalo, N. Y..
0.28 0.29 0.31 0.43 0.27 0.10 0.02 0.02 0.07 0.15 0.14 0.74 1.03 1.31 1.60 1.87 1.97 1.99 2.01 2.08 2.23 2.37
0.47 0.92 1.20 1.47
2.40 2.73
2.99
0.05
2
0.33 0.45 0.28 0.27 0.42 0.51 0.33 0.93 1.26 1.53 1.93 2.26 2.58 2
Mar. 20, 1897 Obs. precip Increment Max. precip

Cairo,
111.,
June
28, 1905
Obs. precip Increment Max. precip Cent. (50 min.+) Obs. precip Increment Max. precip
0.16 0.22 0.26 0.30 0,34 0.37 0.46

0.09 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.09
1,05
0.34
0.70 0.94 1.17 1.43 1.67

1.59 1.75
1.
2.02
2.56
3.61
2.25 2
2.72 3.12
0.27 0.16 0.24 0.26 0.23 0.24 0,40 3.15 3.24 3.27 3.31 3.35 3.39 3.45
0.19
3.61
PRECIPITATION
163
TABLE
12.
DATA
FOR 100 TYPICAL INTENSE RAINSTORMS 1896-1914 (Continued)

Time
in
minutes
40
45 50
60
100
Station
5
10 15
20
25
30
35
120
Cairo,
111.,
July
30, 1913
Obs. precip Increment
0.46 0.91 1.32 1.54 1.66 1.761.85 0.46 0.45 0.41 0.22 0.12 0,100.09
46 0.91 1.32 1.54 1.66 1.76 1.85
Max. precip
Chattanooga, Tenn. Aug. 17, 1912 Obs. precip Increment Max. precip
0.25 0.48 0.78 1.23 1.46 0.45 0.75 0.98 1.32 1.62 1.85
2.10 2,22
27
0.25 0.23 0.30 0.45 0.23 0.34 0.30 0.12 0.05

10
22 2.27
Chattanooga, Tenn. Aug. 22, 1912 Obs. precip Increment Max. precip
Cincinnati, Ohio,
0.51 0.71 0.78 0.84 1.04 1.33 1.84 2.30 2.46
0.51 0.20 0.07 0.06 0.20 0.29 0.51 0.46 0.16

0.51 0.97 1.26 1.46 1.62 1.68 1.84 2.30 2.46
May
20, 1902
Obs. precip
0.42 0.75 1.17 1.71 2.13 2.28 2.30

42 0.33 0.42 0.54 0.42 0.15 0.02

Cleveland, Ohio,
0.54 0.96 1.38 1.71 2.13
28 2.30
Aug. 20, 1901 Obs. precip Increment Max. precip

Cleveland, Ohio,
0.37 1.04 1.46 1.77 1.78
0.37 0.67 0.42 0.31 0.01

0.67 1.09 1.46 1.77 1.78
Aug.
29, 1903
Obs. precip
1.04 1.06 1.09 1.17
Increment Max. precip Columbia, Missouri June 29, 1909

Obs. precip
0.78 0.26 0.02 0.03 0.08

0.78 1.04
1
1.09 1.17
0.14 0.43 0.79 1.01 1.24 1.44 1.77
2.02 2.30 2.73 2.84

2.16 2.38 2.73 2.84

Concord, N. H.,
July
7,
0.14 0.29 0.36 0.22 0.23 0.20 0.33 0.11 0.14 0.28 0.43 0.11
0.36 0.65 0.87 1.10 1.34 1.63 1.77
1907
Obs. precip
0.09 0.30 0.60 1.09,1.60 2.15 2.48 2.69

0.09 0.21 0.30 0.49j0.51 0.55 0.33 0.21 0.55 1.06 1.55 1.882.18 2.39 2.60 2

Concordia, Kan.,
Aug.
26, 1908
Obs. precip
10
0.410.83 1.36 1.78 2.09 2.23 2.35 2.43

1
0.10 0.31 0.42 0.530.42 0.31 0.14 0.12 0.08

0.53 0.95 1.37 1.68
99 2.13 2.25 2.35 2.43
164
TABLE
12.
DATA

Time
in minutes
No.
Station
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
60
Dallas, Texas,
Sept. 22, 1914
Obs. precip. Increment... Max. precip.
0.07 0.41 0.75 1.37
56 1.79
0.07 0,34 0.34 0.62 0.19 0.23
0.62 0.96 1.30 1.49 1.72 1.81
Davenport, Iowa,
July 14, 1910 Obs. precip
0.38 0.92 1.38 1.59 1.61
1
62
73 1.82

Del Rio, Texas,
30
0.38 0.54 0.46 0.21 0.02 0.01 0.11 0.09

0.54 1.00 1.38 1.59 1.61 1.62 1.73 1.82
July 2, 1914 Obs. precip.
Increment Max. precip..

Denver, Colo.,
July
14,
0.18 0.36 0.56 0.84 0.99 1.10 1.32 1.45 1.65 2.13 2.9313.31 3.56 0.08 0.100.18 0.20 0.28 0.15 0.11 0.22 0.13 0.20 0.480.800.38 0.25 1.28 1.48 1.61 1.83 1.94 2.37 2.93 3.31 3.56 0.28 0.48
1912
.
Obs. precip. Increment Max. precip.
0.32 1.19 1.52 1.62
67 1.72
0.32 0.87 0.33 0.10 0.05 0.05

.
0.87 1.20 1.52 1.62 1.67 1.72
Des Moines, Iowa,

July
15,
1907 0.11 0.28 0.50 0.85 1.18 1.41 1.62

1
Obs. precip
1.90 2.01 2.14 2.95 3.29
0.11 0.170.22 0.35 0.33 0.23 0.21 0.18 0.10 0.11 0.13 0.81 0.34
0.35 0.68 0.91 1.13 1.34 1.52 1.69
1.90 2.01 2.14 2.95 3. 29
Dodge
City, Kan.,
0.35 0.71 0.96
30 1.77 2.21 50
81 2.95 3.11 3.47 4.27 4.85
Sept. 16, 1906
Obs. precip
0.58 0.35 0.36 0.25 0.34 0.47 0.44 0.29 0.31 0.14 0.16 0.36 2.21 2.50 2.81 2.95 3.11 3.47 4.27 4.85 25 1.54 0.47 0.91
Dodge
July
City, Kan.,
0.28 0.39 0.90 1.41 1.55 1.63 1.66 1.71 1.79 1.93 2.51 2.73 3.12 0.15 0.13 0.11 0.51 0.51 0.14 0.08 0.03 0.05 0.08 0.14 0.58 0.22 0.39 0.51 1.02 1.16 1.27 1.40 1.-55 1.63 1.66 1.71 1.79 1.93 2.51 2.73 3.12
17, 1911
Obs. precip

Duluth, Minn.,
July
35
21, 1909
.
Obs. precip. Increment.
0.05
14 0.31 0.53 0.87 1.28 1.59 1.7411.85 1.94 2.26 2.51
Max.
precip.
0.05 0.09 0.17 0.22 0.34 0.41 0.31 0.15 0.11 0.09 0.32 0.25 2.12 2.26 2.51 0.41 0.75 1.06 1.28 1.45 1.60 1.71 1.80 1
36
Duluth, Minn., Aug. 12, 1910 Obs. precip. Increment Max. precip..
.
0.16 0.62 1.14 1.38 1.40 0.16 0.46

52 0.24 0.02
0.52 0.98 1.22 1.38 1.40
PRECIPITATION
165
TABLE
12.
DATA

Time
in
minutes
40 45 50
Station
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
60
80
100
120
Elkins,
W.
Va..
Aug.
4.
1911
Obs. precip Increment Max. precip
0.34 0.70 0.94
36 1.72 1.95 2.11 2.22 2.28 2.32
0.34 0.36 0.24 0.42 0.36 0.23 0.16
0.06 0.04 0.42 0.78 1.02 1.38 1.72 1.95 2.11 2.22 2.28 2.32
on
Escanaba, Mich.,
July
12,
1903
Obs. precip
0.10 0.79 1.42 1.62 1.65 1.77 1.87 1.90 0.10 0.69 0.63 0.20 0.03 0.12 0.10 0.03 0.69 1.32 1.52 1.62 1.67 1.77 1.87 1.90

Evansville, Ind.,
Aug. 10, 1908 Obs. precip Increment Max. precip

Ft. Worth, Texas,
0.12 0.30 0.50 0.71 1.05 1.53 1.86 2.01 2.25 2.45 2.50 0.12 0.18 0.20 0.21 0.34 0.48 0.33 0.15 0.24 0.20 0.05 0.48 0.82 1.15 1 36 1.56 1.75 1.95 2.15 2.33 2.45 2.50
Sept. 21, 1900
Obs. precip
0.15 0.42 0.79

Galveston, Texas,
April 22. 1904
1 07 1 34 1.80 2.17 2.40 2.63 2.81 3.08 3.66 3.95 4.32 0.15 0.27 0.37 0.28 0.27 0.46 0.37 0.23 0.23 0.18 0.27 0.58 0.29 0.37 0.46 0.83 1.10 1.38 1.75 2.02 2.25 2.48 2.66 2.81 3.08 3.66 3.95 4.32

Ck)nt. (50
0.75 1.04 1.39

0.22 0.29
0.51 0.94 1.38
72 1.92 2.18 2.55 2.77 3.07 3.33
35 0.33 0.20 0.26 0.37 0.22 0.30 0.26

1.
2.28 2.67 2.94 3.27 3. .54 3.87
min.+)
3.59 3.99 4.50 4.93 5.37 5.87 6.26 6.53 6.86 7.13 51 0.43 0.44 0.50 0.39 0.27 0.33 0.27 0.26 0.40 4.15 4.41 4.67 4.97 5 19 5.56 5.82 6.03 6.35 6.70 7.46 7.74 7.95 8.11 8.26 8.36
0.33 0.28 0.21 0.16 0.15 0.10
Obs. precip Increment Max. precip Cent. (100 min.+) Obs. precip Increment Max. precip
Galveston, Texas,
Oct.
6,
6.99 7.21 7.42 7.58 7.73 7.83
1910
Obs. precip

Galveston, Texas,
Oct. 22, 1913
0.17 0.36 0.58 0.94 1.22 1.47 1.74 1.83 1.89 2.09 2.27 4.07 5.99 6.28 0.17 0.19 0.22 0.36 0.28 0.25 0.27 0.09 06 0.20 0.18 1.80 1.92 0.29 0.48 0.96 1 44 1.92 2.37 2.82 3.27 3.72 3.81 3.90 4.16 5.05 5.99 28
0.38 1.03 1.57 1.92 2 17 2.60 3.04 3 63 4.07 4.62 5.31 6.02 6.52 65 0.54 0.35 0.25 0.43 0.44 0.59 0.44 0.55 0.69 0.71 0.50 0.65 1.19 1.58 2.02 2.45 2.80 3.14 4.69 4.24 4.62 5.31 6.02 6.52
0.38
Grand Rapids,
June
26, 1909
Mich.,
0.36 0.84 1.10 1.31 1.51 1.71 0.36 0.48 0.26 0.21 0.20 0.20 0.48
84 1.10
1
2.01 2.11 2.19

15 0.15 0.10 0.08
31 1.51 1.71
2.01 2.11 2.19
166
TABLE
12.
DATA
FOR 100 TYPICAL INTENSE RAINSTORMS 1896-1914 {Continued)

Time
in
minutes
40 45
No.
Station
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
50
60
100
120
Green Bay, Wis., Aug. 9, 1906

Obs. precip
0.23
60 0.92 1.29 1.59 1.81 2.03 2.08

Hannibal, Mo., July 29, 1910 Obs. precip Increment Max. precip
0.23 0.37 0.32 0.37
30 0.22 0.22 0.05

08
0.37 0.69 1.06 1.36 1.59 1.81 2.03
0.32 0.67 0.84 0.86 0.89 0.93 0.95 0.32

0.,35
19 1.54 1.79 2.07 2.65 3.27 3.87
0,17
02 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.24 0.35 0.25 0.28

1
58 0.62
60
35 0.67 0.84 0.98 1.12 1.26
41 1.55 1.70 1.86 2.17 2.77 3.27 3.87
Houghton, Mich.,
Sept.
7,
1913 0.21 0.44 0.53 0.68 0.84

1. 11
Obs. precip
1.38 1.68 1.93 2.10
Increment Max. precip Cont. (50 min. + Obs. precip Increment Max. precip Cont. (100 min.+) Oba. precip Increment Max. precip
)
0.21 0.23 0.09 0.31 0.57
15 0.16 0.27 0.27 0.30 0.25 0.17
84 1.09 1.26 1.42 1.68 1.87 2.10 2.26
2 21 2 52 2.71 2.94 3.04 3.29 3.39 3.49 3.65 3.80
0.11 0.31 0.19 0.23 0.10 0.25 0.10 0.10 0.16
15
2 45 2.61 2.76 2.86 3.08 3.29 3.38 3.49 3.65 3.80
3.95 4.08 4.16 4.28

15 0.13 0.08 0.12
3.95 4.08 4.16 4.28
Indianapolis, Ind.,
Aug.
48
13,
1913
24
Obs. precip
50 0.95 1.46 1.78 1.98 2.05 2.18 2.41 2.56 2.66 07 0.13 0.23 0.15 0.10 0.14

Indianapolis, Ind.,
Sept. 30, 1902
0.24 0.26 0.45 0.51 0.32 0.20
0.51 0.96 1.28 1.54 1.78 1.98 2.05 2.18 2.41 2.56 2.66 2.80
49
Obs. precip
0.39 1.08 1.09 1.10 0.39 0.69 0.01 0.01 0.69 1.08 1.09 1.10

Jacksonville, Fla.,
Aug.
50
16, 1901
Obs. precip
0.11 0.83 1.00 1.08 1.22 1.28 0.11 0.72 0.17 0.080.14 0.06

Jacksonville, Fla.,
Sept.
6,
0.72 0.89 1.00 1.11 1.22 1.28
1907
Obs. precip
36 0.66 1.18
.36
2.08 2.29 2.49i2.73 2.85 2.93

Jupiter, Fla.,
0.30 0.52 0.47 0.43 0.21 0.20 0.24 0.12 0.08
0.52 0.99 1.42 1.72 2 08 2.29 2.49 2.73 2.85 2.93
Oct. 28, 1908

52
Obs. precip
0.31 0.31
62 0.88 1.35 1.63 2 10 2.643.17 3.40 3 66 3.83 4.15 4.41 4.59
23 0.32 53 26 0.18 31 26 0.47 0.28 0.47 0.54 0.26J0.17 54 1.07 1.54 1.82 2.29 2,55 2.863.17 3.40 3.663.83 4.15 4.41 4.59
PRECIPITATION
167
TABLE
12.
DATA

Time
in
minutes
40
45 50 60 80
100
Station
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
120
Kansas City, Mo.,
May
31, 1896
Obs. precip
0.80 1.05 0.80 0.25

80
1
05
Kansas City, Mo., Aug. 23, 1906

Obs. precip
22 0.60
1
02 1.52 2 02 2 57 3 14 3.67 4 01 4 32 4.74 5.45 5.74 50 0.55 0.57 0.53 0.34 0.31 0.42 0.71 0.29
22
38 0.42 0.50
57 1.12 1.65 2.15 2.65 3.07 3.45 3.79 4.10 4.32 4 74 5.45 5.74
Kansas City, Mo.,

Sept. 15, 1914
Obs. precip Increment
190 35 0.47
0-19
16 0.12
1
68 0.91 1.19 1.74 2.28 2.76 2.90 2.93 3 41 3.51

21
23 0.28 0.55 0.54 0.48 0.14
03 0.48 0.10
Max.
precip.
55 1.09 1.57
85 2 08 2.29 2.43 2.57
76 2.90 2.93 3 41 3 51
Knoxville. Tenn.,
Aug.
4.
1905 08 08
13 0.23 0.29 0.41 0.83
1
Obs. precip
29 1.65 1.89 1.99

Lincoln, Neb.,
05 0.10 0.06 0.12
42 0.46
36
24 0.10
46 0.88 1.24 1.48 1.60 1.70 1.76 1.86 1.91 1.99
May
27, 1914

Lincoln, Neb.,
28 0.72 0.96 1.31 1.53 1.89 2 07 2.39 2.47 2.72
0.28 0.44
24
1
35
22
36 0.18 0.32 0.08 0.25
0.44 0.72 1.03
31 1.61 1.89 2.11 2.39 2.47 2.72
June
5,
1914
05 05
14 0.35 0.65 0.94 1.29 1.58 1.81 1.93 2 07
Obs. precip
Increment Max. precip Cont. (50min. + Obs. precip Increment Max. precip Cont. (100min.+) Obs. precip Increment Max. precip
)
09 0.21 0.30
29 0.35 0.29 0.23

1
12 0.14
35 0.64 0.94 1.23 1.46 1.67 1.79
93 2.06 2.18
2.20 2.32 2.57 2.80 2.90 2.92 2.92 2.93 2 93 2.93

0.13
12
25 0.23 0.10 0.02 0.00 0.01
00 0.00
2.43 2.66 2.76 2.85 2.90 2 92 2.92 2.93 2 93 2.93

3.03 3.26 3 35 3.40 3.57 3.61
10 0.23 0.09 0.05
17 0.04
3.03 3.26 3.35 3.40 3.57 3.61
Lincoln, Neb.,
July
25, 1914
Obs. precip
0.29 0.72 1.26 1.88 2.18 2.53 2.78 2.90 2.99 3.06
43 0.54 0.62 0.30 0.35 0.25 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.29J0 62 1.16 1.59 1.89 2.24 2.53 2.78 2.90 2.99 3.06
Lynchburg, Va., June 24, 1905

0.19 0.58 1.14 1.61 1.85 2.04 2.19 2.25 2.31 0.19 0.39 0.560.47
24
19 15 0.06 0.06
0.56 1.03 1.421. 66 1.85 2.04 2.19 2.25 2.31
168
TABLE
12.
DATA

Time
in
minutes
40
No.
Station
5 10
15
20
25
30
35
45
50
60
Lynchburg,
Sept.
3,
Va.,
1907
.
Obs. precip.
0.25 0.34 0.56 0.94 1.30 1.61 0.25 0.09

0.42
22 0.38 0.36 0.31 0.27
1
2 02
27 2 69 3 49 42 0.80

Madison, Wis., Aug. 8, 1906 Obs. precip. Increment. Max. precip.
Marquette, Mich. June 23, 1907 Obs. precip. Increment Max. precip
.
14 0.25
82 1.22 1.47 1.61
88 2.19 2.55 2.93 3 15 3.49
0.21 0.74 1.29 1.58 1.82 2.09 2.29 2.50 2 85 3.19 3.61 4 54 4.84 0.21 0.53 0.55 0.29 0.24 0.27 0.20 0.21 35 0.34 0.42 0.93 0.30
0.55 1.08 1.37 1.61 1.88 2.09 2.29 2.50 2.85 3.19 3.61 4.54 4.84
63
0.29 0.53 0.59 0.75 1.02 1.35 1.70 1.91 2.17 2.42 2.93 3 54 0.29 0.24 0.06
16 0.27 0.33 0.35 0.21 0.26 0.25 0.51 0.61
0,35 0.68 0.95 1.16 1.42 1.67 1.92 2.18 2.34 2.49 2.93 3.54
Memphis, Tenn., March 9, 1901

Obs. precip
0.78
92 0.97 1.02 1.05

Meridian, Miss.,
0.78 0.14 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.78 0.92 0.97 1.02 1.05
Aug. 13, 1906 Obs. precip. Increment. Max. precip.
0.17 0.38 0.76 1.25 1.81 2.28 2.53 2.73 2.89 3.06 3.63 3.74
.
0.17 0.21 0.38 0.49 0.56 0.47 0.25 0.20 0.16 0.17 0.57 0.11
0.56 1.05 1.52 1.90 2.15 2.36 2.56 2.73 2
3.06 3.63 3.74
Miami, Fla., Nov. 8, 1914

Obs. precip. Increment..
0.10 0.46 0.83 1.16 1.47 1.77 2.04 2.23 2.36 2.56 2
0.37 0.73 1.06 1.37 1.67 1.94 2.13 2.26 2.46 2 3.48 3.90 4.59 69
0.10 0.36 0.37 0.33 0.31 0.30 0.27 0.19 0.13 0.20 0.40 0.52 0.42
Max.
precip.
2.99 3.49 3.97 4.59
Minneapolis, Minn.,
Aug.
67
22. 1914
Obs. precip
0.30 0.57 0.83 1.03 1.40 1.93 2.15 2.21

0.30 0.27 0.26 0.20 0.37 0.53 0.22 0.06
0.53 0.90 1.12 1.36 1.63 1.93 2.15 2.21
Ala.,
Montgomery,
May
68
30, 1905
Obs. precip
0.08 0.17 0.36 0.70
1.44
2.48 2.85 3.03 3.46
0.08 0.09 0.19 0.34 0.38 0.36 0.54 0.50 0.37 0.18 0.43
0.54 1.04 1.41 1.78 2.15 2.49 2.68
3.10 3.29 3.46
Moorhead, Minn., Aug. 29, 1908

69
34
1.28 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.38 1.40 1.40 1.72 1.98
0.34 0.68 0.22 0.04 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.32 0.26 0.68 1.02 1.24 1.28 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.38 1.40 1.40 1.72 1.98
PRECIPITATION
169
TABLE
12.
DATA
No.
170
TABLE
12.
DATA

Time
in
minutes
45 50
No.
Station
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
60
80
100
120
Philadelphia, Pa.,
Aug.
77
6,
1905
11
Obs. precip
0.29
55 0.96
45 1.90 2 10 2 19 2 32 49
45

Raleigh, N.
11
...
18 0.26 0.41
20 0.09 0.13
19
49
94
35 1.61
81 1.97 2.10
32
C,
. .
July
14,
1914 22 0.56
22
.
Obs. precip.
86
48 2 21
67 36
76
19
87 2 94 2 99
11
34
1
30
1
62 3,73
07
05
73
35
71 2 01 2 35 2 57 2.76 2.87 2 94 2
Richmond, Va.,
Aug.
19,
1908
40 86 1.14 46
1
1
Obs. precip
57 2 27
43 70
60 2, on 2 75 2 85 2 91
33
03 0.06 10

Roche-ster,
40
28
1
06
0.70
13
46
87 2 27 2 63
2.75 2 85 2 91
N. Y.,
0.14
44 3 71
1
July
80
11,
1897 06 35
1
Obs. precip
36
30
70 34
84
14
12 2 24 2.49
74

St. Louis,
0.14
35
30
65
27 99
12
1
16
12 0.25 0.25
26
56 1,70 1.84
2 12 2 24 2.49 2.74
Mo.,
1897 88 88
93
March
4.
Obs. precip. Increment. .. Max. precip.

St. Louis,
98
99
00
03 1.05
06
01
09
03
14
23 1.30
05 0.05
93 0.98
01 0.01
03
1
02 05
1
05 0.09 0.13
1
88
99
00 1.03
06 1.09 1.14
23 1.3fi
Mo.,
27
43 0.48
1
May
82
1,
1898
.
Obs. precip
22 1.23 1.24
01
1

St. TiOuis,
0.27 0.16 0.05 0.74

0. 74
01
1
79 0.95
22
23
24
Mo.,
14
July
14,
1912
.
Obs. precip..
41 0.72
99 1.18
19
1
30
12
58 28 40
2 28 2 50 2 95 3.07

St.
0.14 0,27
.
31 0,27
1
30
22
45 0.12
0.40 0.70
20
43
65
2 14 2 36 2 58 2 95 2.07
Paul, Minn.
9,
Aug.
84
1902
.
Obs. precip.
0.06 0,12 0.33

0.06 0.06 0.21
.
71 1.12 1.57 2.02 2.18 2.27 2.38 2.51 2.69 2 9313.04
38,0.41
45
45
16
09 0.11 0.13 0.18
24 0.11
0.45 0.90 1.31 1.69 1.90 2
2.15 2 26 2.32 2,39 2.51 2.69 2.93 3.04
Sandusky, Ohio, Aug. 7, 1906

Obs. precip.
.
0.26 0.49 0.78
34
59 1.74 1,98 2 11 2 16 2.22 24 0.13 0.05

1
0.26 0.23 0.29

0.56 0.85 1.10
1
56 0,25 0.15
33
1
06
59 1.74
2.11 2.16 2.22
PHKCiriTATlON
171
TABLE
12.
DATA
FOR 100 TYPICAL INTENSE RAINSTORMS 1896-1914 {Conlinued)

Time
in
minutes
Station
5 10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
60
100
120
Shreveport, La.,
July
23, 1905
Obs. precip
0.12 0.30 0.42 0.72 0.97 0.12

,34
31 1.62 1.95
22 2.49
Increment Max. precip Cont. (50 min.-l-) Obs. precip Increment Max. precip Cont. (100+)
Ob.s. precip
18 0,12 0.30
25 0.34 0.31 0,33 0.27 0.27
65 0.98 1.25 1.53 1.84 2.09 2.39 2.57
2,81 2 99 3.08 3 15 3.25 3.35 3 50 3.75
92
12
32
2 87 2
18 0.09
0.
10 0.10 0.15 0.25 0.17 0.20 12
3.08 3.15 3.25 3.25 3.50 3.75 3.92
4 30 4.52 4.68 5.00 5.31

18 0.22 16 0.32 0.31
5.485.555.67 5.90 6.06

0.17J0.070.12
0.23 0.16
90 6.06
Increment Max. precip Cont. (150 min. + ) Obs. precip Increment Max. precip
Springfield,
III.,
4.30 4.52 4
5.00 5.31 5.48 5.55 5.67
20 6 28 6.32 6.36 6.43 6.49

14
04 0.04 0.07 0.06
6 20 6.28 6.32 6.36 6.43 6.49
July
6,
1912
Obs. precip
38
80 1.20 1.43 1.73 2 10 2 31,2.42
56 2.70 2.75
38 0.42 0.40 0.23 0.30 0.37 0.2ljo.ll 0.14 0.14 0.05

42 0.82 1.20 1.43 1.73 2.10 2.31 2.42 2.56 2.70 2.75
Tampa,
June
Fla.,
20, 1905
Obs. precip
0.12 0.17 0.45 0.62 0.90 1.32 1.71,2.30 2.57 3.00 3.13 3.37 3.49
12 0.05 0.28 0.17

Taylor, Texas,
Apr.
29, 1905
28 0.42 0.390.
,59
0.27 0.43 0.13 0.24 0.12
0.59
1.40
2.10 2.38 2.55 2.83 2
3.00 3.13 3.37 3.49
Obs. precip
0.45 1.35 2.25 2 75 2.83 2

0.45 0.90 0.90 0.50 0.08 0.06

Taylor, Texas,
0.90
2.30 2.75 2.83 2
June
25, 1906
Obs. precip
0.26
1.42 1.65 1.87 2 19 2.
,55
2.89 3.15 3 40 3.80 4.03

0.40J0 3.15 3.40 3.80 4.03
23

Thomasville, Ga.,
0.26 0.44 0.42 0.30'0.23 0.22 0,32
36 0.34 0.26 0.25
0.44 0.86 1.16 1.42'l.65 1.87 2.19 2.55 2
June
27, 1909
:
Obs. precip
0.21 0.52 0.64 0,78 1.11 1.68 2
232 943.38 3.77 4.14 4.26

Toledo, Ohio,
0.21 0.31 0.12 0.14 0..33 0.57 0.55|o.7l|o.44 0.39 0.37 0.12
0.71 1.26 1.83 2.27 2,66 2.99 3.173.363.56 3.77 4.14 4.26
June
24, 1911
Obs. precip
37 0.79 0.88
3
4
27 1.62 1.882.00 2.04 2.13
0.42
).79
1
09
39 0.35
26:0 12
04 0.09
00 1.27 1.62 1.88 2 00 2.04 3.13
172
TABLE
12.
DATA
FOR 100 TYPICAL INTENSE RAINSTORMS 1896-1914 (Concluded)

Time
in
minutes
No.
Station
5 10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
60
100
120
Topeka, Kan.,
Sept.
6,
1909
Obs. precip
0.09 0.36 0.62 0.73 0.92 1.10 1.36 1.48 1.67 1.85 2.14 2.71 3.20
0.09
27 0.26 0.11 0.19 0.18 0.260.12 0.19 0.18 0.29 0.57 0.49
74 3.20

Valentine, Neb.,
0.27 0.53 0.64 0.83 1.01 1.27 1.39 1.58 1.76 1.90 2.19
Aug.
94
12,
1909
Obs. precip
0.17 0.34 0.47 0.65 0.79 1.19 1.58
02 2.39 2.64 3.01 2.21

Washington, D. Aug. 10, 1897 Obs. precip Increment Max. precip
0.17 0.17 0.13 0.18 0.14 0,40 0.39 0.44 0.37 0.25 0,37 0.44 0.83 1.23
1
20
1.85 2.04 2.22 2.36 2.54 2.67 3.01 3.21
C,
0.18 0.56 1.08 1,62
0.54 1.06 1.44
1 1
95
87 1.88 1.90 1.92
0.18 0.38 0.52 0.54 0.24 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02

1 1
1.87 1.88
1.92
Washington, D.
July
5,
C,
0.30 0.54 0.75 0.93 1.11 1.42 1.74 1.83
1
1905
Obs. precip
2.25 2.72 3,23

Washington, D.
July
30, 1913
0.30 0.24 0.21 0.18 0.18 0.31 0.32

0.32 0.63 0.81 0.99 1.20 1.44 1.74 1.83
0.16 0.26 0.47 0.51

1
2.25 2.72 3.23
C,
0.52 1.21 1.51 1.56 0.52 0.69 0.30 0.05
Obs. precip

Wichita, Kan.,
Sept. 17, 1905
0.69 1.21 1.51 1.56
98
Obs. precip
0.23 0.36 0.41 0.82 1.32 1.66 1.84 1.972.17 2.59 0.23 0.13 0.05 0.41 0.50 0.34 0.18 0.13 0.20 0.42

Wytheville, Va.,
0.50 0.91 1.25 1.43 1.56 1.77 2.18 2.23 2.36 2.59
July
21, 1908
Obs. precip
0.24 0.68 1.17 1.59 1.79 2.10 2.22 2.32 0.24 0.44 0.49 0.42 0.20 0.31 0.12 0.10
59 1.79 2 10 2.22 2.32
0.49 0.93 1.35
Yankton,
S.
D.,
0.22 0.72 1.12 1.49 1.67 1.71 1.77 0.22 0.60 0.40 0.37 0.18 0.04 0.06
May
100
26, 1912
Obs. precip
0.50 0.90
67 1.71 1.77
PRECIPITATION
173
TABLE 13. MOST EXCEPTIONAL RATE OF PRECIPITATION DURING ONE HUNDRED INTENSE RAINSTORMS
1896-1914
174
TABLE 13. -MOST EXCEPTIONAL RATE OF PRECIPITATION DURING ONE HUNDRED INTENSE RAINSTORMS
189&-1914
(Concluded)
Date
Precipitation
No.
Station
Amount,
inches
51
Atlanta, Ga.
52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
61
Tampa,
Fla.
Bismarck, N. D.
Jacksonville, Fla. Elkins, VV. Va.
Sandusky, Ohio Asheville, N. C.

Indianapolis, Ind. Evansville, Ind.
Jupiter, Fla. Lincoln, Neb. Springfield, III.
62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
71
Wichita, Kansas. Meridian, Miss. Lynchburg, Va. Abilene, Texas.
Montgomery, Ala.
Cairo, 111. Valentine. Neb. St. Louis, Mo.
72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Columbia, Mo. Oklahoma, Okla.
Kansas City, Mo.

Marquette, Mich. Washington, D. C.
Anniston, Ala. Rochester, N. Y. Duluth, Minn. Galveston, Texas.
Dodge
City,
Kansas
Madison, Wis. Taylor, Texas Atlanta. Ga. Des Moines, Iowa Topeka, Kansas
Pensacola, Fla Lincoln Nob Galveston, Texas Galveston, Texas New York City, N. Y, Shreveport, La. Norfolk, Va.
Miami, Fla. Abilene, Texas Atlanta, Ga. Fort Worth, Texas Houghton, Mich. Abilene, Texas Hannibal, Mo. Del Rio, Texas
1909 1907 Aug. 4, 1911 Aug. 7, 1906 Aug. 12, 1911 Aug. 13, 1913 Aug. 10, 1908 Oct. 28, 1908 May 27, 1914 July 6, 1912 Sept. 17, 1905 Aug. 13, 1906 Sept. 3, 1907 July 31, 1911 May 30, 1905 June 28, 1905 Aug. 12, 1909 July 14, 1912 June 29, 1909 June 23, 1908 Aug. 23, 1906 June 23, 1907 July 5, 1905 April 22, 1909 July 11, 1897 July 21, 1909 Oct. 22, 1913 Sept. 16, 1906 Aug. 8, 1906 June 25, 1906 March 15, 1912 July 15, 1907 Sept. 6, 1909 Sept. 29, 1906 June 5, 1914 April 23, 1904 Oct. 6, 1910 Oct. 1, 1913 July 23, 1905 Aug. 14, 1898 Nov. 8, 1914 May 22, 1908 July 23, 1898 Sept. 21, 1900 Sept. 7, 1913 Oct. 22, 1908 July 29, 1910 July 2, 1914
9,
Aug. June Aug.
20, 1914 20, 1905

6,
Sept.
83 80 73 22
11
65
41
33 66 72 70 59 63 49 46 46
15 01
95 73 65 45 54 23 84 74 2,51 6.52 4.85 4.84 4,03 3.37 3.29 3.20 6.10 3.35 7.58 6.28 6.20
3.94 3.87 3.56
PRECIPITATION
1.3.
175
-MOST EXCEPTIONAL RATE OF PRECIPITATION TABLE DURING THIRTV-EICilir EARLIER RAINSTORMS
176
PRECIPITATION
177
178
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PRECIPITATION
179
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187
CHAPTER V
The Water
Cycle.
quantity of water just equal to the

of the
precipitation which falls
upon the land and water areas
earth's surface in the course of several years
must be evaporated
in
again, otherwise there
would have to be a progressive change
the vapor content of the air or an escape of water vapor from the
upper atmosphere into space.
Even our
a fact.
limited meteorological
observations and our knowledge of gases, however, indicate that

neither of these possibilities
of moisture in the earth's of
is
As the variable amount
atmosphere represents but a fraction
an inch
of precipitation, it follows that for the earth as a whole,
precipitation
and evaporation are two stages
in a cycle of phe-
nomena that has

If
neither beginning nor end, but which
may
possibly be experiencing a small progressive increase or decrease.
the
mean annual
surface temperature of the earth
is
assumed
to be constant, those factors
which tend to increase evaporation

humidity and
from the land area
will also
tend to increase precipitation.
Under the conditions must remain constant.
of constant temperature,
wind, evaporation from the large water surfaces of the earth
temporary increase
which
in
temperature results in increased

This
is
evaporation and also increased precipitation.

in Fig. 48, p. 73, in eastern
well
shown
gives the effect of changes in temperature

in
United States on precipitation
Europe.
If changes occur in the cultural conditions of the large land
areas which increase evaporation, the result
must inevitably be
if
an
increase in precipitation.
On
the other hand,
there are
changes on the land areas which increase the amount of water
which runs
off
over the earth's surface, or through the rock strata,

188

into the ocean, evaporation
189
and consequently
precipitation,
must
be reduced.
So long as there
is
any runoff from the land
areas, evaporation
from the water areas of the earth's surface must exceed precipitation
upon those
areas, and,
less
on the other hand, evaporation

than the precipitation upon those
from the land areas must be

areas.
It follows, then, that the runoff
from the land area repre-
sents the excess of evaporation from the water area over precipitation
upon that
area.
As by
far the greater portion of the

is
water evaporated from the land area

area,
re-precipitated
upon that
and
as precipitation
and evaporation over the water area
remain substantially constant, the total runoff from the land

area into the ocean must also remain substantially constant,
irrespective of changes
upon the land area which increase
or de-
crease evaporation from that area.
The
distribution of the total
runoff will, of course, be changed.

westerlies watersheds lying
will
In the region of prevailing

of the continents
on the easterly side
be principally affected by such changes in evaporation and
precipitation.
Low- and high-pressure areas pass across the United States

with average intervals of about 1000 miles in distance between
them.
As about 50 per cent
of the evaporation
from land occurs
within three days after precipitation, most of the excess evaporation (assuming changes
have occurred on the land area which

will
have increased evaporation)
occur under the succeeding
high and the moisture so evaporated will blow in toward the preceding low and be re-precipitated.
Evidently a portion of any
such possible increased evaporation over the eastern 500 miles,

say, of the
United States, would result in increased precipitation

This, in turn,
over the Atlantic Ocean.
would
slightly decrease
evaporation from the ocean and to

runoff from the land area.
this extent,
only, reduce
In view of these
considerations,
the
difficulties
attendant
upon
all
efforts to find the effects of deforestation
and
culti-
vation and similar changes upon any given watershed, reflected
190
in the flow of
streams draining such watersheds, can be better
appreciated.
Of the precipitation which

is
falls
is
upon the land

transpired
areas, a portion
evaporated; another portion
by plants or used
to form vegetable tissue;

cipitation runs off
and
still
another portion of the pre-
from the surface of the land area through

its
water courses or finds
way back
to the sea through the earth
and rock
water
state.
strata.
Evaporation Defined.
is
Evaporation
is
is
the process
by which
changed from the liquid or the
solid into the gaseous
As temperature
but a measure of the average rate of
motion
of the molecules of
any substance,
at a
it
follows that
some
molecules are always

average.
moving
much
higher velocity than the
Some
of
these extra-rapidly
moving molecules are
" bombarded " out through the surface film of water, into the
atmosphere, so far beyond the influence of the force of cohesion
that they do not return to the liquid, but remain in the space
above as vapor.
atively dense,
When
the vapor over the water surface
is rel-
some
of the
vapor molecules are caught
in
the
water and join the liquid again.

molecules
is
When
zero.
the interchange of
equal, evaporation
is
This occurs when the

is
dew-point temperature of the vapor above the water

to the temperature of the liquid.
just equal
While the dew-point tempera-
ture of the vapor
is
lower than the temperature of the water,

it is
evaporation continues, but when
higher, condensation occurs.

of molecules
For any given temperature, the fewer the number

of
vapor
in a unit
volume
of space
above the water surface, the
more rapid the

lost
rate at which the
upward moving molecules are
from the
liquid.
Inasmuch
mass,
as the process of evaporation consists of the ab-
straction of the
it
more rapidly moving molecules from the

of the
liquid
follows that the average rate of motion
remaining
molecules must be reduced and, consequently, the temperature In other words, evaporation " is a process of the liquid lowered.
of cooling."
EVAPORATION FROM WATER SURFAC'ES

Effect of Temperature.
pressure,
it
191
In
discussing the subject of vapor

of saturated
was pointed out that the pressure
vapor
doubles for every increase of from 15 to 20 F. in temperature.
For the ordinary annual range of temperature, then, the pressure

of saturated
It
vapor
will
vary several hundred per cent.
was
first
pointed out by Dalton, over a century ago, that
the rate of evaporation from a water surface, other conditions
remaining constant, varies nearly as the difference between the
maximum vapor
pressure corresponding to the temperature of
the water and the actual pressure of vapor present in the at-
mosphere above the water.

molecules of the dry gases.
of the
Vapor
diffuses itself
through the
atmosphere somewhat slowly on account
of the presence of the
The
principal
means
for the
is
removal
vapor which forms over

of the
all
moist surfaces,
the bodily
motion
atmosphere.
Since the air

is
feet of the
land and water surface

is
very
movement within a few much slower than at
higher elevations, there
always a considerable variation in the
water vapor content of the lower few feet of the atmosphere.

This variation consists not only of a variation in the relative
humidity but
in the actual
amount
of
vapor present, as repre-
sented by the vapor pressure.

If
we accept the
is
principle enunciated
by Dalton, that evapora-
tion
governed by the difference between the vapor pressure
corresponding to the water temperature and the actual pressure

of the
in the
vapor present
in the air above,

air
and
if
the rate of reduction

is
vapor content of the

it
from the earth's surface upward
uniform,
follows that the vapor pressure

surface,
measured at almost
any elevation above the earth's

give a measure of evaporation.
when subtracted from

substantiated by the
the vapor pressure corresponding to the water temperature, will
This
is
observations of Bigelow.*
Inasmuch
as the
maximum vapor
pressure
is
a function of the
temperature, the actual pressure of the vapor present in the

*
Bigelow, Frank H.,
ration: U. S.
A Manual for Observers Weather Bureau, 1909, p. 33.
in
Climatology and Evapo-
192
if
atmosphere must also be a function of the temperature,

relative
the
humidity remains constant.
In other words, the rate of

is
evaporation, according to Dalton's law,
approximately doubled
for each 18 degrees rise in temperature, for constant
humidity
and wind
velocity.
Within the range
of variation in
monthly
mean temperature
States, the
will
occurring throughout most of the United

of evaporation of free moisture
monthly mean rate
vary about 700 to 1200 per cent due to temperature changes
alone.
Effect of Barometric Pressure.
Several of the early writers
concluded that evaporation varied inversely as the barometric

pressure.
ration formula
in 1888.
The same allowance was made by Russell in his evapofirst published in the Monthly Weather Review
Stefan, in 1873, represented the effect of barometric pressure
by the following
ric
expression:
log
[
p_
where
P =
baromet-
pressure and p
= maximum
vapor pressure at the given
temperature.
(The value of
this expression
becomes
infinity
at the boiling point.)

Fig. 140
shows the
effect of
barometric pressure on evaporation
according to the formulas of Stefan and Russell.

las give
The two formu-
almost identical results for
all
temperatures.
Bigelow,* in his evaporation formula, completely neglects the

effect of
barometric pressure on evaporation, but in the discus-
sion of his formula he does not state the reason
why.
Note: It is evident that widely divergent views respecting the effect of barometric pressure on evaporation are held by different investigators. It appears to the author that even though water boils freely at temperatures less than 212 F. under less than sea-level barometric pressure, it does not neces-
barometric pressure, per se, increases evaporaunder any given pressure, water boils at a given temperature, is merely another way of saying that the total pressure of the atmosphere, i.e., the combined pressure of the nitrogen, oxygen, CO2, water vapor, etc., are exactly equal to the maximum vapor pressure of the water at the temperature If the latent heat of vaporization of the boiling point under those conditions.
sarily follow that reduction in
tion.
To say
that,
Bigelow, Frank H., Atmospheric Circulation and Radiation, p. 346.

of
193
water were
zero,
it
would instantaneously pass from the liquid to the gaseous

of
state
when the boiling temperature was reached. The various gases of the atmosphere exist independently
each other,
Neither exerts a except in so far as they retard the diffusion of other gases. While the distribution of oxygen and nitrogen in the pressure on the other.
atmosphere are governed, primarily, by the laws of Boyle and Charles, the If, as distribution of water vapor is governed, primarily, by temperature.
iSiOr
145
140
.135
fa 130
il25
120
115
110
105
100
194
It would seem that if vapor can diffuse through the ordinary calm atmosphere more rapidly than it can form at the water surface, under ordinary open air temperatures, and if, moreover, vapor is usually carried away bodily by air currents still more rapidly than it can diffuse through the air, a reduction in barometric pressure which is simply the removal of some of the molecules of nitrogen and oxygen which are in the path of the upward moving water vapor molecules at best can only result in reducing the number of molecules of water vapor per cubic foot of space above the water. In other words, it can only result in a reduction of the actual vapor -pressure above the water. Since the Dalton formula for evaporation, which the author has accepted, assumes evaporation to vary as the difference between the maximum vapor pressure at the water temperature and the actual vapor pressure in the air above the water, any effect of barometric pressure will have been taken into consideration, when the actual vapor pressure above the water surface has been deter-
mined.
The water vapor

stable equilibrium.
in the
atmosphere
is
almost continually in a state of unis
The vapor
pressure at the earth's surface
usually at
least 5 to 10 times the
weight of the column of vapor above; hence, the water vapor at the surface can be held in equilibrium only by the obstruction presented by the molecules of nitrogen and oxygen.
As the vapor moves upward,

precipitates; consequently, there
or
is
is
carried
up by
air currents, it cools
and
a continual flow of water vapor to higher altitudes. A reduction in barometric pressure would facilitate this flow of vapor, and hence would tend to lower the relative humidity at the water surIf the flow of face, but would not affect evaporation in any direct way. vapor upward is entirely dependent upon the bodily motion of the air, a reduction in barometric pressure could not affect evaporation, even in this
indirect
way.
desires to reiterate that these conclusions are based upon uncompleted laboratory studies and library researches, and must not be considered final from his viewpoint.
The author
Effect
of
Relative
Humidity.
as,
Relative
humidity
affects
evaporation only in so far

temperature,
it is
when taken
in connection with
a measure of the amount of vapor present in

If
the atmosphere.
the temperature of the water

air,
is
higher than
the temperature of the
evaporation will continue even though

is
the relative humidity a few feet above the water surface per cent.
100
For the condition of uniform and constant

perature, evaporation
It
is
air
and water temdeficit.
is
proportional to the saturation
equal to a constant times the
maximum vapor
pressure cor-
responding to the temperature, times one minus the relative

humidity.

Figs. 28
in
195
and
29, pp. 54
and
55,
show graphically the variation

of stations dis-
monthly mean
relative
humidity at a number
tributed through the United States outside of the arid region of
the West.
It will
be noted from these figures, that the monthly
values of relative humidity in the several states vary by only
about 15 to 20 per cent during the open season.

tions remaining constant,
result of
Other condi-
monthly mean evaporation, as the
changes in monthly mean relative humidity, would vary
only from 30 to 50 per cent.

Effect of
Wind
Velocity.
The
effect
of air
movement on
evaporation has been given widely different weights by different

writers.
varies,
Weilenmann,
Stelling,
and Tate hold that evaporation
approximately, directly as the wind velocity.

it
DeHeen,
Shierbeck and Svenson hold that

the wind velocity.
velocities
varies as the square root of
Russell found a wind effect which, for wind
up
to 15 or 20 miles per hour, can be approximately
represented by the
expression
(1
+ t),
where
represents
wind velocity
FitzGerald
*
in miles per hour.
found that the wind
effect could
be represented
by the
coefficient 1
k"
Bigelow,t in his
tor of about
( 1
first
*
evaporation formula, used a wind fac-
+ ^)
)
In his last published results, J Bigelow changed the wind factor

to about
(
The allowance
sarily
to be
made
for
change in wind velocity necesof the
depends largely upon the elevation
anemometer
is
with reference to the surface from which evaporation
being
measured.
*
In so far as the author has had access to the original

Desmond, Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., XV, p. 581. Frank H., A Manual for Observers in Climatology and Evaporap.
FitzGerald,
t Bigelow,
tion, p. 28.
X
Atmospheric Circulation and Radiation,

Office, p. 39.
346,
and Bulletin No.
2,
Argentine Meteorological
196
published results,
referred to
it
would appear that the wind
effects
above
at
had been based upon a wind velocity observed
the elevation of the water surface in the basin from which
evaporation was measured.

is
The
practicing engineer, however,
usually limited to wind velocity as observed
by the U.
S.
Weather Bureau, which, in general, represents a velocity from

two
to three times that at the surface of the ground.
effect of
The
in
wind velocity on the evaporation
of moisture
its
from a broad expanse would appear to be primarily

surface than
effect
removing the vapor which forms more rapidly over the water
it
can diffuse through the atmosphere above.

is
If
the rate of evaporation
determined by the vapor pressure
gradient between the water surface and the upper atmosphere,

it is
not
all
clear
why, when the actual pressure of vapor present
in the air a short distance
above the water has been determined,

of.
the effect of wind velocity has not already been taken account
The
effect of
wind
if
is
to lower the relative humidity at the point

is
of observation,
this
within a few feet of the water surface.

is
Where a
quiescent
small surface of water

air,
exposed to evaporation in
a blanket of vapor soon forms above the water,

If,
which greatly reduces evaporation.
under these conditions,

is
however, a measurement of relative humidity

close to the
made
is
rather
is
water surface,
it
will
be found that the space

If
occupied by nearly saturated vapor.
the air
next set in
motion, there will be a decided increase in the rate of evaporation which will also be indicated, however,
relative humidity.
by a great drop
in
Observations of relative humidity
made
at
some distance from the water surface would not

effect;
reflect the
wind
consequently,
it
would appear correct
to
make an
humidity
allow-
ance for wind effect on the evaporation of moisture from small

or non-uniformly moist surfaces
when
relative
is
ob-
served in a standard Weather Bureau shelter nearby, but to
make no allowance
relative
for
wind
effect
when
the observations for
humidity are made above a large water surface.
After checking observed and computed evaporation from pans

at a nuin !)(>! of stations, using various
197
author
effect
wind
factors, the
has
of
tentatively adopted
( 1
+ j
water,
as
representing
the
wind on the evaporation

very
small
bodies
of
of free moisture
from the surface

represents
of
where
wind
velocity in miles per hour, as observed
by the United States
Weather Bureau.
Using a wind factor of (l

to change in
in Fig. 22,
+ T7j)
37, for
the vari-
ation in evaporation due

velocity as
of states,
lUU
monthly mean
page
wind
shown graphically
to only
a number
amounts
about 20 to 30 per cent.

10
198
it
be observed, varies between wide
limits.
will
The
difference
i.e.,
between the
maximum and
actual vapor pressure, however,
the variation in the factor which virtually determines evaporation,
shows a variation
of several
hundred per
literature
cent.
Evaporation
Formulas. The
is
bearing
on
the
subject of evaporation
very extensive.
is
bibliography published to date
that
The most complete prepared for the Monthly
Weather Review
It covers
of 1908
and 1909 by Mrs. Grace Livingston.

have been proposed,
specific
849 references between the dates of 1670 and 1909.
large
number
of evaporation formulas
but aside from the Dalton law already mentioned,

reference will be
low's
made
here to only two formulas, namely Bigefull
and
Russell's.
discussion of the data

is
and consider1912.
is:
ations underlying Bigelow's formula
given in Bulletin No.
2 of the Argentine
.
Meteorological
Office
published
in
Bigelow's formula for evaporation from a large water surface
E = 0.023^11(1 + 0.07 w;), db

ed
where
E =
Bd
the evaporation in centimeters during four hours

time;
the
vapor pressure
in
millimeters at the dewair;
point temperature of the
= = w
e,
the vapor pressure at the water temperature;
the wind velocity at the surface of the water in

kilometers per hour;
de
-Tn
the
rate
of
change
in
the
maximum
by him
is:
vapor
pressure with temperature.

Russell's evaporation formula, fully discussed
in
the
of September,
)
1888,
E=
30
-r-
Apy,
-}-
B{pw
Vd)
E =
evaporation in inches per month;

tension, in inches of mercury, correspond-
p^ = vapor
ing to monthly
mean wet-bulb temperature;

p^
199
vapor tension,
ing to
in inches of
mercury, correspond-
monthly mean dew-point temperature;

pressure, in inches of mercury;
b = mean barometric A = 1.96; B = 43.88.
The
least
values
squares,
for
and
were derived by the method of

for
from the Piche evaporometer observations
June, 1888, at the 18 stations listed in Table 17.
TABLE
17.
RUSSELL'S
PICHE EVAPOROMETER OBSERVATIONS
Station
200
basis
of
measurements
of
evaporation from dishes of water
placed in the Weather Bureau shelters.

effect of
He
also neglected the

his
wind velocity because by doing so
formula better
fitted the observational data.
There was considerable variation
in the observed
wind velocity at the several stations during

17.
June, 1888, as
shown by Table
Moreover, Russell found
that at a wind velocity of five miles per hour, the evaporation
from a Piche was
2.2 times that
from one
in
quiet
air;
at
ten miles 3.8 times; and at a wind velocity of 15 miles per hour,
it
was
4.9 times that in quiet air.
The wind
velocity measured
with an anemometer set up inside of a standard shelter at
Washington, D. C, for eight days, gave a value
of 3.48 miles
an
hour, which was only 52 per cent of the velocity outside.
In deriving his formula, Russell also increased the observed

evaporation in proportion to the relation of 30 to the observed
barometric pressure, that
for example,
is,
the observed evaporation at Denver,
where the barometer read 24.7 inches was multiplied
by ~-fj
or 1.21 before determining the constants of the equation.
In comparing evaporation from a Piche with evaporation
from a
stated
reservoir,
it
is
necessary to take account of the fact
by Russell
in the
that:
" In the case of the Piche evaporometer the temper-
ature of the evaporating water
is
strictly that of a
wet-
bulb thermometer exposed at the same place." The Piche evaporometer observations represent the evaporation at an average wind velocity at the instrument of ap-
proximately 3| miles per hour.
On
the other hand, as stated by Russell: the shelters

is
"The effect of the high exposure of make the figures too great, the wind
of the ground.
to
action being far
greater at the height of the shelters than at the level
The evaporation taking
place from a
small paper disk, as in the results obtained from the

* September, 1888, p. 237.
EVAPORATION FROM WATER SURFACÊS

Piche instrument, has a tendency to be too small,
as the determining temperature of evaporation
of a wet-bulb
is
201
that
cir-
thermometer exposed under similar

In the case of a
cumstances.
body
of water the deis
termining temperature of evaporation

of the average
nearly that
temperature of the
air."
Comparison
of Evaporation
Formulas.
Figs.
142 and 143
show graphically the

and
wind
relative
evaporation given by Bigelow's
Russell's formulas,
factor.
and by the Dalton law, using the au-
thor's
In order to permit a better comparison of
the three formulas. Fig. 142 was
drawn
to
show the
relation
between monthly evaporation and monthly mean temperature

for constant relative humidities of
50 and 70 per cent and Fig.
143 to show the relation between monthly evaporation and
monthly mean
of
relative
humidity
for
constant
temperatures
50 and 77 degrees Fahrenheit.
constant wind velocity

for all con-
of 15 kilometers or 9.3 miles per
hour was assumed
ditions of temperature
and humidity.
Air and water temper-
atures were assumed uniform except in the case of Russell's
formula, which
for the
is
based on wet-bulb thermometer temperatures

loss
water and which gives an evaporation
equal to
three-quarters of that from a Piche.
These diagrams show outstanding differences between the

three formulas.
On
the whole, Russell's formula gives smaller
evaporation losses than the other two.
As no allowance
is
made
l)een
in
his
formula for wind

greater
if
effect,
the values would have
relatively
lower
wind velocity had been

Bigelow's
used in
ver}'
the
other
two formulas.
formula
gives
high losses for relative humidities greater
than 80 per
cent and less than 25 per cent.

five
An
evaporation of nearly
inches per
month
at a temperature of 77 degrees, even

is
though the relative humidity

impossible, unless air
100 per cent, seems
clearly
and water are not at the same temperature.
Similarly, the nearly constant rate of evaporation, with great
changes in relative humidity near 100 per cent and the rapidly
202
Relative Humidity 70f,Relative Hun idity 50^-
RELATION BETWEEN TEMPERATURE AND EVAPORATION ACCORDING TO

VARIOUS FORMULAS.
10
12
14
18
20
Monthly Evaporation - Inches Depth

Fig. 142.
10
I 3 K
40
g50
60
100
203
increasing rate of evaporation at low relative humidities, ap-
proaching infinity at zero, do not appear reasonable.

ever the water temperature
is
Whenis
higher than the air temperature,
evaporation
will
not be zero even when the relative humidity

*
100 per cent and Bigelow's comments

ation "sometimes to a surprising
loss
relative to a continuof the evaporation

fogs,
amount"
in
from pans,
in California
and
Maine, during dense
do not prove the Dal ton law incorrect, by any means, as the
air
during a fog
is
invariably (;ooler than the water.
In presenting observational data in support of his formula,
Bigelow makes an
effort to attribute the
discrepancy between
observed and computed evaporation loss to the expansion and

contraction of the water in the evaporation pan.f
It is true,
of course, that
when the temperature

temperature
is
rises,
the
water expands, so that the observed elevation of the water

surface during periods of
rising
greater,
and,
consequently, the observed evaporation loss less than the true

loss
and
vice versa
during periods of falling temperature.

all
These
discrepancies,
however, are not at
comparable with most

Table
5,
of the discrepancies
shown
in Bigelow's
representative
samples of which are shown in Table
18.
The data
in Bigelow's
Table
5,
show 18 variations
the wrong.
at 2 p.m.
in the right direction
and 22
in
Of the 10 p.m.
data, there are 19 variations in the right direction
and 21
in
the wrong.
It is
apparent from Table 18 that the evaporation computed

of Bigelow's
by means
formula frequently
differs
from the ob-
served evaporation for four-hour periods by 15 to 20 per cent.

After a careful study of Bigelow's work, the author has conArgentine Meteorological Office, p. 35. by Bigelow on p. 32 of the Argentine Report in support of the aljove contention. A numerical quantity (given as +0.0046 but apparently +0.0029) resulting from averaging 10 plus values varying from 0.0000 to +0.0204 and 8 minus values varying from 0.0008 to 0.0141 is set forth as comparing favorably with a theoretically required
2, t
Bulletin No.
Some
observational data are presented
value of +0.0048.
seriously in support of
Such divergent observational data can hardly be taken any contention whatsoever.
204
for
eluded to retain,
formula.
in the
the
present
at
least,
the
old
will
Dalton
be found
Further discussion of Bigelow's formula

April, 1916, Proc.
March and
Am.
Soc. C. E.
TABLE 18. RATIO OF OBSERVED TO COMPUTED FOUR-HOUR EVAPORATION AT TYPICAL STATIONS, TAKEN FROM BIGELOW'S TABLE NO. 5 * AND EXPRESSED IN PER CENT
Station

faces,
205
*
however, a correction should be made.
Grunsky
has
proposed a correction based mainly upon the relation between

wetted perimeter and area of pan which agrees reasonably well
with Bigelow's observations on exposed or partially immersed
pans.
Methods
tion
in
of
Measurement.
of
Measurements
of the evapora-
from pans
water set
in
the ground or floated from rafts

in a considerable
large bodies of water

of places in the
have been made
number
United States and elsewhere.
Both
square and round pans have been used, although the preferable
piece of apparatus 3 feet in
would appear to be a strong

not less
circular pan,
diameter and
than
18 inches deep, with
a sharp-pointed indicator in the center.

procedure, in measuring evaporation,
is
A common mode
to add, each day,
of
an
amount
vious
fuls
of water
equal to what evaporated during the pre-
24-hour period.
t^?j
The water
is
usually added
by cupthe
representing
inch in depth over the surface of

is
evaporating pan, until the water level
again up to the top
of the sharp-pointed index in the center of the pan.
rain
gage placed nearby
is
used as a measure of the precipitation

for
on the evaporation pan
which correction must be made.
The
level.
use of a circular pan has the advantage of always giving
the correct height of water even though the pan
may
not be
By
far the best
way
of
making an observational determiis
nation of evaporation from a large water surface

floating pan, even
to use the
though
it
is
often difficult to prevent the
splash of water both in and out of the pan as the result of

action.
in
for
wave
The use
soil
of
pans suspended above the water or placed

still
the
nearby, usually involves
greater possibilities
error.
Fine brass wire netting, coiled into a spiral and
placed in the evaporation pan but not permitted to project
above the water

*
surface,
has been found to produce a very

American Society Civil Engineers,
April,
Grunsky, C.
E., Proceedings
1916, p. 562.
206
effect.
satisfactory baffling
The evaporation pan should be

is
bound with heavy straps

ticularly at the base
of iron so as to prevent distortion, par-
where the index
fastened,
and should
less
preferably be not less
than 3 feet in diameter and not
than 18 inches deep, the water being maintained as high in the

dish as
wave action
permits.
In determining the evaporating power of the atmosphere,

botanists are
making extensive use

is
of
porous-cup atmometers.
One
of the best types in use
that invented by B. E. Livingin the
stone,
and described by him

p. 271.
December, 1907, "Plant
World,"
Observed Evaporation.
relatively
Tables
bodies
20 to 25 summarize some
of the best records of actual observed evaporation
from pans
floated
all
in
small
of
water.
These records
cover several years' observations.
TABLE
20. OBSERVED EVAPORATION AT UNIVERSITY, N. D.,
1905-1916, inclusive
TABLE 21. OBSERVED EVAPORATION AT GRAND RIVER LOCK,

WIS., 1905-1913,
inclusive
Month
These values plotted in
Fig. 144.
Observations extended over portions of the
month
only.
EVAPORATION FROM WATER
SURI-'ACES
207
TABLE 22. OBSERVED EVAPORATION AT BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS,

1875-1890 inclusive
TABLE 23. OBSERVED EVAPORATION AT KINGSBURG, CALIF.,

Nov.,
1881-1885 inclusive
Month
208
partment.
Both the Grand River Lock and the University,
humidity at the North Dakota station
slightly
N. D., evaporation stations are on small shallow bodies of water.
The mean
slightly
relative
is
less
and the wind velocity
greater than at
the Wisconsin station.
The observations
scribed
at Boston, Mass., were
made by Desmond
FitzGerald in the Chestnut Hill reservoir and are fully de-
by him
in Trans.
Am.
Soc. C. E., Vol.
XV,
p.
581.
Those at Mt. Hope, N. Y. were made by the City Engineer's

Office of Rochester,
New
York.
The observations
Grunsky under the
fornia.
at Kingsburg, Calif., were
made by
C. E.
direction of the State Engineer of Cali-
Those at Lee Bridge near London, England, were made

are described in Minutes of Proceedp. 19.
by Chas. Greaves and

ings, Inst. C. E., Vol.
XLV,
In discussing the Kingsburg observations, Grunsky states

that the values are probably
somewhat small on account
of
protection which the pan derived from high banks and a fringe
of low trees at a
of the river
nearby bridge, and also that the temperature

less
water was probably

in
than that which would
have prevailed
an open body of water.
Comparison
of the
observations with other data also indicates that the evaporation

is
lower than would be expected for the given

is
is
air
temperatures,
and that spring evaporation

than
fall
less for
the same temperature
evaporation.
This
undoubtedly due to the fact that

is
Kings River, on which the observations were taken,

fed stream.
a snow-
The observations near Independence,

in cooperation
Calif.,
were made by
Chas. H. Lee of the Department of Public Works, Los Angeles,
with the U.
S.
Geological Survey and the State

are published in
of California.
The
full results
Water Supply
Paper No. 294.
The data presented

the same
air
in Tables
20 to 25 have been shown
graphically in Figs. 144 to 148.
The
greater evaporation for
temperature during the spring than during the

fall
209
results
from the generally lower relative humidity and the
higher wind velocity at a time

air for
is rising.
Apparently the capacity of the

at a
moisture
is
increased
more rapid
can meet;
rate than evaporation from land
and water
drops
areas
consequently,
the
moisture
content
and the rate

bodies
of
of evaporation increases.
In the case of deep

air
water the water temperature lags behind the

air
temperature and the spring evaporation, for the same

perature,
is less
tem-
than the
fall
evaporation.
80
210
u
211
rn
212
26.
TABLE
COMPUTED
EVAPORATION AT
ST.
PAUL, MINN.

In computing the evaporation at
February,
213
Mount Hope
for January,
March, and October, November, and December,
the author used the difference between the
maximum vapor
pressure corresponding to the water temperature and a vapor
pressure for the air above the water, based on the observed
relative
humidity and the water temperature.

April
to
From
pressure
September, inclusive, the evaporation was
computed by taking the difference between the

corresponding
to
maximum
vapor
the
water temperature,
and the
actual vapor pressure in the air as determined from the air
temperature and the observed relative humidity.
During the winter months, the water

(
in the
floating tubs
10-inch fiber pails)
was at a surprisingly high temperature,

of
It is
presumably due to the pumping

in
water into the reservoir
which the tubs were
floating.
assumed, therefore, that
the layer of air immediately above the water surface was heated
to nearly water temperature,
of actual
and that the most probable value

in
vapor pressure, for use
the formula, would be
secured by applying the relative humidity to the
maximum
air
vapor pressure at the water temperature rather than at the
temperature observed some distance above the water surface.
The computed evaporation

in
for St. Paul,
Minn.,
is
also
shown
Fig.
144,
and indicates satisfactory correspondence with
actual evaporation observed under similar conditions.
study of observed evaporation losses from relatively shalin
low water
comparison with computed losses
leads to the
conclusion that substantially correct values can be deduced
from
observed
meteorological
phenomena without
resorting
to actual
measurements.
The temperature
of relatively shallow
bodies of water follows the air temperature quite closely.
Air
temperature
in the
is
being observed at several thousand stations
United States, and relative humidity and wind velocity
are
being observed at about 200 stations.
Reasonably ac-
curate base data are, therefore, available for use in computing
evaporation
losses.
214
Evaporation from Deep Water.
The
temperature of large
air.
deep bodies of water varies considerably from that of the

In general,
the
higher than the
mean annual water temperature is slightly air temperature. The extent to which the
air
temperature of lakes varies from the

primarily,
temperature depends,
upon
their depth.
In summer, the sun's rays with

of deep
the aid of currents set up
by waves, warm the water

Below
this depth,
lakes to depths of about 150 feet.
however,
the temperature remains substantially uniform, at a the
little
above
mean annual
air
temperature, throughout the year.
The
temperature of the water near the bottom of deep lakes in

northern latitudes usually remains very close to the temperature
of
maximum
The
density.
variation,
with depth and season, of the temperature

is
of
Lake Geneva, Switzerland, and Lake Cochituate, Mass.,
graphically
shown
in Fig. 149.
Lake Cochituate
freezes over,
whereas Lake Geneva remains open the year around.
After
the entire body of water in the former lake has reached the
temperature of
maximum
density,
i.e.,
39.2 F.,
the
surface
water cools and, becoming lighter, remains at the surface until

ice forms.
With
ice
increasing cold, the ice temperature continues

of the layer of water
to drop
and more and more

cover cools
immediately
below the
degrees.
down
to between 32 degrees
and 39.2
From
a few feet below the ice to the bottom of the
lake the temperature remains at about the point of

density.
maximum
it
As soon
as the ice breaks up, in spring, the entire
body
of water soon attains
uniform temperature, making
very
susceptible to circulating currents set

its
up by
air
movement over
increases, the
surface.
As the heat received from the sun
surface water heats
more rapidly than the deeper
layers and,
being lighter, remains at the top.

of
The
result
is
that
by the end
mid-summer, the surface During the season of
of the water usually has at least

air.
as high a temperature as the
falling
temperature the water remains

because, as the surface water
continually
warmer than the
air,
TemperatureDegrees Fahrenheit
.30
40
so
60
ro
80'
20
40
60
f
1
80
t o
a
100
130
140
160
216
cools,
it
becomes heavier and sinks and
is
replaced by
warmer
water from below.
The
circulation thus set
up extends deeper
and deeper.
Cooling proceeds throughout a layer of increas-
ing thickness, eventually reaching the bottom of the lake or

at least to a depth of about 150 feet below the surface.
If cool-
ing continues after the entire
body
of water has reached the

is
point of
maximum
density, the surface temperature
rapidly
reduced and the lake freezes over.
The
currents set up in spring and
fall
by the change
in the
temperature of relatively deep bodies of water are of considerable importance in connection with public water supplies on
account of their
effect
on the character of the water.

the lake sur-
The temperatures determining evaporation from

it
face are, of course, the surface water temperatures, but these,

will
be noted from what has been said above, are intimately
related to the temperature of the entire
body
of water,
and
this
depends largely upon
its
depth.
The
greater the depth of a

its
lake the greater the excess of fall evaporation from
surface
over spring evaporation, at the same temperature.
When
reasonably complete records of both
air
and surface
water temperatures, in addition to records of relative humidity
and wind velocity are at hand, the evaporation from deep water can be computed directly from the observed data by means
of
the evaporation formula.
Usually, however, no such ob-
servational data are available.
In order to meet the need for a measure of evaporation from

relatively deep bodies of water,
and applicable
at least to average
conditions, the author has constructed the curve of Fig. 150,

.
on the basis of the available observational data and the known

general relationship between air and water temperatures.
curve, of course,
is
This
intended merely to represent an average
measure which
able.
may
be applied when
specific
data are not avail-
Fig.
151 shows the evaporation loss from the Lake of the

as
Woods
observed by the Manitoba Hydrographic Survey

between 1913 and 1915.
square miles and
is
217
This lake has an area of about 1500

feet
about 100
deep
in places at its
northern
extremity, but only about 25 feet deep throughout the
main
southern portion.
The water temperature
at the northern end,
12
at
Monthly Evaporation,
Fig. 150.
in
Inches
Keewatin,
Ontario,
where the measurements were made,

evaporation for the
lagged considerably behind the air temperature, resulting in

large differences
between spring and

This condition
is
fall
same
temperatvn*e.
likely to prevail
on
all
218
northern lakes where the rate of change in air temperature

in spring
and
fall is
great.
Evaporation from
Snow and
Ice.
Figs.
ice.
150 and 151 also
give the evaporation from
snow and
Few
observational
70
60
50
40
30
20

As early as 1826, Schiibler
of evaporation
219
called attention to the high rate

ice.
from snow and
Horton
gives
some observations
of evaporation
from snow
which check the values indicated by the curve

well.
of Fig. 150 very
A loss
of .25 inch
was recorded during the nine days from

January
4,
December
to a
26, 1913, to
1914.
The mean maximum

The
re-
temperature during
this period
was 29.5 degrees, corresponding

of
monthly mean temperature
about 24 degrees.
corded evaporation for nine days corresponds to a monthly

evaporation of .83 inch.
of evaporation per
The curve
of Fig. 150 gives .9 inch
month
at a temperature of 24 degrees.
The
mean wind
velocity
during the period covered by Horton's
observations was 7.3 miles per hour.
The
relative
humidity
recorded by the Weather Bureau for January, 1914, was 78 per

cent.
These values represent approximately the normal con-
ditions for the
Northwest which constitute the basis
for the
curve of Fig. 150.
Data bearing on the evaporation from snow
at high altitudes,
of
when subjected
to desert winds, are found
on page 118
Water
Supply Paper No. 294.
rate varying from twice to over

is
ten times the evaporation from water
given.
It
Such high values,

be noted, how-
however, are not generally applicable.
may
ever, that even the author's curves of Fig. 150 indicate that
"chinook" winds
of high
temperature and low relative humidity
can produce high rates of evaporation.
At 45
degrees, for ex-
ample, an extension of the curve would give about 3.4 inches

evaporation per
month from snow and

relative
ice surfaces.
This
is
based upon the relative humidity prevailing
in the
Northwest.
During chinooks, the

the
humidity drops very low, so that
evaporation would be increased at least 2| to 3 times.

a water surface at 32 degrees under sim-
The evaporation from

ilar
conditions of humidity would be about 2^ to 3 inches or

ice.
about one third as much as the evaporation from snow and
The records
*
of the
breaking up of the
ice
on a large number
p. 99.
Horton, R. E.,
MontWy Weather
Review, February, 1914,
220
of
lakes
indicate
that comparatively deep bodies of water
may
be expected to break up in the spring when the monthly
mean temperature reaches about 38 F., and freeze up in the fall when the monthly mean temperature reaches about 20 degrees.
At the time
of
break-up there
is
certain to be a very con-
siderable reduction in evaporation, because the incident solar
energy, previously used in vaporizing a surface film of water,
snow
or
ice, is
absorbed
in
melting the ice and gradually heatAfter mid-summer,
ing the
water to a considerable depth.
the evaporation from deep water, as previously indicated, will
be relatively greater than that from shallow water.
CHAPTER
VI

As the evaporation from land areas
is
usually a far
more
important factor in the determination of runoff from a given

watershed than that from water areas, a clear understanding of
the variation of such evaporation from land areas with temperature, season, rainfall, vegetal cover,
is
topography,
soil
and
subsoil,
essential,
even though
it
involves
many
factors not readily
evaluated.
The quantity
of
water evaporated from land areas depends
not only on the rates of loss but also on the length of time
during which evaporation can continue,
i.e., it depends not only on the rate of evaporation but also on what Horton *
has aptly termed the "evaporation opportunity" as determined
by the quantity
of moisture available.
The Rate
of
Evaporation
The
most important factor governis
ing the rate of evaporation from land areas

of the air
the temperature
and
of the moisture subject to evaporation.

of loss
Immediately following a rainstorm, the rate

the ground was quite dry the
from land
If
areas approximates the rate of loss from shallow water.

soil
temperature
is
higher than
the air temperature and the rate of loss even greater than that
from water.
on the surface
As evaporation proceeds and the

of vegetation
free moisture
and bare earth disappears, the rate

This reduction
in the rate
of loss gradually of evayoration

is
becomes lessened.
more rapid at higher than at lower temperatures

first,
so that although at
*
after a rainstorm, the rate of evapora-
Horton, R. E., Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 221
LXXIX,
p. 1171.
222
of
Hon from land varies with temperature, the same as the rate
evaporation from water,
evaporated per day or per
rate of evaporation.
it
does not follow that the quantity

is
month
directly proportional to such
Although
air
temperature does not determine the amount of

it is
precipitation lost in evaporation from land areas
nevertheless
an important index to the
rate.
Records
of
maximum, minimum,
plOO
a>
70
60
40

and at
six inches
223
below the surface

of the
it
was 86.8 degrees.
The
mean temperature
face
water at one half inch below the sursix inches
was 78.9 degrees decreasing about one degree to
depth.
The range
in
air
temperature during the day was

in
47| degrees while the range

20 degrees.
water temperature was only

soil
The range
in
temperature of the
at one half
inch depth was 64 degrees and at six inches depth 12 degrees.
At about 2^ inches below the
surface, the range of soil temperature
was substantially equal
to
the range in
water temperature.
TEMPERATURES OF
From
Office of
AIR, SOIL,
AND WATER
RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA
AUGUST, 1905
Bulletin No. 177
Experiment Stations U.S. Department of Agriculture 60

5
6
10
Time - Days
Fig. 153.
Additional
observations
showing temperatures
of
air,
soil,
and water are shown in Fig. 153.

sun
On
the whole, the irrigation
investigations indicate that the temperature of dry soil in the

is
higher and the temperature of moist

air.
soil is
lower, in
summer,
than that of the overlying
Foreign observations on the temperature of the

the air in the forest and in the open
field
soil
and
of
indicate that the
mean
in
air
temperature
in the forest is
about two degrees lower
summer, and that the mean annual temperature averages
about one degree lower.
The
difference between the air temis
perature in the forest and in the open
graphically
shown
in
224
Fig.
154.
As the
is
result of this difference in air temperature,
a difference
in the forest.
also
noticeable in the temperature of the

is
soil
This
shown
of
in Fig. 155.
From
the
surface
the
ground,
the
air
temperature
in
the forest rapidly increases, reaching a value a short distance
above the tree-tops substantially equal to the

in the open.
air
temperature
1 +1

in the
225
open, but because of the lower temperature, the relative

is
humidity
Effect
from two to three per cent greater than

Vegetation.
in the open.
of
All
forms
of
vegetation,
particu-
larly forests,
shade the ground to a certain extent and con-
sequently reduce the rate of evaporation of free moisture.
Transeau
gives the following relative rates of evaporation
observed at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island.

Per cent
Bare sand and gravol slide Open garden plot with low herbaceous vegetation Upper beach areas Light forest on gravel soil Dense forest with abundant undergrowth Dense ravine forest with abundant herbaceous vegetation Dense swamp forest with abundant undergrowth and water near surface Fresh-water marsh
100
80 to 100 80 to 50 to 35 to
90 70 40 13
10
45
The evaporation was measured with Livingston porous-cup

atmometers placed about four inches above the surface
ground.
of the
The
rates given are, of course, merely relative
and represent
rates of evaporation of free moisture.
According to these obser-
vations, the evaporation from the water surface of a f/esh-water
marsh
grasses.
is
reduced to about one half by the presence of the
Open
forests
appear to
effect
an equal reduction and
dense forests, with abundant undergrowth, reduce the evaporation of free moisture to
about one quarter of that in the open.

is,
The
effect considered here
of course, the
sum
total of the
effect
of
vegetation,
in
including reduction in temperature and
wind and increase

in
humidity, but not the effect of vegetation

Practically
all
intercepting rainfall.
no watershed, however,
has any large area free from

forests in
vegetation.
The
effect
of
reducing the rate of evaporation of free moisture

of evaporation in the forest
field,
must be based upon a comparison

with
evaporation
from the ordinary cultivated
grass
land, or brush*
and weed-covered watershed.
Transeau, E. N., Botanical Gazette, April, 1908, p. 218.
226
observations
*
German
trees
is
indicate that the
evaporation
from
an evaporation pan
in dense
woods
is
44 per cent and from young

field.
80 per cent of that in the bare, open
Considering the rate of evaporation from the bare ground

surface at a given
mean temperature
.8;
as
1.0,
the rate of evapo-
ration of free moisture from the ground in grain fields

tatively be taken as
for
.6;
may
ten-
grass land
.7;
for
light
forests,
brush, and second growth
and
.2
for dense forests with

.4,
abundant
herbaceous vegetation from
to
The Evaporation Opportunity

The opportunity
is
for a given rate of evaporation to continue
determined by the available moisture supply.

Effect of Precipitation.
The available moisture

rate,
is
influenced
most
largely
by the amount,
and character
of the pre-
cipitation that falls
on the given watershed.

soil
Frequent, light
of the bare
showers that keep the surface
and the surface
ground and of vegetation moist, permit

ration.
of the greatest evapo-
Slow, steady rains favor percolation.
Torrential rains
favor surface runoff.

falls
For equal precipitation, then, that which
as light, frequent showers, provides the greatest oppor-
tunity for evaporation.
The
in the
character of the precipitation also has an important
influence on the evaporation opportunity.
During the winter

falls
Northwest, when most of the precipitation
as
snow
and the ground remains covered with snow and

watershed watershed
at least equal to that
ice for several
months, the evaporation opportunity on the land area of a

is
is
on the water area.
If
the
covered with a dense coniferous forest, the evapo-
ration opportunity will exceed that for the water area, because
the snow lodges on the branches of
all
evergreen trees and greatly
increases the area subject to evaporation loss, besides permitting increased

*
day temperatures
7,
in the forest.
S.
Reported in Bui. No.
Forestry Div., U.
Dep't of Agriculture,
p. 102.

Effect of Interception. During the
227
summer months when the

and other vegetation
precipitation falls as rain,
a greatly varying, but considerable,
portion of
it is
intercepted
by
trees, shrubs,
and re-evaporated without ever reaching the ground. A small portion of the rain caught by the tree tops runs down the trunk.
The quantity
of
precipitation
intercepted
by vegetation
varies largely with the quantity of rain that falls in a given
Courtesy
Am.
Snr.
('.
K.
Fig.
15(.
Interception
rains.
of Snowfall
by Evergreen
Forest.
time.
A much
larger percentage
is
lost
out of small showers
than out of heavy
Deciduous trees intercept much more
rain during the growing season
when
in leaf,
than in the winter,
when
the leaves have fallen.
Coniferous trees, as above men-
tioned, intercept large quantities of snow.
typical western
evergreen forest with a heavy snowfall lodged on the branches

is
shown
in Fig. 156.
Unfortunately the available data on the subject of inter-
228
ception consist mainly of percentages of precipitation intercepted
without reference to actual interception for each

average interception at 16
rainfall.
The
cent;
German
stations *
was 25 per
the average of 12 years Swiss observations was 16 per cent.
M. Fautrat found 40
tion
of
per cent intercepted for annual precipita-
about
28
to
30 inches quite uniformly distributed
through the year,
Riegler found 60 per cent intercepted
by
spruce and 22 per cent by beech, oak, and maple.

Interception
sufficient to
is
virtually constant for each shower which
is
thoroughly wet the vegetation.
Until more com-
plete observational data are available the accurate evaluation

of the
amount
of precipitation intercepted
by various forms
of vegetation
would appear impossible.
Effect of Percolation.
For a given precipitation, the greater

favored by a slow, steady precipitation,
slopes.
the facility for percolation, the less the opportunity for evaporation.
Percolation
soil,
is
pervious
and
flat
On some
pervious watersheds
with relatively steep slopes, however, the surface topography

is
such as to form numerous, small, wet-weather lakes and

floods.
all
ponds that overflow only during exceptional

watersheds the percolation
is
On
such
always great, and
forms of
of
vegetation reduce percolation by absorbing a large

capillary water
amount
which would otherwise be held over from one
rain to the next,
and would permit most

percolate
of the rainfall
absorbed
by the surface
King
soil to
down
to the water-table instead
of first replenishing the capillary

t
water used by the plants.

rates
of
found
the
following
soil
percolation
.1
through
columns of sand and
having a cross-section of
square foot
and 14 inches long, when kept covered with 2 inches of water:

inches per day. In No. 40 J sand, percolation at the rate of 301 " " " 39.7 In No. 100 " " 1.6 In clay loam
*
in Bui. No. 7, Forestry Div., U. S. Dep't of Agriculture, p. 102. King, F. H., Nineteenth Annual Report, U. S. Geological Survey. i No. 40 sand, effective diameter, 0.185 mm. " " " 0.083 mm. No. 100
Reported

Wollny
soils
229
in various
found the following rates of percolation
TABLE
28.
RATES
OF PERCOLATION
(Wollny)
230
Fig. 157
shows the
soil.
effect of cultivation in
reducing evapoir-
ration from the
In this case moisture was supplied by

is
rigation instead of precipitation, but the effect

will
the same.
It
be noted that about 50 per cent
of the
28 day loss occurred
in the first three days.

1.75
1.50
1.25
Sl.OO
2 o
.75
.50
.5

Depth
of Percolation
231
Moisture by
evaporation
and Rate
factor
of
Return
affects
is
of
Capillarity.
Another
soil,
which
the
opportunity from a given watershed

capacity of the
.waters pass,
the moisture-holding
and the depth to which the percolating
and
also the ability of each particular soil to raise
Black
Loam
Gravelly
Lioam
Gravel
Sandy
Gravel
Sand
Mne
Sand
10
as
20
25
Per cent of Moisture by Weight

Fig. 158.
water to the surface again by capillary action.

soil
The
its
finer the
and the more humus

This
is
it
contains the greater

in
capillary
is
power.
well
shown
Fig.
158.
Capillary action
also facilitated
by the rotted
fibers of
dead
roots,
which
in
some forms
of vegetation penetrate to considerable depth.

soil
Hazen
*
expressed the relationship between size of
grain
Hazen, Allen, Report Mass. State Board of Health, 1892,
p. 541.
232
will
and height to which water
be
lifted
by
capillarity in suffi-
cient quantity to prevent the circulation of air, in the following
approximate formula:
1.5
-j^
when h
is
the
lift
and d the
effective size of soil grain,
both in millimeters.
is
The
capillary
lift
of different soils
life
also of importance in
connection with the
of
wooden
sub-structures, such as pile
foundations, occasionally exposed
by low water.
each having an area
with a mixture of
in
filled
Experimenting on a
of cross-section of
.1
series of cylinders,
square foot, and
sand in approximately natural proportions, grains varying

size from No. 100 to No. 20, King
*
found the following rates
of evaporation for capillary
lifts
varying from 6 to 30 inches.
The temperature of the air in the laboratory where the experiment was conducted was about 70 Fahr., and the relative
humidity
is
reported to have been very low.
Capillary
in inches
lift,
above
ground-water
table

used
in
233
King's experiments drops to more than 4 or 5 feet beis
low the surface of the ground, evaporation

small quantity.
reduced to a very
Lee
states that the capillary

soil,
lift
is
practically limited to
feet in fine
four feet in coarse sandy

or clayey
soil.
and to eight
sandy
Total Evaporation plus Transpiration - Inches Depth

3 10 15
20
26
30
35
40
45
234
* states:
McGee
ment
"While the
effectiveness of capillary
movesubsoil
varies with the texture and structure of soil

it
and
and underlying rock,
may
be said broadly that under average
conditions capillarity acts freely to four or five feet in depth,

fairly to ten feet,
and slowly to thirty or more
feet."
Burr, Hering and Freeman concluded from
their
Long Island
and
studies t that water percolating to eight feet in fine sand
three or four feet in coarse sand will not return.

Slichter | found that while the evaporation
from a water sur3,
face
in
Kansas from August 6
to
September
1905, was
10.90 inches, the evaporation from cultivated soil with a water

table within one foot of the surface was 4.88 inches
and from
level, 5.83
lift
uncultivated
inches.
soil
with the water-table at the same

the
soil

was 2.23 inches and
for a capillary
lift
of
two
the;
feet
for a capillary
of three feet
evaporation was reduced to .80 inch.
Professor
Whitney
found that certain

capillary
soils
in
southern
California had such

to to
extensive
power as to be able
draw
sufficient
water from a depth of twenty feet or more

of rainfall
mature crops on one inch
between
May
and Sep-
tember, while neighboring
soils
were practically barren.
Extensive capillary action, coupled with excessive evaporation,

results in the bringing of large quantities of salts to the surface
of the
soil.
ground and
in the
formation of what
is
known
as "alkali"
Briggs and
capillary
lift
Lapham
||
found that moist sandy
soil
exerted a
of 65 inches.
soils
Stewart H found moist, sandy, rich

lifts
* t
to exert
capillary
of
from 45 inches to 70 inches.

G., 1911
McGee, W.
Yearbook
of the
Department
of Agriculture, p. 482.
Report of the Commission on Additional Water Supply for the City of New York, 1903, p. 756. t SUchter, C. S., Eng. News, July 5, 1906. Whitney, WUton, Yearbook U. S. Dep't of Agriculture, 1897, p. 432. Bulletin No. 19, Bureau of Water, U. S. Dep't of Agriculture, 1902, p. 26. H Stewart, J. B., Thesis "Capillary Use of Water in Soils," Michigan,
II
Agricultural College, 1901.

Not only
the rate of
portant.
235
the extent of the capillary
lift,
however, but also

is
movement
of water for given capillary lifts

lift,
im-
Fine, clayey soils exert a great capillary
but the
interstices arc so small as to oflfer
such great resistance to flow

of water
is
that the
maximum
rate of
movement
relatively small.
For low capillary
lifts,
sandy
soils will
supply
much more water

and transpiration
at the surface of the ground for evaporation
than clayey
soils.
On
the other hand, clayey soils will supply
moisture at the surface even when the water table has dropped
far out of reach of
sandy
soils.
Soils containing considerable
humus not only exert a strong capillary lift but permit rapid movement of the water through the pore space. The depth to the water table, then, is an important factor
in
determining the evaporation opportunity.
Depth
of Water-table.
The
is
average depth of the waterwell
table in central United States
shown by Dr. McGee's
investigations on the depth to the water surface in wells.
On
the basis of reports received for 7498 wells,
it
appears that the

is
average depth to the water surface,
which
probably two
or three feet below the water-table of the surrounding country
varies
States.
from 17.9
feet in
Indiana to 22.6 feet
in
Wisconsin,
averaging 22.2 feet for the entire central portion of the United
About
half of the wells reported
no change
in elevation
of the water surface within the
memory
of the reporter.
The
average of those reporting a change during the period within

the
memory
of the reporter,
which averaged about 25 years,

Wisconsin and Minby Dr. McGee appear
indicated a lowering in the water-table, varying from about
one foot in Missouri, to nearly four

nesota.
feet in
Inasmuch
as the data compiled
to be based merely on testimony as to changes
and are not the
result of observations regularly reported during the course of
25 years,
it
would appear that the water surface

remained
J.,
in the wells
must have
*
substantially stationary.
An
increase
McGee, W.
1911 Yearbook of the Dep't of Agriculture, pp. 479 to
490.
236
almost invariably in the improvement of
in settlement results
water supplies.
sufficient
This usually means drilled wells and often

to considerably lower the water-table imwells.
It
is
pumping
mediately adjacent to the
doubtful whether the

conclusion
that
data presented by Dr.

the water-table
McGee
warrant the
throughout the Mississippi Valley has been
materially lowered during the past 25 years.

Effect of Vegetation.
Vegetation
By
affects
the evaporation
opportunity in several ways.
using some of the capillary
water, plants reduce the evaporation opportunity, so far as the

soil is
concerned, but through interception of precipitation, as
previously explained, they increase the evaporation opportunity.
In so far as plants use water for their growth and in this
way
keep the moisture content of the
soil
lower than
it
would otherall
wise be, they reduce percolation.
In so far as
forms of
vegetation present some obstruction to the flow of water over
the surface of the ground plants aid percolation.
Leaf mold
in the forest presents a pervious surface to precipitation.
layer of undecayed leaves, on the other hand, presents an almost
impervious surface.
capacity.
Leaf mold has great moisture holding

soil
In
consequence, the surface
in
the
forest
is
is
usually quite moist and the
evaporation opportunity
in-
creased, although the rate of evaporation, as previously stated,

is
considerably reduced by the shade
of the
forest.
Ample
moisture supply in the surface
soil fosters
the growth of luxu-
riant herbaceous vegetation with the consequent increased water
consumption
in transpiration, except in dense coniferous forests
and those deciduous
forests of tall dense timber that prevent
the entrance of sufficient light to support small vegetation.
Wollny found that a grass cover reduced percolation below

the root level to practically half of that permitted by bare
soil.
Ebermayer found that young beech and spruce

the
trees reduced
amount
of
water found to percolate below the
four-foot
level.
In his experiments, only about two inches, out of a total

of 37.6
237
this
level.
inches of precipitation,
percolated below
During the winter, the percolation through the experimental

boxes which contained young deciduous trees was substantially
equal to that for the boxes which contained bare
soil,
but
during the summer, the percolation was
much
less for
the boxes
which contained the
trees.
The
effects of vegetation
on percolation, found by Wollny

to the
and Ebermayer, are undoubtedly due

obstructing percolation.
amount
of capillary
effect in
water used by the plants rather than to any surface
Ebermayer found that during summer and

sand
soil
fall
a loamy,
contained about 20 per cent of moisture in the open,

as against 15 per cent in the forest at depths of
fallow
field,
from 16 to 30 inches.
in the
More
moisture, however,
soil.
was found
upper few inches of the forest

field
In a
in
which the water-table was from 5 to 8|
feet
below the surface of the ground, and in which alternate

of land
strips
had been planted
to corn.
King found the plane
of
saturation depressed materially under the corn.
During the
succeeding season, corn was planted in the strips which had

lain fallow the previous season
and the water-table was again

on the
found depressed by the vegetation.
The magnitude
of the watershed
of the several effects of vegetation
evaporation opportunity usually depends upon the character
and the character
of the vegetation.
tile
Effect of
Drainage. The
principal effect of both

loss
and
open ditch drainage on the evaporation

is
from land areas
to reduce
the evaporation opportunity.
The drainage
of
land presupposes an excess of moisture on the surface of the
ground and
in the
upper few feet of

is
soil
the layer from which

By removing
both
the evaporating water
primarily drawn.
wet-weather and permanent ponds and pools, by lowering the

water-table,
layers of
losses
and by eliminating
all
gravity water from the upper
soil,
drainage reduces the opportunity for evaporation

areas.
from land
238
Other
flow.
effects of drainage will
be considered in discussing stream
Observed Evaporation Losses from Land Areas.

literature affords
losses
Scientific
As these
few records of actual measured evaporation

areas.
from land
Most
of the available
data do not
differentiate
between evaporation and transpiration.

in the
two
losses
do not vary
same way with the changing seasons
they should be separately considered.

Irrigation Investigations.
Among
the best available data
on evaporation losses are those published
by the U.
S.
Depart-
Evaporation - Inches per Month

Fig. 160.
Relation
between
Soil
Moisture and Evaporation, California.
ment
of Agriculture
and similar departments
of several states.*
differ in
Although surface irrigation and precipitation
important
respects, yet the data gathered in connection with irrigation
investigations
are
of
great
assistance
in
gaining an under-
standing of the factors that influence evaporation from land

*
tin 248,
For example: Bulletin 177, Evaporation Losses in Irrigation, and BulleEvaporation from Irrigated Soils, Office of Experiment Stations,
Dep't of Agriculture.
U.
S.

areas and the
conditions.
Fig.
239
under certain
amount
of evaporation that occurs
160 shows the relation between the moisture available
in the soil
and the quantity evaporated.*
The
soil
experimented
with was a well-pulverized, sandy loam.

in
The rapid decrease

the moisture content
its
the rate of evaporation after the percentage of moisture

is
dropped below 10
significant.
When
of this particular soil
dropped below 3.5 per cent of
dry
weight, evaporation practically ceased.

0.50
Q0.40
'
0.30
1.0.20
.20.10
0.00
Fig. 161.
Relative Evaporation from
Land and Water.
Figs.
soil
161 and
162 show the rates of evaporation from bare
and from a
water surface,
the clay
soil
in
the same locality.
at Caldwell, Idaho, for about three days following
the application of irrigation water, actually exceeded the evaporation from a water surface.
fact that the irrigation water
This
is
undoubtedly due to the
was held so long at the surface of

of the soil at the beginning
the clay
soil,
and the temperature
of the experiment
was very much higher than the temperature

In the case of the sandy
loss
of the water in the evaporation tank.

soil at
*
Reno, Nevada, the evaporation

in constructing this
S.
from the
soil
from
The data used
177. Office of
Experiment Stations, U.
curve were taken from Bulletin No. Dep't of Agriculture.
240
the very beginning was less than the loss from the water surface.
This sandy
soil
absorbed
six inches of surface irrigation

culti-
in a
few hours and was sufficiently dry to permit surface

soil
vation after 24 hours, whereas the clay
at Caldwell could
not be cultivated until after three days.
significant fact
brought out by these diagrams

the evaporation loss from the
is
the fact that about half of
soil
occurred in the
office of
first
three
days after irrigation.

Stations point to the
Other records of the
Experiments
same
conclusion.
losses
Some
areas,
of the actual
measured evaporation
S.
from land
determined by the U.
Department
of Agriculture in
its irrigation
investigations, together with such other relevant
data as were available, are summarized in Table 29.

Effect of Character of Soils.
The
soils
used in the experi-
ments at Wenatchee, Reno, Sunnyside, and Caldwell contained

substantially the
practically the
same amount
of initial moisture
and received
same amount
of water
through surface irrigation
and
precipitation.
The
coarser sandy soils at
Wenatchee and
Reno permitted rapid

of the experiment.
percolation, as indicated
by the high
at the end
moisture content in the bottom layers of the
soil
This reduced the moisture content in the
upper layers and consequently reduced the subsequent evaporation loss.
The
clay soil at Caldwell, on the other hand, reit
tarded percolation, as indicated by the fact that
required 20|
hours to absorb six inches of irrigation water, and then per-
mitted an evaporation loss of about one quarter of that from

the water surface.
The evaporation
to
soil
loss
from the Williston
gumbo amounted and the Bozeman

ity
nearly half that from a water surface,
with
its
great moisture-holding capac-
permitted two thirds
as
much
evaporation
in
28 days
soil
as a water surface in the
same
locality.
The Bozeman
was
lift
of extremely fine texture,
and exerted such a great
capillary
that the moisture content at the close of the experiment was
substantially uniform throughout.
241
CHAPTER
VII
TRANSPIRATION
Definition.
Transpiration
is
the process of vaporization of

leaf
water from the breathing pores, or stomata, of

vegetable surfaces.
of the light energy
and other
Clements
* states
that 95 per cent

leaf is
absorbed by the chloroplast of the
converted into heat.

ization of the water
Most
of this heat
is
used in the vaporsalts
from the dilute solutions of mineral
drawn
into plants through the root system

tissue.
is
and used
in building
up plant
themselves
cipitation.
The moisture
retained in the plant tissues

in the disposal of pre-
an inconsequential factor
In discussing evaporation,
it
was indicated
that, other factors
remaining constant, the rate of evaporation from shallow water

is
approximately doubled for every 18 degrees increase in temVan't Hoff and Arrhenius have enunciated the prin-
perature.
ciple that
most chemical reactions and physiological processes
double in activity for every similar increase in temperature.

This law has been found, by experiment, to apply to a number
of phases of plant activity.
It has, for example,
been found to
be substantially correct for the rate of fixation of carbon dioxide
by plants
in
sunlight;
and, inasmuch as transpiration occurs
during the process of carbon dioxide assimilation,
when the
stomata open in the sunlight,
it
is
reasonable to conclude that

it is
the rate of transpiration, in so far as
dependent on temper-
ature, substantially follows Van't Hoff's law.
In applying this law, however,
it
is
necessary to decide on a
temperature at which plant activity begins.

*
Koppen
regards
all
Clements, F. E., Plant Physiology and Ecology, 242
p. 85.
TRANSPIRATION
243
244
less
monthly mean temperatures

the period of rest of plants.
than 48 degrees as included in

scientists hold that the pro-
Other
cells
toplasmic contents of vegetable

perature
is
are inactive while the tem-
below
6 C. (42.8 F.).
different vegetal
Fig. 163
shows the United States divided into
regions based
upon periods
of
growth and
rest as
determined
by-
temperature alone, without reference to available moisture.

In temperate latitudes,
or irrigation, monthly
constitute a period
ficient
when there is a lack of precipitation mean temperatures of more than 72 degrees of summer rest for most plants. When sufwhen
there
is
moisture
fruits,
is
present, they constitute a period of ripening for
southern
and,
an abundance of moisture,
these high temperatures constitute the period of sub-tropical
growth.
<
*
TRANSPIRATION
of
245
growth
is
approximately doubled for an increase of 15 degrees
in temperature.
Botanists agree that every plant has
its
optimum
it
moisture,
its
temperature, and light conditions under which
makes
best
growth.
When
there
is
an excess of moisture, crop yields are
246
Effect of Humidity.
All the experiments
which have been
made upon
the water requirement of plants, for a given
amount
of
of growth, indicate that
more water
is
used, per
pound
dry
material produced,
by
air
plants growing in dry air than
by those
growing in moist
The experiments
pound
of
Montgomery and
Kiesselbach,* on corn grown in greenhouses, indicate that the
amount
is it
of water required per
of dry material produced
proportional to the evaporation from a water surface, which,
has already been shown,

the
air.
is
proportional to the saturation
deficit of
The
plants
grown
in the
humid atmosphere
(58 per cent relative humidity during daylight hours) produced
about 25 per cent more dry matter and used about 12 per cent
less
water than those which grew in the dry atmosphere (37 per
cent relative humidity during the day).
From an
engineering
viewpoint the effect of relative humidity on the total amount of
water used, rather than on the water used per pound of dry
matter produced,
is
the effect desired.
This, however, does not
appear to have been determined.
It is probable,
however, that
the increased growth resulting from increased humidity causes a

total
water
loss in
a humid atmosphere about equal to that in
a moderately dry atmosphere provided a reasonably sufficient
amount
of soil moisture
is
available for the plant to use.

of
Effect of
Wind.
By hastening the removal

it
is
vapor from the
leaf surfaces
from which
being transpired, air
movement
results in increased transpiration.
Effect of Light.
Transpiration
it
is
practically limited to the
daylight hours.
In this respect
differs
from evaporation, which
continues through the night at a rate determined, primarily,

the temperature.
by
This
is
well
shown by
Fig. 167
which gives
a continuous record of the transpiration of wheat, observed at

Akron, Colo., in July 14-15, 1912, and reported in
Agricultural Research," Vol.
5,
''
Journal of
No.
3.
The
loss
during the night

its
was about one tenth
of the loss during the day,

A.,
which reached
* Montgomery, E. G., and Kiesselbach, T. Experiment Station, Bulletin 128, 1912.
Nebraska Agricultural
TRANSPIRATION
247
maximum
at noon.
The
loss
during the night was also substan-
tially uniform.
As the leaves what the slope

is
of plants turn of the
toward the sun,

is,*
it is
immaterial
of the sun
ground
or
what the angle
during the daylight hours except in so far as the longer path of
Fig. 167.
Variation
of Transpiration of
Wheat with DayHght,
July 14-15, 1912.
the sun's rays through the atmosphere during the early morning
and
late afternoon has
an
effect
on the absorption of a part of
the sun's energy.
The
following table shows the proportionate
amount
of solar radiation reaching the earth for various angular
altitudes of the sun, considering the
amount reaching the earth
with the sun in the zenith as
1.00.
248
The hght
rays
earth's atmosphere than the shorter hght rays.
at the red end of the spectrum are
most useful to the
plants.
William Siemens found, in London in 1879 to 1881, while experi-
menting on the growth of Mimosa pudica, that the red rays are
about four times as effective in promoting growth as the white
rays and ten times as effective as the blue.
16
15 14
13 12
11
'-
10
ff 7
TRANSPIRATION
249
complete shading reduces transpiration to about one half or one

third of that in full sunlight.
Hasselbring, experimenting on
tobacco plants in Cuba, found that the shade of ordinary cheesecloth reduced the transpiration 30 per cent.
Effect of Soil Moisture.
Most
students of the subject of
transpiration seem to be agreed that the quantity of water used
by plants during the growing season depends mainly on the

quantity available within reach of the root system.
It
has been
found that, in any given

the moisture content
percentage, however,
is
soil,
all
forms of vegetation wilt when

This
reduced to a certain percentage.
known
the
soil
as the " wilting coefficient "
be
varies greatly for different soils.
The moisture
in
may,
for
practical
purposes,
divided into two portions, namely,

portion which will be drawn
soil
is
" gravity water " or that
down
into the lower layers of the
by
gravity,
and
" capillary water " or that portion which
held in place in the soil at an elevation of about 5 feet or
more
above the water-table by capillary attraction.

water, nearly one half
is
Of the capillary
available for plant growth
and about
three fourths will readily evaporate.

scopic water
Of the remainder,
soil
hygrooff
soil soil
little will
evaporate from the

it
below the upper
few inches in
heating the
character of
fields,
although
little
may
all
be readily driven
by
to a
above 212 F.
The
relation
between
and the amount

and
of capillary water, gravity water,

soil
and hygroscopic water which
may
contain
is
graphically
shown
in Fig. 169 (a
is
b).
Fig. 169 (a)
based upon data taken from the Bulletins of the

Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
soil is
Bureau
of Plant
The moisture-holding capacity of a

age of
defined as the percentin height.
water held in short
soil
columns one centimeter

is
The moisture equivalent

it
of a soil
the percentage of water which
can retain in opposition to a centrifugal force 1000 times that of
gravity.
The
soils
wilting coefficient
is
the percentage of âter re-
tained in
when
plants growing therein wilt to such an extent
as not to recover turgidity
upon being placed
in saturated air.
250
coefficient
The hygroscopic
which
soil
represents the percentage of water

in
contains
when kept
a saturated atmosphere.
The
can,
investigations of Briggs and Shantz * indicate that sand

capillary attraction, hold an
by
amount
of water equal to
Sand
Loam
Fig. 169(a).
Heavy Dakota Clay
about 2 per cent of

to
its
weight.
its
Silt
can hold an amount equal
about 25 per cent of
weight and clay in highly powdered

of water equal to 100 per cent of
condition can hold an

its
amount
dry weight.
The
following table gives the standard classification of
soil
grains adopted
* Briggs,
by the U.
J.,
S.
Department
of Agriculture.
Lyman
and Shantz, H.
L., Bui. 230,
Bureau
of Plant Industry,
U.
S.
Department
of Agriculture.
TRANSPIRATION
251
TABLE
30.
CLASSIFICATION
Name
OF SOIL GRAINS
Diameter
of grain,
Fine gravel Coarse sand
Medium
Silt
sand. Fine sand Very fine sand.
Clay
252
Fig. 169 (b) is
based primarily upon the author's studies of
field.
soils
as they occur in the
The moisture content

soil
is
expressed in
inches of water per foot depth of
under field conditions.
The moisture
under
field
.4
available for plant
growth
in
different
soils
conditions can be determined, approximately,

inch,
by
silt,
allowing
per foot depth, for sand,
1.0 inch for
and
1.7 inches for clay,
and taking a percentage

under
of these
quan-
tities
corresponding to the percentage of particles of the given

in
size
found
each foot depth of
soil
is
field conditions.
The
which
effect of
vegetable matter
also, to
to greatly increase the capil-
lary water
soils
and
some
extent, the
amount
of gravity
water
can hold.
Scientists in various fields
have repeatedly stated that
it
is
impracticable to express
soil
moisture in inches of water per foot
depth of
soil
under
field conditions.
The author admits that from
a laboratory viewpoint and under standardized laboratory methods,

the determination of
the
this
soil is soil
moisture in terms of the dry weight of
the most exact measure available, but he contends that

of the
measure affords no satisfactory indication

soils
relative
moisture-holding capacities of various
under
field conditions.
This contention
is
more
forcibly presented
by
Fig. 169 (a
and
b)
than by any arguments which can be made.

In determining the moisture-holding properties of different
soils
under
:
field
conditions the author has adopted the following

fist
method
is
clod of undisturbed soil about the size of a man's
carefully
dug up
in the field
and
all
loose particles are removed.

well,
Most moist
soils will retain their

is
shape very
but where a
tendency to crumble
manifested, thin, moist tissue-paper or a
small piece of veil will offer the necessary support.

soil is
The
clod of
then immediately weighed and

it
its
volume determined by
filling all
placing
in
a container of
known volume and

moist
field soil
the re-
maining space with small shot.

mining the
specific gravity of the
This virtually amounts to deter-
by immersion
in
shot instead of water.
Later,
and at the observer's convenience,

soil is
the dry weight of the material composing the clod of
deter-
TRANSPIRATION
mined by
first
253
and then
vaporizing
all
of the moisture present
weighing the material.
These observations give the dry weight
of a foot of soil under field conditions
and
also the moisture confield.
tained in a foot of
soil in its
given condition in the
This
field-moisture content, of course,
may
be more or
less
than that
which the
soil
can hold by capillarity, depending upon the
depth to the water-table and the climatic conditions which preceded the taking of the
soil
sample.
soil is
representative sample of the dry
next selected and
its
specific gra\'ity
determined by immersion in water, by any standthe specific gravity and the dry weight of a
ard method.
From
way
cubic foot of soil under field conditions the voids can be determined,
and
in this
field
the saturation water-content of the given
soil
under
conditions can be found.
The specific gravity of most mineral soils varies from 2.65 to 2.69. The presence of vegetable matter rapidly reduces the specific gravity. In testing for the amount of moisture which various soils can
hold by capillarity the author
first
used
soil
columns 8 to 20
feet
high and from 2 to 5 inches in diameter.

height of the
soil
It
was found that the

feet,
column, when this was more than about 5

capillarity.
1
had no influence on the moisture held by

appeared from tests of widely different
soils
It also
placed in
foot layers
on top
soils
of
each other, in tubes, that the capillary water held by

of the character of the soil
was a function
and not
of the
absolute
amount
of water held in the adjoining soil layers except
in so far as a fine-grained soil lying

lose its gravity
on a coarse-grained
In view of these
placing the
soil
would
water very slowly.
facts, tests for

soil
capillary moisture were next
made by
soil,
sample on
top of a permanent test column of very fine sand about six feet
high.
Clods of undisturbed
similar to those used in the

of the test
volume determinations, were placed on top

whose lower end was kept
covered with very
fine,
column
in water.
The
soil
sample was then

additional water
test
wet sand, and then a
little
was added.
column and
water-sealed cover
was then placed over the
after the excess water
had drained down through the
254
sand column the
soil
sample was carefully removed, "pared" and
the water-content determined.
The
rate at
which the excess water

its texture.
is
drained from the sample
depends mainly upon
In most cases the water loss

after placing the
which occurs between

sample
is
five
and twenty days
small and inconsequential from a hydrological viewpoint.
The
finer the material constituting the test
column, the greater

is
the capillary pull and the sooner the excess gravity water
drawn
and
its
down.
Knowing the
also
capillary water held
by a given
soil
saturation water-content, the

soil
amount
of gravity
water which that

namely, inches of
can hold
is
known,
soil
in practical terms,
field conditions.
water per foot depth of
under
Effect of Character of Vegetation.
Even though
all
plants
have been found to wilt when the moisture content
for a given
soil has been reduced to a certain percentage, the fact
must not
soil
be
lost sight of that in
most
fields
the character of the
varies
of dif-
greatly from
foot to foot of depth,
and that the roots
ferent forms of vegetation penetrate to widely different depths,
usually adapting themselves, in a measure, to the
available
moisture content of the various

sprinkling of lawns
drought-resistant,
is
soil
layers.
Frequent hght
grass
well
it
known
to
make the
is
non-
because
coaxes the root system to the
surface where the greatest supply of moisture
temporarily
found.
Typical root systems of plants are shown in Fig. 170.

the whole, the transpiration of deep-rooted vegetation
less fluctuating
On
will
be
with changes in monthly rainfall than
that of shallow-rooted vegetation, on account of the deeper

layer of soil
from which the necessary moisture

will
is
drawn.
In
dry seasons deep-rooted vegetation

storage.
draw heavily on ground

than that of similar
The
transpiration of shallow-rooted plants growing in
sandy
soils
will
vary more with

soils.
rainfall
plants growing in clayey

cipitation
is
When
winter and spring prefull
normally ample to more than supply the

soil
requirement of capillary water for the entire depth of

pied by the root system, the transpiration of
all
occu-
plants growing
TRANSPIRATION
255
Oats
Peach Tree
Western Grasses
(a)
Sand-grass;
(b) sand-sage;
(f)
(c)
bunch-grass;
(d) big
bluestem
(e)
bush
morning-glory;
Fig. 170.
Typical
wire-grass; (g) black
grama or short
of Plants.
grass.
Root Systems
256
in
soils will
sandy
vary more with the summer

in clayey soils.
rainfall
than that
of similar plants
growing
Effect
largely
of
Precipitation,
The
is
character
of
vegetation
is
determined by precipitation and
soil
characteristics,
hence, natural vegetation

tation
a valuable index to both precipi-
and character
the loam
of soil.
On
The
most
soil of
eastern Colorado, for example, a short-
grass cover indicates 15 to 18 inches of annual precipitation.
root system of the grasses belonging to this association

is
is
well developed, but
limited to the upper foot of
soil in
which
of the moisture
is
found.
west-central Kansas, with a rainfall of
is
On
taller
the loam
soil of
22 to 24 inches per year, wire-grass
found.
This grass grows
than short-grass and extends
its
roots to a depth of about

is
3 feet, because the available moisture
found in the upper
3 feet of
soil.
Evidently, the increase of 6 to 7 inches in annual
precipitation over western Kansas, as
compared with eastern
Colorado, has resulted in increased percolation.
On
the loam
soil of
eastern Kansas, with a rainfall of 26 to
30 inches per year, bunch-grass, having roots extending about

five feet
down
into the
soil, is
found.
Still
farther east, in the
same latitude and under approximately the same conditions of

temperature and rate of evaporation, where the
inches or over and a well-defined water-table
is
rainfall
is
35
found, forest
growths predominate.
For similar conditions
of
temperature and 15 to 20 inches an-
nual precipitation occurring largely during the
summer months,
a heavy a light
soil will
support only shallow-rooted vegetation, whereas
soil will
support deep-rooted plants.

(b)
It will
be noted from Fig. 169
that
when a heavy
rain,
soil
has lost
most
of its available moisture,
an inch of
even
if it
were
all
absorbed, would be held in the upper 6 or 8 inches of

the same rainfall,
if
soil,
whereas
absorbed by a light
soil,
would penetrate the
upper 2
feet of soil.
As the heavy
soil,
soil
absorbs rainfall
much more
slowly than light
resulting in surface runoff, the depth to
TRANSPIRATION
which a given rain penetrates
in
257
soil
a Hght
will
considerably
soil.
exceed four times the depth of penetration in a heavy
In connection with the distribution of natural vegetation as the result of differences in precipitation and character of
it is
soil,
necessary to consider, also, the effects of evaporation.
The
higher the temperature and the lower the relative humidity,
the greater the rate of evaporation and, consequently, the more

rain required to
grow any given plant on any given

soil
soil.
For
example, under practically uniform

is
conditions, short-grass
is
found
in
northern Texas where the annual rainfall

it is
is
about
21 inches, in eastern Colorado where

in
about 17 inches, and
Montana where the annual

soil
rainfall
about 14 inches.
The
increased rainfall required in Texas to suppoi't short-grass on a
given
represents substantially the difference in the rate of
evaporation between Texas and Montana.
The
short-grass region
is
limited on the western slope of the

in central
Rocky Mountains by drought, and and Dakota by the deeper -rooted

the short-grass
of the
Texas, Nebraska,
prairie grasses that kill out
by competition.
Most
of the eastern portion
Great Plains was originally covered with prairie grasses
which, in turn, gave

to forests.
ests,
way
in the regions of higher precipitation,
The
region occupied, in a state of nature,
by
forsoil
almost invariably receives sufficient rainfall and has a
that permits of sufficient percolation to form a well-defined

water-table.
Streams
supplied
in
such a region are, at least in considerflow.
able
part,
by seepage
Regions occupied by
natural
upland grasses usually have no well-defined waterIn
table except at depths far below the level of the streams.
such regions,
the minor water courses are dry except after

lose
heavy rains and the larger streams not uncommonly

until, in
water
some
cases,
they disappear entirely.
Their ability to
maintain an existence depends, primarily, upon the degree of

imperviousness of their beds and banks.
Transpiration Proportional to Dry Matter Produced.
Most
experimenters have found that the quantity of water transpired
258
varies, approximately,
by plants
as the quantity of dry subis
stance produced.
Whether
or not this relationship
purely
accidental does not invalidate the fact.

of the U. S.
In the 1903 Yearbook

is
Department
of Agriculture,
given the average
yield of corn, for 15 years, in the principal corn-growing states,
together with the average precipitation over those states during

June, July, and August.
When
platted, these data indicate
an
average yield of 5 bushels, plus 2 bushels for every inch of rainfall
during June, July, and August, between the limits of yields
of 15
and 35 bushels per
acre.
The data on water requirements

letin 177, Office of
of crops, recorded in Bul-
Experiment Stations, and Bulletins 130, 188,
and 201, Bureau
of Plant Industry, U. S.
Department
of Agri-
culture, though not conclusive, indicate that the yield of grain

is
approximately proportional to the quantity of water conSoil
surned.
evaporation and transpiration are not fully
dif-
ferentiated, however, in
most
of these experiments.
Livingston
* gives
considerable experimental data which show
an almost direct relationship between transpiration and weight

of vegetable substance produced.
The
ratio of
water used to dry substance produced has been
found to vary with individual plants and with the plant environment.
Conifers, in particular, have been found to use less
trees;
than deciduous
they use
ratio of
less
in fact,
some experimenters hold that

For grass and grain, the
than one sixth as much.

of
pounds
water used, to pounds of dry substance pro:
duced, seems to vary from about 300
to 600
1.
A
letin
full
is
review of the literature on the water requirements of

given
plants
by Lyman
J.
Briggs and H. L. Shantz in BulS.
No. 285, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.
Department
of
Agriculture.
A summary
is
of the
most important observational
data, taken from this Bulletin, on the water requirements of
various plants,
*
given in Table 31.
Livingston, B. E., Botanical Gazette, Vol. 40, p.
3L
TRANSPIRATION
259
TABLE
31.
SUMMARY OF WATER REQUIREMENTS OF VARIOUS PLANTS (Briggs and Shantz)
Crop
260
little
widely divergent as to be of
value.
Laboratory results
are usually based on experiments with single plants, with no

indication of the ground space covered
by the
plants.
The
time over which the observations extended and relevant meteorological data are usually missing.
is
Frequently, transpiration
compared with other phenomena, such as evaporation from

soil
water or
surfaces,
or
precipitation.
The divergence
is
of
opinion with respect to the
amount
of transpiration
well indi-
cated by the fact that Schleiden thought the transpiration from
a forest was three times the evaporation from a water surface

of equal area, great.
whereas Shiibler thought

for
it
only one quarter as
Extreme values given

less
annual transpiration vary
from
than
inch to 16 feet!
Most
of the values given for
forest trees and small grains, however, vary from 4 to 9 inches
per year, with occasional values for oats and some grasses run-
ning up to 14 and 15 inches per year.*
If plants,
under
field
conditions, transpired a quantity of water equal to from one

half to
two times the evaporation from an equivalent surface
of
water, as claimed
by some experimenters, a great many streams
in the United States that have a very appreciable, sustained
flow
would become intermittent, because there would be no

Surface runoff alone would
ground-water supply to feed them. appear in these streams.
of the transpiration of various plants, Hohnel, Shiibler, Hales, Hartig, Hellriegel, Sachs, Wollny, and others, are so divergent that the author felt it was of questionable utility to present these results here, except as briefly summarized above. In most instances, only abstracts of the published results of these investigators were available to the author. These abstracts were so lacking in essential, related, meteorological phenomena as to make the transpiration
The experimental determinations

by
Risler,
as given
determinations of relatively Uttle value for present purposes. Frequently, daily transpiration would be stated, without reference to length of growing
season, hours of sunshine, temperature, humidity, etc.
In published abstracts of the investigations above referred

as to water consumption of plants, have frequently been
to,
deductions,
made based on
and the like. Where experimental data example, a certain number of trees were assumed per acre, for the purpose of deducing a value of transpiration in
some assumed length

were given for single
of season,
trees, for
inches depth on the ground area.
TRANSPIRATION
261
In estimating the transpiration loss from a watershed, the exact character of the vegetation
as
it is
not as important a factor

in
might at
first
appear.
Except for unoccupied lands
the
arid
size
and semi-arid
Practically
region, hardly a watershed of considerable

is
can be found that
given over purely to one class of vege-
tation.
all
watersheds
shrubs,
are
covered
or
with
grains.
mixed
Cut-
vegetation,
including trees,
grasses,
over watersheds quickly grow up to grasses,
weeds, and herbs
s^!J:
Fig, 171.
Rocky,
Burnt-over Watershed thoroughly covered with

Vegetation.
of various kinds,
which
in turn are soon supplanted of
by shrub-
bery, brush,
and then a growth
young
trees.
Areas of agri-
cultural land not

fall
under cultivation, or after harvest and before
plowing, soon become thoroughly covered with self-sown
grain, weeds,
and
grasses,
and hence
suffer
a transpiration
loss
perhaps fully as high as though they were producing crops.
Even the rugged watersheds

timber
line,
of
mountain ranges, below the

Burnt-over water-
are usually well covered with brush, grasses, moss,

of low-growing vegetation.
and other forms
sheds with scanty covering of soil,
and rock outcropping every-
where, as in the northeastern part of Minnesota, are also well
262
is shown in As a consequence, the normal transpiration loss, so is determined by the character of vegetation on
covered with vegetation of one kind or another, as

Fig. 171.
far
as
it
different watersheds, does not
vary between wide
limits.
For tentative purposes, the following normal seasonal transpiration
may
be used as a base value in estimating water losses
for the north central portion of the
United States
9 to 10 inches for grains, grasses
and
agricultural crops;
8 to 12 inches for deciduous trees; 6 to 4 to 8 inches for small trees and brush; 6 inches for coniferous trees.
These quantities represent inches depth of water over the

entire area occupied
by the given form
of vegetation.
is
The
de-
monthly distribution
of this total seasonal transpiration

air
termined mainly by the monthly mean

given in Fig. 164, page 244.
transpiration
precipitation
temperature as
These base values of monthly

for
must then be modified

and ground-water supply
deficient
or
excess
in the soil
occupied by
the root system of the given form of vegetation, to ascertain
the probable monthly transpiration under the given conditions.
CHAPTER
VTII
DEEP SEEPAGE
The Underground
Reservoir.
The
presence
of
is
artesian
water supplies over large areas in the United States

proof that some precipitation seeps
layers of soil
conclusive
and subsoil into the underlying rock
down through the upper strata. The
percolating water flows along through these porous strata until
they have dipped down below impervious strata and entrapped

the water in underground reservoirs, from which
it
may
again
be drawn by deep
to the sea.
wells, or
from which
it
may
eventually flow
The term deep
seepage, as here used, does not include the
percolating precipitation which

ing the rock strata
moves through the
drift cover-
and furnishes the seepage flow

of
of streams.
The
actual
amount
yet
deep seepage can never be accurately

consider the
is
determined,
when we
fact that the
entire
domestic
.1
water
consumption
equivalent
to
only
about
inch of rainfall per
annum and
that only a relatively few
artesian sources of supply are in use
and that such supplies have

becomes apparent that
concerned, must usually
frequently been found to become reduced and even exhausted

after a relatively few years' draft,
it
the aggregate
amount
of
deep seepage, in so far as abstractions

is
or additions to the flow of streams
be inconsequential.
It is
not intended to convey the impression, however, that
the total
amount
of
underground water, extending down to
the depth of about six miles, according to
Van
Hise,* at which
the pressure of the overlying weight of rock becomes so great

as to reduce the porosity to zero, does not aggregate a tremen*
Van
Hise, C. R., 16th
Annual Report, U. 263
S.
G.
S.,
Part
1,
1896, p. 593.
264
Most
of this great reservoir of under*
dously large quantity.
ground water, however, calculated by Slichter

to about 565 million, million cubic yards,
as
amounting
must always remain

determined by the
unavailable for direct use by mankind.
The
available artesian water supply
is
area over which the pervious stratum,
interspersed between
two layers
of impervious strata, outcrops, the

this
amount
of rainfall
which percolates deeply into
outcropping stratum, and
the rate at which the underground water can flow through

the porous stratum toward the wells from which
it is
drawn.
While none
pressure,
of the rock strata, except
when under tremendous
can be considered as entirely impervious, granitic

1
rocks usually contain less than
per cent of voids, limestone,
from
to 5 per cent,
while sandstones contain from 6 or 7
per cent, to more than 25 per cent of voids.
Although the
voids in clay are relatively large, the pore spaces are so small
that most of the water
is
held
by
capillarity
and that which can
be drawn by gravity moves so slowly as to make clay strata

relatively impervious.
Artesian
waters are usually hard and often quite warm.

of
Temperatures
80 to 90 degrees are not
uncommon
supplies
in the
Dakota
basin.
Artesian Basins.
The
principal
artesian
in
the
United States are derived from the Potsdam and the

sandstone.
rocks
St.
Peter
The former
lies
between the impervious Archean
and the lower magnesian limestone,

and
the
and
the
latter
between the lower magnesian
Trenton
limestones.
About 12,000 square miles

3000 square miles of
St.
of
Potsdam outcrops and about

These sandstone strata have
Peter outcrops occur in central Wis-
consin and eastern Minnesota.
a slope toward the south and soon dip below the impervious
limestone, creating the best artesian well region in the United
States,
*
in
southern
Wisconsin
of
and
Minnesota,
throughout
S.
Slichter, C. S.,
The Motions
Underground Waters, U.
G. S. Water
Supply Paper No.
67.
DEEP SEEPAGE
Iowa,
265
Indiana
most
of
Illinois,
northwestern
and northern
Missouri.
Fig. 172.
Outcrops of Potsdam and

St.
St.
Peter Sandstones.
(Figures indicate elevation above sea-level.)
The Potsdam and

is
Peter outcrops are shown in Fig. 172

this basin,
and a section throughout
based on a paper by Mead,*
shown
*
in Fig. 173.
of the
Mead, D. W., The Hydro-geology
Upper
Mississippi River Basin,
Jour. Assoc. Eng. Soc, 1894, p. 396.
266
-_<<5i>Arj.
LevelJlake Miiibigan
^^::^^
-
Archean Rocks
From a Paper by Daniel W. Mead,

Fig. 173.
Jour. Assoc. Eng. Soc, 1894, p. 396.
General
Arrangement
of
Water-bearing Sandstones.
Greatly enlarged vertical
scale.
(Section through southern Wisconsin
and northern
Illinois.
As most
of the outcropping sandstone

drift,
is
now covered deeply
with glacial
usually containing thick layers of clay, the
percolation of rain-water into these pervious sandstone layers

is
necessarily very slow.
In fact, the existence of
many
small
lakes
and ponds seems

is
to be possible only because the under-
lying clay
almost impervious.
In most cases, percolation,
however,
is
no doubt more than able to supply water more

it
rapidly than the porous strata can conduct
away.
Numerous
artesian wells in the upper Mississippi basin
have
drift,
been driven to considerable depths, through the overlying
limestone and sandstone layers, and over 1000 feet into the
Potsdam sandstone.
below the level of the
This brings the bottom of the well far

sea.
Other large and important artesian well regions are those

in
Dakota, Texas, California and on the eastern slope
of the
Appalachian Mountains.
the
Minor basins
are found throughout

wells are relatively
Rocky Mountain
is
region.
The Dakota
of
deep and are noted for their high pressure.
The water-bearing
cretaceous
period,
stratum
the
Dakota sandstone
the
DEEP SEEPAGE
267
"2 -^
a-2
-a o
o 3
^^
fjH
S
J3n;j/ uuaai/o
?5
h.
268
outcropping on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains

at an elevation of about 3000 feet above sea-level.
section
through the Dakota artesian basin
is
shown
in Fig, 174.
The Potsdam and the

slope toward the sea,
finds its
St.
Peter sandstone strata, the former
increasing rapidly in thickness toward the south, have a gentle
and no doubt some
of the
deep seepage
way
directly into the ocean through these strata.
Artesian supplies in the Gulf and South Atlantic Coast region

are derived mainly from sand and gravel deposits underlying
a hard blue clay.

for domestic
The waters
are soft
and very satisfactory

out
purposes.
fifteen miles
in the
feet.
Great fresh water springs occur ten to
ocean from the Florida, Gulf shore at depths of 100 to 300
In 1886, wells in Pensacola, Fla., from 60 to 280 feet deep and
one and one-half miles from shore, rose and

daily, " apparently with the tide."
fell
6 to 10 inches
Motion
of
Underground Water.
Ground
soil
water,
flowing
through the capillary interstices of the

very slowly.
is
and the rock, moves

motion
reach
Even
in relatively coarse sands, the rate of
only a mile or two a year.
In gravel, the flow
may
it
several miles a year, depending largely
upon the pressure head

would
and the character

a great
of the material.
Evidently, then,
take water percolating into the Potsdam outcrop in Wisconsin,
many
years, possibly one or
two thousand, to reach
the Gulf of Mexico.
Some measured
rates of underflow through superficial deposits
are one-fifth to three-quarter mile per year in the Arkansas
River basin, one-half to four miles per year in the
Mohave
River basin, one and one-fifth miles per year in the RepubHcan
River basin in Kansas, and about one-third mile per year on
Long
Island.
in
Poiseuille,
1842,
concluded,
from
experimental
capillary
obser-
vations,
that the
flow of fluids through
interstices
varied directly as the pressure.
This was later verified for air
by Meyer, and
for
water by Darcy, who in 1856 set forth the
DEEP SEEPAGE
relation
269
between the velocity

soil
of flow, character of soil, pressure

in the following formula:
head and length of
column
in
which
V
h
I
= = = =
the velocity of the moving ground water;

the difference in pressure-head; the length of the
soil
column;
soil,
a coefficient depending upon the character of the

especially
of soil
upon the size
of the soil grains.
The
size
grain was to be determined experimentally
by Darcy's apparatus.
Hazen Formula.
In 1892 Hazen
V
produced the formula:
= c(Pj
(0.70
+ 0.03 0,
in
which
V
the velocity of water in meters per day through the

entire cross-sectional area;
h
I
d
c
= temperature of water in C.; = head acting on water; = length of soil column; = " effective size " of soil grains in millimeters; = a constant varying from 400 to 1000.
"effective size" as such a size that 10 per cent
is
Hazen defined
of the material
grains.
of smaller grains
and 90 per cent
of larger
Hazen found that the 10 per cent
of small-size grains
virtually determined the capacity of sands to transmit water.
In addition to using the term ''effective size" in differentiating the sands tested by him,
coefficient."
Hazen used the term

finer
" uniformity
This represents the ratio of the size of grain, which
has 60 per cent of the sample

size.
than
itself,
to the effective
Hazen indicated
in his Report, that
on the basis of the

its
data from which his formula was derived,

*
application could
Hazen, Allen, Report Mass. State Board
of Health, 1892, p. 541.
270
only be justified for sands having a uniformity coefficient below

5 and an effective size of between
also
.1
and 3 millimeters.
He
remarked that sharp-grained material with uniformity

below 2 would have nearly 45 per cent of open space,
coefficients
or porosity, as ordinarily packed,
and sands having
coefficients
below
3,
as they occur in the banks or artificially settled in water,
would usually have 40 per cent porosity; with more mixed

materials,
the
closeness of
packing
OverflowXi
^
increases
so
that
with a uniformity coefficient

Loss of
Head
of 6 to 8, only
about 30 per
cent porosity would be obtained.
In general, round-
grained
water-worn
sands,
according to Hazen, would

give from 2 to 5 per cent
r^
less
porosity
than
sharp-
Fig. 175.
^. Hazen's Apparatus
is
grained sands.
The apparatus used by

Hazen
in
for Deter-
mining Flow of Water through Sand.
determining his
law for the flow of water
through sand
shown
in
Fig.
175 and the results obtained
with the sand tested, which, according to Hazen's
comment
above noted, probably had a porosity of about 40 per cent, are

given in Table 32.
The values have been reduced from meters

through the same sand for different water
is
per day to feet per day.
The
relative flow
temperatures as determined by Hazen
given in Table 33.

size of
Hazen found that
for gravels of
an effective
about
3 millimeters, the general formula was not exactly applicable,

as the velocity no longer increases as rapidly as the square of
the effective
size.
Coarse gravels,
also,
indicate
a velocity
first
varying as the square root of the head, instead of the

of the head, as in the case of sands.
also
power
The
effect of
temperature
becomes
less
marked
in the case of gravels.
DEEP SEEPAGE
TABLE
32.
271
(Hazen)
FLOW
OF WATER THROUGH SAND
Temperature = 50 F. Uniformity coefficient less than 5 (apparently about Porosity, about 40%
Gradient
h
1
2.5)
Effective size in millimeters
0.10
0.20
131
0.30
295 738
0.40
525 1312
0.50
820 2050
1.00
3.00
Discharge
Velocity
*
*.
33 82
328
3280 8200
29,500 73,800
t Velocity (assuming 40 per cent porosity) in feet per
Discharge in cubic feet per day per square foot of gross cross-sectional area. day through actual pore space.
TABLE
33.
EFFECT
.
OF TEMPERATURE ON FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SAND (Hazen)

32
Temperature, degrees F.
Relative velocity discharge
41
50
1.00
59
1.15
68 1.30
77'
86'
and
0.70 0.85
1.45
1.60
Table 34 gives Hazen's results for coarse gravels of relatively

uniform
1.4
size, i.e.,
2.
having uniformity coefficients varying from
to
TABLE
34.
FLOW
OF WATER THROUGH GRAVEL

2.0
(Hazen)
Temperature = 50 F. Uniformity coefficient 1.4 to Porosity = about 45%
272
Slichter's
Formula.
Slichter,*
on the basis
of a theoretical
investigation, verified, however,
by a long
series of carefully
conducted experiments
by King,t determined the following
equation for the flow of water through sand:

q
Jid s
0.2012 jj^ cubic feet per minute,
where
= head acting on water; s = cross-sectional area of soil column; = length of soil column; d = mean size of soil grains in millimeters; w = a coefficient depending upon the temperature; K = a coefficient depending upon the porosity of the
h
I
soil.
Shchter defined
" that
if all
"mean"
or " effective size " as such a size

soil
the grains were of that diameter, the

it
would have
the same transmission capacity that
actually has."
is
When
the cross-sectional area term
omitted,
Slichter's
formula also reduces to the original Darcy formula, namely:

V
with
k,
however, a variable.
all
Poiseuille,
Meyer, Darcy, Hazen, and Slichter
agreed that
the flow of water through capillary interstices varies directly

as the pressure-head
and inversely as the length
of the
soil
column.
King
found a slight tendency for flow to increase
somewhat
of soil
faster
than pressure.
Darcy's formula took account only of pressure-head and length
column.
Hazen added the
effect
of
temperature and
porosity.
size of soil grain,
stating an approximate value for
Shchter's formula includes not only pressure-head, length of

soil
column, effective size of
soil
grain,
and temperature
of water,
but a great range of porosity.

* Slichter,
S., 19th Annual Report U. S. G. S., Part II, 1899, p. 295. Underground Water, U. S. Water Supply Paper No. 67. King, F. H., 19th Annual Report U. S. G. S., Part II, 1899. King, F. H., 19th Annual Report U. S. G. S., Part II, 1899, p. 59.
C.
The Motion
t $
of
DEEP SEEPAGE
Table 35 gives the
effect of
273
temperature on the flow of water
through sand columns as given by SUchter.
TABLE
35.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SAND (Slichter)

32 40 50
G0 1.16
Temperature, degrees
F
. .
70
80
1.51
90
100
Relative velocity and discharge

.
0.74
0.85
1.00
1.34
1.70
1.90
Table 36 gives the transmission constant k or the discharge

in cubic feet per day,
through a
soil
column
foot long,
under a
head
of 1 foot of water.
36.
TABLE
FLOW
OF WATER THROUGH SAND

Temperature = 50
Porosity
(Slichter)
407o
Gradient
Silt
7=1
Very
fine
sand
Fine sand
Diameter (mm.)
Discharge
Velocity
t
*
0.01 0.11 0.28
0.02 0.43 1.07
0.04 1.74 4.35
0.06 3.92 9.80
0.08 6.95 17.35
0.10 10.9 27.3
0.15 24.4 61.5
0.20 43.5 109.1
Medium sand
Coarse sand
Fine gravel
Diameter (mm.)
Discharge*. Velocity t
0.40 0.50 0.60 0.75 0.90 1.00 3.00 5.00 0.30 98.0 174.0 272.0 393.0 610.0 880.0 1088 9,770 27,100 244.0 435.0 680.0 983.0 1530.0 2200.0 2720 24,400 67,800
feet per
Discharge in cubic
t Velocity in feet per
day per square foot of gross day through actual pore space.
cross-sectional area,
The
effect of porosity
is
on the flow
in
of
water through sand as
given by Slichter
shown
Table 37.
The
effect of porosity
as given in this table represents the effect of packing the

sized grains in different ways.
same
TABLE 37.-
274-
of
Comparison
Formulas
of Slichter
and Hazen.
A comHazen
from
parison of the results of the investigations of Shchter and

indicates that for a given slope
.1
and
for all effective sizes
mm.
to 3 "mm.,
Hazen found a discharge almost exactly three

* as
times as great as that found by Slichter.
Shchter defined " effective size "
such a
size " that
if all
grains were of that diameter, the soil would have the
same
transmission capacity that
it
actually has."
Hazen
defined
" effective size " as such a size that 10 per cent of the material
is
of smaller grains
and 90 per cent

that
the
of larger grains.
Although
the
its
Hazen
concluded
particles
which
constitute
finer 10 per cent of
the sample of sand virtually determine
transmission capacity, he nevertheless recognized the possible

effect of the other
90 per cent of the particles, by stating that
his
formula was applicable only to sands having a uniformity
coefficient less
than
5.
Apparently, Hazen's formula was based

coeffi-
mainly on experiments with sands having a uniformity

cient of about 2|, possibly as low as 2.
SHchter's formula
is
based on a theoretical analysis, assuming

In so far as the formula was
grains were used.
coefficient of
1.
uniform-sized, spherical grains.

tested experimentally
by King, uniform-sized
Slichter's results, then,
assume a uniformity
All natural sands
have a uniformity
coefficient greater
than one.
An
ity,
increase in uniformity coefficients
and, hence, a decrease in
means a decrease in porostransmission capacity. The larger
the grains for a given porosity, the greater the transmission

capacity.
The
effective size of natural sands, then, of given
transmission capacity must always be greater than the effective

size of
uniform-grained sand of the same transmission capacity.

is
In other words, the effective size of Slichter's sand

less
always
than the effective
size of
Hazen's sand of equal transmission
capacity.
This, however, does not explain the almost exact
difference of 300 per cent in the results as given
by
Slichter
and Hazen
for all effective sizes.

*
The Motion
of
Underground Waters, pp.
22, 27.
DEEP SEEPAGE
50
275
\
40
:35
30
25
20
276
Fig. 176 based
on the physical properties
of
S.
202 sands, reported

Dept. of Commerce,
in Bulletin No. 58,
Bureau
of Standards,
U.
June
20, 1916,
shows the average relation between the uniform-
ity coefficient
and the porosity
of sand.
Although individual
sands show considerable departure from the

here expressed, yet the data at hand
mean
relationship
corre-
show reasonable
spondence.
It will
be noted that Hazen's general statement, page 270, reis
garding the effect of uniformity on porosity
in
agreement
with Fig. 176.

Fig.
177 shows graphically the physical properties of five
widely different sands conforming to the above expressed relationship between uniformity coefficient
and
porosity.
Measurement
collection
of
Underflow.
While
the formulas previ-
ously discussed are of value in connection with works for the
and
filtration
of
public
water supplies, and serve

of under-
also to give a general
comprehension of the movement
ground water, actual measurements
of the velocity of under-
flow are frequently of great engineering value.

of
The
best form
apparatus yet devised for this purpose
is
that invented
by
Professor C. S. Slichter of the University of Wisconsin.
The
essentials of the apparatus are

electrolyte, usually
shown
in Fig. 178.
An
is
ammonium
its
chloride, or caustic soda,
introduced into a well and

in
movement
circuit
registered
by an
ammeter placed
an
electric
running between the
casings of the wells.
An
electrode,
is
placed in the lower well
but insulated from
its
casing,
joined into the circuit.
As
until,
the electrolyte flows with the ground-water toward the lower

well,
the current registered by the ammeter increases

electrolyte reaches the lower well, a
circuit
is
when the
sudden
rise in
current due to a short
registered.
typical graph
is
of the results obtained in Fig. 179.
an actual measurement
shown
in
The time interval between point A, which represents the instant when the electrolyte was introduced into the upper
well,
and point
(the point of inflection on the curve), which
DEEP SEEPAGE
Battfry
îiii
277
Ai
(jy
Fig. 178.
Slichter's
Apparatus
for Determining Flow of Underground Water.
"21
71
In
10
11
12
A.M.
Fig. 179.
Curve obtained by Slichter's Method of Determining the Velocity

of
Time
Ground-water.
(The distance
lower well.
highest of
AB
represents the time of passage of the ground-water from the upper to the
The
point
maximum
point.
should be taken at the point of inflection of the curve and not at the If the point of inflection be taken the effect of the diffusion of
the electrolyte will be nullified.
Slichter.)
278
when
it
represents the time
reached the lower well,
is
the time
required for the ground-water to
move between
the two wells.
Knowing the
velocity of flow, the pore spaces
must be
deter-
mined or estimated and from these two quantities the discharge

per unit of cross-sectional area of porous stratum can be de-
termined.
also
The
total
amount
of underflow, of course,
depends
upon the
total cross-sectional area of porous
stratum under
investigation.
Courtesy U. S. Geological Survey.
MAP OF UNITED STATES, SHOWING MEAN ANNUAL RUN-OFF

Red lines and fibres
indicate average annual
Fig. 180.
run-off in
depth
Prepared b> Henty Gunrw mjinly from data of the United States Geological Suti
in inches
CHAPTER IX
RUNOFF
Definition.
Runoff
is
the technical
is
name appHed
to that
portion of the precipitation which
carried off from the land

It constitutes
area into the ocean through surface channels.
the
residual
precipitation
losses
after
evaporation,
transpiration,
residual,
i.e.,
and deep seepage
have been supplied.
Being a
runoff necessarily cannot be a percentage of the rainfall,
the runoff must be determined by deducting losses from precipitation
and not by taking a percentage
of the precipitation.
Speaking in very general terms, the demands of evaporation
and transpiration require from about 15 to 25 inches

cipitation per
of pre-
The remainder represents runoff. Fig. 180 shows the approximate mean annual runoff in the United
annum.
States, according to the U. S. Geological Survey.
SURFACE FLOW
Broadly speaking, runoff consists of surface flow and seepage
flow.
The
factors modifying the surface flow will first be dis-
cussed.
These factors
may be subdivided
and the physical
into the character
and
rate of precipitation,
characteristics of the
watershed.
Effect
of
Precipitation
and Temperature.
Large
surface
flow
is
ordinarily produced
by heavy
precipitation occurring
in a short interval of time.
In northern latitudes considerable
precipitation
may
accumulate on the ground as snow, and a
large portion of this
may
be suddenly carried into the streams

In the Ohio Valley, for
by warm
rains or high temperatures.

is
example, the precipitation
quite uniformly distributed through
the year, amounting to about three to four inches per month.

279
280
Occasionally, a large portion of the winter precipitation falls

as snow, remaining on the ground until
it is
carried off into the
streams by
warm
spring rains or high temperatures or
by a
combination of the two.
Over the Northwest, the winter precipitation

averaging only about
1
is
relatively light,
inch per month, but the temperatures
are lower, so that considerable
snow may accumulate during

of
the
winter months.
The
probabilities
high surface flow
are less here than in the Ohio Valley, however, notwithstanding
the winter's accumulation of snow, because the temperature

rises
rapidly in the spring, normally causing the melting of the

rainfall
accumulated snow before heavy
sets
in.
Moreover,
the ground, in the Northwest, usually freezes up while in a
comparatively dry state and hence permits considerable percolation, in spring,
even while
still
frozen.
In the Southwest, no snow accumulates, but the

precipitation
is
summer
High
much
greater than in the Ohio Valley.
surface runoff here results from excessive precipitation over

restricted areas.
Efifect
of
Physical
Characteristics
of
Watershed.
Given
all
rates of precipitation cause different surface flows
from waterimpervious,
of the
sheds
of
varying
character
and condition.
An
steeply sloping drainage area

rain falling
may
shed substantially
upon
it.
drainage area
may be
impervious on
account of outcropping rocks, frozen and ice-covered ground,

or saturation.
is
Perhaps the highest degree
of imperviousness
attained by saturated, frozen ice-covered ground.
Substanoff into
it
tially all of the rain falling
upon such ground
will
run
the water courses, occasionally carrying ice or snow with

sufficient
in
quantity to
make the
after
less
runoff exceed the rainfall.
When
sandy
it
soil freezes
up
thorough drainage has been permitted,

pervious and absorb a surprisingly
will
remain more or
large
amount
of rain after the ice cover has been removed, but

is
before the frost
out of the ground.
watershed, impervious on account of outcropping rocks,
RUNOFF
nevertheless absorbs a moderate
281
of water at the begin-
amount
ning of a rainstorm on account of the moss and

in
humus found
is
the crevices of the rocks.
After such storage capacity

all of
exhausted, however, substantially

will
the succeeding rainfall
run
off
into
the water
courses
and into
time,
lakes,
ponds,
marshes and swamps,
common
to such watersheds.
When heavy
rains continue for
some
all
but the most
sandy and gravelly watersheds

through saturation of the
soil.
become temporarily impervious

For any given
rainfall,
the total
surface runoff from a pervious, sandy watershed will necessarily
be
less
than that from other watersheds, by the amount of water
required for saturation.
Sandy watersheds frequently
exhibit
no signs
of surface runoff.
The presence
of gullies is
an unmis-
takable sign of surface runoff.
In the spring and
fall
of the year,
all soils,
when evaporation and

between
tran-
spiration losses are small,
as a rule, carry substantially

rains.
the entire possible
amount
of capillary water,
Under such
is
conditions, the capacity of sand for gravity water

of
about four inches per foot depth, whereas the capacity

is
heavy clay
but a
little
more than an
inch.
In consequence,
large surface
clay soils quickly

runoff.
become saturated and permit

soils
is
While clay
nominally have great moisture holdthe rate of absorption of water very
ing capacity, not only
slow, but under field conditions clay soils hardly ever dry out
except at the surface, so that their actual capacity for moisture

is
usually very
much
less
than that of sandy
soils.
Land under
considerable
cultivation will, in the spring
and
fall,
absorb
All
its
rain
and thus reduce the surface
runoff.
vegetation
effect is
will
retard the surface runoff somewhat,
but
soon lost in case of heavy rains.
Virgin forest with
deep humus cover, though of rare occurrence, has considerable

absorptive capacity.
The
steeper the slope of a watershed, the greater the suris
face runoff, but the effect of ruggedness
not as great as might
be miagined.
Leaving out
of consideration
very
flat
watersheds,
282
is
the effect of slope on the total surface runoff

It affects, primarily, the time within
relatively small.
which the surface waters
reach the various channels.

Effect
of
Drainage
of
Upland.
Comparatively
streams.
few
tile
ob-
servational data are available respecting the effect of
and
held
open ditch drainage on the flow
of
The views
by engineers regarding the

this divergence of opinion
effect of
drainage are about as widely
divergent as those regarding the effect of forests.
Much
of
appears to be the result of reasoning
from
different premises.
effect of drainage, as of forests,
is
The
not a single, uniform one.
Beheving that a statement
of " effects " should always be coupled
with a specific statement of the " conditions " under which

these effects are produced, the author has endeavored, in the
fol-
lowing pages, to deal with one phase of the subject of drainage
and
forests at a time.
All but
the very smallest watersheds
are a combination of diverse characteristics;
consequently the
sum
total of the effect of drainage
and
forests
upon the flow
of streams must be based upon an understanding, so far as
our present knowledge permits, of
how
these factors influence
stream flow under specific conditions.
Both open and
tile
drains placed in upland fields facilitate

runoff, but,
tile
and hence increase surface

equalizing tendency.
on the whole, have an

drains intercept water
In so far as
which has already passed beneath the surface of the ground,
and bring
it
into open channels again,
they must inevitably

flow.
re-
increase the total surface runoff
and reduce the seepage
By
maintaining a more open
soil texture,
soil
i.e.,
and by quickly
ducing the moisture content of the
above them to that
which the
soil
can hold by capillarity,
by removing gravity
soil,
water amounting to from 1^ to 4 inches per foot depth of

tile
drains increase the capacity of the
soil for
absorbing water
during rains, and thus tend to lengthen the time within which
a given
amount
tile
of runoff reaches the water course.
In other
words,
drains on upland fields usually tend to equalize
RUNOFF
the surface runoff.
283
During
torrential
summer
rains,
however,
the rate of absorption of water

clay
soils,
is
by even the best drained heavy
altogether too slow to prevent excessive surface
runoff even from fiat slopes.
Open
ditching, under such con-
ditions, facilitates rapid surface runoff
and increases
flood flows.
Effect of Drainage of
Swamps.
The
drainage of
swamps
and bogs, particularly those having a heavy covering of peat

vegetation and the water-table near the surface of the ground,
usually has an equalizing effect upon the flow of streams.
vegetation,
Peat
and the resulting humus following drainage and

fiber,
decay
of
the vegetable
quickly absorbs large (fuantities

large,
of precipitation.
soil
As the pore spaces are

its
however, such
rather readily dehvers up
burden
of gravity
water to
the drains below.
The temporary
is is
storage capacity of such
vegetable
soils,
nevertheless,
greatly increased
by drainage
under the
level of
and the
total
evaporation loss
decreased.
As,
conditions
tile
assumed,
the water-table
was above the
drains before the drainage system was established, drainof
age
such
soils
does not result in intercepting any large
portion of the percolating water that supphes the seepage flow,
hence this
is
not greatly reduced by drainage.

soils,
Drainage of
swamps and bogs with peaty

rially decrease
then, usually reduces the
ordinary flood runoff, increases the total runoff, does not mate-
seepage flow;
in
short, drainage of such
soils
tends to equalize stream flow.

Effect of
Lakes and Ponds.

diminished,
Ordinary
is
surface runoff, re-
sulting from moderate rains,

to
retarded and equalized and,

lakes
some
extent,
by
and ponds.
All
pond
holes,
off,
no matter how small, have some retarding
effect
on run-
tending to reduce the rate and extend the period of time
over which runoff occurs.
Ponds, in so far as they are wet-
weather phenomena, may, to some extent, increase percolation.
Lakes and other permanent bodies

percolation
fed
is
of water usually exist because
nil
or exceedingly slow.
They
are,
as a rule,
by both ground and surface waters, and, consequently, can-
284
All
not add to the ground-water supply through percolation.
permanent bodies
of water greatly increase evaporation losses

of moisture,
from a watershed by providing a continuous supply
and consequently reduce the

smaller the evaporation loss.
total available runoff.
The
greater
the depth of lakes, however, the lower their temperature and the
Marshes and swamps whose beds are
sufficiently
impervious
to maintain a supply of water throughout the year not only
increase evaporation losses but greatly increase transpiration

losses
by sustaining a luxuriant growth
of
grasses or timber.
Swamps 'and
of
marshes, while tending to retard and equalize
the ordinary surface runoff, greatly reduce the total quantity
water finding
its
way
into the streams.
SEEPAGE FLOW
The
of
wâter contributed to streams as seepage flow consists
ground-water supplied by percolation.
Not
all
the percolating
precipitation,
is
however, appears in the streams.
Some
of
it
lost
through evaporation, some through transpiration, and
on some wathersheds another, though usually small portion,

is lost
through deep seepage.
When, through evaporation and
transpiration losses,
half
clay,
the capillary water, amounting to from
an inch
in
sand to three inches, per foot depth, in heavy

depleted,
has become
percolation
soil
must
first
replenish
the capillary water before the
will
permit gravity to draw
water down into the ground-water

the seepage flow of streams.
Effect
of
reservoir
which supplies
Watershed
flow,
will
Characteristics.
To
of
be possessed of
good seepage
that not only
a watershed
must be
such a character
the percolation of rainfall be large, but sub-
sequent
evaporation
is
and transpiration
soil
losses
small.
When
the precipitation
are
flow.
ample, the
and underlying rock strata and subsoil
usually
the most
important factors influencing seepage

soil
Even on
steep slopes, deep, sandy
will
permit a large amount of percolation and
will
quickly carry
RUNOFF
the percolating water to depths from which
return
it is
285
safe against
all
by
capillary
action.
On such
watersheds,
forms
of vegetation,
soil,
by reducing the moisture content

retard
percolation,
lift
of the surface
inevitably reduce the seepage flow.

soils
Clay
facilitate
surface runoff and
exert a large capillary
in bringing
moisture to the surface
again for evaporation and transpiration.
1."
14
|12 *10 1 1
->!
' 6
o 4
S
2
286
ELEMENTS OF HYDROLOGY.
rainfall of less
no surface runoff results from a

from I to
inch runs
1
than ^ inch.
When
inch of rain
falls in
1
a short time, about a tenth of an

inch
falls in
off.
off,
and when over

five tenths of
the course of a day
from two to
an inch runs
Swamps and marshes
decrease both surface and seepage flow.

rolling,
Wet-weather ponds, particularly on
sandy watersheds,
increase seepage flow as they are merely depressions that be-
come
filled
during rains and soon disappear, largely through
percolation.
On
clayey
watersheds wet- weather ponds
may
when
disappear mainly through evaporation.
Swamps and marshes

little
on very
flat,
clayey watersheds usually yield
runoff
the annual rainfall does not considerably exceed 20 inches.
By
intercepting percolating water that has already reached

its
a point several feet below the surface of the ground in
path
toward the ground-water

flow.
reservoir, tile drainage reduces seepage
Where impervious rock

lie
strata, sloping with the valley, under-
glacial drift,
is
and where such rock
strata outcrop in the river
bed, there
usually a large increase in seepage flow for some
distance upstream from the point of outcrop.

Effect of Character of Precipitation.
is
When the precipitation

is
insufficient to
keep the ground continually moist, which
usually the case, the character and rate of precipitation are
the factors which most largely influence seepage flow.

there
is
When
no frost in the ground, or the ground

it
was
relatively
dry when
froze, slowly
melting snow permits of the greatest
percolation.
On
the whole, a greater proportion of snowfall
than of
rainfall eventually percolates into the
ground to supply
seepage flow.
Next
to snowfall in effectiveness in replenishing the ground-
water supply are the slow drizzling rains that occur over large
portions of the country during spring and
spiration
is
fall
when both
tranIt
and evaporation demands are
relatively small.
not unusual for the entire
summer
precipitation to be held
in the
upper layers of
soil
as capillary water, or to run off
RUNOFF
into the streams over the surface of the ground,
287
none of
it
per-
colating to supply seepage flow.
Changes
in
Seepage
Flow Following Percolation.
Just
pre-
before the spring break-up in the Northwest, the seepage flow
which, together with the outflow from lakes, constitutes the

entire flow of streams during the winter cipitation
is
months when the
all
stored on the surface of the ground as snow,
has reached
its
minimum and
has also become quite uniform.
The
increase in seepage flow which will result from a given
increase in ground-water supply, through percolation, will de-
pend upon the slope of the ground-water surface and the

ance of the subsoil to the flow of water.
the flow of ground-water
is
resist-
As previously stated,
head
directly proportional to the
and
to
the square
of the effective size of the grains of the
conducting material.
Fine-grained subsoil,* by offering great
resistance to flow, will maintain the ground-water table at a
very
much steeper slope than

is
coarse-grained material.
Character
of subsoil, then,
a far more
important factor in determining
the shape of the water-table than ground surface topography.
As the ground-water
plane of saturation
rises,
is
by
well
capillarity, several feet
above
the level of saturation as

is
shown
in Fig. 182,
and as the
usually so far below the ground surface
as to protect the ground-water
from evaporation, and from
transpiration of
all
plants except possibly forest trees, equal
amounts
of percolation
in
must
raise the level of saturation

soil.
by
uniform amounts
any given
Fig. 182
shows that a given
amount
more
of percolation will raise the plane of saturation 80 per

in clayey soil
cent more
than in
in
fine
sand and 10 to 15 per cent
in fine
sand than
is
coarse.
As the head causing flow
in the fine
sand
about ten times as great as that causing

sand, the increased head due to a given
flow in the
coarse
* For the purposes of hydrology, the author uses the term "soil" to mean the upper layers of earth from which most plants primarily derive their sustenance, i.e., the upper three or four feet. The term "subsoil" is applied to all the intermediate layers of earth between the soil and the underlying rock
strata.
288
of
amount
percolation
has proportionately
much
less
effect
in increasing seepage flow in the case of the fine sand or clay.
A given amount of percolation,
then, will result in a
much
greater
increase in seepage flow in the case of the watershed underlain
PERCOLATION REQUIRED TO RAISE WATER-TABLE ONE FOOT

Coarso Sand
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.5
5.0
Inches of Water per Foot of Soil
Fig. 182.
Rise
of
to raise Water-table
Ground-water by Capillarity, and Percolation required One Foot in Different Soils.
with coarse material.

in
It follows
from
this,
that a watershed
which the plane
of saturation usually lies in coarse, porous
material will experience the greater variation in seepage flow.
RUNOFF
Depth
table
lies
289
of
Water-table.
On
some watersheds the waterground that some

of the
so close to the surface of the

is
ground-water
in
held back during the frozen season, resulting
minimum stream flow during the winter. On other watersheds, there
sub-zero weather of midis
no well-defined waterStreams
table except at elevations below the water courses.
draining such watersheds, particularly
if
lying in regions where
the ground remains frozen during several months, often reach
a stage of zero
flow.
'J'
290
RUNOFF
presented graphically in Fig. 184.
the air
rising
291
With very few exceptions
moved
into the well

it
when the barometric pressure was

falling.
and out when
was
RUNOFF FROM TYPICAL WATERSHEDS

Climatological,
topographical
and,
to
some
extent,
also,
cultural conditions on a watershed, are reflected in the flow of

its
streams.
Figs. 185 to 194
show the monthly mean tempera-
Jan.
Feb. Mur. Apr.
May Juue July Aug.
Sept. Oct.
Nov. Dec.
Fig. 185.
Temperature, Precipitation and Runoff, Mississippi River Watershed, Minneapolis, Minn., 1897-1913. Area, 19,500 sq. mi.
ture, precipitation
and runoff
for typical
watersheds in widely
illus-
different sections of the
United States, for the purpose of
trating the effect of temperature
and precipitation on the
total
amount
of runoff.
292
Jan. Feb.
Mar. Apr.
May June July Aug.
Sept. Oct. Nov. Deo.

St.
Fig. 186.
Temperature,
Precipitation
and Runoff,
Croix River Water-
shed, St. Croix Falls, Wis., 1901-1912.
Area, 5930 sq. mi.
100
10
Jan
Fig. 187.
Feb. Mar. Apr.
May June July Aug.
Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Temperature,
Wheeling,
Precipitation
and Rimoff, Ohio River Watershed,

Area, 23,820 sq. mi.
W.
Va., 1891-1905.
RUNOFF
293
Temperature
0"
Jau.
Feb. Mar. Apr.
May June July Aug.
Fig. 188.
Temperature, Precipitation and Runoff, Tohickon Creek Watershed, Point Pleasant, Pa., 1887-1911.
Area, 102 sq. mi.
Jan.
Feb. Mar. April
May June July Aug.
8cpt. Oct.
Nov. Dec.
Fig.
189. Temperature, Prescription and Runoff, James River Watershed,

Cartersvillc, Va., 1898-1905.
Area, G230 sq. mi.
294
Jan.
Feb. Mar. April
May June July Aug.
Sept. Oct.
Nov. Dec.
Fig.
190.
Temperature, Precipitation and Runoff, Tombigbee Watershed, Columbus, Miss., 1900-1909. Area, 4440 sq. mi.
River
100
10
90
I
o
t-
80
70
to
Sfi
60
He
50
a
g'40 3
^ 30
RUNOFF
295
Jan.
Feb. Mar. April
May June July Aug.
Sept, Oct. Nov. Dec.
Fig. 192.
Temperature, Precipitation and Runoff, Sacramento Watershed, Red Bluff, Cal., 1902-1911. Area, 10,400 sq. mi.
River
80
Jan.
Feb. Mar. Apr.
May June July Aug.
Fig. 193.
Temperature,
Precipitation
and Runoff,
Pit River Waterslied,
Bieber, Cal., 1903-1908.
Area, 2950 sq. mi.
296
Jan.
Feb. Mar. Apr.
May June July Aug.
Sept. Oct.
Nov. Dec.
Fig. 194.
Temperature, Precipitation and Runoff,

shed, Gregory, Cal., 1902-1908.
MeCloud River Water-
Area, 608 sq. mi.
RUNOFF
Watersheds
in
297
the
St.
Northwest.
The
They
Mississippi
River,
Minnesota, and the

typical of those in
Croix River, Wisconsin, watersheds are

are
the Northwest.
in
characterized
by great
fluctuations
temperature and
precipitation.
variation of nearly GO degrees in monthly

is
mean temperature
below freezing
degrees.
shown, with
five
months
of the year averaging
and midsummer temperatures reaching about 70

precipitation during the five winter
The
months amounts
to only
about 6 inches, most of which, however, accumulates as snow
and
ice.
The
precipitation during the seven
summer months
is
aggregates about 24 inches, most of which evaporates or
used by plants in transpiration.
Winter stream flow
is
main-
tained almost entirely by ground-water.
Watersheds
in the East.
The
Ohio River, Tohickon Creek,
Pennsylvania, and James River, Virginia, watersheds are characterized
by
relatively small variations in precipitation
and with
Little
winter temperatures near or above the freezing point.

of the winter precipitation
loss
is is
accumulates and as the evaporation

is
small and the transpiration loss
zero, the winter runoff
high.
During the summer months the relation between
rainfall
and runoff
is
not widely different from that shown by
the watersheds of the Northwest.
Lower
fall
precipitation on the
Ohio River watershed during the
results in less runoff
than
from the James and the Tohickon.

Southern
Watersheds.
The
Tombigbee, Mississippi, and
Colorado River, Texas, watersheds are typical of a variety of
The Tombigbee River watershed shows The Colorado relatively uniform distribution of precipitation. similar to that distribution somewhat shows a River watershed The effect of high temperatures, however, in the Northwest.
southern watersheds.
is
clearly evident.
If
the Minnesota precipitation occurred at Texas temperatures,
the runoff from the upper Mississippi River watershed would be
about the same as that shown

Colorado precipitation
occurred
for
the Colorado;
and
if
the
at
Minnesota temperatures,
298
the runoff from the Colorado River watershed would be quite
comparable to that now observed on the upper Mississippi.
The
precipitation over the Colorado River watershed
is
rela-
tively small
and occurs during the warmer portion

is
of the year.
The temperature
so high the year around that

is
most
of the
precipitation evaporates or
used by vegetation.
Practically
the entire runoff results from excessive rains over restricted

areas.
The
water-table
is
is
far
below the bed

nil.
of the streams, so
that seepage flow
substantially
fall
High summer and

watershed
together
temperatures on the Tombigbee River

high
transpiration
loss
with
from
the
heavily forested area, result in very low

Soil storage
summer and
fall
fall runoff.
having been depleted, the

in
rains are mainly
absorbed, resulting
winter.
low stream flow until well into the
Western Watersheds.
The
Sacramento River and
its trib-
utaries, the Pit and the McCloud, are typical western streams.
The
precipitation on these watersheds
is
very unequally
dis-
tributed.
By
far the greater portion occurs during the cooler
months.
Other conditions being equal, watersheds on which

is
the precipitation
distributed as
shown
for the
Sacramento
River suffer the least possible evaporation and transpiration

losses.
Those on which the precipitation
is
distributed as on
loss,
the Tohickon Creek watershed suffer a greater
and those
on which the precipitation

sippi
is
distributed as on the upper Missisloss of
watershed show by far the greatest
water through
evaporation and transpiration.
The Sacramento River

season.
also
shows the
effects of
melting snows
in the mountains, in maintaining stream flow during the dry
The high summer
flow
of
is
its
snow and spring-fed
mountain tributary, the McCloud,
particularly prominent.
The temperatures shown

are undoubtedly higher,
for the
McCloud River watershed
and the precipitation somewhat lower,
than the true average for the watershed on account of the

fact that a considerable portion of the drainage basin consists of
RUNOFF
mountain peaks higher
in elevation
299
than
tiic
highest meteoro-
logical observation stations for
which records were available.

low precipitation but a
The
Pit River watershed has very
reasonably good runoff on account of the greater portion of the

precipitation occurring during the winter
ranges around the freezing point.

of the
The
physical characteristics
above-mentioned watersheds are given on pp. 1103 to 1109,
Trans.
Am.
Soc. C. E., Vol.

of
LXXIX
(1915).
Hydrographs
Daily Discharge.
While
the
monthly mean
values of runoff, such as those given in Figs. 185 to 194, convey

considerable information
relative
to
interdependence
of
of
the two principal factors modifying the

different
amount
water which
watersheds
yield
as
runoff,
namely precipitation
watershed
are
and temperature,
of
hydrographs
showing the daily discharge

effect
streams,
alone,
can demonstrate the
of
characteristics.
Such
hydrographs
of
typical
streams
shown
in Figs. 195 to 203.

is
The
location of the watersheds of
these streams
shown
in Fig. 204.
So
far as possible, streams
draining watersheds having about the same

cipitation
mean annual
pre-
and temperature have been
selected, so that differences

veil the effects of
in precipitation
and temperature might not
the
physical characteristics of the different watersheds.

to 203
Figs. 195
bring prominently to one's attention the tremendous
diversity of stream flow represented
by
this
group of water-
sheds chosen
from such a restricted area as Minnesota and
western Wisconsin.
of the
By
None
of
selecting streams
still
from
different parts
United States a
greater diversity of flow could, of
course, be shown.
of the
streams for which hydrographs
are presented in Figs. 195 to 203 are located in a region of high

precipitation.
ritory;
None
them drain rugged, mountainous

of
ter-
neither are
any
them snow
or glacier fed.
300
^ S W
July January February March April June August Sept. October Not. Decenibei May .l 10 20 31 10 2029 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31
ai*l-'3
1.00
-
S 0.75
i 0.50
.
SO.250.00:
a 1.5002
1.00
S0.50-
I 0.25o.ooL
RUNOFF
301
1.75 1.50
,
o"
1.35
u 1.00
8
"7 o
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
1.25 1.00
o 1.50
ii
January Febmary March
April
May
June
July
AugruBt
21)
10 20 31 10 2U 29 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 SO 10 20
3110
Sept. October Nov. December 31 lU 20 30 10 SI 10 20 30 10 20 31
mw
^
!;
S0.75
0.50
0.25 0.00
1,
X94J
g
;2
,^J^,^^,.A
i
of
Fig. 197.
Hydrographs
Daily Discharge.
Falls,
Clearwater River at
Watershed
area,
Red Lake
Minn.
Topography flat; less than 1% lake area. Soil clay loam Dense timber, mostly coniferous, over eastern with clay subsoil. Little cultivated land. two thirds of watershed and prairie with much marsh land over western one third. Estimated Annual rainfall: mean, 24 in.; 1910, 13 in.; 1911, 20 in. general slope about 3 ft. per mile.
ISlOsquare miles.
Jannary Febmary March April

1 10
1.75 gl.50
June August Sept, October Nov. Decemljer July May 20 31 10 20 29 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31
^1.00
S.0.75
1910
SO.50
2
^
0.25 0.00
1.50 gl.25
"1.00
0.75
191
I I
0.50 0.25 0.00 -^ÂrîrA-yrArAy-AT'A^
s
Hydrographs
of Daily Discharge.
Fig. 198.
Ottertail River at Fergus Falls,
Minn.
Watershed area, 1310 square miles. Topography prominently rolling, morainic, and knolly. About 15% lake area. Largest lake in lower portion of watershed. Soil varying from clay to sand and gravel. Upper portion of watershed lightly timbered. Southern portion largely under cultivation. Annual rainfall: mean, 25 in.; 1910, 14 in.; 1911, 24 in.
302
January FeBruary March

1
.
April
May
June
July
August
Sept.
October
Nov.
December
10 20 31 10 20 39 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 3110 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31
2.00
sS
..^l-OO
0.00
RUNOFF
January February March
,1
303
April
May
June
July
August
Sept.
October
Nov.
December
10 20 31 10 20 29 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 81 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31
304
January Febrnary March

.1
Jane Au^st Sept. October Kov. December April May July 10 20 31 10 20 29 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31
la.uu
RUNOFF
305
1 10
January February March 20 31 10 2029 10 20 31
April
May
Jane
July
Auffnat
Sept. October
Nov, December
lU 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31
6.00
S5.00
4.00
306
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
Dlay
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
1 10 20 31 10 20 29 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31
10 20 30 10 20 31
15.00
14.00
13.00
12.00
11.00
10.00
9.00
.00
7.00
S3
6.00
.a
o
5.00
.a
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
Fig. 203.
Watershed
rather clayey.
in
Hydrographs
Topography
of Daily Discharge.
Black River at
area, 772 square miles.
Neillsville,
Wis. (1914).
Considerable land under cultivation.

.\verage slope
narrow V-shaped valleys, mean, 33 in.; 1914, 38 in.
no lake area. Soil Timber mostly second growth. Streams along stream about 6 ft. per mile. Annual rainfall:
distinctly roHing with
RUNOFF
The watershed
characteristics essential to
briefly
307
an interpretation
of summarized under each figure. Both the Red Lake and the Clearwater Rivers drain large
these hydrographs are
swamp
areas.
While these swamps have a tendency to equaUze

is
the stream flow, to some extent, their principal effect

increase
to so
evaporation
and transpiration
losses
as
to
greatly
reduce the total amount of runoff.
Heavy
precipitation
on
the Clearwater River watershed during 1909 and in the spring

of
1910 resulted in heavy runoff during the
1910 break-up.
Light precipitation during the remainder of 1910 and during

1911 resulted in very low runoff during that period.
The
fact that
sandy
soils
and
lakes, in
more
rolling country,
not only equahze stream flow, but conserve the rainfall far better
than timbered swamps and marshes

ing the discharge of the
is
clearly
shown by compar-
with that of the
Red Lake and the Clearwater Rivers Crow Wing and the Ottertail, respectively.
After the freeze-
The watersheds
size,
of these streams are almost exactly equal in
yet show a most striking diversity of flow.
up
in
November, 1911, the discharge from the Red Lake waterFor two entire
shed dropped to between five and ten cubic feet per second and
remained so throughout the entire winter.

years,
from September, 1910, to August, 1912, the principal
tributary of the
Red Lake,
i.e.,
the Thief River, with a tribuis
tary watershed of over 1000 square miles, most of which
swamp and much

The June,
1912, freshet
densely timbered, yielded a total runoff of
only .11 inch in depth over the watershed.

1911, freshet on the
Red Lake River
resulted from
about 4 inches of precipitation during the month.
The May,
on the Crow Wing River resulted from about month.
6.5 inches of precipitation during that
The Elk and the Root River watersheds are quite similar
in surface
topography.
The
differences
shown by the hydrosoil
graphs result mainly from the more sandy character of the
on the Elk River watershed.
The
rainfall
on the Root River watershed
in
1911 was very
308
heavier than on the Elk.
much
The 1912
precipitation was
very nearly the same on both watersheds^
The
precipitation
which caused the freshet

in Fig. 214,
of
May,
1912, on the Elk River,
shown
was almost as
large as that which caused the August,

in Fig. 215.
1911, flood
April,
on the Root River, shown
The Marchrains on
is,
1912, break-up
was not accompanied by heavy

rise
either watershed.
The small
and
on the Elk River
to a large
extent, due to lesser soil
lower winter flow.
by the Both streams show an exceptionally well

subsoil storage as indicated
sustained low-water flow.
While the Wisconsin River watershed between Merrill and

Rhinelander
is
about twice as large as the Black River water-
shed at
slightly
Neillsville,
less
and would,
therefore, be expected to
in
show
sudden fluctuations
stream flow, nevertheless,
the differences shown result, primarily, from the more sandy character of the
soil
on the Wisconsin River watershed and the
steeper slopes on the Black River.

is
The regimen
of these streams
somewhat
similar to that of the Elk River
and the Root River,
respectively, although the
Root River has a better low-water flow

sandstone rock that outcrops in
on account
of the underlying
the river bed.
The extraordinary
resulted
flood
on the Black River,
in June,
1914,
from very exceptional precipitation
(see
Fig.
212)
averaging 3.92 inches in 24 hours.

of 5.15 inches in
In July, 1912, a precipitation

c.f.s.
24 hours produced a flood flow of 27.5
per square mile from the Wisconsin River watershed between
Rhinelander and Merrill.

flood
is
A map
of the rainfall causing this
shown
in Fig. 213.
THE FLOOD FLOW OF STREAMS

Most streams
of
the
country are subject to considerable

is
variation in stage.
Under normal conditions the discharge

banks but,
periodically,
carried within well-defined
most streams
is
experience a runoff from the tributary watershed which
greater
than can be carried at a bank-full stage.
At such times the
Fig. 204.
RUNOFF
stream leaves
its
309
its
banks and spreads out over
valley.
As
a river usually carries considerable detritus in times of flood
and as the shallower water outside

forming the well-known alluvial flood
of such a flood plain
is
of the
banks has a slower

is
velocity than that within the banks, the sediment

plain.
deposited,
The very presence
conclusive evidence of prevalent floods.
In the development of the country, however,
many
people
have too often associated such physiographic features as this with ancient geologic ages and have attempted to occupy the
river's flood plain, only to find their structures destroyed
and
their
fields
its
laid
waste.
The
fertility
of the
alluvial valley
and
accessibility
of
through the
river
channel,
when other
with
the
means
communication
were
wanting,
coupled
relatively infrequent occurrence of devastating floods
and the
optimism
of flood sufferers,
have been
irresistible
inducements
to occupation.
Floods
Due
to Rainfall
Flood Producing Rains.

its
As floods originate in
precipitation,
amount and
result
distribution are of primarj^ importance.

rainfall, snowfall, or
Floods
may
from either
a combination of
the two.
Flood producing rains are not limited to regions of high annual

precipitation;
are,
in
fact,
torrential rains,
in
though
less
frequent,
nevertheless,
common
the arid
and semi-arid West.
The
smaller the watershed tributary to a stream, the
more
intense and concentrated the precipitation required
to produce
a flood stage.
Protracted general rains,

in the
that produce only
moderate stages
minor water courses, cause floods on
the main stream.

bursts," that have
Torrential rains,
little effect
commonly
called "cloud-
on the main stream, cause floods
on
its tributaries.
In general, the
maximum
of
flood
due to rain
dis-
will result
from the greatest amount
most unfavorably
tributed precipitation which
may
be expected to occur over
SlO
the entire tributary watershed within the time required for
water from the remotest portion of the drainage basin to reach

the point of observation.
The time
of concentration, in turn,
size
depends upon the topography of the watershed and the
and slope
of the water course.
Intense Rainstorms as Basis for Flood Estimates.

of runoff will, for a
in
Records
of rainfall.
good
many
years, be far
more incomplete,
and run-
most parts
of the
United States, than records

all
By making
off
a thorough analysis of
available rainfall
data, a better
judgment can be formed

if
of the probable
extreme flood flow of a given stream, than

flow data, alone, are relied upon.
observed stream-
study of the most intense
rainstorms in the part of the country under investigation should

first
be made.
The measure
of intensity of storms
must
in-
clude both watershed area and average precipitation over that

area, together with its distribution.
The
rainfall
which caused
the greatest recorded flood on the given stream should then be
mapped and
charge.
studied in connection with the resulting flood dis-
A
will
comparison of the given rainstorm with the rqpst
intense storm to be expected within the locality under consideration
then afford a basis for estimating the probable

flood.
extreme future
floods,
The frequency
are available.
of occurrence of
extreme
however, must remain a matter of uncertainty until
very
much more data
Effect of
Watershed Area.
Perhaps
The reason
the most important

is
single factor influencing the flood flow of a stream

of its tributary watershed.
of
lies
the size
in the variation
precipitation with area.
Torrential rains aggregating five
to ten inches in a day, or less, occur only over relatively small

areas, because the available moisture supply of the air
on a
summer
nent,
day,
if
uniformly precipitated over the entire contiless
would amount to very much
than
is
this.
Excessive
precipitation over a small drainage basin
possible only at the
expense of precipitation on the adjoining watersheds.
So pro-
nounced
is
the effect of watershed area on flood flow, that widely
vi
Discharge
Sec. Ft. per Sq. Mi.
Sec
DiaohargcFt. per Sq. SB.
Discbarge
Discharge
Discharge- Sec.
Ft. per Sq. Ml.
Sec. Ft. per Sq. Mi.
BisohorgeSec. V^.per Sq.Ml.
Ml.
Sec. Ft. per Bq.
CsP
S B
~'
^^^^Kp^
s^^H
Ig^V-
RUNOFF
311
scattered watersheds of equal area but of dissimilar topographical characteristics
experience quite similar flood flows.
Differences
in
precipitation
over a large watershed result
in irregularities in
stream flow on the tributaries that are comis
pletely
is
smoothed out when the main stream
reached.
This
well
shown by the hydrographs,
Fig. 205, of the Mississippi

its
River at Anoka, Minnesota, and of
principal tributaries.
Reasonably heavy, but irregularly distributed rains occurred

on the watershed between
May
and
5 as
shown
in Fig. 200.
As a
on
the
result of these rains a flood of

for the
somewhat more than ordinary

at
magnitude
main stream crested

experienced
Anoka, Minnesota,
Elk and
flood.
May
8.
None
rivers,
of the large tributaries, except the
Rum
more than an ordinary
The time
of cresting of this flood at
Anoka seems
to
have
been determined mainly by the discharge of the Elk and the
Rum
rivers
and
of the
minor tributaries aggregating about 35
per cent of the total watershed area.
Of the larger
tributaries, the
main stream, and the
Crow Wing crested before the Sauk and Crow rivers crested after it,
flood,
and thus prolonged the

it.
although they did not increase

is
The
effect of the
upper Mississippi reservoirs

of the
well
shown
by the uniform discharge

main
reservoirs,
main stream
of the
just
below the four
and by a comparison
hydrograph showing
the runoff from the entire watershed above
Anoka with
that
from the watershed below the

Effect of
reservoirs.
Shape and Location
of
Watershed.
A fan-shaped
time, and an
will,
drainage area that permits the water from several equal-sized

tributaries to reach the
main stream
at the
same
elongated area draining in the direction the storm moves

in general, experience
more
in
serious floods than

like the
more
irregularly
shaped areas.
site direction
Most streams
from that
if
Ohio
draining in the
oppo-
which the storm moves, have
far less
severe floods than
they drained in the other direction.
Streams
draining to the north have more severe spring floods than those
draining to the south on account of the gorging of the lower,
312
.' '
/m'ississippi/^river '''wST-epsHEO âboV%^ san%^ .r , \ I -^ .Area 4^1U.sri^>aT^^ch Lafefe Dam ^^^.^ L -Jultascafitate Pai^ /^TsSio-mi^^T/ _/-*Po''e'ia Falls/
20
30
10
WATERSHED OF MISSISSIPPI RIVER and its principal tributaries

above anoka, minnesota, with isohyetals for may 3-5,
Fig. 206.
\9\2
RUNOFF
frozen-up reaches of the stream, with water running
the warmer,
off
'313
from
basin.
more southerly portion
of
the drainage
This
is
well illustrated
Soil.
by the Red River

soil
of the North.
Efifect of
Clay
or rock outcrops
of
and steep slopes

Pervious
result
soil
in
the rapid concentration
flood
waters.
and
flat
slopes give the floods of a stream draining a small

of the characteristics of
is
watershed
larger
many
one draining a much
area.
This
illustrated
by the Crow Wing River

flood producing rains
watershed.
Effect of Cultural Conditions.
fall
When
may
on a watershed, cultural conditions, such as forest cover,

little effect
have
in retarding the flow.
At
best,
they are of
secondary importance.
retarding the melting of
Forests
contribute to floods by
snow
as illustrated
by the
Little
Fork
River watershed.
Watershed Characteristics Reflected

in
in Floods.
Differences
streams the
rainfall
watershed characteristics are prominently reflected in the
flood
hydrographs of the
rivers, Figs.
Root,
Elk,
Black, Wisconsin and

five
Wild Rice
207 to 211.
Of these
Black River discharged the most water, although the
on the watershed was
least.
The
physical characteristics of the
Black River watershed are given on page 306.
The absorptive
of
character of the Wisconsin River watershed, notwithstanding
moderately steep slopes,

that stream.
is
well
shown by the hydrograph
Maps
of
the rainfall which caused the floods
on the Black and the Wisconsin rivers are given in Figs. 212
and 213.
314
RUNOFF
June, lOU
315
40
10
11
12 13
S5
316
8.82
"3
d p
RUNOFF
317
Weycrhauser
SCALE OF MILES
Meadow
Valley
Fig. 212.
Medford,
Wisconsin, Storm, Black River above Ncillsville
June 3-4, 1914.
One-day Storm.
Neillsville, 3.92 in.
Average precipitation over Black River Watershed above
318
Park Falls
1.01
Fig. 213.
Merrill,
Wisconsin, Storm, July 23-24, 1912.
Less-than-one-
day Storm.
Elk River Flood.

in Fig. 207 resulted
The
May,
1912, Elk River flood
shown
from 4.95 inches
of rain over the watershed
in three days.
The
physical characteristics of this watershed
are given on page 302.
The
river
had been moderately high
throughout April and the ground was very moist; consequently

there was heavy runoff,
notwithstanding the normally large

soil
absorptive capacity of the
of this watershed.
RUNOFF
Root River Flood.
Fig. 208, resulted
319
flood of August, 1911,
The
Root River
from 4.64 inches
of rain in 24 hours.
The
physical characteristics of this watershed arc given on page 304.
The
river
had been extremely low during July, but moderate

FORT RIPLEY
2.45
MORA,
MILACA
3.98
COLUEG^V^ 3.76
SCALE OF MILES
ST. PAUL
2.37
GLENCOE 0.75
Fig. 214.
St.
Cloud, Minnesota, Storm.
May
3-5, 1912.
rains
had
fallen early in
August so that the
soil
was
in
good
condition to absorb the heavy rainfall of August 13.
While
the total runoff was relatively less than that from the Elk River
watershed, the steeper slopes on the Root and the concentration
320
much
higher and sharper
of the rainfall within 24 hours caused a

flood peak.
Maps
of the rainfall causing these floods are given in Figs.
214 and 215.
WINONA
0.71
CALEDONIA 2.58
NORTHWOOD
0.43
CLEAR LAKE MASON CITY 0.'^5 1.25
CHARLES CITY
2.20
NEW HAMPTON
2.62
SCALE OF MILES
10
20
30
40
Fig. 215.
Grand Meadow,
Minnesota, Storm, August Storm.
13, 1911.
One-day
Wild Rice River Flood.
The
storm that caused the flood

in
on the Wild Rice River was the second severest recorded

the Northwest, so far as small watersheds are concerned.
Fig. 123.)
(See
The
greatest recorded storm in this region
is
that
1905.
which centered at Fort Madison, Iowa, June 9 to These two storms furnish a good basis
10,
for estimating the probable
maximum
an area
flood flow
from watersheds
of the
Northwest having
While
it is
of less
than about 5000 square miles.
im-
possible to say with
what frequency such intense rainstorms as

any given watershed, nevertheless, two storms
of the given intensity
these will probably occur on

it is
safe to say that since only

in the
have occurred
Northwest during the past twenty years,
RUNOFF
321
notwithstanding the large number of stations at which the rainfall
has been observed, such storms are not to be expected on
once
any given watershed with a greater frequency than, perhaps, in several hundred years.
The outstanding
211,
is
feature of the Wild Rice River flood, Fig.
the small runoff which resulted from the extraordinary
precipitation on the watershed.

is
The explanation
of this fact
to be found in the characteristics of the watershed.
The
varies
slopes in the basin are very gentle.
The topography
little
from morainic to
flat
but there
is
is
very
swamp
land.
About
have
5 per cent of the basin
lake area.
Many
is
of these lakes
no
outlet, their inflow evidently being lost largely
by
percolation.
About 20 per cent

and other dams.
is
of the drainage area
controlled
by logging
and open
soil
Only the extreme upper part
of the basin
heavily forested.
The remainder
In
the
consists of brush
prairie,
with considerable land under cultivation.

capacity.
The
of
has
good absorptive
lower half
the
basin
artesian wells are found at depths of about 200 feet, in a stratum

of
sand and gravel overlain by

stream,
several
clay.
In the lower reaches of

lost
the main
important tributaries become
in the lowlands.
The
river overflowed its
banks at the gaging station during

is
the flood of 1909, and the discharge record
probably consider-
ably in error as the flow was computed by Kutter's formula.*

Scioto River Flood.
Fig.
fell
216 shows the 1913 flood on the
Scioto River at Columbus, Ohio.

this flood
this
is
mapped
inches
in Fig. 217.
The rainfall which caused The precipitation shown on

It
map
is
that which
before the river had crested.
averaged
6.1
on
the
watershed.
is
it
The
total
rainfall
from March 23 to
31,
viz.,
9.54 inches,
given on the flood
hydrograph
off
for the
purpose of comparing
with the total run-
during the flood.

is
The outstanding
feature of the Scioto
flood
*
the fact that about 90 per cent of the rainfall appeared
Report of Water Resources Investigation of Minnesota, 1909 to 1912,
p. 402.
322
-O
ill
S5-!
>
'
6t
^-^
C2
a
S2
a>
RUNOFF
in the stream.
323
This
is
due to the steep slopes and the satu-
rated condition of the ground
when the
"P?"',
Sandusky
rains began.*
6.78
.Buoyni.
"^
o.Oi
I '
Lima
6.06
Belle Fontaine
7
10
/-"^s /
<^
SCALE OF MILES
Fig. 217.
Central
Ohio Storm, March 23 to
p.m.
March
25, 1913.
Two-and-one-half-day Storm.
Ohio River Flood.
Fig.
218 shows the 1913 flood on the

of the
Ohio River at Cincinnati.

is
The pecuHar shape

of the
hydrograph
due to the fact that the flood water

first
Great Miami was
the
to reach the Ohio, at Cincinnati.
The current was

hours. t
either upstream, or imperceptible, for about 36

*
For
Re Scioto Flood,
see Report
on Flood Protection
for the City of
Columbus,
pp.
Oliio,
t
by John W. Alvord and Charles B. Burdick, Sept. 15, 1913. See Bulletin Z of the U. S. Weather Bureau, "The Floods of 1913,"
25 and 2G.
324
at Cincinnati
more than two days the gage height

cation,
was no
indiis
whatever, of the discharge of
the
stream.
of fall
This
well
shown by the hydrographs and the graph

Geological Survey in
between
of dis-
Maysville and Cincinnati, Fig. 219.
Both the values
charge given by the U.
S.
Water Supply
flood
Paper No. 334, page
65,
and the estimate made by the author,
of the probable discharge of the stream, are
shown on the
hydrograph of Fig. 218.

March
25 26 27
April
29 30
31
1
28
910111213
ieeordingto
U.S.G.SJ
Sfe
ii'
is
o
Fig. 218.
520
610
500
^490
C480
U"0
460
450
RUNOFF
The
precipitation
325
considered in connection with the Ohio

is
River flood at Cincinnati

ing from
that of the entire storm extend-
March 23
to 27, 1913,
shown
in Fig. 220.
MAP SHOWING RAINFALL
IN
OHIO RIVER BASIN. MARCH
23-27
1911
From U.S.G.S. Water Supply Paper No.
334.
Fig. 220.
Floods
Due
Primarily to Snowfall
Accumulation
of
Snow.
The
effect of
snow
in
producing
flood flows depends, primarily,
and the rate

effect
of melting.
upon the amount accumulated, The watershed area has much less
of floods resulting
rain.
on the magnitude and characteristics
from snow than on those resulting from
A number
of
326
snowstorms passing over a watershed
may
eventually produce
a relatively uniform, deep cover, even though each storm in

itself
may
distribute
its
moisture quite irregularly.
The
possible accumulation of
snow on a watershed
is
depend-
ent both upon the
the temperature.
amount In some
the
of winter precipitation
and upon
heavy, but
regions the snowfall

little
is
the snow melts so soon after falling that
accumulates.
In
for
other
regions
temperature
continues
below freezing
months, and the entire winter's precipitation accumulates.

less
Floods on streams draining watersheds
than 1000 square
miles in area, almost invariably result from excessive

rains.
summer
The amount
of
snow-water
likely to
be suddenly released
through high temperatures and such precipitation as

expected at the time of break-up in the spring,
is
may
be
usually less
than the excessive rain which occasionally
falls later in
the season.
The
the
rate of rise in temperature, particularly after the
snow
in the
has become
compacted,
of
is
an important factor influencing
amount
accumulated precipitation which appears
streams.
progressive
warming up over a watershed decreases
the flood heights on streams flowing south, but increases them
on streams flowing north.

site effect.
sudden warming up has the oppo-
Forests retard the melting of snow, and, in this way,
bring the period of break-up later into the spring

fall is
when the
if
rain-
heavier.
Through
this action, particularly
the ground
was frozen through the winter, or saturated by

often increase floods, as
River, Washington,
fall rains, forests
was
illustrated
by the
and
flood of the
Cedar
Fork
November
19, 1911,
of the Little
River, Minn., April 18, 1916.
Melting of Snow.
Snow
melting slowly from the sun's
heat does not usually produce serious floods, as a large amount

of the water
falling either.
is
evaporated.
On
the other hand,
warm
rains
on cold snow, alone,

This fact
is
will
not
produce high
* in
runoff,
well presented
by Horton
the following
statement
*
Horton, Robert E., Monthly Weather Review, December, 1905.
RUNOFF
"Thus, to melt one inch
say,
fresh
five
327
congealed water, or
or ten inches loose,
of
inches compact snow,

rain
snow with
at
42 degrees,
would require
14.4 inches of rain."
Horton
of
states that the sun's heat will melt
snow at the
rate
about .05 inch depth of water per 24 hours for each degree
is
the air temperature
above 32
F.
Snow has
great
If
capacity for holding water

the ground under the
by
is
capillarity
against gravity.
or, if frozen, is
snow
not frozen,
not saturated, a surprisingly large amount of per-
colation will occur
when the melting
process
is
gradual.
When
rains
day and night temperatures both remain above

for a few days, so as to reduce the
freezing, however,
snow
to slush
and warm
its
then set
in,
the accumulated precipitation quickly finds
way
into the streams
and produces
floods.
Crow Wing River Flood.

River,
is
Fig.
221,
for
the 'Crow
Wing
a typical hydrograph of a flood due exclusively to melt-
ing
snow.
The
physical
characteristics
of
the
Crow Wing
of April,
it
watershed are given on page 300.

1916, on this stream
is
While the flood
the highest on record, nevertheless,
represents a comparatively small
amount
of runoff.
Most
of
the melting snow found
its
way
into the ground, or into lakes
and ponds.
Little
Fork River Flood.

in Fig. 222,
The
flood
on the Little Fork
River,
shown
It
was due, primarily, to the heavy winter
snowfall.
1.
was aggravated, however, by three conditions:

forests retarded the melting of the
in.
The heavy
until
snow
water,
the heavy April rains set

soil
2.
The clayey
was unable
flat
to
absorb
much
notwithstanding the
4^ inches of rain
topography, because about

fallen
had
during the
previous
October and November.

3.
The stream
flows
northward so
that
the
break-up
was progressive down stream.
328
RUNOFF
After
329
fell
May
5,
the Little Fork River

to
slowly for about two

rainfall,
weeks and then rose again, due
May
remaining
practically at flood stage for about
two months.
flat,
The
inability of
heavy
forests,
when occurring on
is
clayey
watersheds, to prevent flood runoff,
clearly
shown by the
1916 flood on the Little Fork River.

inability of these
On
the other hand, the
same heavy
is
forests to
produce a good low-
water flow
in
fell
in
dry seasons
shown by the
fact that the discharge
September, 1910, and during the winter of 1911 to 1912,

to .05 cubic foot per second per square mile.
Effect of
Temperature and Precipitation on Winter and

Spring Floods
Figs.
effect
222 to 229 have been prepared to show the combined
of
temperature and precipitation on the flood flow of
typical streams.
The Ohio River
at Pittsburgh.
a,n
The
Ohio River watershed
above Pittsburgh, Penn., with
area of 19,000 square miles,
ranges from rolling to mountainous.

w'hole, is thin,
and the slopes are
steep.
The soil Most of
cover,
on the
the watershed
consists of brush-covered, cut-over land.

in winter because the precipitation
is
Floods occur mainly
quite uniformly distrib-
uted through the year and heavy thaws
may
be expected at
any
of
time.
This
is
clearly
shown by the graphs.

rain.
Severe floods on this stream are usually the combined result
warm weather and
High
in
minimum temperatures
appear to be especially effective

into the streams.
bringing the precipitation
Freezing night temperatures, notwithstanding
high day temperatures, have a great retarding influence.

is
This
evident from a study of the peaks on the hydrograph.
Com-
binations of tem.perature and precipitation that would result

in still greater floods
very evidently are possible.
The maximum stage on the Ohio River at Pittsburgh was reached on March 15, 1907. As will be noted from Fig. 224, this flood resulted from a light snowfall on March 10, combined
330
with about If inches of rain and very warm weather a few days later. A more serious flood, however, might easily have occurred.
Either the snowfall of February, 1910, or the rainfall of
ber,
Decem-
1901, would have greatly increased the flood

December
10
20
31
crest.
March
10
January
10
February
31
20
10
20
20
31
Fig. 223.
Ohio River Watershed, Effect of Temperature and Precipitation

on Stage at Pittsburgh, December, 1901-March, 1902.
While the 1907 flood reached the highest recorded stage at Pittsburgh, it was of such short duration and the lower tributaries of the Ohio, except the
Green River, Kentucky, delivered
so little water, as to result in very ordinary stages in the lower
reaches of the stream.
RUNOFF
The
ter
331
flood of
March
1,
1902,
was the second greatest on record,

for a
still
and conditions were favorable
greater flood.
The win-
had been cold and considerable snow had accumulated.

rise in
The
temperature during the

20
31
last
week
of
February was
December
10
Fig. 224.
Ohio River Watershed, Effect

minimum
of Temperature and Precipitation on Stage at Pittsburgh, December, 1906-March, 1907.
rapid, the
Fig.
reaching 44 degrees,'but very
little
rain
fell.
223 clearly shows temperature conditions most favorable
to a serious flood,
and the absence
of rain at the critical time.
situation almost equally favorable to a record-breaking

If
floodexistedin the spring of 1910.
the
minimum temperature
332
of 45 degrees
on February 27 had been accompanied by even
of rain, a great flood
an inch and a half
would have followed.
amount of water that ran off, notwithstanding the small March precipitation, is well shown in Fig. 225.
large
The
^H '!"
Fig. 225.
^1
Minn.
Ohio River Watershed, Effect of Temperature and Precipitation

on Stage at Pittsburgh, December, 1909-March, 1910.
The Upper
Mississippi
River
at
St.
Paul,
The
Mississippi River at St. Paul, Minn,, drains an area of 35,700
square miles, consisting of the watershed of the Mississippi

proper and that of the Minnesota River.
sists
The watershed conland,
of
relatively
flat
and gently
rolling
considerable
RUNOFF
portions of which arc distinctly sandy.
333
At
least half of the
land
is
is
under cultivation.
heavily forested.
Only a small portion
of the water-
shed
Portions of the watershed drained by

flat,
the Minnesota River are relatively
have a heavy clay
soil
and
yield little
runofT under ordinary conditions.

is
The
greatest flood on record
that of 1881,
when a
stage
dis-
of 19.1 feet
on the gage was reached, corresponding to a
charge variously estimated at from 95,000 to 120,000 secondfeet.
While the meteorological data
for 1880 to 1881 are very
meager, the flood appears to have been the result of rather

general heavy winter and early spring precipitation.
The second
1897.
greatest
flood
occurred
in
March and
April,
stage of 18.0 feet, corresponding to a discharge of
85,500
c.f.s.,
was reached on April heavy winter snowfall.
G.
This flood also
re-
sulted from a
November, 1896, was

In
a cold month, and the precipitation over the State averaged

2.69 inches.
This was greatly in excess of the normal.

precipitation
December the
was about normal, but

of
in
January,
February and March, 1897, about 5 inches

a total winter precipitation of a
part of
little
snow
to
fell,
making
over 8 inches.
March continued
severely cold.
slightly
day temperatures rose only
The early March 27, the above freezing. Then a
Up
warm
spell set in.
reached a
From March 28 to 31, the day temperatures maximum of from 50 to 55 degrees, and the night
There
last
temperatures ranged from freezing to 6 degrees above.
was no precipitation during the

April precipitation
week
of
March, and the
was only
half the normal.
The temperature and
precipitation on the watershed during
both the spring of 1897 and 1916 are shown in Figs. 226 and 227.
In 1916 conditions were favorable for a greater flood than
in
1897, until the weather suddenly turned colder again the
last
days in March, making the break-up nuich more gradual
than in 1897.
Renewed warm weather and
rains resulted in a
secondary rise after April 20, 1916.
March
10
30
Fig. 226.
Mississippi
cipitation
River Watershed, Effect of Temperature and Preon Discharge at St. Paul, 1897.
Fig. 227.
(334)
Mississippi
cipitation
River Watershed, Effect of Temperature and Preon Discharge at St. Paul, 1916. _
.
RUNOFF
The Red River
of
fall
335
of
the North at
Grand Forks.
and heavy
The
soil.*
Red
The
to
River of the North drains an area of 25,000 square miles, most
which
is
prairie land with flat slopes
from the international boundary to Lake Winnipeg averages
about six-tenths of a foot to the mile.
From Lake Traverse

is
Lake Winnipeg, a distance

260
feet.
of 315 miles, the entire fall
only
A
Red
reasonably good record

River, since 1800.
is
is
available of the floods on the
any record
risen 66 feet
15, 1825,
that of 1826,
The first when
great flood of which there
is
the river
fell
is
reported to have
above low water.
Snow
in
Pembina on October
great flood
and remained on the ground throughout the succeeding
cold winter, resulting in a spring flood.
The next
feet
is
occurred in 1852
when the gage reached 67

which there
in
It
above low water.
The greatest
flood regarding
reliable information
occurred in 1897.
1,
began
the upper reaches on April

5,
and crested at Moorhead, April

later.
and at the international

stage of 50.2
boundary about three weeks

at
was reached
last
Grand Forks on
of
April 10.
There was no rain during the
March and the April precipitation was only half the normal. The flood resulted entirely from the melting of a heavy
week
winter snowfall.
During
this flood,
a strip of country about
30 miles in width
and 150 miles
in length,
was inundated, and
about 50,000 people were rendered homeless.
The temperature and
precipitation on the watershed during

in Figs.
both the 1897 and the 1916 floods are shown
228 and 229.
The
in
cold weather during the
first
week
of April, 1916, affected
the runoff from the
Red River watershed,

to that
at
Grand Forks,
If
a similar
manner
from the Mississippi.
the rains
or the
between April 15 and 20 had come ten days
earlier,
weather had even continued warm, record-breaking floods would
have occurred on both the Red and the Mississippi Rivers in 1916.
Mass
*
Curves
of
Temperatures
Above
Freezing.
Figs.
230 to 234 show a summation of temperatures above freezing,

See
"The Red River
of the
North" by E. F. Chandler,
in
The Quarterly
Journal, Univ. of N. D., April, 1911.
March
10
April
31
20
10
20
30
Fig. 228.
Red River Watershed,
Effect of Temperature and Precipitation on Stage at Grand Forks, 1897.
Fig. 229.
(336)
Red River Watershed,
Effect of Temperature and Precipitation on Stage at Grand Forks, 1916.
RUNOFF
with a view to illustrating; the
effect
337
of spring
temperatures
on the flow of streams,
in
another manner.
The break-up
entire state of
was much more nearly simultaneous over the

Minnesota
in 1897
than
in 1910,
While ordinarily the Minbringing

its
nesota River breaks up before the Mississippi,

flood water to the
mouth, at
St. Paul, before that
from the north-
ern part of the State arrives, in 1897 both streams crested at
almost the same time.

ditions
It
appears that any one of three confloods in the Mississippi
would have produced greater
River at St. Paul, in 1916, than actually occurred:

1.
More
nearly uniform temperature conditions, as in 1897.

five
2.
3.
Continued warm weather for
days longer.
earlier.
Moderately heavy rains ten days
Figs.
of
230 to 234 give an interesting indication of the amount

required, in spring, to bring northern streams
warm weather
when the
to flood stage.
3,
In 1897, the Mississippi River crested on April
total
number
of degree-days of
maximum
daily
temperature above 32 F. aggregated 170.

occurred on April 6 at 175 degree-days.
aoM
In 1916 the crest
338
350
RUNOFF
400
339
350
300 300-
250
&200
P
5150
100
50
340
B
<u
50
RUNOFF
341
almost simultaneous over the Northwest and the Red River

of the
North crested at 215.

note that the crest of the Ohio River
1,
It is also interesting to
flood at Pittsburgh
on March
1902, occurred before the weather
turned colder again, so that the full effect of the melting of the
snow, combined with the
rain,
was
felt.
In case of the Root
River, Minnesota, floods of March, 1913
and 1916, on the other

it
hand, the crest was considerably lower than

if
would have been
warm weather had
prevailed a few days longer.
Fall Floods
Many
fall
streams draining watersheds on which the

is
precipitation
heavy,
are
subject to
fall
is
summer and The floods.

a typical
fall
Passaic River, N.
flood,
J.,
flood of October 8, 1903,
and the greatest recorded
for the stream.
The
Passaic
River drains a steeply sloping, hilly fan-shaped area of 772

square miles above Patterson, N.
J.
The
flood
was caused by
a 30-hour rainstorm which averaged a precipitation of between

10 and 12 inches.
Many
to late
streams
in
the upper Mississippi Valley are subject
summer and
fall floods.
A typical example is the October,

fall
1911, flood on the Black River, Wisconsin.
The occurrence
of
summer and
floods
on streams greatly
This subject
complicates the problem of the storage of water for combined power, navigation, and flood prevention purposes.
will
be discussed in a later chapter.
Flood Flow Formulas
A large number
of
sizes.
of formulas
have been prepared
for the
purpose
computing the probable flood flow from watersheds
of various
One group
of formulas, including such

Biirkli-Ziegler's,
well-known ones
as
McMath's,
Hawksley's,
Adams',
Hering
and Gregory's and

in sewer design
Parmley's, are intended, primarily, for use

applicable, particularly, to small areas
and are
342
of less
than one or two thousand acres.
Other formulas, such

Eddy's,
as
Kuichhng's,
Murphy's,
Metcalf
&
and
Fuller's,
are applicable to the larger drainage areas.
For a detailed
is
discussion of these and other formulas, the reader to books on sewerage.
referred
discussion of
some
of the principles
involved
is,
however,
to
within the scope of this treatise.
Weight Given
Various Factors by Different Formulas.
Most
of the formulas of that
group applicable to sewer design

second to vary as the rate
.25
.8
assume the runoff
in cubic feet per
of rainfall in inches per hour, of the slope of the ground, of the drainage area.
approximately as the
power
and approximately as the
power
the sewers,
is
The proportion of the rainfall reaching dependent upon the character of the watershed,
Kuichling
*
usually expressed in a coefficient.
concluded that,
area
theoretically, ^
the fourth root of the factor
was the
proper one to use.
Of the group
of formulas applicable to estimates of flood flows areas, Kuichhng's,
from larger drainage
Murphy's, and Metcalf

of the
&
Eddy's assume only one variable, namely, the area
watershed.
val
of
The magnitude
of floods, with respect to the interis
successive occurrences,
expressed in the coefficient
used.
Floods are grouped as "frequent," "occasional," "rare,"

etc.
"
maximum,"
shown
The
relation
of
watershed area to flood
flow in second-feet per square mile, according to these formulas,

is
in Fig. 235.
Fuller Formulas.
his formula,
Fuller f
introduces another variable into
namely, the interval of time within which floods

likely to recur.
of,
of a given
magnitude are
Watershed characteristics are taken care

sible,
as far as possize
by a
is
coefficient.
Fuller's relation
between the
of
drainage basin and ratio of

flood
maximum
flood to average 24-hour
shown
in
Table 38.
* Kiiichling,
t
FuUer, Weston E., Trans.
Emil, Trans. Assoc. C. E., Cornell University, 1893. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. LXXVII, p. 564, 1914.
RUNOFF
343
1000
aooo
3000
4000
5000
6000
,7000
biOOO
gooo
10000
Watershed Area- Square Mllea
Fig. 235.
344
38.
TABLE
RELATION BETWEEN MAXIMUM

AVERAGE 24-HOUR FLOOD (Fuller) Q (max.) =Q {l + 2A-o-')
FLOOD AND
Catchment
area, in
RUNOFF
345
merely a " probability " based on average observed occurrences.
The maximum
as applied
flood of a century
may
occur within five years'
records of stream flow, yet, according to the law of probabilities
by
Fuller, the flood to

still
be expected
in
a period of one
hundred years would
exceed this observed
maximum
of a
century by nearly 70 per cent.

logical
When
meteorological and hydro-
data are entirely wanting, so that the cause of floods

of such formulas
on the given stream cannot be studied, the use

as Fuller's guide.
may
be
justifiable,
in that
they serve as a rough
The
lack of rehance to be placed on a formula giving the

is
probable frequency of floods

floods in the
well
illustrated
by the 1913
Ohio Valley and
in northeastern
United States.
The Hudson River

of 5400 square miles.
at Mechanicsville, N. Y,, drains an area
Records extend back about a hundred
years, although accurate data are not available for the early
years.
According to Horton
the average of the highest day's
discharge for each year of the 26 years preceding 1914 was
41,875 second-feet.
The
greatest flood previous to 1913 occur-
red in the spring of 1869,

feet.
when the peak reached 67,000 second-
The
crest of the 1913 flood reached 113,500 second-feet.
This flood was preceded by
warm
rains that
had taken most
of the frost out, saturated the ground,

tially all natural lake
and exhausted substan-
and swamp
storage.
The streams were

snow on
at a bankful stage but there was no accumulation of
the ground except in a small portion of the Adirondack forests.
An
average of 4^ to 5 inches of rain
fell
on the upper Hudson
River watershed on March 25, 26, and 27, on practically saturated

soil.
Flood Frequency.
The
frequency of flood stages on the

is
Ohio River at Pittsburgh and at Cincinnati

236 and 237.
shown
in Figs.
By
extending these curves an estimate can be

still
made
*
of the probable frequency of
greater floods which
are likely to occur.
Not much weight can be placed on such

66, p. 399.
Horton, Robert E., Engineering Record, 1913, Vol.
346
estimates, however.
Up
to a frequency of one flood in 25 years,
the curves should be quite rehable.

36
34
32
26
24
RUNOFF
Suggested Definition
of
347
"Normal."
Fig.
238 shows the
frequency of river stages between extreme low water and extreme

high water, at Cincinnati, for 50 years.
is
In this connection
it
interesting to consider
what
constitutes the " normal " stage
of a stream or the "
normal " annual, monthly, or daily precipi-
tation at a given station.
The
definition of
''
normal " applicable
80
70
348
DATA RELATING TO SOME OF THE MOST SEVERE FLOODS
Summer
Floods on Small Watersheds
Cane Creek, N. C, Flood.

of rough,
Cane Creek has a slope of about

The
slope of the stream bed
is
150 feet per mile, and drains an area of about 22 square miles
mountainous country, with much bare rock and, on

soil
the whole, very thin

is
cover.
so steep that the ordinary flood rise at Bakersville

five to six feet.
only
about
During the flood
of
May,
1901, however,
there was a rise of twelve feet.
The
flood plain of about 250
acres of high-grade agricultural land lying just above the
town
was swept
to
clear of soil
in
down
to the rock.
Boulders from four

to 300 feet. to about
twenty tons
weight were
moved from 100

this flood
The precipitation which caused

29,500
c.f.s.
amounted
eight inches in 24 hours, resulting in a discharge estimated at

or 1341
c.f.s.
per square mile.
In a number of places on the watershed there occurred what

are locally
known
soil
as " water spouts."
Percolating water satu-
rated the
overlying the rocks, and

out,
when
sufficient
head
had accumulated the water burst

etc.,
carrying earth, trees,

hillsides.
with
it,
and cutting great gashes down the

Oregon,
Flood.
Heppner,
The
is
Heppner,
Oregon,
flood
occurred on June 14, 1903, on a small watershed of about 20
square miles, tributary to Willow Creek, in Oregon.

of the creek
The
slope
below Heppner
about 35 to 40 feet per mile.
The
flood
was caused by excessive precipitation which lasted
only about one-half hour.
The storm area was about two

storm that
to
four miles in width and eight to ten miles in length.
Such
five
tremendous quantities
Although there
stones,
of hail fell during the
days later bodies were found well preserved in

is
drifts of hail.
no record of the exact
size of
the largest hail-
some were found
in the debris after five
days which meas-
ured five-eighths inch in diameter.

practically transparent, ice.
The
hail
was
of a clear,
The
flood
crest
appeared at Heppner almost coincidently
RUNOFF
with the
1| hours.
first
349
in
water and the creek was normal again

flood apparently traveled at a
about
about
The
rate
of
six miles per hour.
One
third of the
town was
entirely
swept
away, and out
of a population of 1400,
about 200 were drowned.

arid
Monterey, Mexico, Flood.
Throughout the
floods
is
and semi-
arid region, torrential rains over small areas are the cause of
most extreme and disastrous

at Monterey, Mexico, on
on small streams.
The
worst flood on record, of this character,
that which occurred
August
27, 1909.
is
This flood occurred
on the Santa Catarina River, which

of the year.
dry about 350 days out
The
river drains a fan-shaped area of 544 square
miles, varying in elevation

to 1,766 feet in the city of
is
from 7,820
Monterey.
feet in the
headwaters
Most
of the watershed of all
rocky, barren, precipitous,
and
free
from plant growth
kinds.
During August, 1909, two great
floods occurred on this water-
shed, as the result of excessive precipitation.
The
It
first
and
smaller flood occurred between August 9 and 10.

theless the greatest flood since 1881.
was never-
This flood followed the

1909, to
greatest drought in 30 years.
From January,
August
9 of that year, only eight inches of rain had fallen, and during the previous jêar the entire precipitation had amounted to only
ten inches.
rain
fell
During the
flood of
August 9 to
11, 13.38 inches of
in 42 hours.
From midnight
p.m.
to noon,
August
10, 3.50
inches
fell;
from,
noon on the tenth to 8 a.m. on the eleventh,

on the eleventh, 2.77 inches;
7.11 inches;
from 8 a.m. to 6
or a total of 13.38 inches in 42 hours.

fell
Of
this,
10.61 inches
in
30 hours.
The
result
was
a flood that
it
would have been
considered record-breaking had
not so soon been followed
by a
still
greater one.
Notwithstanding the heavy precipitation

this first flood of
later.
and the heavy runoff during

11, the river
August 10 to
was dry again a few days
The
in
flood of
August 10 was followed by 21.61 inches

August 25 to 6
p.m.
of rain 29.
98 hours from 4 p.m.
August
The
distribution of this precipitation between
August 25 and
350
29
is
shown
in
Fig.
239.
The
It
is
crest of
the flood
occurred
at 11 P.M.
on August 27 after substantially 10 inches of rain

at Monterey.
had
fallen
probable, however, that the

is
record of precipitation in the valley at Monterey

rect
not a cor-
measure
of the precipitation over the
headwaters of the
stream.
Otherwise, the flood crest should have occurred about

28, after over 15 inches of rain
noon on August
had
fallen.
25
^20
m & gl5
a
e o
^10
f^
RUNOFF
Winter and Spring Floods on Large Streams
351
Lower
240,
Mississippi
River
Floods.
The
total
watershed
area drained by the Mississippi River system, shown in Fig.

is
1,240,050 square miles.
165,900 square miles.
The area above St. Louis The Missouri River drains an area
is
of
527,150 square miles; the Ohio 201,700 square miles; and the
Arkansas drains 186,300 square miles.
While the drainage area

Ohio River watershed
of the
Ohio River
is
less
than four
tenths that of the Missouri River, the precipitation over the

is
Missouri as to result in a
much maximum
so
greater than that over the

flood discharge of 1,400,000
second-feet from the Ohio River as against 900,000 second-feet
from the Missouri.

the upper
The
flood discharge of the

St.
Arkansas and
to 450,000
Mississippi above
Louis
amounts
second-feet each, and that from the
Red River
in the
to 220,000.
The
Lake
is
distance,
by
river,
from the source
of the Mississippi in
Itasca, Minnesota, to its
mouth
Gulf of Mexico,
2446 miles.*
The
is still
distance from the headwaters of the Missouri to the Gulf

greater.
On account
of these great distances
which the
water must travel, and the great area of the watershed tributary
to the
main stream, excessive
local rains
have no
effect
on the
floods of the lower Mississippi, except, perhaps locally, for a
few hours, as happened on

just cresting at
May
10,
1912.
As the
river
was
New
Orleans in this case, 7 inches of rain forced
the crest up about a foot for a few hours.
The Rains Causing These Floods.

over several weeks,
floods
in
General rains extending

to
at
least,
are required
produce great
the
Mississippi
between Cairo and
New
Orleans.
is
Any one
of the larger lower tributaries of the Mississippi

all
capable of producing a serious flood in
years of more than
normal winter and spring precipitation, but the Ohio River

is
the principal flood-producing tributary.

*
The
effect
of the
Annual Report, Chief
of Engineers, U. S.
Army,
1909, p. 2677.
352
RUNOFF
Ohio River
is
353
well
shown by the
fact that the
maximum
is it is
discharge
of the Mississippi River,
below the mouth of the Ohio,

of the
2,000,000
second-feet,
and below the mouth
Red
only 300,000
more.
The ordinary winter and

region
is
spring precipitation
in
the Gulf
usually ample to bring the lower river to an ordinary

If,
flood stage.
under such conditions, several successive rain-
storms, originating in the Southwest, pass over Texas and up
the Ohio Valley, a serious flood will usually result on the lower
Mississippi.
As the upper Mississippi usually

principal effect
is
crests later than
the Ohio,
its
to prolong the floods
on the lower
reaches of the Mississippi.

is
At
New
1
Orleans the flood crest
so flat as to
show only about
foot variation in 30 days.
Flood
Damage.
Floods
occur
on
the
lower
Mississippi
everj'^
with great frequency, the average being about one

years.
six
In general, flood frequency increases with watershed
area, although
shape of area and other conditions frequently
nullify the usual relationship.
The duration
of the flood stages
on the lower Mississippi
is
from 30 to 60 days, and as the flood
crest is usually reached late in the spring, the
damage
to agricul-
tural lands
is
aggravated.
As the
flood crest occurs at contin-
ually later dates between Cairo
and the Gulf, and as spring
occurs continually earlier with decreasing latitude, the interference of flood water with agricultural pursuits becomes increasingly
more important toward the South.
Flood losses in the lower Mississippi and Ohio River valleys,

in 1912,
were estimated at over $75,000,000 and in 1913 at over
$150,000,000.
in 1912,
The area
flooded between Cairo and the Gulf,

miles.
was about 12,000 square
The Federal Governcattle during the 1912
ment fed 272,753 refugees and 50,000

flood.
352 miles of the
St. Louis,
it
Iron Mountain
five
&
Southern
Ry. was under water
Ohio River Floods.
some of for over months. Floods of great magnitude, on the main
water course of a large drainage basin, seldom result from sum-
mer
rainfall.
Floods on the tributaries are not necessarily syn-
354
Excessive
chronous with floods on the main stream.

rains
summer
may
produce extreme flood conditions on the minor tribu-
taries of the
Ohio River, but
all
the great floods on the main
stream have been the result of winter or early spring precipitation

or of a combination of both.
The
precipitation over the Ohio River valley occurs rather
uniformly distributed through the year, averaging about 3|

inches per month.
The
winters are mild.
The mean monthly
temperature over the greater portion of the watershed ranges
from about 25 to 35 degrees, and the mean annual temperature from 50 to 60 degrees.
Sufficient
snow accumulates, however,
when the winter months

factor,
in
are colder than usual, to be an important
conjunction with heavy spring rains, in producing
flood stages in the streams.
The Ohio
valley
lies
almost directly in the path
of,
or on the
side of heaviest precipitation of,
most
of the cyclonic storms
which cross the country from the West and pass out by way
of the St.
Lawrence River
valley.
fortunate circumstance,
which somewhat reduces the height of floods on the main stream
and certainly reduces the frequency
of serious floods,
is
the fact
that the river flows in the opposite direction to that traversed
by the storms which bring

alarm need be
in direction!)
felt
precipitation to this basin.
(No
that these storms will ever become reversed
This permits a large portion of the discharge
from the lower tributaries to get away before that from the
upper tributaries arrives
in the
lower reaches of the stream.
Comparative Flood Hydrographs.
None
of the great
Ohio
River floods of the past set the high-water mark along the entire
length of the river from Pittsburgh to Cairo.
set a
The 1913
crest
new mark from

to Cairo.
St.
Marys
to Maysville and also from

flood
still
Mt. Vernon
The 1884
holds the record at
Wheeling, Cincinnati, Louisville and Henderson.

flood hydrographs for the Ohio River
for the floods of 1884, 1907
Comparative
and
its
principal tributaries,
in Fig. 241.
and 1913, are shown

is
The
line.
gage height corresponding to flood stage
shown by a heavy
1013
RUNOFF
Flood of 1884.
355
15,
The
flood of
February 4 to
1884,
was
caused by the combination of heavy rain and melting snow.

January, 1884, was cold, and heavy snow
fell in
the mountains.
The ground was frozen over a large portion of the upper watershed when the warm spell set in. This caused the river to reach
virtually flood stage before the rains began.
An
average of
only three to five inches of rain
fell
over the watershed during

14.
the eleven days from February 4 to

snowfall, however, rapidly melted
The accumulated
rose

5.
to about 60 degrees on
February
Melting snow, combined
with
the
moderately
heavy
precipitation,
produced
record
flood stages on portions of the

tity of
main stream.
is
water delivered by the 1884 flood
The large quanwell shown by the

resulted, pri-
hydrographs of Fig. 241.

Floods of 1913.
The
floods of
March, 1913,
marily, from excessively heavy, uniformly distributed precipitation over almost the entire watershed.
There was practically

soil
no
frost in the
ground anywhere on the watershed, but the
was pretty well saturated.

averaging 4.86 inches,
The
precipitation over the entire

27,
watershed of 203,000 square miles, between March 23 and

is
shown
in Fig. 220.
Two
is
storms from
the Southwest followed each other so rapidly as to practically
become
one.
The path taken by
these storms
indicated
by
up
the elongated area of equal rainfall
shown
in Fig. 220.
The time
the valley
of the
is
interval involved in the passage of the storm

well illustrated
by
the. profile of the water surfaces

27, Fig. 242.
Ohio River, on March 25 and
This figure
also
shows the flood

its
crests at various points

tributaries.
on the main stream
and on
most important
twenty-sixth.
The Great Miami River crested at Hamilton early on the The Scioto crested at Chillicothe about noon of
its
the twenty-sixth and discharged

at Portsmouth, about a
flood water into the Ohio,
day
later.
ingum, and the Licking crested
The Allegheny, the Muskon the twenty-seventh. The
Monongahela, the Kanawha, the Big Sandy, the Kentucky, and
356
the Cumberland crested on the twenty-eighth, while the main
stream at Cairo did not crest until April
4.
is
The
well
effect of the
passage of the rainstorm up the valley
shown by the
fact that the
Great Miami caused a

of the
rise
on
the Ohio, 21 miles above the
mouth
Miami, at Cincinnati,
to nearly flood stage, before the Ohio at Portsmouth, at the
mouth
of the Scioto,
had barely started to
rise.
29
184
264
317 355 407
4G8
604
78T883
924.
967
Distance below Pittsburgh -Miles
Fig. 242.
The
at
profile of
water surfaces, Fig. 242, shows that the water
level in the Ohio,
on the night
at
of the twenty-fifth,
was higher
Cincinnati than
Maysville,
sixty-one
miles
up
river.
Under
these conditions the current, of course, was upstream or
negligible,
and the
river
channel acted as a reservoir.
This
condition prevailed for about thirty-six hours.
The rapid
rise
of
the Ohio at Portsmouth on the twenty-
seventh was caused by the discharge from the Scioto.
Seine River, Paris, Flood.
The
is
flood on the Seine River
at Paris, France, in February, 1910,

flood in the history of this stream,
years.
was the second greatest

30,370 square miles, and
which dates back over 250
The area
of the
watershed
the flood discharge was about 83,500 second-feet.
The
river
RUNOFF
357
rose about 28 feet as the result of steady rains during December,
January and February, amounting to about 8| inches, as against
an average precipitation, during the same period,

inches.
of
fell
about
large part of the

in
January precipitation
as snow,
particularly
the
mountains of the Yonne
district.
The
ground was
practically saturated
15,
and the water-table high.

January
About January
a thaw and rain set in which quickly brought
down a
large portion of the accumulated snowfall.
21 to 22, a cold spell in the mountains temporarily held back
what snow
still
remained.
The
crest of the flood
came on Jan-
uary 28, when the
warm weather and
rain brought the waters
from the two main tributaries of the Seine to Paris at the same
time.
The March
greatest recorded flood on the Seine River occurred on

1,
1658,
the 1910 crest.
when the stage rose to about 15 inches above The next greatest flood occurred in 1740
when a maximum stage about 1^ feet below the 1910 crest was reached. Between 1800 and 1900, eight floods occurred
during which the stage rose within
crest.
less
than ten feet of the 1910
LOW-WATER FLOW OF STREAMS

The low-water
flow of streams, particularly where facilities
is
for storage are absent,
at once the
difficult
most important among

to ascertain.
stream-flow data and the most
On few
streams of the country have records been taken sufficiently

long to give a dependable value for low-water flow.
ful
By
care-
analysis,
however, of the precipitation, temperature, and
other conditions that surrounded the lowest recorded discharges,
a reasonably good estimate of probable future extreme and

ordinary low-water flow can be made.
Effect
of
is
Precipitation.
combination
of
hydrological
conditions
usually the cause of low water, but deficient or

is
ill-timed precipitation
the predominant one.
On
streams
in
the arid and semi-arid region, and also on
many
small streams
358
dependent upon surface
in other parts of the country, that are
runoff for their low-water supply, low discharge accompanies

or immediately follows
the period of deficient precipitation.
On
streams fed mainly by ground-water, on the other hand,

is
the low-water flow
determined by the precipitation several
months previous.
stage
Streams fed by melting snows are also defell
pendent upon precipitation that

is
long before the low-water

of these
reached.
The low discharge

and
streams
is
also
influenced
by the rate
of melting of the
snow and the evapolow-water discharge

-of
ration loss during the winter

Effect of
spring.
Ground-water Supply.
in the
The
of most streams
United States consists
seepage flow
this
derived
from the ground-water supply.

its
While
for the
is
supply
may
of a
be ample in early spring,
adequacy
maintenance
good low-water flow during the summer
dependent very
largely
upon the evaporation and transpiration draft upon ground-storage later in the season. This draft on storage
is
dependent,
prirriarily,
upon the depth

is
to the water-table.
If
the level of saturation
about twenty feet below the surface
of
the ground in clay subsoils, and about ten feet in sandy
subsoils,
and
if
the watershed
is
is
free
from matured forest cover,
the ground-water supply

spiration loss,
safe against evaporation

effects of
is
and tran-
and against the
deep freezing, and the
low-water flow of the streams

of the
dependent upon the amount
ground-water supply at the beginning of the dry season

of
and the character
the saturated
is
subsoil.
If
the subsoil
at the level of saturation
sand, the ground-water supply
available for the maintenance of stream flow, for
any given
that
depth to the water-table,
is
from two to three times

is
which
supply
soil
is
is
is
available
if
the subsoil
clay.
The
best ground-water
found in regions of ample

of
fine,
precipitation where both

forest cover
and subsoil are
sandy character and
absent.
Lake and Swamp Storage.

given precipitation, a
natural
The
extent to which,
sustain
on a
lake will
stream flow
RUNOFF
during dry weather
this
is
359
its
dependent mainly upon

temperature
and,
depth, as
determines
its
surface
consequently,
the evaporation the effects of
loss.
This one factor usually quite over-shadows
all
others.
However, a narrow outlet and small

Large
fluctuations in stage are usually indications of well-equalized
outflow, but of relatively small, tributary drainage area.
fluctuations in stage usually indic'ate a large tributary drainage
area and a relativelj^ narrow outlet.
During dry weather, the evaporation

very high, and
if
loss
from
all
lakes
is
a lake
is
shallow, the low-water outflow
may
be
reduced to zero.
Lake Milaca,
is
at the headwaters of the

this condition.
Rum
The
River in Minnesota,
an illustration of
is
watershed area above Onamia

of the lake
is
414 square miles, and the area
207 square miles.
The
discharge from the lake
during the 19 months from September, 1910, to March, 1912,

following the hot, dry
summer
of 1910,
amounted
to only .21
inch in depth on the drainage area, and during both winters
the discharge was zero.
Lakes Traverse and Bigstone, and Red
Lake, in Minnesota, are other relatively shallow lakes with

small tributary drainage basins, whose low- water discharge
zero or substantially that.
is
Lake Superior, on the other hand, although
it
has a small trib-
utary watershed, has such great depth that the temperature re-
mains uniformly low throughout the year, with consequent reduction in evaporation loss,
and a well-sustained low-water outflow. and are

in
Lakes located
in the
upper portion of a drainage basin usually

in stage
have a small fluctuation

in
of
much
less benefit
equalizing
stream
flow
than lakes
the
lower portion
of the basin.
Ottertail Lake, in Minnesota, for example, lo-
cated in the lower portion of the Ottertail watershed, though

relatively small
is,
nevertheless,
very effective in equalizing
stream flow, although part of the equahzation effected must

be credited to the character of the tributary watershed.
Lake storage
is
usually not as effective in maintaining low-
water flow during protracted dry spells as ground storage, but
360
it
is
always
much more
storage
is
effective
than
swamp
storage
to
in
fact,
swamp
distinctly
detrimental
low-water
flow, even though swamps do equalize the ordinary runoff. This fact is well illustrated by the Thief River, Minnesota,
which has a drainage area

River
Falls.
of
1010 square miles, above Thief
The discharge
of this
stream was zero for 5 months
from October, 1910, to February, 1911, and aggregated only

.12 inch in
depth on the tributary watershed during the two
years from September, 1910, to August, 1912.

spring,
A
A
sudden
rise in
temperature, in
sends most of the accumulated winter precipitation
into the streams at once.

percolation.
fallen, freezes
gradual
rise
permits
much more
snow has
Cold weather early
in the fall, before
the ground to such depths that later in the season,

is
after the
ground
covered with snow, the warmth of the earth
underneath cannot thaw out the frozen ground, and hence

winter percolation through the melting of snow from underneath,
is
impossible, thus reducing the ground-water supply.
High summer temperatures greatly increase evaporation and

thus reduce percolation and ground-water supply.
Low
ice
winter temperature, causing the formation of a heavy
cover over streams and lakes, results in congealing a sub-
stantial
amount
of water, aggregating ten to
twenty per cent
of
the winter yield of small watersheds.*
As the
ice cover
freezing
often
occurs very suddenly, six inches of

in
forming in a few days, the reduction
daily dis-
charge
will
be several times as great as the reduction in yield
would
indicate.
of ice cover over lakes does not reduce the
The formation
low-water outflow so long as the point of control, at or near

the outlet, remains free from ice cover, because the effective
head
of
water on the control section remains unchanged, the
weight of the ice being exactly equal to the weight of the water
congealed.
*
See Hoyt,
W.
G., in
U.
S.
G.
S.
Water Supply Paper, No.
337, p. 10.
RUNOFF
361
When
the water-table
is
close to the surface of the ground,
as in the case of
marshes and swamps, low winter temperature

of
combined with an absence

to
snow, results in freezing the ground

all
depths of several feet and thus imprisoning
ground-water
contained in this layer.

is
Moreover, even
if
no gravity-water
frozen up, the lowering of the temperature of the moisture

results in
in
in the soil
an increase
in
the surface tension and
consequently
This
the
amount
of moisture held
by
capillarity.
causes a lowering of
the water-table
through upward
movement
of capillary water.
lies
When
the ground-water
within the range of seasonal

will
changes in ground temperature, winter weather
increase
the viscosity of the water and reduce the rate of seepage flow
by a substantial amount.
When
it is
the ground-water
lies far
below the surface of the earth

of these temperature effects
entirely free
from the
last
two
is
and the
yield of the
watershed
determined, primarily,
by
the
ground-water supply.
Even under such
conditions, however,
the daily rate of discharge of the streams draining such water-
sheds
may
be prominently affected by temperature changes.
Some
of the ground-water
may
be suddenly congealed in the

in-
river channels
and the remainder may be retarded by the

Of
this
creased friction resulting from the ice cover.
remaining
portion a substantial
while the stage
is
amount
is
stored in the river channel
being raised sufficiently to permit the flow
of ground-water to be carried
away through
the increased crossresulting
section
ice
necessitated
by the increased
of these
friction
from
cover.
The
is
effect
temporary abstractions from

for the
stream flow
sippi
well illustrated
by the data
upper Missisof
River at MinneapoHs, Fig. 243.
About two inches

in
rain
between November 23 and 28 had resulted

Before
an increase
of
this
of about 4000 second-feet in discharge.

rainfall
much
had run
off,
however, a cold spell set in which sent the

zero.
minimum temperature below

in discharge
The
result
was a drop
This
from 12,000 second-feet to
less
than 5000.
362
that not
was followed by a recovery to more than normal, indicating all of the November rain had had an opportunity to
off
run
before the cold spell had set
in.
In November, 1906,
moderately cold weather resulted in a reduction in discharge
from about
11,500
second-feet
to
about 7000
second-feet.
Warmer
weather, with the
minimum above
followed
freezing for
two
days, resulted in
an increase in discharge to 10,500 second-feet.

weather was
return
of
cold
by a gradual
re-
duction in discharge to about 8500 second-feet, when a cold
wave, the
first
week
in
December, quickly sent the discharge
down
to less than 5000 second-feet.
The
river gradually re-
covered from this drop, and succeeding extremely cold spells
had no further
In
serious effect.
1909 the
discharge
increased
until late
November
cold
to
about 7000 second-feet as the result of the melting of the heavy

snowfall in the middle of the month.
sent
Then a
this
wave that
dis-
the
mean temperature
recovered
to about zero,
reduced the
charge to 2500 second-feet.

gradually
little
From
low mark the river
and subsequent zero temperatures had

in the case of the Mississippi
effect.
These data clearly show that

River
above Minneapolis,
is
the
principal
temperature
effect
on the low-water flow
that which results in channel storage
of large quantities of water while the stage is being raised to
permit the normal discharge under the increased friction resulting from the rapid formation of ice cover
and
frazil.
The
secondary
effects,
those accompanying the second and third
cold spells after the last thawing weather, are due to the con-
gealing of water as the ice cover thickens.
Temperature
effects
on the ground-water
itself
are no doubt limited to minor por-
tions of the watershed area.
Observed Low-water Flows.

of low- water stream-flow data
The
is
most complete summary
that given
by Kuichling
in the
New York
State Barge Canal Report of 1901.

in
These data
are of some value
so far as the streams to which they
RUNOFF
November
13 1416117181920-il2'J-J324
363
364
but can seldom be used
in estimating the
refer are concerned,
low-water flow of other streams, even in the same locality,

because
identical.
the
watershed
characteristics
are
practically
never
sur-
Moreover, unless the hydrological conditions
rounding the observed low-water flows of these streams are
known,
little
dependence can be placed on the data as they are
no indication of the frequency with which the given low flows

will
probably be equaled, or even
much
lower flows experienced.
Valuable low-water stream-flow data for Minnesota streams,
accompanied
by
pertinent,
although
somewhat
in U. S.
incomplete,
precipitation data, given
by W. G. Hoyt
G.
S.
Water
Supply Paper, No. 337,
p. 14,
are reproduced in Table 40.
The summer
low- water flow of 1910 was due to exceptionally
low precipitation
probably
the lowest in the southeastern
part of the State since the low-water period of 1864.
The winter low- water
flow of 1911 to 1912 was caused
by
and
exceptionally low temperatures
between Dec.
25,
1911,
Feb. 12, 1912, and deficient ground-water supply.
The maxi-
mum
period.
temperature was below zero for 21 days during this
Except for the
fall
precipitation being above normal

still
the winter flow would undoubtedly have been

is
less.
This
indicated
by the winter
still
flow of
1912-13, which in some
streams was
the
fall
lower than that of the previous year, because
precipitation
was below normal even though the winter
temperatures were about normal.

In endeavoring to interpret the data of Table 40 the author
found that the July and August, 1910, minimum flow was
minimum flow resulting from the deficient On some streams the minimum occurred in the fall and winter of 1910, and on others the minimum of the summer of 1911 was actually less than the minimum of
not necessarily the
1910 precipitation.
1910,
notwithstanding
greatly
increased
precipitation.
This
condition undoubtedly resulted supply.
from
that
deficient
ground-water
temperature
The author
believes
low winter
cannot produce abnormally low flows on streams where the
RUNOFF
365
366
water-table
lies
so far
below the surface
of the
ground as
it
does in the Root River valley, Minn,, for example.
Ground
temperatures do not change at this depth and low-water flow

is
determined by ground-water supply and not by temperature.

other streams, such as the
On
Crow River where

the cold
the water-
table lies nearer to the surface, the low-water flow during the
winter of 1910-11 was less than during
winter of
1911-12, so that on this stream, too, the ground-water supply

really
seemed to be the controlling
factor.
It is
not the intention, here, to say that temperature does

all,
not affect the flow of streams at

cover, the
because the thicker the
ice
more water
is
held back and the smaller the discharge.

is
Relatively, however, this effect
far less
than the
effect of
such
differences in ground-water supply as commonly occur.
The
difference
in
between the thickness

in
of the ice that forms over streams
an average year and
an exceptionally cold year probably
does not affect the winter yield of a watershed by more than

5 per cent.
The momentary
effect of
sudden cold
spells, as in-
dicated in Fig. 243, on the other hand,

to one-half or even one-third normal.
may
reduce the flow
CHAPTER X
STREAM-FLOW DATA
Need
for Data.
The
increasing utilization of the flow of
streams for water power, water supply, sewage disposal, and

irrigation
purposes, and the
disposition
of
excess water has
created a great need for an accurate determination of the physical
quantities
involved.
The data required

its
are
not
only
the ordinary flow of a stream but
extremes of flow, and the
variations in flow through the day, the month, the year,
and
through the cycle of dry and wet years.
How Data
directly,
are Obtained.
Stream-flow data may be obtained

of flow, or indirectly
by the measurement
by computing
and
runoff from such physical data as rainfall, temperature,
watershed characteristics.
So far as possible, the actual flow
of streams should be instrumentally measured,
but when the
data secured through such measurements cover only a few years
and do not include the extremes
of meteorological
phenom-
ena to be expected on the given watershed, such measurements
may advantageously be
on physical data.
extended by computations of flow based
Current Meter Measurements
The method everywhere acknowledged

an accurate determination
streams
is
as best adapted to
of the discharge of practically all
that of determining the velocity of the water by
means
of a current
meter and the cross-sectional area of the
channel by means of soundings.
By
determining the relation
between the stage
of a stream, or the
"gage height," and the
amount
of
water flowing, or the "discharge," by means of meter

stages,
measurements at various
and by obtaining
either a con-
367
368
tinuous record, or frequent readings of the gage as circumstances
may demand,
of the stream.
a continuous record
is
secured of the discharge
The Gaging
are also made,
Station.
The
place on a stream at which gage
heights are observed and where usually meter measurements

is
known
as a "gaging station."
The
selection
of a gaging station is
one of the most important steps in obtain-
ing accurate records of stream flow.
The
istics:
1.
ideal gaging station should possess the following character-
It
should be located just above a " point of control,"

that
is,
a place in the stream where the
fall
at
all
stages
is
greater than in the reaches just above
and
below.
2.
It
should offer a conveniently located and secure, sheltered spot for the gage and be readily accessible to
the observer.
3.
The channel
manent,
overflow.
of
the stream should be stable and per-
free
from vegetation and not subject to
If
the reconnaissance for the gaging station
is
made
at low
water, a good point of control can be more readily identified
than at high stages.

in the
Provided the channel
is
permanent, a place
stream that constitutes a point of control at low stages

be a control at high stages
if
if
will also
the channel
is
narrower
is
than in the reach below or

large.
the
fall
at the control
quite
On
those smaller streams with continually shifting channel
bed and banks, where the obtaining of accurate stream-flow

records
is
essential, artificial controls
must often be provided.
These
may
consist of a concrete weir or a ridge of boulders
carefully placed in the channel.
The Meter
This section
Section.
is
The
cross section of the stream at

is
which the velocity
measured
known
as the meter section.
may
be a considerable distance either up or down
STREAM-FLOW DATA
369
stream from the gaging station so long as no appreciable amount

of
is
water enters the stream
in
the intervening distance.
It
not unusual for the meter section on a large stream to be
located several miles from the gaging station.
The
1.
ideal
:
meter section should possess the following charac-
teristics
The channel
section
cross
some distance above and below the should be reasonably straight and uniform in
for
section,
and the bed
and
banks should
be
smooth and
2.
regular.
The
velocity should be reasonably uniform from
bank
to bank,
and the water should move as near to stream

velocity should,
possible, range
lines as possible.
3.
The mean
if
somewhere
between 2 and 6 feet per second.

It is often desirable to use different
meter sections at different
stages, so that for each stage the requirements of the ideal
section
may
be as nearly attained as possible.

is
A
If
permanent channel
it is
not a necessity for the meter section
although
for the gaging station.

is
the bed and banks are permanent, however, which

if
the
case
the meter section
is
at the gaging station, the cross sec-
tion of the channel can be fully developed by sounding below
the water line and
by
level
abov-e
this
line.
In
developing
the cross section a permanent point known as the

to which
all
"initial point,"
is
distances across the stream are referred,
first
established.
Thereafter,
when making meterings, merely the

is
elevation of the water surface need be determined to secure
the depths at the points where the velocity
to be measured,
and the area
of cross section.
Soundings in moderately deep water can best be made with

a pole graduated to feet and tenths.
For greater depths a

mind.
weight attached to sash cord

sibiHty of shrinkage
is
satisfactory, although the posin
and stretching must be kept
For great depths and swift water a heavy weight suspended by
370
wire
is
necessary.
On
the Lake Survey, in sounding
fifty-
foot depths, a 136-pound weight
was used.
Distances on the cross section

ing,
may
be marked on the
bridge, or
rail-
when measurements
are
made from a
or
by a tagged
hne stretched across the river when measurements are made

from a boat, or a cable
logs or boats, or great
car,
by wading.
In case floating
width of channel make the use of a tagged
line impracticable, distances
on the section
may
be determined
of a sex-
by observing angles
tant.
is
is
to a base line on shore,
by means
Under such
conditions,
and
also
when the channel

is
shifting,
soundings must be taken each time a measurement
made.
The
distance between soundings
determined by
be
2,
5,
the size and character of the stream and
may
10, or
20
feet.
The
Staff
Gage.
The
gage most commonly used in deter-
mining the stage of the stream consists of a graduated scale
from which the elevation
of the
water above an actual or an
assumed datum
is
read directly.
Such a gage
may consist
of a
wooden
figures
staff
painted and graduated into feet and tenths, or of
a scale cut into masonry walls or piers, or of metal plates with
enameled upon the
face.
The gage may be placed
in
either a vertical or
an inclined position.
immediate
The
marks
zero of
of
all
gages should be referred to at least two bench

in the
vi-
permanent character, located
cinity of the gage
and should be instrumentally checked at
least
once a year.
The Hook Gage.
The
hook gage
consists of
an inverted,
graduated rod with an upturned hook at the bottom.

rod slides in a groove to which a vernier
precise reading.
The
may
be attached for
This type of gage gives the most accurate

is
determinations of water level but
used mainly in laboratory
work.
The Chain Gage. The chain gage consists of a weight which is lowered by a chain until it touches the surface of the water. The weight generally hangs supported over a pulley, the chain
STREAM-FLOW DATA
371
being led horizontally over a graduated scale from which the

readings are made.
When
placed out-of-doors, the chain, scale,

in a box.
and weight should be enclosed

to the readings.
logs, ice, or
The
length of the chain
should be checked occasionally and necessary corrections applied
A chain gage may be advantageously used where
other floating debris would destroy a staff gage.
The Automatic Recording Gage.

stalling a recording
The
advisability of in-
gage depends, mainly, upon whether two
or three readings of stage a
day
will
be sufficient for obtaining
the correct daily discharge of a stream.
The
conditions under
which a continuous record of stage
is
often necessary and the
installation of a recording gage desirable, are:

1.
Rapid fluctuation
of water used
in stage
due to changes
in the
amount
by power
plants, to log sluicing, or to
the operation of diversion works on irrigation projects.

2.
Rapid fluctuations
in
the stage of streams
draining
small watersheds, as the result of torrential rains or
the sudden melting of snow.

3.
Inaccessibility
of
gaging
station
or
unrehability
of
observer.
4.
Necessity for continuous records of flow for legal purposes.
Diagram
in stage
in Fig.
244 well
illustrates the daily fluctuations
due to variations
in the
amount
of
water used by power

stage
plants.
Under such
conditions
continuous records of
are clearly necessary for the accurate determination of daily

discharge.
Diagram B
in Fig.
244
illustrates the
reduced
effect of
power
plant operation at
medium and
is
high stages
when only
a small
portion of the stream flow

Fig.
being utilized by the plant.
245 illustrates the large fluctuation in flow occurring
within a few hours on
many
small streams.
only,
On
such streams
morning and evening
gage readings,
would introduce
gross inaccuracies into the resulting daily discharge.
372
STREAM-FLOW DATA
373
a 5
STREAM-FLOW DATA
375
Recording gages are built to run from one day to 30 days

or more.
The most common kind

mean
is
the seven-day gage.
As the discharge does not usually bear a straight line relation

to the gage height, the
daily gage height for a stream subject to great fluctuations in stage does not give the
mean
daily
dis-
discharge.
This must be based upon the mean hourly
charge corresponding to the observed
mean hourly gage
height.
truin U.S.G.i). Water Supply Paper No. 384.
Fig. 247.
Typical Recording Gage Installation.
The Current Meter.

of current
Although a considerable number of types

common
use today
illustrated in Figs.
meters have been used for measuring stream flow at
various times in the past, the two in most

are the Price
and the Haskell meters,
248
and
249.
The
essential parts of both types of meters are a
wheel revolved by the flowing water and a mechanism that

reports the revolutions of the wheel to the observer.
The Haskell meter has a

mounted on a horizontal
axis.
screw-propeller type
of
wheel
consisting of several conical
The Price meter has a wheel cups mounted on a vertical axis.
376
*0f
Fig. 248.
Small Price Current Meter with Telephone Sounder,

Cable and Battery.
Fig. 249.
Haskell Current Meter and Register.
STREAM-FLOW DATA
377
small form of Price meter
is
used almost exclusively by the
United States Geological Survey.

sively used
The Haskell meter

of the
is
exten-
by other departments
results.
Government.
is
Both
but
meters yield good
The
Price
meter
lighter
slightly over-registers in turbulent water.

is less
The Haskell meter
affected
by
floating
weeds or inner bark and very slightly
under-registers in turbulent water.
The
characteristics of these
two types
Trans.
of
meters are fully discussed by Groat and others in
Am.
Soc. C. E., Vol.
LXXVI,
1913, pp. 819 to 870.
To
obtain good results, the current meter should receive the

is
same care that

of the
accorded any delicate piece of mechanism.
Rating the Meter.
In
order to obtain the actual velocity
moving water, the
relation
between revolutions
limits,
of
meter
and velocity of water, through widely varying

known, that
is,
must be
the meter must be rated.
The
rating of the meter consists in
moving
it
through
still
water, at various speeds, over a course of
recording the
number
of revolutions
known length, and made by the meter and the
time consumed in traveling over the course.
The
rating of the meter should be performed under as great

is
a variety of conditions as
to be expected in the use to which
the meter will be subjected.
Relative to the need for uniform
speed in rating, Shenehon

"It
cisely
is
* states:
not very important to traverse the base at a pre-
uniform speed, because the stream flow which the

is
meters measure
sations,
not entirely uniform.
It
comes
in pul-
sometimes lagging, sometimes spurting, and the
uniformity in the rating speed need not be greater than

that of the stream."
For each rate of speed the meter should be run over the
course in both directions so as to eliminate any wind or current
effects.
The
*
applicability of a still-water rating to the
measurement
S.
of flowing water has often been questioned.
The U.
Lake
Shenehon, Francis C, Minnesota Engineer, Vol. 17, No. See also Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. LXXX, p, 1231.
3, p. 123.
378
Survey,* however, has proven by a series of carefully conducted
experiments in 1906, that for velocities of about three feet per

second, at least, the still-water rating gives absolutely correct
results.
comparison of still-water and moving-water ratings made

S.
by the U.
Geological Survey f shows that still-water ratings

all velocities
are correct for
above one foot per second.
TYPICAL RATING TABLE

a
STREAM-FLOW DATA
From
379
the rating just described, tables are prepared giving
the relation between the
number
of revolutions of the
meter
in various periods of time, and the corresponding velocity of
the water.
typical rating table
is
shown on
p. 378.
The Mean
Velocity.
its
The
discharge of a stream represents
the product of
cross-sectional area times its
The
area can be ascertained
mean velocity. by soundings but the mean velocity
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.80
1.00
1.20
Velocity in Terras of Mean Velocity =1.00 Mean of 78 curves without ice cover Mean of 42 cur%'BS with lee cover

Fig. 250.
187.
Typical Vertical Velocity Curves with and without Ice Cover.

It
cannot be directly determined.

the discharge
itself
can only be computed after
has been ascertained.
This
is
done by sum-
ming up the
partial discharges in relatively small vertical sec-
tions of the stream, determined
by means of velocity measurements in the end verticals of the sections and the depths of water The verticals in these verticals, as derived from the soundings.
in
which velocity measurements are made
may
be
2, 5,
10, 20,
or even 50 feet
apart, depending mainly upon the width and
depth of the stream and the uniformity of the flow.
380
Fig. 250
shows typical vertical velocity curves.
study of
a large number
of similar curves has resulted in establishing
as a practical fact that the
mean
velocity in a vertical, irreis
spective of depth
or character of stream,
found at a point
approximately six-tenths of the depth below the water surface,
and that the mean
of the velocity at the two-tenths
depth and
at the eight-tenths depth will almost exactly equal the

velocity.
mean
The
point of
maximum
velocity generally
lies
between the
following
surface and a point at one-third of the depth.

table shows the relation between depths of
velocity,
The
maximum and mean
measured from the surface down.

Depth
of point of
maximum
velocity
STREAM-FLOW DATA
and
.8
381
depth, or at each tenth depth in case vertical curves
are to be plotted.
The meter which measures the mean
velocity
directly at the .6 depth can be used to indicate changes in velocity
due to the pulsations noticeable

In shallow, turbulent, and
in the flow of nearly all streams.
hence rough-bedded streams, the
measurements
of velocity at .6
depth usually gives results that

at .2
are less in error than

are attempted.
when measurements
and
.8
depth
1.0
2.0
Velocity- Feet per Second

Fig. 251.
Tjîcal Vertical Velocity Curves in Tailrace of Power Plant.

it
In extremely swift water
may
be impracticable to sink
the meter far below the surface.
Under such conditions measat about half a foot below
urements of velocity
may
be
made
the surface and 85 per cent of these values taken as the approxi-
mate mean velocity

in the vertical
i.e.,
in the vertical.
it is is
In measuring velocity
also possible to obtain the
mean
by what
known
as the integration method,
speed.
by moving the meter through the entire depth at a uniform The Price meter is not adapted for use with this method.
382
gives correct results, as vertical motion has
The Haskell meter

no
effect
on the wheel.
In measuring the discharge through sluice gates and from

turbines
it
is
usually necessary to determine the velocity for
each tenth of depth in the vertical, as the point of

does not always have
its
mean
velocity
usual location on account of initial
impulses received by the water.
Typical vertical curves taken
by the author
in Fig. 251.
in
connection with power plant tests are shown
Making
the
Measurement.
When
may
the
meter section
is
located at a bridge, the meter
be held over the edge of
the roadway or the railing, or suspended from the end of a spar

so as to get the meter
beyond the influence

a boat, the boat
of the piers.
is
When
by
meterings are
made from
kept in position
by means
means
of
of a wire or cable stretched across the stream, or
an anchor.
When
a cable
is
used,
it
may
be marked to
serve also as a tag line; and
when the
river
must be kept open
for boats or floating logs, the cable
may
be permitted to rest
on the bottom except at the measuring point.

of a cable
is
When
the use
impracticable, the position of the measuring point
on the cross section

indicated.
may
be determined by sextant, as previously
On
the smaller streams a cable and car can advantageously
be used for making the measurement.
Typical U.
S.
Geological
Survey metering stations are shown
in Figs.
252 to 255.
of revolutions
.8
The meter
is
held in position and the
number
.2
observed for from 40 to 70 seconds, at each
and
depth on
verticals,
each vertical, consecutively, across the stream.

as previously stated,
These
may
of
be from 2 to 50 feet apart, depending
upon the character

the same place
the channel.
The gage
if
at both
the
gaging station and at the meter
section
these are not at
should be read at the beginning and at the
end
of the
metering to indicate changes in stage.

cable with the aid of
it
The meter may be suspended from a

a weight
or,
in
measuring small streams,
may
be attached
From
L'.S.G.S. U'.ilcr Su^'ply
Paper No.
94.
Fig. 252.
Making a Motor Measurement from a Boat.
From U.S.G.S. Water Supply Paper Xo.

Fig. 253.
304.
(383)
Making a Wading Measurement.
384
In deep, swift water a guy line
to the end of a rod.
may
be
necessary to keep the meter in the vertical; or the pull and

angle of the cable at the observer's end
may
be recorded and
the proper position of the meter computed.
From
U.S.G.S. Water Supply Paper No. 371.
Fig. 254.
Making a Meter Measurement from a Cable Car.

may
also be
In deep, swift water the meter
suspended fror
circuit
a piece of uninsulated piano wire or small cable and the

a metal plate attached, into the water.
offers
completed by dropping the observer's end of the wire, having

This arrangement
resistance to the flow of water
very
little
and consequently
keeps the meter in a very nearly vertical position.
STREAM-FLOW DATA
The most common
of the
385
devices for determining the revolutions
meter
in a given
time are the electrical register and the

latter
is light,
telephone receiver.
in
The
which
is
of
importance
wading measurements, but focuses the attention of the ob-
server on the counting of the clicks of either single, fifth or

Fig. 255.
304.
Making a Meter Measurement from a Bridge.

automatic and requires merely the
tenth revolutions, according to the device used in the meter.
The
electrical
register
is
starting
and stopping
of revolutions
of the
mechanism and the reading
of the
number
in
and the time.
stop-watch
is
essential
accurate work.
The Field and Office Notes. amount of meter gaging is to be
Whenever
considerable
done, special notebooks or
386
column headings should
loose-leaf blanks with proper printed
be prepared and used
in recording the field observations
and
also the results of the necessary office computations.
Any un-
usual circumstances surrounding the measurement should also
be recorded
in the notes for possible future use in the inter-
pretation of irregularities in the observations.
Two
ment
typical sheets
from a
set of field notes of a
meter measure-
are shown on the following pages. After meter measurements have The Discharge Curve. been made through at least the principal range in stage on the given stream, a " discharge curve " (Fig. 256) is drawn on cross-
section paper
by
plotting the metered discharges against the
corresponding
observed
gage
heights.
With the smoothed
curve drawn through the observed points as a basis, a table

is
prepared for
office use,
giving the discharge in cubic feet
per second corresponding to each tenth or half tenth foot in
gage height.
below.
If possible,
Such a table
for the Ottertail
River
is
shown
field
determination should be
If
made
of the gage
is
height corresponding to zero flow.

located
the gaging station

control,
above a well-defined point
of
zero flow will
correspond to the gage height that represents the elevation

of the river
bottom
at the control.
This can usually be deter-
mined by soundings at the time the gaging station is established. The gage height corresponding to the stage of zero flow helps
greatly in determining the low-water portion of the discharge
curve.
If
the gaging station
is
established at a good point of control,

well determined, a single
is
and the discharge curve has once been
metering a year, taken at the time the zero of the gage

will usually give sufficient verification of the
checked,
curve and hence
of the stability of the control.
In case the meter section
is
not at the gaging station the
cross section of the stream at the gage should also be determined
so that both area
and mean velocity curves at the gage may
STREAM-FLOW DATA
387
TYPICAL DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT NOTES

Date
v//.<^...^y.
191/^..
No. of Meas
....OJ.^.a.irAff/'/..
R'ver at
Area-.....^./<?
O.&K/nanCku/rcJj^
Vel....?-.<?7:
state
oi-.M/tzn^....
Width
Party
^.-5'..
Mean
Cor.
M. G. H.
ZSd
S^Mx.^.Qi/J.'S'!..
checked with-kvel and found
steel tape, 12-lb.
pull,
Disch.
7/3
c:./.:s.
Staff gage,
Chain length, checked with
found
f.^.:^.^.
ft.
"
"/7^changed
to.n..i:.i..w..{t. at .i....... M..o'clock >

'
Correct length
.....ft.
Z^.-.^^.
ft.
"
"
corrected on basis of levels to
at
o'clock.
Gage reading
Meter No...^//.^S./!?.
Date rated.. .A^'e?<:..<?!-^../i^/^.
Meas.beganj^.^/fiVW^; ended.Z^..<?.'^..
Time
of jneas.
(hrs)/.g5"... Method. .2..<^?V
No. meas.
Av. width
see's. ..-3.4
Coef../.^^.
sec. ../.?...... .Av. depth..>^!.i?...
G. Ht. change
(total.)
:.<?<?.
...7^^...% diff.by.../</jf5?/!'^..ratIng table.
388
TYPICAL DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT NOTES

Date_iA^.4ljS./_A91.<.
No. of Meas.
^,
(^//fg/-/^//
Jiiver, 7^'L...0.iS-J::./77^^.aL..{^.h.'^.^.A.
STREAM-FLOW DATA
389
390
The mean
ve-
be plotted in addition to the discharge curve.

locity
is
determined by dividing the measured discharge by
the cross-sectional area of the stream at the gaging station, and
not at the meter section, in case the two are not identical.
TYPICAL DISCHARGE TABLE

Ottertail River (at
German Church) near Fergus

29, 1913 to
Falls,
Minn.
October
September
30, 1916
STREAM-FLOW DATA
Effect of Ice
is
391
on Discharge.
The
friction
due to
ice
cover
very
much
greater than that due to air; consequently, a given
amount
in
of water, flowing in
an open channel, can only be carried
an ice-covered channel on an increased slope or through an
increased area of cross section.
The
result
is
a higher stage,
under ice cover, for the

il
same
discharge.
10
e
-p
392
observed gage heights and the open-water discharge curve.
When
The
ice
forms over the control, however, no constant relation-
ship exists between gage heights and discharge. best results appear to be obtained from frequent meter
of the
measurements combined with a study

its effect
temperature and
on the regimen
ice
of the stream.*
Under
.2
conditions,
velocity measurements are
made
at
and
.8
depth, measured from the bottom
of the ice.
Gage
the
heights are determined
by chopping the
of the
ice
away around
gage and reading the height
water
itself.
Usually weekly
readings are sufficient during the frozen season.

Distances in feet
.40
50
CURVES OF EQUAL VELOCITY

Fig. 258.
337.
Curves of Equal Velocity
in Ice-Covered Channel Cannon River at Welch, Minnesota.
Fig.
258 shows curves of equal velocity of water in an
ice-
covered channel, and Fig. 259 shows the average duration of

the ice period on the principal rivers of the United States.
Other Methods
Float Measurements.
of
Measuring Stream Flow
Floats were generally used in hydroSince then, they have been gradually
metric work
displaced
until 1880.
by current meters.
At
present,
floats
are seldom
used except under unusual conditions, such as at time of flood

or in connection with reconnaissance work.
*
See U. S. G.
of
S.
Water Supply Paper, No.
337,
"The
Effects of Ice on the
Flow
Streams" by
W.
G. Hoyt, 1911; also No. 187 by Barrows
&
Horton.
STREAM-FLOW DATA
Average
ice period
393
from winter
of 1870-77, to winter of 1896-96 inclusive
394
Floats
be classed as surface, subsurface, and rod
floats.
may
Surface floats consist of light objects, such as

bottles,
wood
or corked
of
whose velocity when
floating
on the surface
the
to
water
is
measured directly by observing the time required
pass a given distance.
The mean
of
velocity in the vertical will
be about 85 per cent of the surface velocity.

Subsurface
floats
consist
a relatively large
submerged
floating
object attached,
by means
of a line, to a light
float
marker
on the
at
surface.
The subsurface
will give
can be arranged to float
any depth, and hence
an approximate value
float
velocity directly.
This type of
mean was used by Humphreys

for
and Abbot
in gaging the Mississippi
River in 1851 and 1858.*
In general, subsurface floats give better results than surface

floats
but are
less
accurate than rod
floats.
Tube
or rod floats consist of a tin tube or a

in diameter, of
wooden rod from
one to three inches
such a length and so weighted
as to float at a depth as nearly equal to the full depth of the
channel as possible.
or
artificial
Rod
floats
are best adapted to regular

velocity
is
channels.
The mean
computed by
the Francis formula:
Vm=Vr{ 1.000 in
0.116
(Vd -
O.l)
},
which
Vm =
Vr = D =
mean
velocity in vertical;
float velocity;
observed rod
proportion of depth not reached by rod.
Considerable precision has been secured in making rod float
measurements
of the Mississippi
River at
St.
Louis since 1900. f
In April, 1912, gagings were
made
at observed rod velocities
ranging from 7 to 12 feet per second, and a gage height of 30.7

feet.
Floats up to 46 feet long were used.
The width
of the
stream at the gaging station was about

*
half a mile.
of the Mississippi
Report upon the Physics and Hydraulics

1861, p. 224.
River by
Humphreys and Abbot,

t
Mississippi River Gagings
by Rod Floats by Frederick Y. Parker; Proof Engineers, Vol. V, p. 724.
fessional
Memoirs, U.
S.
Corps
STREAM-FLOW DATA
395
In making float measurements a range about 200 feet in
length
is
selected on a portion of the channel that

in
is
as straight
and uniform
locity
is
depth and cross section as possible.

at
The
ve-
measured
from
five to
twenty or more
float stations,
spaced as nearly equidistant across the channel as possible.
Every
float
course
is
carefully sounded,
and from the mean
velocities
and areas
of the subdivisions of the cross section of
the stream, partial discharges are computed and from these
the total discharge of the stream
is
secured.
will
The
detailed
method
to be adopted- in
any particular case
be dependent,
mainly, upon the characteristics of the channel whose discharge
One of the principal objections to float amount of labor and floating equipment required on the work. Under favorable conditions, however, and when the work is carefully done, a high degree of accuracy
is
to be determined.
is
measurements
the
can be secured.
Slope Measurements.
The
velocity of flowing water deits
pends upon the slope and character of

friction
channel.
its
As the
on the bed
of the
stream and against
banks becomes
is
relatively less effective, with increasing depth, the velocity

also
indirectly
dependent upon the mean depth.
Chezy
in
1775 expressed these relations in the following formula:

V
= c\^,
in
which
V
= mean velocity in feet per second; = coefficient depending mainly upon

SL
the character of
the channel and varying from about 25 to 200;

r
the hydraulic radius, or area of cross section in square

feet divided
by the wetted perimeter

is
in feet.
(In
natural channels this
approximately equal to the
area divided by the width plus the

s
mean
depth.)
the slope, or feet
fall
per foot.
(To be determined
by
leveling.)
396
coefficient c
The
may
be calculated by Kutter's formula:

41.6
+ :20281 + Mil
s
n
s
)
Vr
n
in
It has
been found by repeated measurement that, for the

the
coefficient
same channel conditions,

be due, in part at
of eddies
least,
the
Kutter
formula decreases with increase in depth.
This appears to
to the lesser effect, at high stages,
due to
irregularities in the channel bed.
Simple diagrams for the solution of Kutter's formula are

those given
p. p.
by Kennison
in
Engineering News, June 20, 1912,

15,
1191;
733.
and by Fish
in
Engineering News, April
1915,
Another formula frequently used

the coefficient c
is
in
the determination of
the Bazin formula:

c
87
.552
+ -^
Vr
the
Hillberg f found that a simple relation exists between

coefficients
used by Bazin and by Kutter.
He
expressed this
relation
by the equation:
in
m = 87n
following
1.
The
given
best values of n for use in Kutter's formula are those
by Horton
values of
in
The equivalent Bazin's formula have been computed by means

J
the
table.
of Hillberg's
formula and added for use in determining

slope of a channel
is
c.
Whenever the
mile, the slope
effect
greater than 1.5 feet per

little
term
in
c.
Kutter's formula has relatively
on the value of
This fact
is
shown
in Fig. 260.
The
3.28
relation
between
and
is
c is
shown
in Fig. 261.
When
feet the value of c

is
independent of the slope and
its
value
is
811
1
n shown
* t t
The
effect of variations in
n on the value
of c
in Fig. 262.
Ganguillet
&
Kutter,
The Flow
of
Water
in Rivers
and other Channels.

p. 373.
Hillberg, A. G., Engineering Record, Oct. 21, 1916, p. 494.
Horton, Robert E., Engineering News, Feb. 24, 1916,
STREAM-FLOW DATA
3 CO
397
398
m W
< >
Q O
Clh
CO
o o
^
Pi
?1
O
02
i^'
t< o
2 o
1-5
STREAM-FLOW DATA
\
399
,075
-65
400
Changes
in
temperature have a very appreciable
effect
on
the flow of water.

results of
Butcher
has reduced the experimental

to the uniform basis
Mair and Saph and Schoder
of a velocity of 6 feet per second with the following results:
Experiments by Mair
STREAM-FLOW DATA
water, a sample of the dosed water tests
in
1
401
pound
of chemical
pounds
of water, then:
SI
Q
62.5
W'
or
r^
Q ^
= '^S
62.5
The chemicals most commonly used are sodium chloride (common salt) and calcium chloride. Sulphuric acid, caustic soda and bicarbonate of soda have also been used. The best
chemical for each particular instance usually depends, mainly,
upon the chemical constituents

the ratio of dilution
is
of the water to be tested.
When
to be determined
by the
color of the water,
an aniline dye
is
used.
in
Although the principle involved

of the flow of water
is
chemical measurements
simple, yet extensive refinements are

if
necessary in
its
practicable application,
a high degree of
accuracy
in this
is
to be attained.
lie in
The
principal difficulties involved
method
securing uniform composition in the dosing

of the solution with the
is
solution
and a thorough mixture

taken.
water
to
before the sample from which the ratio of dilution
be
determined
is
In order to secure an accuracy of less than one per cent,

it is
necessary to use a quantity of salt solution which will give

salt to
a ratio of weight of
weight of dosed water of at least

,
one part in 75,000 to 25,000 according to the method used

testing for the salt.
in
Perhaps the best method of determining the ratio of dilution
when
mate.
the water
is
dosed with sodium chloride
is
by
titrating
for the chlorine
by The addition
the
of
the use of silver nitrate and potassium chroof silver nitrate to the salt solution pre-
cipitates
white silver chloride.
By
keeping the proper

first
amount
drop of
all
potassium chromate indicator in the solution, the
silver nitrate in excess
of that required to precipitate
of the
sodium chloride
will
change the color of the solu-
tion to orange.
silver
all of
nitrate
Knowing the degree of concentration of the solution and the amount used in precipitating
the sodium chloride in the given quantity of water, the
402
ratio of dilution
becomes known. As a matter
of convenience,
the concentration of the silver nitrate solution

justed that the volume of this solution
may
be so ad-
consumed
in precipitating
the sodium chloride

salt in the
is
numerically equal to the weight of the
volume
of
water tested.
One gram
of silver nitrate
will precipitate .344
gram
of salt.
liter
dosing solution of 300 grams of sodium chloride per

is
of water
tities of
a satisfactory strength to use.
When
large quan-
water are to be measured, the ratio of dilution adopted
for the
purpose of limiting the amount of dosing solution
re-
quired
may
be so great as to necessitate the evaporation of
some of the water from the sample so as to give a degree of

concentration which will admit of sufficiently accurate deter-
minations of the amount of dosing chemical present in the
sample taken for

factory
size
test.
half liter of dosed water

use.
is
a satis-
of
sample to
This
may
be evaporated to
about 10
c.c. for titration.

is
The accuracy of titration

silver liitrate
dependent upon the amount of
used in precipitating the chlorine.
As the burette
used for dropping the silver nitrate into the sample can readily
be read to about
.1
c.c, a
titration
which requires 40
c.c.
of
silver nitrate will give
an accuracy
*
of well within
one quarter
of
one per cent.

It has
been shown by Mellet
and Groat, f
in actual tests,
that silver nitrate titrations for chlorine can be
made with an
accuracy of one tenth of one per cent.
One and one

mate per
half
grams
of silver nitrate per liter of distilled
water for the silver solution and 50 grams of potassium chroliter for
the indicator are satisfactory concentrations
to use for these solutions.
The
*
silver nitrate solution
may
be made up at ten times

Romande, Nr.
11,
Mellet, R., Bui. Technique de la Suisse,
10 Juin, 1910,
Lausanne.
t Groat, Benj. F., Chemi-Hydrometry and its Application to the Precise Testing of Hydro-electric Generators, Proc. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XLI, Nov.,
1915, p. 2103.
STREAM-FLOW DATA
the required strength and kept
403
the hght.
away from
small
amount is then taken and properly diluted for use in titrations. About one drop of potassium chromate indicator is required
for each 10 c.c. of silver nitrate used in precipitating the chlorine.
Groat found that 30 to 40 inversions
of the bottle are required
to secure a good mixture of chemicals
when making
titrations.
In measuring the flow of water, titrations for chlorine should
be made of samples of the normal untreated water

of the dosing solution used,
in the stream,
and
of the salted water after the
dosing solution has become thoroughly mixed with the water.
The methods
to be applied in dosing
and sampling the water

of the
are dependent, primarily,
upon the character
stream to
be measured, whether a mountain torrent, a brook, a large

sluggish stream, a canal, or a tailrace.
In canals and headraces, the dosing solution
may
be forced
into the water through |- to j-inch openings in several lines

of horizontal pipes,
under considerable pressure, which
may
be
maintained by a 6- or 8-inch centrifugal

pipe the dosing solution
of the dosed water are
is
pump
into
whose suction
Samples
ea-ch
drawn through a smaller
pipe.
drawn up through perforated pipes power
having
its
individual
pump.
plants, that 5 or 6 minutes were
Groat found
in testing
required after starting to dose the water in the headrace, before

conditions of flow in the tailrace
also
had become steady.
He
found that about 15 minutes were required for a satisfactory
run.
discussion of
is
all
the refinements required to secure accurate

of this treatise.
results
beyond the scope
full
discussion
will
of the chemical
method
of
measuring the flow of water
be found in the papers of B. F. Groat, in Proc.
Am.
Soc. C. E.,
November, 1915, pages 2103 to 2427, and Proc. Eng'r Soc. of Western Penn., May, 1914, Vol. 30, page 374, from which the
above comments have been largely drawn.
Diaphragm or Traveling Screen.

cross section of channel
is
Where an extremely uniform
available, such as a concrete or timber-
404
measurements
of
lined canal, very accurate
mean
velocity can
be made
by observing the rate of travel of a vertical diaphragm
or "screen"
made
of light material
and accurately
fitted to the
cross section of the channel.
By
recording the velocity over
a measured base 50 to 100 feet in length, by means of electrical

contacts at each end, a record of the
ing water
is is
mean
velocity of the flow-
secured directly.
The only
fit
correction required
for leakage
around the edges
of the screen.
This depends
force required
principally
upon the
closeness of the
and the
is
to
move
the screen.
Usually this correction
small as the
necessary clearance at the edges of the screen

to about one half inch or less,
may
be reduced
and the velocity

is
of the water
at the extreme sides of the channel
less
than the mean.

of
The method
diaphragms
or
of
measuring the flow of water by means

"screens"
traveling
was invented by
Prof.
Erick Andersson of the University of Stockholm about twelve

years ago.*
This method has been used to a considerable ex-
tent in Europe, particularly,

draulic turbines, J.
it is
by the
large manufacturer of hy-
M.
Voith, of Heidenheim,
Germany, but
almost unknown in the United States.

is
The Voith apparamethod

are
its
tus
shown
in Fig. 263.
Among
the advantages of the diaphragm
great accuracy
and
sensitiveness to velocities as low as a few
hundredths of a foot per second, and the fact that the results
are
known immediately
Pitot Tube.
so that
measurements can be repeated
at once in case they
fail
to check.
The
The
Pitot tube has long been used for
measuring the velocity of water, but not until recently have

its possibilities
been fully appreciated.
Any
pipe with
its
stem
vertical
and
its
lower end bent into the direction of the current,
so that the opening faces upstream, constitutes a simple form

of Pitot tube.
*
Many
forms of tubes have been in use, but the

for the
The Diaphragm Method

Uniform Cross
Section,
nels of
Measurement of Water in Open Chanby C. R. Weidner, Bui. No. 672, University of
Wisconsin, 1914.
STREAM-FLOW DATA
shape of the
orifice is
405
This
no longer considered important.

* in
was
clearly
demonstrated by White
1900.
Courtesy University of Wisconsin.
Fig. 263.
Measuring Discharge with Traveling Diaphragm.

plus
The
of the
Pitot tube indicates a head equal to the velocity-head
water impinging on
its orifice,
is
any
static It
head under
which the given filament of water

that
if
flowing.
has been found

tube,
is
the velocity-head
is
indicated
by the
the
velocity of the water
substantially equal to 98 per cent of

v
V2 gh.
It should
v
be added, however, that the formula

gh
still
= c Vgh
it
instead of
= c V2
more
has
its
adherents.
is
In making determinations of flow with the Pitot tube

usually far
difficult to
measure the pressure-head than the
velocity-head.
The
old
forms of Pitot tubes in which the
pressure-head was determined by means of an orifice placed

*
White,
W.
also
279;
Moody, L. F., and Groat, B.
M., Jour. Assoc. Engr.lSoc, 1901, Vol. XXVII, p. 35. See Proc. Engr. Soc. of Western Peon., 1914, Vol. XXX, p.
F., ibid., p. 324.
406
and alongside
error.
parallel to the direction of the current
of the
dynamic
orifice
were particularly subject to

is
When
the
the flow of water
turbulent, the Pitot tube records
mean
velocity-head which corresponds to the
mean
of the
squares of the instantaneous velocities.
For best
drawing
it
results
the
Pitot
tube should not be rated by

dis-
through
still
water but by comparing the known

jet,
charge of a pipe
line,
a Venturi meter throat, or a
with the
discharge determined
by means
of the Pitot tube
on the basis
of the area of the cross section of the
stream of water measured and the

tribution
section
as
of
velocities
in
dis-
the
cross
of
ascertained
by means
"traverses" with the tube.
The
Pitot tube finds
its
most common
form
of
application in the measurement of the

flow of water in pipes.
tube
with a recording device, known as the
Cole Pitometer, illustrated in Fig. 264,

FiG. 264.
Cole Pitometer.
is
most commonly used

the
for this pur-
pose.
The Venturi Meter.

by Herschel
are shown in
in
Perhaps
is
simplest
device
for
measuring the flow of water

1886.
265.
the Venturi meter, invented

of the Venturi
Fig.
The essentials The area of

is
meter
contracted section or
" throat "
is
from j to
^ of the area of the pipe line.
At the
throat of the meter the velocity
increased in proportion to
is
the decrease in area and part of the pressure-head

into
transformed
indicated
velocity-head.
The
difference
between
the
pressure-head in the pipe and that at the throat of the meter

represents the velocity-head corresponding to the
crease in velocity caused
area, plus a small
of the
known
in-
by the reduction
head
in cross-sectional
amount
of
lost in friction.
The
discharge
meter
is
given by the equation
STREAM-FLOW DATA
407
Q = CA>
2(jh
.4
where h
is
the difference in pressure-heads at the section of the

is
meter where the area

area
is
Ap and that
at the throat where the

.97 to .99.
A^
The
coefficient c varies
from
A.......
Fig. 265.
The
Venturi Meter.
The
greater the contraction at the throat of the meter the
greater the difference in pressure-heads and, hence, the greater
the accuracy of the readings but also the greater the friction
loss.
This
loss,
however,
is
very small, although
it is
continuous.
It is
independent of the pressure in the pipe
line or penstock;
consequently the power loss becomes relatively smaller with

increased head.
of
It varies
from about one tenth to one half

meter can be reduced to a
one per cent.
The
loss in the
minimum by
tapering the diverging portion very gradually,
because eddy losses are
much more
likely to occur in the di-
verging portion of the stream than in the converging portion.
This fact
is
well illustrated in nature
by the shape
of a fish.
The improved
for
construction of
modern
large-size meters, result-
ing in small losses, has led to an increasing use of this device
measuring the flow of large quantities of water.
Large Venturi meters are commonly built up in three parts.
The approaches
eted-steel pipe,
are often built of concrete,
wood
stave, or riv-
the throat, only, being a carefully machined
408
Meters as large as 18
feet in
casting, usually of bronze.
diam-
eter are in successful operation.
Venturi meters themselves
require neither attention nor repairs.
The only maintenance

where
required
is
for the small
upkeep
is
of the recording devices
a continuous record of flow
secured.
Hazen
has called attention to the fact, that, since Venturi
meters indicate velocity-head, or the square of the instantaneous

velocity, they will over-register
from 3 per cent to 5 per cent
on
lines
when great and rapid

is
fluctuations occur in the flow.
This, of course,
due entirely to the recording device.
Under
is
ordinary conditions of turbulence, the over-registration

ligible.
neg-
STREAM-FLOW DATA FROM WATER-POWER PLANTS

It
is
often possible to extend the available records of stream

utilizing records of
flow
by
water levels above and below dams.

of the formula:
The
flow over
dams can be computed by means
Q =
in
clH'^,
which
c is
a coefficient varying from about 3.0 for unfavorable
spillway profiles and small values of

best curved profiles
H
oi
to about 3.8 for the
and large values
H;
is
the length of
spillway crest in feet; and
H the head on
When
c.
the crest, measured in
quiet water back of the dam.
flashboards are in use a
value of 3.33 should be used for
In case of end contractions the length of the spillway should
be reduced hy
for
each end although in long spillways
this correction is negligible.
When
the cross-sectional area of
the stream
is
about 5 times the area of the over-falling sheet
of water the effect of velocity of
approach
is negligible.
The flow through submerged

to the square root of the
sluice gates is usually proportional,

of the opening.
head on the center
The
of
coefficient of discharge will
vary greatly with the shape

will lie
opening and the approach, but
between
.60
and
.95,
usually approaching the lower value.

*
Hazen, Allen, Engineering News, August
17, 1916, p. 293.
STREAM-FLOW DATA
Th6
of
409
flow through
power houses can be determined from records

levels
power output or gate opening, and head- and tail-water

installation
by rating the
by actual meter measurements or

of the turbines, or
by using the manufacturer's rating

tests
if
Holyoke
these are available.
When
a turbine installation has
once been well rated for various heads and gate openings, good
records of stream flow can be secured
of operation is kept at the plant.
if
a continuous record
WHERE STREAM-FLOW DATA ARE PUBLISHED

The
principal sources of stream-flow data in the United States
are the publications of the
Water Resources Branch
of
the
Geological Survey.
in 1914,
This Branch was maintaining 1741 stations

in
and while
most cases the records extend back only
a comparatively few years much extremely valuable information

has been collected by uniform methods.
Other important sources of information are the U.

Bureau, the U.
S.
S.
Census
Weather Bureau, the U.

officials
S.
Army
Engineers,
the reports of State and City
and Special Commissions.
Data
for
Canada
are being published
by the Dominion Water

always be con-
Power Branch, Ottawa, Canada.

These various sources
sulted
of information should
by the engineer before undertaking
to
make
his
own
measurements.
CHAPTER XI
SUPPLEMENTING STREAM-FLOW DATA
Unreliability of
Short-Term Means.
On comparatively few
streams of the country do the records of discharge extend over

a long term of years.
Short-term records do not give the
extremes of high and low flow unless by sheer accident such

years have been included in the term over which observations
extend.
Short-term records, moreover, do not give a
satis-
factory value for

it is
mean
utilizable
flow.
In the last analysis,
usually necessary to supplement the observed stream-flow

rainfall
data with computed values based on

data, in order to arrive at a probable
and other physical
maximum, minimum, and
mean
130
utilizable flow for
any given stream.
120
;ioo

The curves
is
411
of cumulative
mean
rainfall
and runoff represent,

It
at every point, the
mean
of all the
annual values preceding.
interesting to note that on the Mississippi River watershed
14U
412
Though the
variation in run-
per cent of the long-term mean.

off is
proportionately very
much
larger than the variation in

is
rainfall,
the actual variation in inches of rainfall and runoff
practically the
same
for the
Tohickon Creek watershed, but the

is
variation in inches of rainfall
very
much
greater than the
variation in inches of runoff on the Mississippi River watershed.
This difference exists on
all
watersheds having similar
differ-
ences in annual rainfall and in evaporation and transpiration

losses.
On
is
the Tohickon Creek watershed, the normal annual

sufficient
rainfall
to supply the needs of evaporation
and
transpiration;
consequently,
speaking
in
very
approximate
terms, most of the rainfall in addition to those needs appears

as runoff, as has been pointed out frequently in the past.
On
the Mississippi River watershed, however, and throughout the

greater part of the United States, the normal rainfall
ficient to
is
insuf-
supply the needs of transpiration and evaporation at

consequently, a large portion of
the prevailing temperatures;
any increased
spiration
rainfall goes to
supply unsatisfied needs of tran-
and evaporation, and hence a comparatively small
portion of the increased rainfall, within certain limits, appears

as runoff.
Sargent
comments
briefly
on long-term variations
rivers.
is
in
stream
flow on the Croton
and Hudson
It
appears from these
records, in so far as low water
concerned, that the rate of
flow for the 5 driest
months
at Mechanicsville, on the
in 1905.
It
Hudson
River, was lowest in 1908
and highest
was about
one third as
It also
much during
the former year as during the latter.
appears that the rate of flow which occurred 70 per cent
of the time during the 5 years, 1909 to 1913,
was only a
little
more than one

extreme
half of that
which occurred 70 per cent
of the
time during the 26 years from 1888 to 1913, even though the
minimum
rate of flow
was
practically the
same
in the
two
periods.
Fig. 268
shows the progressive 5-year mean

*
rainfall
and run-
Engineering News, December 3d, 1914.

off for the Mississippi
413
River and Tohickon Creek watersheds.
These curves bring out forcibly the great differences which

exist, particularly in runoff,
between the average values derived
from short-term
If
that
is,
in this case,- 5-year
records.
in 1902,
the conclusion as to
mean annual
runoff for the Mississippi
River watershed were based on the 5-year mean ending
during which period the rainfall averaged 98 per cent of the
mean
for the 17-year period, this conclusion

If
would be 20 per
cent too low.
the conclusion were based on the 5-year mean
ending
in
1909, during which period the rainfall
was 104 per
cent of the
mean
for the 17-year period, the figure would be

If
40 per cent
in error.
the conclusion were based on the 5-
year period ending in 1913, during which period the rainfall was
about 10 per cent below normal, the value adopted would be

nearly 35 per cent too small.
The maximum
variation in 5-
year means of runoff within the 17-year period over which the
records used here extend
is
about 75 per cent.

as that of
Even though on a small watershed such

sissippi, nevertheless,
Tohickon
Creek, the fluctuations are not as great as they are on the Mis-
very substantial differences exist between
the 5-year
mean
rainfall
and runoff and the 24-year mean.
Comparative Hydrographs.
It
must be apparent from the

of
hydrographs of streams presented in the foregoing pages that

conclusions
respecting the
flow
one stream,
based upon
hydrographs
of that of another,
even though an adjacent one, are

Little reliance can
usually subject to gross errors.
be placed
upon
of the
results secured in this
manner
unless the characteristics

This, however,
is
two watersheds are
identical.
seldom
little
the case; consequently, comparative hydrographs are of

value for supplementing stream-flow data.
Methods
of
Computing Runoff.
From time to time various

its
curves and formulas designed to give the annual yield of water
from any given watershed, and

year,
distribution through the
have been presented.
Perhaps the most
common
expres-
sion of these quantities has been in terms of percentage of pre-
414
cipitation.
Whenever
In
is
this
method has been adopted, great

same quantities
of precipitation,
variations in runoff, for the
have been noted.

rainfall
fact,
the lack of direct relationship between
and runoff
a fact of
common
observation
among
those
who have made

is
a study of such data.
Runoff, for a given
month, considerably
in excess of the rainfall for the
same month,
not an exceptional occurrence on

rainfall
many
streams of the country.
For the same annual
the annual runoff occasionally
varies by nearly 100 per cent on the same stream.
These facts are well illustrated by Fig. 269.*

April, in Fig. 269,
The
runoff for
shows a variation
of
from 5 to 200 per cent

Moreover, the high
of the rainfall
on the same watershed.

for the lower rate
percentage
is
of rainfall.
The
runoff for
of the
September shows a variation

rainfall
of
from 2 to 140 per cent

precipitation
for
practically
the same
on the same
watershed.
The annual
same annual
runoff for one of the streams on Fig.
269 varies from 6.7 to 11.97 inches, or about 80 per cent for practically the
rainfall.
In attempting to express the relationship between rainfall and

runoff,
Vermeulef used a constant plus a percentage
for the
several
months
of
the year, and varied this relationship on
different watersheds with the
mean annual temperature.

by an equation
consisting of
Justin J expressed annual runoff
a coefficient (which varied with slope and
mean annual tem-
perature for different watersheds) multiplied by the square of

the annual rainfall.
Babb
used curves giving the monthly runoff to be expected

in the various parts of the country,
from any given watershed
in terms of a percentage of the total annual runoff.
The
latter
was computed from the annual

*
rainfall
by using a percentage
It,"
Compiled from "The Flow of Streams and the Factors That Modify by Prof. D. W. Mead, Univ. of Wis. State Geolot Water Supply of New Jersey, 1894; and Annual Report,
gist of
New Jersey,
Am. Am.
1899.
t Trans.
Trans.
Soc. C. E., Vol.

Soc. C. E., Vol.
LXXVII, p. 346. XXVIII, p. 323.
415
-6'
-IT 3 D
4
RELATION OF MONTHLY RAINFALL AND RUN-OFF
ON WISCONSIN STREAMS
'
I I
10
Rainfall, in Inches
RELATION OF MONTHLY RAINFALL AND RUN-OFF ON WISCONSIN STREAMS

4
10
Rainfall, in Inches
25
Annual
-?[
"7^
/ /'
20
15
7^ /
-y'-y
-y^
ZP^^
-^j
c
910
.-S
V^'
L^
O
RELATION OF ANNUAL PRECIPITATION AND RUN-OFF
^.
15 20
ON WISCONSIN STREAMS
\
25 30 Kainfall, in Inches
35
40
45
50
Fig. 269.
Lack of Relation between Rainfall and Runoff (after Mead).
416
mean observed
relation
relationship derived from a study of the
between
rainfall
and runoff on a number
of streams in various
parts of the country.
Rafter
used curves,
which, in general, are graphs of an
exponential equation, for the purpose of showing the relation
between
rainfall
and runoff by " storage,"
" growing,"
and
" replenishing " periods.
Newell
expressed the general relationship between rainfall

for streams in
and runoff by two typical curves, one
mountain-
ous regions and the other for streams draining basins with broad
valleys
and gentle
slopes.
rainfall are required
Other writers have held that 20 inches of

to supply evaporation
and transpiration
losses,
and that prac-
tically all precipitation greater
than 20 inches appears as runoff.
Although the subject
of
stream flow has been ably discussed
by the men
indicated
just mentioned, the author cannot refrain
from ex-
pressing the belief that the relations between rainfall and runoff,
by the curves and formulas
just referred to, are, in a
varying degree, generalizations which bring out class likeness
but obscure the individual characteristics of runoff from
differ-
ent watersheds, resulting from differences in the character and

distribution of the rainfall,
etal
and the
effect of
temperature, vegdisposal of
cover,
topography,
soil,
and
subsoil on the
rainfall.
In consequence, the author has worked up a

or " hydro-physical "
essentials of this
'*
rainfall loss
"
method
of
computing stream
first
flow.
The
method were
five years ago.
publicly presented in an
address before the College of Engineering of the University of
Minnesota about
more
detailed presentation
was made
in a
paper before the American Society of Civil Engi-
neers, printed in the 1915 Transactions, to
which the reader
is
referred.
The
material of this paper
is
being freely drawn upon
in this discussion.
* t
Water Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 80, U. S. Geol. Survey, Fourteenth Annual Report, Part 2, 1892-1893, U. S. Geol. Survey.

Considering the number of streams in the United States
discharge of which
is
417
tlie
of industrial importance, the number of

is
stations at which stream flow

tively small,
being measured
is
compara-
and the periods

If it
for
which records are available are
relatively short.
takes from 30 to 40 years to secure an
accurate measure
place,
it is
of the
mean annual
rainfall
at
any given
reasonably certain that the true means and extremes
of runoff are
compassed between at
least as
wide
limits.
Pre-
cipitation
and temperature are being obser\:ed
in the
United
States at nearly 6000 stations.
Stream measurements are being
made by
Federal and State authorities and private parties,
together, at about one fourth as
many
stations.
Notwithstanding the valuable work being performed by these

organizations on
all
too meager appropriations, relatively few
stream-flow data are available.
For most streams only short-
term records have been secured, covering by no means the

extremes of high and low flow, or giving a dependable
flow.
If
mean
such measurements of stream flow as are available can
be supplemented by reasonably accurate computed values, so as

to give a long-term record of fair reliability,
and covering more
nearly the extremes of high and low flow, some of the uncertainty often attending efforts toward industrial utilization of the flow of streams and protection against floods
may
be eliminated.
The
"
Water Year."
Frequent comment has been made on

is
the fact that the calendar year

tional period into
an inappropriate and conven-
which to divide time, from a hydrological
viewpoint.
period of 12 months, beginning
December
This
viz.,
and
ending the following November 30, has been used by

hydraulicians
many
and
called
the
''
water
year."
" water
year " has again been divided into three periods,

ber to
Decema^nd
May,
inclusive, constituting the " storage " period; June
to August, inclusive, constituting the " growing " period;
September to November, inclusive, constituting the " replenishing " period.
Although
this division of
time
is
more
logical
than the calendar year,
efforts to express runoff as a
percentage
418
by the author
of rainfall for each of these periods are considered
hardly less futile than efforts to express runoff as a percentage

of the
monthly or annual
rainfall.
This
is is
true because the
yield of a watershed, as previously stated,
a residual of the
precipitation
Fig.
and not a proportion
of
it.
270
substantiates this view.
The
scale used in Rafter's
diagrams for the growing and replenishing periods completely

conceals the true lack of relationship between rainfall and runoff
during these .periods.
At
first
glance one would conclude
that the runoff during the growing and replenishing periods
showed a much
closer relationship to the rainfall
than that of
the storage period.
On
plotting the values for these
two
peri-
ods to a scale which results in a curve comparable to that used

for the storage period, however, quite the contrary
is
found to
be the case, as shown in Fig. 271.
During the storage period, the runoff varies from 12.8 to 22.3
inches, or practically 75 per cent for a rainfall of
between 22
and 23
inches.
During the growing period, on the same stream,
the runoff varies from .72 to 3.07 inches, or 325 per cent for
approximately the same
rainfall.
During the replenishing pe-
riod the runoff varies from 3.76 to 1,58 inches, or 140 per cent
for rainfalls of 13.11 inches
and 12.89 inches

this
respectively.
in
The
entire annual runoff
from
watershed varies
15 years
from 12.69 inches
for 39.70 inches of rainfall to 23.27 inches for
38.71 inches of rainfall, or practically 100 per cent for the

rainfall.
same
The author
latitudes, the
usually takes as his rainfall year, in northern
12-month period beginning November
1,
and as
in the
the corresponding runoff year the 12-month period beginning the following
March
1.
Stream flow during the winter,

is
northern half of Minnesota, for example,
almost entirely
independent of the precipitation during these months, because

such precipitation
*
is
practically
all
stored as snow.
80,
Stream
to Run-Off,"
Complied from Water Supply Paper No. by George W. Rafter.
"The
Relation of Rainfall
419
15
25 20 Precipitation, in Inches.
30
RELATION BETWEEN
PRECIPITATION AND RUN-OFF IN THE SUDBURY RIVER BASIN
o20
DURING THE GROWING PERIOD

.
510
Precipitation, in Indies
30
RELATION BETWEEN
PRECIPITATION AND RUN-OFF IN THE SUDBURY RIVER BASIN
DURING THE REPLENISHING PERIOD

.
Precipitation, in Inches.
Fig. 270.
(After Rafter.)
420
PRECIPITATION AND RUN-OFF
SUDBURY RIVER
<D

flow, in
421
in
such latitudes,
in lakes
is
dependent on the water stored
the
ground and
during the previous open seasons.

a 12-month
1,
In the greater portion of the United States,

period beginning August, September, or October
when the
ground and surface storage are both reduced to

affords
a minimum,
a satisfactory " water year."

in
annual yield of a watershed, even
Usually, however, the such " water years," is
modified somewhat by ground storage.
The author computes the annual

into
runoff entirely
by calendar
periods,
months, without any attempt to adhere to a division of the year

" storage,"
" growing,"
fall,
and " replenishing "
or
into spring,
summer,
and winter seasons.
The Author's Evaporation Curve.

temperature, and monthly
The
variation of evapo-
ration from land areas with changes in seasons,
monthly mean
mean
rainfall,
based on the author's
study of the subject,

of Fig. 272.
is
summarized
in the evaporation curve
In the
fall,
when the monthly temperature reaches 20

is
degrees,
practically all the precipitation occurs as snow; consequently,
evaporation for temperatures below 20 degrees
no longer
dependent on precipitation after the ground has been covered

with snow,
but entirely on temperature.
Full
evaporation,
is
corresponding to the given monthly temperature,

possible throughout the winter.
usually
After the temperature rises
above 20 degrees,
in
spring,
the evaporation again depends
largely on available moisture, as determined mainly

tation.
still
by
precipiis
Nevertheless, a considerable constant evaporation

irrespective
ice is
possible,
of
precipitation,
because a certain
quantity of snow and
almost always present on the ground
while the monthly temperature ranges from 20 to 35 degrees.

After the snow has disappeared, there will
still
be a relatively
large constant evaporation, irrespective of the rainfall, unless
the winter precipitation has been distinctly deficient.
gradual reduction in the constant evaporation has been

for the
assumed
summer.
It
is
realized,
of course,
that the
422
aor-o>o-<!
CO
et
<-<

constant evaporation during the
423
summer depends,
in a measure,
on the
rainfall of
each previous month.

losses,
In making detailed
computations of evaporation
is
the constant evaporation

of
readily varied
by one or two tenths

variations
in
is
an inch,
in
accordance
watersheds,
reis
is,
with
apparent
fall
storage.
On' some
when the
precipitation
very low and the temperature
mains above 30 degrees, the right-hand portion of the curve

used for January and sometimes also for February, that
when the
storage
is
practically exhausted
and there
is
no snow,
used
on the ground, the constant of evaporation otherwise

practically vanishes
to the rainfall.
and the evaporation
is
entirely proportional
fall
In the same way,
when the
is
rains are copi-
ous and the ground-water supply
abundant, a constant of
evaporation one or two tenths higher than that given by the
curve
may
be used to advantage.
The
ice
portions of the limiting curve below temperatures of
approximately 35 degrees represent evaporation from snow and

surfaces.
At the higher temperatures the
limiting curve
represents
values
shallow water.
rainfall
somewhat less than the evaporation from The quantity evaporated out of each inch of
less
becomes
and
less as
the monthly precipitation in-
creases, varying
more rapidly
at the lower
than at the higher
rates of precipitation.
To
the values of evaporation, in inches of depth per month,
as taken off the curve, a coefficient
must be applied to reduce
these quantities to actual evaporation from the given watershed.
This coefficient ranges from about .95 to 1.25 for most
watersheds of the Northwest and for similar ones elsewhere.
Very sandy watersheds
may
require a coefficient as low as .60
and very impervious

in excess of 1.25.
flat
watersheds
may
require a coefficient
The
coefficient to
soil,
be used depends on topoghumidity, and wind.

(in
raphy, vegetal cover,
subsoil,
An
extremely high coefficient of evaporation
excess of 1.25)
would
result
from
flat
topography devoid of vegetation, moder-
ately pervious, shallow soil underlain with impervious subsoil
424
and high wind
.95)
or rock, low humidity,
velocity.
An extremely
low coefficient
(less
than
soil
would
result
from rugged topog-
raphy, bare scanty
underlain with rock, high humidity, and

soil.
low wind velocity or extremely sandy

limits the usual
Between these
working values
will
be found.
With a
little
experience, one can select coefficients for different watersheds
with considerable accuracy.
The Author's
total
Transpiration Curve.
in
The
base values for
transpiration,
inches
of
depth,
during the growing
season on any given watershed, are selected with reference to

the character of the vegetation and the length of the growing
season on that watershed, giving consideration also to available

sunshine.
In the following computations a normal seasonal
transpiration of about 9 inches has been assumed for small

grains, grasses
and other
agricultural crops, 8 to 12 inches for
deciduous
trees,
4 inches for evergreen trees and 6 inches for
small trees and brush
The normal monthly

is
distribution of
this total seasonal transpiration
based mainly on temperature.
To
obtain actual transpiration in any given month, however,

p. 244,
the values taken from the transpiration curve. Fig. 164,

after being multiplied
by a
coefficient,
must
be further modified
precipitation
on the basis
of available moisture.
is
Where
minus
evaporation for, a given month
insufficient to
meet the normal

is
plant requirements for that month, the ground-water
drawn
on to a varying extent, depending on the character of the root

system of the given vegetation, the depth and character of the
soil,
and the quantity
of surface soil storage, as
determined by
the precipitation minus losses for previous months.
Synopsis of Author's
Method
of
of
Computing Annual
Runofif
The main
features
the author's method of computing
runoff to supplement observed stream-flow data
may
be sum-
marized as follows:

I.
425
Collection of physical data.

a.
Rainfall
and temperature data
for stations
on and near
the given watershed from which monthly rainfall and
temperature for the

case rainfall
watershed are estimated.
In
iso-
data are meager, charts showing
hyetals for the portion of the State in which the
watershed
b.
is
situated are of assistance.
Data relating to wind velocity, relative humidity, and any other prominent weather characteristics.
Data
relating to topography,
c.
vegetal cover,
soil,
and
subsoil, as affecting evaporation.

d.
Data
relating to character
of
and density
of vegetation
and length
growing season, with reference to tem-
perature and hours of sunshine.

e.
Data
relating to area of
open water
surfaces,
swamps,
and marshes.
II.
a.
Determination of
losses.
Evaporation from water area.

1.
Monthly evaporation corresponding

multiplied
to given temper-
ature and season, taken off curve, Fig. 150, and
by percentage
I-e,
of water surface,
based on
data under
1-6.
b.
and
coefficient
based on data under
Evaporation from land area.

1.
Determination of coefficient for given watershed, based

principally
on physical data under

in
I-c
and
1-6.
2.
Determination of evaporation,
inches depth per
month, corresponding to given monthly temperature and rainfall for given season of year,
from
curve of evaporation from land areas, Fig. 272, and

multiplication of this value
by percentage
of land
area and coefficient determined under II-6-1.

c.
Transpiration from land area.

1.
Determination of normal seasonal transpiration, based
on physical data under
I-d.
426
2.
Determination of transpiration
ratio
coefficient
by
finding
between seasonal transpiration determined

of transpiration (Fig. 164) for the
from base curve
normal monthly temperatures for the given watershed,
and the normal seasonal transpiration deterII-c-1.
mined under
3.
Determination of monthly transpiration by applying

transpiration coefficient to monthly values taken
off transpiration
curve for given monthly temperaof these
tures,
and modification
monthly values on
storage.
of
basis of rainfall, percolation,

III.
and
Determination of total
loss
by summation
monthly
monthly
of these
losses
losses
from land and water
areas, the deduction of these
from the monthly precipitation, and summation
monthly residuals to give the annual

surface runoff, or changes in ground
yield of the given waterfall
shed, with or without correction of this annual total for
and surface
its
storage.
IV.
Where the annual
yield
and
distribution throughout
the year are both desired, additional curves similar to those for
the Root River watershed, and computations similar to those
given in Table 43, for the same watershed, must be made.
When
the more detailed computations, as here indicated, are

it is
carried out,
possible to
make more
accurate estimates of
transpiration during
months
of deficient rainfall, because
more
accurate values of
Fig. 273
is
soil
and subsoil storage are available.
relief
map
of the
United States based on the

Figs.
maps published by the United States Geological Survey.

27, 28, 29, 67,
180 and 273 are of service in determining the
evaporation coefficient
and
Figs.
67,
163 and 168 aid in de-
termining
watershed.
the
normal seasonal transpiration
on
any given
com-
Computing Annual Yield.
The
author's
method
of
puting the annual yield in runoff from a watershed will be

reasonably clear from the preceding synopsis, as the several
stages
are
given
in
considerable
detail.
Large
watersheds
427
-4-3
CO -a
'
<*.
p^
428
should be broken up into smaller units and the yield of each
computed
of the
separately.
Table 42
is
summary
of the results
application of this
method
to fifteen widely different
watersheds.
These data show a satisfactory correspondence

Preliminary compu-
between computed and observed runoff.*

tations of evaporation
and transpiration
losses are likely to

is
be
modified somewhat
when the monthly
runoff
computed.
TABLE
42.
OBSERVED AND COMPUTED
PHYSICAL DATA FOR FIFTEEN WATERSHEDS Observed and computed physical data
mean annual
Name of watershed
ate
IS
2 o ^
5j!C
^ a 2 o
O
5.31
Mississippi
1.20 1.10
19,500
1,720
27.3 23.9
14.4
22.1
18.1
5.2
5.23
Little Fork.
11.2
5.8
5.80
5.15
Minnesota..
1.25
6,300
22.7
14.1
7.5
21.6
1.1
1.1
0.77
0.77
6.10
5 16
Root
Ottertail
1.225
1,560
31.4
16.5
25.4
6.0
2.9
1.10
1,310
23.0
13.5
6.6
20.1
2.80
t2.66 9.90
St.
Croix
1.05
5,930
30.0
41.1
13
7.0
20.1
9.9
Ohio Tohickon Creek. James
0.875
0.90 0.925 0.90
1.05
23,820
102
14.8 16.7
16.3 16.9
5.8
7.0
7.0
20.6
23.7
23.3
20.5
25.2
18.8
18.7
20.50
25.2
18.90
18.60
48.9
42.1
6,230
Roanoke Tombigbee
Colorado
390
4,440
42.6 49.2
26.9
7.0
8.4
8.1
23.9
22.8
17.7
8.5 6.9
31.2 25.8
10.9
18.0
1.1
18.00
1.06
1.20 0.85 1.10
37,000
10,400
Sacramento
Pit
32.2
14.8
2.4
21.3
4.9
*3.87
21.3 4.9
3.87
2,950
3.0
McCloud.
60
608
61.9
8,2
51.3
51.3

rence of any given combination of meteorological
429
phenomena
In view of
on any one watershed

this fact,
is
extremely improbable.
the complete daily, and, to a large extent, the monthly

of
runoff,
is
distribution
of
much
less
importance than the
annual yield of a watershed, the probable extreme

flow, the
maximum
extreme
minimum and
is
a reasonably accurate estimate
of runoff
below the limit of economical utilization for whatever

to be used.
purpose the stream flow
Inasmuch
is
as the low-water flow from
most small watersheds
so extremely small as to be hardly capable of economical use
except through storage reservoirs, the sudden fluctuations in
stream flow below the

voir
filled,
maximum
expected flood, with the reser-
are
of
little
consequence.
Whether one inch

is
of
runoff occurs in a few days or in a few weeks
not of
much
The
consequence on such a watershed

be held
engineer
if all
the available runoff can
in the storage reservoir for

is
gradual utilization.
usually
much more
interested in the total runoff

utiliza-
from such a watershed, up to the point of economical

tion,
than in the exact distribution of that runoff through the
year.
Ability to
compute the monthly distribution

all
is
of runoff re-
quires
an understanding of
It
the factors affecting stream

also necessary to
flow, heretofore discussed.
have rather
complete data regarding the geological, topographical, and cultural conditions of the watershed
and daily temperature and
precipitation data.
Next, curves of the type shown in Figs.
274 to 276 for the Root River, Minnesota, must be prepared.
These curves
may
be based upon the results of a study of the
available runoff data for the watershed under investigation or

for a reasonably similar adjoining watershed, but should prefer-
ably be checked by at least short-term runoff records for the
same watershed.
The curves
of Fig.
274 show,
of
in
the
first place,
the approxi-
mate maximum quantity
snow which, when
available, will
melt at the given monthly
mean temperatures.
The other
40
S35
Jfi30
25
20
15.
431
curves in Fig. 274 give the estimated quantity of this melted
snow which
will percolate into
the ground under various con-
ditions of soil storage.
The
drier
and the more sandy the

it
soil,
even though frozen, the more melting snow

portion of the melted
will absorb,
snow which does not percolate

off
into the
ground
will
immediately run
into the streams.
Another
portion will be retained for

V
some
time, part to appear as runoff
432
the use of daily precipitation records, and allowance must be
made
result
fall
for concentration
and intensity
of precipitation
during
the month.
In Minnesota, less surface runoff
will, in general,
from a given " precipitation minus
losses " in spring
and
than in summer, because the rains are usually well
distrib-
uted during the former seasons.
Some
latitude
must be allowed
and judgment exercised
in the application of these curves.
On
very sandy watersheds the curves of Figs. 274 and 275
having a value of 2 inches, for example, might have a value of

3 or 4 inches,
and on very clayey watersheds these same curves

of 1 inch or
might have a value
even
0.
The curves
of Fig. 276 are to be used to determine the seep-
age flow for a given quantity of subsoil storage.
On
the Root
River watershed moisture which has once passed down through

the upper foot or two of
soil will
continue downward, as a rule,

in maintaining stream flow.
to join the subsoil storage

It
is
and aid
practically safe
against return
through the action of
capillarity.
Two
curves are given in Fig. 276, one for Lanesboro where

is
the watershed area
615 square miles and one for Houston

is
where the watershed area
1560 square miles.
These curves
have been applied to other watersheds
in southeastern
Minnesota
and are applicable
The shape of similar curves for other watersheds depends mostly upon the topography, the character of the soil and subsoil, and the size
to similar watersheds elsewhere.
of the drainage basin.
In order to show the application of the writer's method of
computing the monthly distribution

tailed
of
annual runoff, the de-
computations for the Root River watershed at Houston,
Minn., are given in Table 43.

ea-jofyj
433
OO'ÔeO (M^t^^
Os(M
CO 00
500 OO
OOOO OOOO OO OO C^CO<MC^ ÔOO OO OO

O00
OO OO
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t-C^C^lO
00iO-^
eDi--
uDO 0'<*<
^hOOO
ojoqsauTjq
COO
OO
OO coco OO OO
S a
j^
-H
I
"-a
w
-
-*
C^l
OOOO
lO CO
o:>
M Oo CO -^ <M
*0 CO
'o) 2 " oT'S

3
>i
h-
O
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CO
or^ QO
CO CC
C^l
2 =^
j3 >
ST
QOCÔOiO
OOCO
c: <oc^ CO
ItJIox
--r CO<M C^C^
OOOO OO
UO 00 C^ CO UO
''CI
rt*C<I
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CQO
1-H
lO
3 O
Aioy
OOO
COiO
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MO0
OOO OO
CO r^
saqoui ui
uoiiBîdioajj
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cocicDco
coco
cDi-H rtH
cor^
coo
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saqout UI 'SSO[ [BJOX
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Tf
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OCOCOCO OOO '*COOiO Cl^HTj<0 Cî

lO '^ o UO
OOO-H
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OOOO OO
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o r^ -H 05 O OOO CS l^ CO O
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OOCO
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r^
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COCO
r^- r-
uo -^ o o -^ iC CO !>
CO o O t^
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c^
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oicM^
1-icocoo
oo'
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CC
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I'ernoy
oo-HO ocsrHO od
OiOioO OO OO O Oi cotôous oco coco
a o Q,
OOOO
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OCO-Ô
<o
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0000 to CO
-H
iO O OO ^^ c^ coco
O <N O O O OO
--i
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(M
CO-* coco
1-H
c^
Ô
OC^COfM
eaqoni ut
'uoi^BiidiaajcI
O -^ <N O O -^ CO O OO
C^îOt^
-^tO
'saajSap ui 'ajn^
1^ CO
^H-ôt^
lÎ^CO-^
as W5 CO-H
coc^
^^H
lo ^H CO
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Oi Oi
coco
6061
0I6I
434
eaio^
<M CO
lO CO
^ ^ -^
OiOi
C<iCA<
COCOO'*
C0CO'vJ<GO l>-I>-i-HiO l>-CO
i-tcOI>.CO CO-* -^co

i:^
O oo CO
OOO CO ^ O
t>Tt<
"<*<
f'-
CD
r--
tOOiOiO ^CO'*'*<
CD 00
CO
050
lOCOtîO CO '-H 1-H COCOCOCC COCOCOfO
o tH
i-tcot-.GO eo Tt< CS Oi
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co
0 t^ CO CC CO CM 1
T}<
*
I
-fj*
r*
lO CO -H C5
Tt<
'**'*
lO CO CO lO lO o
^co
CO CO
oooo oooo o oo ICO oo CO ^ oo

CO c
t>-
CO
lo
oooo oooo oo oooo t-tî O oo

It
Cq
^r-ii-HCJ
i-iO'^^ coco COCO
COCOCOCO
T-H
rt
t-H
T-HCSJ
(M(M
OO-î-*
l-^CO Oi-Cr-iO
O-^-ef^rH
^ÔOJOO
OCOCVICM
O'-t
00'ic^c^ cvi<M<MGO cooi a>ai

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r-*
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(
ooo^H oooco
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1
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rf< 1-^
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côocoo coco CO<N
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161

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435
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436
the monthly runoff figures, as computed in this
is
Summing up
accurate,
way, gives a value for the annual runoff which
much more
and
differs
somewhat, from the computed annual

losses."
" precipitation minus
On
watersheds such as that of the Colorado River in Texas,

is
where the precipitation

similar
distributed throughout the year in a
manner
to that prevaiUng throughout the Northwest,
but
where temperatures are so high that evaporation losses absorb
by
far the greater portion of the rainfall,
and where the de-
mands of vegetation for moisture are never fully supplied,

practically
all
of the stream flow consists of surface runoff.
On
these
watersheds,
where there
is
no well-defined water-table
results
above the stream bed, the entire runoff

rains,
from heavy
commonly
called
" cloudbursts,"
over small areas.

is
As
the surface of the ground on such watersheds

dry, percolation
is
usually very
not very rapid; hence some of the rainfall
escapes over the surface of the ground as runoff before sufficient
time has elapsed for

tation.
it
to be evaporated, or to be used
by vegeis is
On
such watersheds the character of the
soil
the
well
principal factor determining the
amount
of runoff.
This
exemplified
Saline, the
by the discharge records
of the
Smoky
Hill,
the
Republican, and the Loup Rivers in Kansas and
Nebraska.
As the runoff from watersheds by a

depth
large percentage even
of this character is usually
very small the results of computations are certain to be in error
though the absolute error
in inches
may
be very small.
The same
criticism applies to short-
term observations of stream flow on such watersheds.

flow of streams draining these watersheds
is
As the
dependent upon
heavy
If the
rains, the irregularities in
stream flow are always great.
watershed
is
sandy the underflow
may
constitute a far
of
more dependable water-supply than the surface flow

streams.
the
CHAPTER
XII

Applicability
Dependent Upon Cost
The extent
to
which stream flow can be modified by the

is
storage of water
primarily dependent upon the relation bein order
tween the quantity of water which must be controlled

to
produce the desired modification in flow and the opporThis relation

is
tunities for reservoir construction.
well stated
by Van Ornum
* in
the following words a billion cubic feet of stored water
"For example,
will
supply a city of one or two hundred thousand inor

it
habitants for a year;
will irrigate
from 4000 to
it will
10,000 acres of arid land for a season; or
furnish
more than a
40
feet;
million horse-power-hours under a head of

it
but
would double the volume
of low- water
flow of the Mississippi River at St. Louis for less than

eight hours,
and
is
exceeded by the flood discharge at
the
same place
in one-quarter of of
an hour."
for
The
purpose
practicability
is
reservoir construction
any given
of storage.
usually determined
by the unit
cost
Often, however, a projected storage
may
be economical for a
given purpose but so
much more
valuable for another as to
make
it
desirable to give the latter object priority
and
to de-
pend only upon incidental benefits to the former object.

varying from a
The
unit cost of water stored in the large reservoirs of the world

differs greatly,
feet,
minimum
of $5 per million cubic
estimated as the cost of storing 168 billion cubic feet on
the Upper
*
Ottawa River watershed,

J. L.,
to
$30,000
per million
Van Ornum,
The Regulation
437
of Rivers, 1914, p. 57.
438
cubic feet as the cost of storing a half-billion cubic feet on the
Wien River watershed

destructive
floods.
for protecting the City of
Vienna from
The Upper
Mississippi
River navigation
cost about $18
reservoirs, with 98 billion cubic feet capacity,
per million cubic feet, and the Ashokan,
New York
City, water-
supply reservoir, with a capacity of 17.65

million.
billion, cost
$718 per
The
reservoirs of
Germany, constructed
largely in the
interests of navigation,
cost from $500 to $1500 per million
cubic feet of capacity.*
Reservoir Sites
Among
sites are:
1.
the factors determining the desirability of reservoir
Location of
site
with respect to locality served.
2.
Dependability of water-supply.
3.
Character of reservoir bed and banks.
4.
5.
Character of
site for
impounding dam.
Effective depth of reservoir.

relative
The
importance of these factors depends mainly upon

is
the purpose which the reservoir

Location.
is,
to serve.
The
first
characteristic of a
good reservoir
site
of course, a location as convenient as possible to the locality

is
that
to be served, whether that service
is
for water-supply,
water-power, navigation, irrigation, or for any one of the other

purposes for which storage reservoirs are useful.
Water Supply.
Perhaps
second
in
importance
is
a depend-
able water-supply.
Seepage and evaporation losses are com-
paratively uniform, definite quantities for which allowance can
be made
in
the sc9pe of the project;
but an unreliable and
indefinite supply of water represents a great
economic handicap.
in the struc-
Under such
conditions, provision
must be made,
tural features of the project, for both extremes of water-suppl}'",
with the consequent increase in cost and fixed charges.
Spill-
way
capacity must
*
be provided so that exceptional flood inflow

The Regulation
of Rivers, 1914,
Van Ornuni,
J. L.,
Chapter
1.
439
into the reservoir can be wasted without endangering the sta-
biUty of the impounding structures.

cient storage capacity
On
the other hand,
suffi-
must be provided
to furnish the necessary
water-supply in years, or even a series of years, of exceptionally
low inflow.
For the same reason
that,
in
a given region, a
small stream usually experiences greater irregularity in flow
than a large one, a reservoir with a small tributary watershed

has a more irregular and less dependable water-supply than one
with a large tributary area.

region, a large storage project
In other words,
is
in
any given
usually
more dependable than

any given water-
a small one.
Seepage and Evaporation Losses.

impervious and whose depth
seepage and evaporation
ration from
loss.
For
supply, that reservoir whose bed and banks are most nearly
is
greatest, will suffer the smallest
For a given temperature, evapois
the water surface of a reservoir
directly proporof stored water
tional to its superficial area.
The percentage
lost in evaporation, then, except for small changes in reservoir
area with stage,

reservoir.
is
inversely proportional to the depth of the
An
increase in the depth of water in a reservoir,

in
its
however, results in a decrease
temperature and, hence,
in a decrease in evaporation loss per unit of area.
Seepage losses from a reservoir are dependent upon
the
character and the dip of the strata of material that constitute

its
bed and banks, and on the elevation
of the water-table in
the given locality.
In the United States east of the Mississippi,
reservoir sites are almost invariably located in natural depressions
that have the water-table close to the surface
of the
ground.
dering
Moreover,
hills
in this region, the water-table in the bor-
usually slopes toward
the reservoir
site.
Under
such conditions seepage losses are usually negligible, and some

of
the percolating water returns to the reservoir as seepage
flow
when the stored water

regions,
is
being withdrawn.
In arid and
is
semi-arid
far
on the other hand, the water-table
so
below the level of the ground that seepage losses from reser-
440
voirs usually
amount
to from 15 to 30 per cent of the entire
supply.
In such regions, the character of the reservoir bed and

far
banks
is
more important than when the water-table

in
is
high,
and
may overshadow
importance even the character of the
site for
impounding structures.
Observed seepage and evapo-
ration losses from a typical western reservoir are
shown
in Fig.
277.*
On most
western reservoirs seepage reduces with time

of the water-table
on account of the raising

of the porous
and the
silting
up
bed and banks.
In some instances, clay

losses.
may
be sluiced into the reservoir to reduce seepage
This has
been proposed for the Cedar Lake Reservoir, Washington.!
441
Dam
Site.
good
dam
site
should provide good founda-
tion material,
preferably rock, and sufficient width to permit
the installation of ample spillway capacity but no more.

the construction of long earth
to,
Where
resorted
embankments must be
for
the presence of clayey material and water,
the con-
struction of the
to the value of
steep,
embankment by the site. The best
the hydraulic process, adds

sites are usually afforded
by
narrow canyons, with rock bed and banks, which permit
the construction of arch masonry dams, and the discharge of

flood water without endangering the structure through erosion
of the river
bed on the downstream
toe.
Sedimentation of Reservoirs.
While
the possibility of the
gradual reduction of reservoir capacity through the deposition

of the
silt
carried
by tributary streams must
receive due con-
sideration in each project, the danger of the silting

voirs
is
up
of reser-
usually negligible.
Few
artificial
reservoirs are ever
drained dry and natural lakes which are utilized in reservoir

construction have such great storage capacity below the low-
water level that the

appreciable effect.
silting of centuries
could hardly have an
The
substantially
unchanged existence of
natural lakes in
Stabler
*
all
parts of the world bears witness to this fact.
estimates that the system of reservoirs proposed for

silt
the Ohio River might

its
up
to the extent of 10 per cent of
capacity in about 800 years.

artificial
Under exceptional
conditions,
however, an
indicated
Cal.
reservoir
may
silt
up quite rapidly as
by the Tuolumne River Reservoir at La Grange, The amount of silting which may be expected in a given
directly proportional to
time
is
the sediment carried by the
tributary
streams and
the ratio of tributary
watershed
to
reservoir area.
Effectiveness of Reservoir Storage
Losses in Conveying Channels.
When
stored water
is dis-
charged from reservoirs and conveyed to the point of utilization

* Stabler,
Herman, Engineering News,
1908, Vol. 60, p. 649.
442
steel
through rocky channels, concrete-Hned tunnels or canals,
pipes or similar impervious conveyors, the losses are negligible,

or limited to evaporation from the whole or part of the exposed
surface,
and
all,
or nearly
effective.
all,
of the reservoir discharge
may
be considered as water
is
On
the other hand,

artificial
when
stored
discharged through natural or
channels with
earth bed and banks the effective portion of the reservoir dis-
charge
may
be relatively small.
If
the water-table
lies
below
is
the channel, whether natural or

usually large.
artificial,
the seepage loss
The
principal factors influencing this loss are
the character of the material constituting the bed and banks

of the channel
and the wetted perimeter
of the channel.
An-
other factor of more or less importance in different instances

is
the presence of vegetation on the banks of the channel and

itself.
on the water surface
In a channel in which these three
factors are constant an increase in the velocity of the water

will
is
reduce the percentage lost in seepage.
When
is
the velocity
is
increased, however, to a point .where sedimentation

results,
pre-
vented and scouring
no further economy
effected.
TABLE
44.
- SUMMARY
OF
323
SEEPAGE
MENTS
(Fortier)

average observed seepage losses in canals.
443
of the
The depth
smallest ditches listed in this table varied from 2 to 4 inches
and
of the largest canals
from 5 to 8
feet.
Loss through Temporary Ground-water

water-table
lies
Storage.
of
If
the
above
the channel,
lost
some
the
discharged
effective
water
will
be temporarily
through seepage.
The
portion
is difficult
to determine.
flow,
During the low- water seasons the stream
which
it
is
desired to increase through the discharge of stored water, al-
most invariably
consists entirely of seepage flow derived
from
the ground-water supply.
Each succeeding reduction

prevailing
slope
of the
in river
stage tends to maintain the
ground-
water surface toward the
river
channel,
with a consequent
If,
continuation in flow of ground-water into the stream.
now,
the river stage be suddenly raised, or prevented from falling,
through the discharge of stored water, the slope of the groundwater surface toward the stream
porarily reversed and,
will
be reduced or even tem-
hence, the discharge of seepage water

is
retarded.
figure
This
fact
well
illustrated
by
Fig.
278.*
This
shows the elevation of the
water-table at Muscatine,
Iowa, for 3000 feet back from the Mississippi
River during
rise
and
fall
in river stage
of
about 9
feet.
The material
which constitutes the valley

table
lies,
floor,
and
fine
in
which the ground-water

Notwithstanding
consists of
sand and
gravel.
this fact,
however, the changes which occurred in the level of
the water-table, in this distance of 3000 feet, occupied several
weeks.
the
6 to
first
There were very heavy rains
in the
vicinity during
two weeks
of September,
and
light rains to
1
October
7.
Apparently the rains of September
to 15,
amounting
to about 5 inches in the vicinity of Muscatine, caused a rise

in the water-table, as the result of percolation,
approximately
equal to the small
rise in river stage. rise
Then, from September

in
16 to 27, there was a pronounced

*
river stage
accom-
Hubbard,
\V.
D.,
and
Kiersted,
W., Waterworks Management and
Maintenance, 1907.
444

panied by only a small
rise
445
in
the water-table.
From Sepfast as the
tember 27 to 30 the water-table rose almost as

river,
and continued
to rise
from that date
until
October
12,
while the river was falling.
Retardation of Seepage Flow.
The
extent to which the
increase in river stage, resulting from the discharge of stored
water from reservoirs, tends to retard seepage flow, and to

defeat the object of reservoir discharge
by temporarily wasting
the water in replenishing the ground-water supply adjacent to

the river channel, cannot be determined from the data at pres-
ent available.
Some
of the factors influencing the extent of
such action may, however, be considered.
Perhaps the most
important single factor
is
the length of river channel affected
by the
would
rise in stage
caused by the reservoir discharge.
A num-
ber of small reservoirs at the headwaters of different tributaries

affect a
much
greater length of channel than a single
large reservoir on a single tributary.
Streams deriving their

af-
seepage flow from a coarse, sandj^ or gravelly subsoil are

fected
finer
more
than those deriving their seepage flow from the
sands or sand rock.
Streams flowing
less
in
deep
valleys
through rolling country are relatively
affected than those
flowing in shallow channels through comparatively flat land.
The seepage
flow of Minnesota streams, during ordinary low.3
water years, amounts to about

age area, per month.
inch per
of the
inch in depth over the drain.3
reduction in flow from
inch to
.1
month on
or 2 feet.
these streams would represent a lowering
ground-water-table
1
over
the
tributary
is
watershed
of
about
If
the river stage
prevented from
falling,
a large portion of the ground- water adjacent to the channel

will
be prevented from reaching the stream, and the rate of
flow from the remainder of the watershed subject to the direct

influence of river stage will be reduced.
As the
effect of in-
creased river stage, however,
is
limited to the channel through
which the reservoir water

reaches of
its
is
being discharged, and to the lower

is
tributaries,
the retardation in seepage flow
446
main stream and
effect in
similarly limited to the local drainage area of the
the lower reaches of

instance
20,000
19,000
its tributaries.
The probable
each
must be estimated on the
basis of the best available data.

20,000
279
(aj.
iijtiect
of Upper Mississippi River Reservoirs on Stream Flow at Minneapolis, Minn.
447
Fig. 279 (b).
Effect of Upper Mississippi River Reservoirs ou Stream

Flow at Minneapolis, Minn.
448
20,000
20,000
18,000
Fig. 279
(c).
Effect of Upper Mississippi River Reservoirs on Stream

Flow
at Minneapolis, Minn-

If
449
the discharge of stored water
is
continued from one freshet
to the next, the resulting retardation of seepage flow will reduce
the available ground storage capacity and thus, to a very limited extent,
affect
the height of the succeeding freshet.
On
northern streams
summer
discharge from reservoirs will increase
seepage flow during the following winter to the extent of the

discharge that was lost in seepage during the summer.
effect
The
on stream
flow, of course,
will
be a
maximum immediSlight
ately after the reservoir discharge ceases.

of such reappearances
Fig.
of
indications
seepage loss appear in the data of
279 for the Upper Mississippi River reservoirs.
Evaporation Loss in Channels.
The
evaporation loss from

is
reservoirs discharging through natural channels

ligible.
usually neg-
Such
loss is limited to the
evaporation from the in-
creased width of the stream, resulting
from the increased stage.

water from
Only
in rare instances does the discharge of stored
reservoirs result in increasing the width of the conveying channels
by more than a few per
cent.
In the case of
artificial
channels, of course, the evaporation loss from the entire watersurface
must be deducted from the
reservoir discharge in de-
termining the effective portion.
Other Factors.
determining
the
Other
factors
of
deserving
reservoir
consideration
in
in
effectiveness
discharge
par-
ticular instances will
be discussed in connection with the several

is
purposes for which stored water
used.
Storage for Municipal Purposes
For Water-supply Purposes.

is
The
storage of water which
most far-reaching
in its effects is storage for municipal pur-
poses.
great
many
municipalities
are
entirely
dependent Promi-
upon stored water

nent
for their
municipal water-supply.
among
these are
New York and
Boston on the Atlantic
Coast, and San Francisco and Los Angeles on the Pacific.
As
the quantities of water ordinarily required for domestic con-
sumption are relatively small, the provision of the necessary
450
storage capacity
is
entirely practicable.
Greater
all its
New
York, for
example, with
its
millions of people
and
manufacturing
establishments uses about 1000 cubic feet of water per second.
As the low-;water supply

municipal
is
often insufficient even to balance

it is
the evaporation from the reservoir surface,

for
not unusual
the
entire
water-supply reservoirs to
control
ordinary runoff from the tributary watershed, and to effect

equalization of flow over a period of several years.
states that the runoff
McCulloh*
from the Croton River watershed.
New
York,
yield
is is
so thoroughly controlled that nine tenths of the entire

utilized.
comprehensive paper entitled " Storage to
be Provided in Impounding Reservoirs for Municipal Water
Supply " by Allen Hazen,

is
in
which the law of probabilities
applied to the storage problem, appears in Vol.
LXXVII,
p. 1539,
Trans.
Am.
Soc. C. E.
For Improving Sanitary Conditions.

water to increase the low-water flow
is
The
release of stored
also effective in improv-
ing the sanitary condition of streams into which relatively large

quantities
of
sewage are being discharged.
Similarly,
a re-
duction in hardness and acidity

of
may
be secured in the case
streams into which mine drainage and manufacturing wastes
are being discharged in large quantities.
At low-water stage
is
the Monongahela River at Pittsburgh, for example,

primarily as the
plates
result
so acid,
steel
of
mine drainage, that carbon

only about four years. t
eastern streams.
is
on lock gates become badly corroded in two years, and

last
even nickel-steel plates

conditions prevail on
for the
Unsanitary
many
typical project
improvement
of these conditions
J
that proposed for
the Naugatuck River, Conn.
Three reservoirs with a com-
bined capacity of 1.75 billion cubic feet are proposed for the
purpose of increasing the extremely small low-water flow of this
stream which has virtually become an open sewer.

*
McCulloh, Walter, Conservation of Water, p. 6L Report of Pittsburgh Flood Commission, p. 248.
I Engineering Record, Apr. 29, 1916, p. 573.

Storage for Irrigation
451
The Committee
on
"
of the
American Society
of Civil
Engineers
National Water
Law
"
in
its
prehminary report of
January, 1916, places the use of water for crop production next
in
importance to
is
its
use for household purposes.
With
this
view, the author
in accord.
No
other use of water can yield

life.
an equal return
in the necessaries of
Aside from the small irrigation systems connected with truck
farms in the East, irrigation projects involve large expenditures

of
money and
the storage of large quantities of water.
Under
the direction of the Federal Reclamation Service irrigation has,

in recent years,
made
great progress.
The
third largest reser-
voir in the world, that at
Elephant Butte,
feet, is
New
Mexico, with
a capacity of 115 billion cubic

voirs built
among
the great reser-
by the Reclamation Service

of the large evaporation
for the storage of
water
for use in the irrigation of arid lands.
On account
reservoirs
and seepage
losses
from
and canals and
in
the irrigated fields themselves,

irrigation projects.
large quantities of water
must be stored on
is
As the need
for irrigation
an indication
in
of insufficient
or
ill-timed precipitation,
and as
such regions the low-water
flow of streams
is
usually previously appropriated and used,
dependence must be placed on flood-water storage.
For storage purposes the flow of northern streams that

in the
rise
mountains and are snow-fed
is
more dependable than
that of more southern rain-fed" streams.

later
The
freshets occur
is less
on northern streams, and consequently there
evapo-
ration loss after storage.

irregular,
Freshets on rain-fed streamsare very

in the season. in
and usually occur early

rivers in the arid
As most
and semi-arid regions decrease
volume, through percolation and evaporation, as they spread

out upon the plains, the best storage sites are in the upper
valleys.
Here the water-table

sites are
is
usually above the stream-bed,
good
dam
available,
and by storing water to con-
452
siderable depth, the evaporation losses from the reservoir are
greatly reduced.
Seepage from irrigation reservoirs and canals, and from

gated
fields,
is
irri-
manifesting
itself
in the increase of the low-
water flow of streams in these regions and in the necessity for

the drainage of low-lying lands.
Although considerable power
is
being developed on a number

is
of irrigation projects, such use of the stored water
entirely
secondary to
its
use for agricultural purposes.
Storage for Logging
One
of the
most extensive uses

is
of stored
water in the modi-
fication of
stream flow
in connection with logging operations.

in
Although the quantity of water stored

project
is
connection with each

logging
usually
usually small, logging
dams abound wherever

sluicing of logs
is
operations are carried on.
As the
completed by midsummer, the stored water does not help to

increase the late
summer low-water
flow.
When
gates
logging
are
dams
are
located
in
fall
out-of-the-way places,
the
usually
closed in the
so as to insure a good supply of water for the
succeeding
season.
Such
operation
inevitably
reduces
the
winter low-water flow and increases the spring high-water.
Storage for Navigation

Applicability.
The
has
storage of water on navigable lakes for
the maintenance of better stages on these lakes, and also the

storage of water for feeding navigable canals, as in Lake Gatun,
for
example,
been
years.
successfully
performed
by
different
nations for
many
The
increase of river stages through
the discharge of stored water, however, has very limited application on account of the tremendous quantity of water required
to effect substantial increases in stage on the lower, navigable,
reaches of the streams.
The discharge from

the
storage reservoirs
has less and
less effect, in increasing river stages, progressively
downstream.
Usually
only feasible
reservoir
sites
are

located near the headwaters of the streams.
is
453
greatest, the
stream
is
usually
riot
Where the effect navigable and when the

reached, the effect of
In
portions
of
navigable reach of the main stream

reservoir
is
discharge
is
usually
very
small.
Europe where the streams are
relatively short,
water storage
for increasing navigable stages has
found some application, but

both
in re-
nearly
all
projects applicable to the larger streams,

in
Europe and
ported upon.
the United States, have been unfavorably
In Germany,
where the greatest development no
of storage in the interests of navigation has taken place,
system
10
of reservoirs
used has a greater capacity than about

This
naturally
limits
billion
cubic
feet.
their
effect
to
reaches of not more than two or three hundred miles of river.
The Two Largest Navigation Reservoirs.

solely in the interests of navigation.
There
are
two
large reservoir systems in the world constructed
and operated
The
is
oldest of these sys-
tems
is
that in Russia, with a capacity of 35 billion cubic feet.
The
effect of this
system of reservoirs
substantially limited
to the 300 miles of river immediately below the reservoirs.
The
system
largest
system of reservoirs
is
in
the world constructed
in the interests of navigation

in
Northern Minnesota.
the Upper Mississippi River The combined capacity of the

is
six reservoirs constituting this

feet.
system
nearly 98 billion cubic
This
is
sufficient to store twice
the average annual runoff
from the tributary watershed.

EfiEectiveness of Navigation Reservoirs.
total
Fig. 279
shows the
the end of
amount
of
water stored
in these reservoirs at
each month for the past 12 years, together with the monthly
change
in storage expressed in cubic feet per second, the
monthly
mean
discharge from the reservoirs, and the discharge of the
Mississippi
River at the
in the
site
of
the
Government
Dam now
under construction
Twin
Cities.
Table 45 shows the percentage of the total reservoir capacity

that was utilized each year, together with the
maximum and
minimum
storage and the
month
in
which
this occurred.
454
45.
TABLE
STORAGE
UTILIZED EACH

does not measure the increase in ruling depth.
455
According to
*
:
General Bixby, former Chief of Engineers, U.S.A.

"
On
the Upper Missouri, within the limits of North

is
and South Dakota, while there

draft at dead low water, there
is
often 3.5 to 5-foot
only a draft of 3 feet
at a 5-foot stage of water, the crest of bars rising with

rising water.
On
is
the Mississippi River from St. Louis
to
Red
River, where the natural unimproved depth
over the bars

is
only about 4
rise
feet,
the rise of bar crests

giving below
about one-half the
of the river,
St.
Louis only 14 feet on the bars at a 20-foot stage

is
above low water so that the benefit to navigation

rather illusory."
Furthermore, the increased stage in the Mississippi River
between
St.
Paul and Lake Pepin
is
of value only
when the
ruling depth for boats
coming upriver does not occur below
Lake Pepin.
lake have
It
is
evident that unless up-bound boats can
reach Lake Pepin the increased stages in the river above that
little
commercial value.
Storage for Flood Prevention
Applicability.
The
will
applicability
and the limitations
of the
storage of water for flood prevention purposes are determined
by the causes and the

stream.
characteristics of the floods of each given
This fact
be appreciated from the previous
dis-
cussion of precipitation and the hydrographs of floods on typical streams.
On some
streams of the country floods occur in

fall.
winter;
on others in spring, summer or
great flood
may
be
lest
be preceded by one of ordinary magnitude or two great
floods
may
follow each other within a relatively few days.
To
effective, then, flood
water must be stored only temporarily
the storage capacity be unavailable

is
when most
required.
Storage capacity that

*
utilized for holding
water over from
Bixby, Gen.
W.
H., Final Report National Waterways Commission,
1912, p. 193.
456
one year to the next cannot be said to be available for flood

prevention purposes.
Methods.
Three
principal
methods are
in use for
tempo-
rarily storing
water in order to reduce the flood flow of streams.
Two
dams
of these
methods are entirely automatic

" retarding "
in operation
and
accomplish their object either through the utilization of check

or through
or " detention "
basins.
The
other method employs impounding reservoirs with manually
operated gates for discharging the stored water at
will.
Check Dams.
erosion
Check dams
fall
of the
type used for preventing

of Austria, Japan,
and
floods in the
mountainous regions
tried
and Switzerland are now being

region where the rivers
out in California in a
feet in
about 6000
40 miles and
is
carry a great deal of gravel, sand, and

in the
silt,
which
deposited
form of debris cones where the streams issue from the
canyons.*
The
object of check
dams
is
to retard the flow of water
down
the ravines and canyons that comprise the upper watersheds

of torrential streams, thus reducing erosion,
and
to encourage
the greatest possible absorption of water in the ravines themselves,
and
in the debris cones at the
mouths
of the canyons.
Check dams are
relatively small, simple,
and inexpensive, being
constructed mainly of loose rock.
Typical dams built in Cali-
fornia under the direction of Olmsted f are
shown
in Fig. 280.
Most
of the experimental
work
is
being done in Haines Canyon,
which drains an area of 1.45 square miles of burnt-over, mountainous

land.
Although
in
1914
this
is
canyon yielded
712
second-feet per square mile, which
the highest unit runoff
ever recorded in southern California, the heavy rains of January,

1916,
after the
construction of 384 small check
dams
at an average cost of about $12 each, yielded only 113 secondfeet per square mile as
*
compared with much

17,
larger unit yields

Engineering RecCalif.,
Engineering News, Feb. 10,
and Mar.
23, 1916;
13 and 20, 1916. t Olmsted, F. H., Consulting Engineer, Los Angeles, Los Angeles Flood Commission.
ord,
May
Member
of

from
larger,
457
untreated watersheds in the same locahty.
The
extent to which these experimental check dams have increased the absorption of water
in the
is
indicated by the growth of vegetation
canyons and the fact that canyons which were previously
dry at low water are
now
yielding a small low-water flow.
Courtesy Engineering Record.
Fig. 280.
Typical Check Dams.

effective aids in the
While check dams are unquestionably
control of flood runoff from small precipitous watersheds where
the rock does not
lie
close to the
surface of the ground, the
quantity of water which can be controlled in this
way
is
com-
458
paratively small so as to severely restrict the applicability of

these
dams
for flood prevention purposes.
Retarding Basins.
Retarding or detention basins are somecheck dams but of
what similar
size
in their action to
much
larger
and
of wider applicability.
The
first
projects in the United
States employing retarding basins on a large scale are those for
the protection of the
servancy Districts from the floods

rivers in
Ohio.
Miami and the Franklin County Conof the Miami and the Scioto Typical cross-sections of the dams proposed
Retarding basins act
in a
for the retardation of extreme floods on these streams are shown

in Figs. 281
and 282.
manner essen-
tially similar to
that exemplified by the action of natural lakes

is
in that
no
definite limit
placed, either for the stage which
water in the basin
may
reach or the
maximum
rate of outflow
from the basin.
Both are
entirely dependent upon,
and
in-
crease with, the magnitude of the flood inflow.
In contrast
with most natural lakes, however, no permanent storage of
water
is
provided for and the fluctuations in stage and outflow
are very rapid.
The
intention
is
to permit
all
ordinary floods
to pass through the controlling
retard or detain rather

floods.
dams unhindered and to merely than to impound the water of extreme
In consequence the land within the basin
may
be used
for agricultural purposes
but no buildings nor other improvebasin.
ments should be permitted within the

Fig. 281 the discharge openings in the
As indicated
in
dams
is
are carefully pro-
tected
debris,
by
barriers to prevent their being clogged

free spillway capacity
by
floating
and ample,
provided, in addition
to the openings through the base of the dams, to prevent the

possibility of the overtopping of
embankments
is
at times of un-
precedented floods.
off
The
action of a retarding basin in taking

well
the crest from a serious flood
shown
in Fig.
283.
Since the reduction of flood peak and retardation of flood water

result in prolonging the flood flow
from the basin, thus pro-
ducing considerably higher than natural stages in the tributaries

for several
days after the natural flood peak, the
effect of re-
459
tarding basins on the floods of the main stream into which

these tributaries feed should always be studied.
ticularly necessary in those instances
This
is
par-
where the retarding basins

in
occur on the lower tributaries of a stream lying
a region
innDnonDDDnDDDnncicnooDODDGnnDnDnnnnnDDnncicir
"/IDPODDnnDDnnDocmrnnnrnDrrnDononnnDnni
Anchor +
-I'j/Kyebolts
RIVER
CHANNEL DRIFT BARRIER

L Posts
,j^ (;able
'^'Ânchor Rods
"
"
CHANNEL
PIER
CABLE DRIFT BARRIER
ENLARGED DETAILS AT
A.
105
Dlam,-
El.872.
TtTvrwvnrnxmvm
From Report
of Alvord
and Burdick, Franklin County Conservancy
District.
Delaware Basin on Olentangy River, Tributary of Scioto River, Ohio.-
Fig. 281.
Drift Barrier, Weir and Outlet Conduit of Typical

Retarding Basin.
in
which the flood-producing ramstorms pass upstream, and

on the other hand,
in
also,
some instances
in
which the retard-
ing basins occur on the upper tributaries of the
main stream
and the flood-producing rainstorms travel downstream.
460
Pi
s o
MODIFICATION OF STREAM FLOW

80,000
B^'
STORAGE
461
462
small watersheds of a few thousand square miles in area, the

flood runoff
from which reaches the streams a few hours after
the rains
fell.
The
storage of sufficient water to appreciably
reduce the flood flow of large streams would require the withdrawal, from agricultural use, of areas of land quite dispro-
portionate to the benefits that can possibly be secured from
such storage.
Moreover, reservoirs can seldom be located so
as to be effective in preventing floods
below a point on the

or three times
stream where
its
drainage area
is
more than two
the area of watershed tributary to the reservoirs.
Floods on
the tributaries of a stream are practically never synchronous.
Floods on small streams are due to excessive rains over restricted areas,
and these rainstorms may center
just outside of
the reservoir controlled area, as happened during the Merrill,
Wisconsin,
storm of July,
1912,
which produced a record-
breaking flood at Wausau, Wisconsin, but hardly an appreciable

increase in runoff from the watershed drainage into the upper
Wisconsin River reservoirs.

Floods on large streams result from
tributed rains that yield comparatively
protracted,
well-dis-
little
water for storage
at the headwaters of the tributaries where reservoir sites are

available.
To be
should
effective in preventing floods
on large streams
reservoirs
be located a considerable distance downIn such

localities,
stream on the large tributaries.

land
is
however, the
usually improved and very valuable for other purposes.
Control of Mississippi River Floods by Reservoirs.

floods
The
of
*
on the Lower Mississippi River cannot be prevented by
reservoir storage on account of the
tremendous quantities
water involved.
in the following
This has been well stated by Col. Townsend
words
retained the Mississippi flood of 1912
in the
"
To have
its
within
banks would have required a reservoir

Cairo,
Illinois,
vicinity
of
having an area of 7000

in.
* Townsend, Col. C. McD., President Mississippi River Commission, address before National Drainage Congress, St. Louis, Mo., Apr. 11, 1913.

square miles, slightly
less
463
than that of the State of

of
New
that
Jersey,
it
and a depth
about 15
feet,
assuming
would be empty when the river attained a

reservoir would, of course, be prohibitive.
sites
bankful stage."
The cost of such a The only economical

waters
of
for reservoirs
are near the headare

relatively
the
streams,
and
here
reservoirs
ineffective.
The
ineffectiveness of reservoirs at
the headwaters of the
Mississippi
reaches,
is
River system, for flood prevention in the lower

well indicated
by the
had
fact that during the 1912 flood,

risen
when the
river at Cairo
about 50
feet,
the upper
Mississippi at St.
Paul was contributing
little
more than a
thousandth part of the flood water;
the Ohio River at Pitts-
burgh was contributing about a hundred-and-thirtieth part of

the floodwater at Cairo;
and the Missouri River at
St.
Joseph
If all
was contributing about a hundred-and-twentieth

held back by reservoirs,
part.
the water of these tributaries at the points mentioned had been

it
would have lowered the
river at
Cairo by only a few inches during a fifty-foot flood.
Such complete control
of the
upper Mississippi, the upper
Missouri, and the upper Ohio rivers, however, cannot be ac-
complished by even the most extensive reservoir construction,

unless these reservoirs are to be built in populous agricultural
communities, right outside of the large
cities,
and then only
at a cost entirely incommensurate with any benefits that could

possibly be derived therefrom.
The small
that
effect
of
the upper Mississippi River reservoirs
on the flood flow of

if
this
stream
is
well indicated
by the
fact
these reservoirs had not been in existence in 1905, the
total natural flood flow

voirs, at the
from the lakes constituting these
reser-
time of the crest of the 1905 flood at Minneapolis,

less
would have been
than one tenth of the total flood flow.
The
actual outflow from the reservoirs was about one half the
natural, so that the effect of the reservoirs
was
to reduce the
464
by
less
flood flow at Minneapolis

in
than 5 per cent.
Moreover,
the same year (1905) these reservoirs could not even pre-
vent a flood at Aitkin,

miles below,
Minnesota, on the river about 100

the
much
less at
Twin
July
Cities, or at Cairo, Illinois,

1
or Memphis, Tennessee.
On
of that year,
its
when the
flood at Aitkin, Minnesota,
was practically at
highest, the
reservoirs were discharging little
more than
their winter flow.
The
flood
had been produced by the tributaries which enter the
Mississippi between the reservoirs
and Aitkin, notwithstanding

on the
the fact that the reservoirs control 61 per cent of the watershed
above Aitkin.
upper
Nevertheless,
during moderate
rains, the
floods
river, resulting
from general
upper Mississippi
Reservoirs often have an appreciable effect in reducing flood

flow, as indicated
by the hydrographs
of Fig. 205.
Engineers are agreed that flood flows on large streams cannot
be prevented.
The
best that can possibly be done
is
to prevent
overflow by confining the flood waters
by means
will
of levees,
and
by straightening and enlarging the channel

provided the character of the material
velocities, or the shore protection
at critical points,
permit increased
required as the result of these
increased velocities can be placed at reasonable expense.
Storage for Power

Applicability.
Irregularities
for
in
water
supply
make
the
storage of water for power purposes of wide applicability.

greatest
The
demand
is
power usually occurs at the time when the

Similarly, irregularities in the de-
stream flow
the lowest.
mand make
ment
for power,
both during the day and during the year,
storage and pondage a valuable asset of every water-
power development.
at
The
greater the head capable of develop-
any given
site
the greater the value of a given

of a
amount
of storage.
While the value

is
stream for power develop-
ment purposes
flow than
usually dependent
more upon
its
minimum
upon
its
average utilizable flow, yet the opportunities

sufficient to
for storage are
seldom
warrant the use of stored
465
water entirely for increasing the dependable flow of the stream,

as opposed to increasing
its
utilizable flow.
In other words,
the available storage capacity will usually yield a larger return
on the investment
if
used each year for the purpose of increasits
ing the flow of the stream up to

tion than
if
limit of economical utiliza-
used for the purpose of holding water in storage
for several years with a
view to increasing the extreme low-
water flow, and, consequently, the dependable flow which determines the
maximum amount
of
power available at
all
times.
of the
Limit of Economical Development.
On most streams
is
United States the variation in stream flow

considering
fected
all
so great, even
ef-
the equalization that can economically be

it
by
storage, that
usually pays to install turbine capacity
sufficient to utilize considerably
more than the low-water
flow.
Just what proportion of the time water
must be available
to
permit of
its
economical use in power development depends
upon the
relation
between the fixed charges plus operating

water-power plant capacity required to
cost
of the additional
utilize
water available
less
than 100 per cent of the time, and the
operating cost of a steam, gas, or other auxiliary
power
plant.
Merely the operating

in
cost of
the auxiliary plant should be used

this plant
is
making the comparison because

Size of Auxiliary
required, in
any
event, to carry part of the load at time of low water.
Power
Plant.
The
size of auxiliary
power
plant required for supplementing the water-power at low water,
without reference to insurance against interruptions in service
from other causes, depends upon the daily variations
in load
and the
plant.
storage, or
more properly " pondage " available

pondage
is
at the
is
When
sufficient
available
and a plant
carrying the usual light and power load, the water-power plant
can be used to
full
capacity during the time of peak load, and
the steam plant can be run as nearly continuously as possible.
With
plant
this
is
combination, the required size of auxiliary power
usually reduced to about half of that which would
otherwise
be necessary to supplement
the
water-power de-
466
veloped from the low-water flow of the stream.
When
the
water-supply
is
ample, the auxiliary plant can be used to carry
the peak of the early evening load and the water-power plant
run as nearly continuously, at
full
load,
as possible.
These
considerations are basic to a proper understanding of the subject of the modification of
stream flow for water-power purposes
by means
of storage
and pondage.
The Mass Curve.

of reservoir
The best method
of studying the effect

is
storage and pondage on stream flow

" or " flow-summation " curve.
by means
is
of the "
mass
This
a dia-
gram which shows the net available amount

to the reservoirs, expressed in
of runoff or
unit,
supply
any convenient
of time.
which has
accumulated
in
any given period

In
The
slope of the
tangent to the mass curve at any point indicates the net rate
of runoff or inflow at that time.
increment for a day, for ten days,
summing up the runoff, the or for a month may be used,
depending upon the regularity in the flow of the stream and the
available storage capacity.
In the case of natural lakes the
runoff records, that

lake,
is,
the outflow plus or minus storage on the

In the case of
loss
artificial
give
the net inflow directly.
reservoirs the evaporation
and seepage
must
first
be com-
puted and deducted from the observed or estimated runoff.

It
is
particularly
important that the mass curve be con-
structed from the net available inflow, especially in the case of

natural lakes, so as to eliminate evaporation and seepage losses
and the
effects of natural regulation.
Two
volume
typical
mass curves used
in connection with the in Figs.
study
of a large storage project are
shown
284 and 285.

is
The
of runoff or inflow into
Rainy Lake
expressed in
cubic feet and
summed up by months.
reservoir.
Tangents drawn to
the mass curves at various points indicate rates of regulated

outflow from
the
Every point on these tangents
represents the regulated outflow
up to the given time and the
point on the mass curve, directly underneath, represents the

inflow
up to the same
time.
The
vertical
distance between
MASS CURVE OF INFLOW INTO RAINY LAKE SHOWING REGULATION TOJNCREASE DEPENDABLE OUTFLOW (METHOD A)
FiQ. 284.
REGULATION TO INCREASE UTILIZABLE
MASS CURVE OF INFLOW INTO RAINY LAKE SHOWING OmTTOW (METHOD
EO

the two points,
inflow
therefore,
467
represents the
storage.
difference
between
and outflow, or draft on

is
Since the area of the
reservoir
stage,
known the
this
is
draft
is
readily converted into reservoir
when
desired.
full reservoir is
assumed
at the be-
ginning of the period.
The
vertical height of the cross-hatched
areas represents the volume of non-utilized flow or water wasted.
Regulation to Increase Dependable Flow.

of utilizing the reservoir storage are
Two
the
methods
the
shown
in Figs.
284 and 285.
Under the
aim
first
method
of regulation, styled "
Method A,"
is to utilize the available storage in securing
maximum
it is
possible increase in extreme low-water flow over a period of

years, that
lutely
is,
to increase the dependable flow. to
Since
abso-
impossible
forecast
the runoff from the tributary
watershed for any considerable time in advance, the

permissible rate of discharge,
maximum
when
stored water
is,
is
being drawn
upon,
is
limited to the dependable rate, that
the rate which
can be maintained on the available storage over the most ex-
treme dry period of years to be expected.

wasted, a higher rate
When
water
is
being
may
is
sometimes be
utilized to advantage.
In the case of Rainy Lake, the
maximum
rate which can be
economically utilized
about 10,000 second-feet as turbines
aggregating this capacity have already been installed.

ever stored water
is
Whenfull
being drawn upon the outflow must be
limited to the dependable rate or the reservoir
may
not be
at the beginning of the dry period which, in this instance, ex-
tended over 3 years for the case of 100

available storage,
storage.
billion cubic feet
of
and over
5 years for the case of 150 billion
Regulation to Increase Utilizable Flow.
^ Under
the second
is
method
of regulation, styled "
Method B," the aim
to utilize
the available storage in securing the
maximum
i.e.,
increase in the
ordinary low-water flow, without endeavoring to substantially

increase the extreme low-water flow,
lizable flow.
to increase the uti-
Under such regulation
of stream flow the
aim
is
to use as
much
of the available storage capacity each year
468
as possible,
drawing upon the stored water at as high a rate
as can economically be utilized
by the given
installation.
Under " Method

have been
"
" the available storage capacity would
fully utilized only
once during the 22 years.
Under
Method B
" 100 billion cubic feet of storage would have been
fully utilized ten times in
22 years and 150
billion cubic feet
of storage
would have been
fully utilized five times,

full at
but the
reservoir
would not have been
the beginning of the experiod the reservoir
treme dry period so that during
this
storage would not have materially increased the natural low-
water flow.
Mass-curve studies which assume a variable rate of discharge

for
all,
each dry season and are premised upon a use of
all,
or nearly
the available storage capacity during each dry season, are
entirely theoretical
and have no
practical application.
for
They
months
assume that the runoff can be accurately forecast
and even years
in advance.
Frequency Curves.
to which the outflow
fied
Frequency
curves showing the extent
from Rainy Lake could have been modi-
by these two methods of regulation are shown in Fig. 286. Method B " results in a much greater increase in utilizable outflow than " Method A " but does not produce any substantial increase in low-water flow. Even if the demand for
"
power
"
is
constant, so that auxiliary power

"
must be provided,
in
Method B
is
gives the better return

If
on the investment
this instance.
load factor
less
the demand for power varies, that is, if the than 100 per cent, the advantage of " Method
" increases.
" over "

It
Method A
appears from the frequency curves that, under "
Method
A," greater rates than the dependable rate would be available

less
than 50 per cent of the time and therefore hardly capable

In other words, under this method
of
economical utilization.
it
of regulation
usually would not pay to install greater turbine
capacity than
that
required
for
the
dependable
rate,
with
possibly an additional spare unit in reserve.
469
470
ELEMENIS OF HYDROLOGY
the available storage capacity
of the
is
When
as on
so large,
it
however,
Lake
Woods,
for example,
where
aggregates about
250
billion cubic feet,
so as to
make
the dependable outflow
obtainable with the given storage about 80 per cent of the

utilizable outflow obtainable with the
same
storage, regulation
according to "
to "
Method A Method B " because

"
is
preferable to regulation according
the value of the increased power
secured from the larger installation would not compensate for

the cost of the auxiliary power plant required under "
Method
is
" to supplement the water-power at times of low water.
Construction of Frequency Curve.
The
frequency curve
a graph of data arranged in the order of magnitude.
Any
are
point on the frequency curve indicates the percentage of the

total
number
of records of the given
phenomenon which
greater than the value of this point and the percentage which
are smaller.
of Fig. 287,
The point P,
for example,
on the frequency curve
showing the frequency of annual precipitation at

Massachusetts,
New
Bedford,
from
1814
to
1913,
indicates
that 54 per cent of the total
number
of records of annual pre-
cipitation were greater than 45 inches
and 46 per cent were
smaller.
The
portion
of
the curve P-0, for example, indi-
cates that in 32
rainfall
per cent of the total

inches.
was between 40 and 45
number of years the The table accompanylines
ing the diagram of Fig. 287
and the construction

itself
and
dimensions on the diagram
indicate the
procedure in
size of
working up data into a frequency curve.

to be selected in subdividing data of records available
The
groups
depends upon the number

of variation in the records
and the rate
as the high
and low values are approached.
Usually
it
is
de-
sirable to use smaller groups near the
two extremes
in values
than in between so as to get the correct curvature for the graph.

In order to show
how
nearly correct the resulting graph
is
the
actual values for the 100 years records at

also
New
Bedford have
as
been plotted in Fig. 287.
The smoothed curve
drawn
undoubtedly represents the actual facts better than a curve

which follows the observed values more
closely,
471
the
and
will fit
records of 200 years better than such a curve.
30
40
50
60
70
Percent of Total Time (100
yrs.)
Ordinate
472
observed data in the
It is usually impracticable to plot the
exact order of magnitude.

gives better results
The grouping system, on the whole,

incomparably
faster.
and
is
Where
several
thousand records are used as the basis for a frequency curve,
no other method
is
practicable.
The mean annual inches. This amount

to occur in
cipitation.
precipitation
at
New
is
Bedford
is
46.45
of precipitation, however, does not occur
with the greatest frequency and therefore
not the most likely
any one
year, that
is, it is
not the " normal " pre-
Taking the curve as the
basis,
annual precipitations
of
from 40 to 48^ inches occur with equal frequency so that the

is
normal precipitation
44^ inches, or preferably between 40
and 48^
inches.
of occurrence in per cent, as taken off the curve,
Frequency
can readily be converted into one occurrence during an interval

of a certain
of 56 inches
number
of years.
For example, a precipitation

of the time, that
is,
was exceeded 10 per cent
precipitation of 56 inches
was exceeded, on an average, once
every 10 years.
Conflict of Storage Fhirposes
Perhaps no more far-reaching misconception regarding an

engineering problem
rare
is
current to-day than that the water of

floods can be conserved
and extraordinary
and used
in
the interests of power and navigation, of flood prevention and

irrigation, or in the interests of other
combinations of two or
three different storage purposes at one
and the same time.
In
the
first
place, to
be really worth conserving, flood water should
be available at least once in 3 or 4 years.
Flood water that
puts in an appearance once in 10, 15, or 20 years must be
wasted quickly and with as

fixed charges
little
damage
and
as possible.
facilities
The
on the cost
of the structures
is
required
for the utilization of
water which
rarely available far exceed
any
possible benefit to be derived
from such
use.
It
is
safe
to say that
on no stream
in the
country do really destructive

floods occur with
473
a frequency which makes the flood water
worth conserving.
Storage for flood prevention, then, must be

its sole
planned with that as
object.
It
does not follow, how-
ever, that reservoirs for flood prevention
and other purposes

in
cannot be,
single
in
many
In
instances,
economically combined
instead
of
project.
other
words,
building several
distinct reservoirs, the
upper portion of one reservoir
may
be
reserved for use in storing or retarding extraordinary floods,

its
full
capacity never being exhausted, however
not
Still
even
once
in
a century.
Another portion of the same reservoir
may
be
in
continuous use for storing water to supply the ordinary

of power, navigation, or other purposes.
demands
another
portion of this
same
reservoir storage capacity
may
be utilized
for storing water that
may
not be required more than once in
25 or more
years,
to
assure a predetermined,
reservoir.
extreme lowportion of the
water outflow from the

reservoir storage
fourth
may
be absolutely permanent and
may
serve
merely to maintain sufficient head at the outlet to permit the
development
seldom
of
a certain amount of power.

It is
The
in
last condition
prevails.
economical to permanently store water
for the production of
head capable of use
water-power de-
velopment, only when the area of the reservoir becomes greatly
reduced as zero storage
is
approached.
for flood preis
Another reason why reservoir storage designed
vention cannot also be used in the conservation of water,
because a reservoir operated for flood prevention should be
kept as nearly empty as possible and should not be used to store

ordinary floods that occur every few years.
great irregularity,
Floods occur with

Severe rainstorms
and at
different seasons.
occasionally follow each other in rapid succession
and travel
good prosextraordi-
the same paths.
If reservoirs
calculated to prevent floods are

is
permitted to
fill
with ordinary flood water, there
pect of no storage capacity being available
when the
nary flood occurs.

Reservoirs operated
in
the
interests of power,
navigation,
474
and
irrigation are filled as soon as possible in spring,
is
and the
purposes
ex-
stored water
drawn upon only when needed.

water
As during wet
these
seasons
little
need be
discharged
full
if
for
such reservoirs are nearly always

traordinary floods exists.
for storage purposes,
when danger from
Moreover,
if
natural lakes are utiUzed
and
no storage capacity has been specially

storage,
reserved
for
flood-water
these
it
reservoirs
off
must
dis-
charge the flood water as rapidly as

watershed.
runs
from the tributary

is
As
in large natural lakes the flood inflow
always
greater than the flood outflow, the conversion of such lakes

into
storage reservoirs
for
power, navigation, and irrigation
purposes must necessarily increase extreme floods on the river
below unless provision
is
made
in the
same project
for storing
the extreme flood-water runoff.
Storage Below Ordinary High-water
Mark
up to orThe right to
On
navigable lakes and rivers the Government of the United
States holds an easement to use the riparian lands
dinary high-water mark, in the public

use such lands
is
interest.
often granted to private corporations in con-
nection with projects for water-power development that also

further
the
public
interest
of
navigation.
*
Moreover,
the
Supreme Court
of the
United States has held
that Congress
intended to provide that the common-law rules of riparian
ownership should apply also to lands bordering on non-navigable streams.

possibilities
It
is
of
interest,
therefore,
to
consider the
and the limitations
of
modifying the flow of streams
by storage below ordinary high-water mark.

Ordinary High Water Defined.
References
is
to
some im-
portant court decisions defining ordinary high water appear

below. t
of a
1
":
The
gist of these decisions
that where the banks
body
of water are relatively steep,

vs.
ordinary high-water
* t
Railroad Co.
Schurmeier, 74 U. S. 272.
513,
Minnetonka 56 Minn., !Dorman vs. Ames, 12 Minn., 457.

In
re
Erdman
vs.
Power
Co., 112 Minn., 175

mark
and
"
is
475
coordinate with the Umit of the bed of the water;

is
that, only,
to be considered the
bed which the water

it
occupies sufficiently long and continuously to wrest

vegetation,
from
and destroy
its
value for agricultural purposes."

fiat,
When
is
the banks are low and
ordinary high-water
mark
and
to be considered " the point

is
up
to which the presence
action of the water
so continuous as to destroy the value
of the land for agricultural purposes of vegetation, constituting
by preventing the growth

All
what may be termed any ordinary

stages
agricultural
crop,
for
example, hay."
that are
" usual, ordinary,
and reasonably to be anticipated
" are within
ordinary high-water
mark but not
" such extraordinary freshets
as cannot be reasonably anticipated at particular periods of the
year."
In most instances, ordinary high-water
mark
is
difficult
to
determine.
The extent
to which land at a given elevation,

is
bordering a body of water,
valuable for agricultural purposes,
and the character
of the vegetation
found upon
this land, varies
from year to year, with the

ditions.
If,
rainfall
and other climatic con-
in
view of
this fact,
a conclusion respecting the
possible agricultural use of riparian land
must be premised upon

or of prevailing levels
records of meteorological phenomena,
under natural conditions, extending" over a considerable period

of years, a definition of " ordinary high-water
in
mark
" directly
terms of observed hydrological phenomena must sooner or
later find acceptance.
definitions
in
his
practice.
The author has used the two following The results derived through the
first definition,
application of these definitions to a given group of data usually
do not
differ widely.
is
According to the
all
ordinary
high water
the average of
stages above the average stage
which prevailed during the agricultural season

planting,
that
is,
the
growing, and harvesting season.
According to the
second definition, high stages during the agricultural season

are
all
those stages which are higher than the stage which was
exceeded just 50 per cent of the time.
Of the high stages,
476
mark corresponds
to that stage
ordinary high-water
which was
exceeded one half the time.
In other words, ordinary high-
water mark corresponds to that stage of a lake or a river which,
on an average, was exceeded 25 per cent of the time during the

agricultural season.
As
in
other matters, judgment must be
exercised in the application of these definitions to prevailing lake

stages,
and particularly to
river stages.
Storage Limitations.
The extent to
If,
which stream flow can
be regulated within ordinary high-water mark has unquestionably been greatly over-estimated.
in
the
usual
case
of
maximum
natural inflow into a lake exceeding the

is
maximum
natural outflow, such a lake
held at ordinary high-water
mark without
increasing
will
its
outflow capacity, riparian property
around the lake
be damaged during extreme high water,

is
because the lake level
continuously higher than

If,
it
would
outflow
have been under natural conditions.

capacity
is
now,
the
increased so as to prevent the level of the lake,

rising
under any given flood conditions, from

it
any higher than
would have
risen,
under the same hydrological conditions,
with the outlets in a state of nature, the flood-water discharge
from the lake

outlet
will
produce a stage
in the
channel below the
which
will
exceed the natural ordinary high-water mark.
In other words, regulation of lake levels or modification of
stream flow by storage below ordinary high-water mark

physical impossibility.
is
When
the banks of the channel below the outlet of the lake
are high the
damage from the
greater flood-water discharge
under regulation within ordinary high-water mark on the lake
above
may
be negligible, even though the high-water mark in

is
the channel below

ever,
considerably exceeded.
its
Every
case,
how-
must be considered on
own
merits.
Not
infrequently,
flowage rights must be secured both in the lake and on the dis-
charge channel below the outlet.
477
NOTE TO TEACHERS OF HYDROLOGY

The author has purposely
and problems
neer
refrained from adding questions
to the several chapters of this book.
An
engi-
who
is
qualified to teach the subject should also be quali-
fied to
frame intelligent and instructive questions.
There arc
is
few
colleges in
which exactly the same amount of time

Usually the work
is
de-
voted to this subject.
scattered through
believes that there
a half dozen different courses.

is
The author
nearly as
much
reason for teaching hydrology as a funda-
mental course, instead of scattering the instruction through

courses in water-supply, water-power, sewerage, drainage,
gation, etc., as there
is
irri-
for teaching
mathematics as a funda-
mental course.
In view of this, an effort has been
made
to
present the elementary subject-matter, accompanied by various
methods
of analyzing
and interpreting data, and through these

principles
of
the elucidation
It is
of
the fundamental
hydrology.
not intended that assignments should be
made page by
page, although an effort has been

in
made
to develop the subject
a logical manner.
Minor
details
have been omitted, and
ample opportunity has been

instructor.
left for
the work of the individual
clear understanding of the factors that

is
modify the flow
of streams
absolutely essential to an intelligent use of stream-
flow data.
The author knows

in
of no better
way
to
crj'^stallize
the student's knowledge of these factors than to permit him

to
apply that knowledge

other
physical
data.
computing runoff from

Watersheds
rainfall
and
coming
within
the
student's observation should preferably be selected.
Complete
physical data should be available, including runoff records for

at least a few years.
To
enable the students to fully grasp
the work, the author takes them by groups and goes through
the complete computations with them.
large,
When
the classes are

is
appointments are made so that one student
taken into
the group and one excused about every hour, thus maintaining
478
a continuous organization of from 4 to 6 men, throughout an

afternoon, for example.
Each student
first
collects the neces-
sary data and makes the preliminary evaporation and transpiration computations for one year.
These data and com-
putations are then taken in chronological order and the monthly

runoff
computed by the students
in
groups of four to
six
men,
the instructor preferably taking the computation sheet in hand

himself and assigning to the several students, in rotation, the
daily
temperature
and precipitation
records,
the
curves
of
surface and seepage flow, etc.
Each student, under the superwork which
vision of the instructor, teaches his successor the
he
in turn
is
to do.
Students not engaged on this work spend

until the
their time
on other assignments
computations for the
entire
period
of
have been completed.
comparison
in
is
then
made
computed with observed
runoff,
case the
funda-
mental curves of surface and seepage

viously worked out
flow, etc.,
had been pre-
by the
instructor,
and existing discrepancies
analyzed with a view to determining the cause.

data,
The computed
mass curve
from which
combined with such records
of
observed runoff as are
available, are then used in the construction of a
extending over at least twenty years,

a study
is
if
possible,
made
of different
methods
of
modifying stream flow
by
reservoir storage.
INDEX
Air,
dynamic
effect of
cooling; of, 61, 64 vapor on weight, 62
Bazin's formula, 396

Beaulieu, Minnesota, storm, 133, 139
and unstable, 62 see also "Atmosphere" Alvord, John W., 321

stable
Bigelow, Frank H., 30, 71, 191, 192, 195
evaporation formula, 197, 201, 203,
Arkansas River, 351

Artesian water, basins, 264-268, 321
reservoirs, 263, 264
204
Binnie, Sir Alexander, 93
Birkinbine, Carl P., 88
temperature
of,
264 438
Ashokan
cost,
reservoir, capacity,
Bixby, Gen. W. H., 455 Black River, 308, 313, 341

Briggs,
438
radi-
Lyman
J.,
234, 250, 258, 259
Atmometer, porous cup, 206 Atmosphere, absorption of solar

ation by, 17, 18
circulation,
Brooks, Chas.
Butcher,
F.,
87
Burdick, Charles B., 321
W.
E.,
400
34-38
Cairo, Illinois, storm, 137, 138, 139
composition, 9
distribution of gases, 10
Cane Creek
flood,
348
height
of,
above earth's surface, 11
Capillary water, 231-235, 249-254
properties, 11
density, 55, 56
pressure, 27-31
see
Cedar Lake Reservoir, 440 Cedar River flood, 326

Chandler, E.
F., 207,
335
also
specific
"Barometric pressure" heat, 11, 56
Check dams, 456, Chemical method
457, 458
of
measuring flow
use, 9
see also
of water, 400, 401
"Air"
of,
Barometric pressure, amount 28

daily variation, 30, 31
effect
of,
27,
as aid in forecasting weather, 78
on rate
of evaporation,
192, 198, 199, 200

effect of,
Chezy's formula, 394 Chinook winds, evaporation during, 219 Clearwater River, 307 Clements, F. E., 242 Colorado River, runoff, 297, 436 Conway, G. R., 350 Croton River, 412, 450
effect of,
effect,
on seepage flow, 289 on state of water, 38

differin,
Crow River, 366 Crow Wing River,

340
Cultivation, effect
307, 310, 312, 327,
on wind velocity, of
ence
66
of,
on nmoff, 188,
high and low pressure areas, 29, 70, 71
281
measurement
reduction
variation
of, of,
effect of, on percolation, 229, 230 Current meter, Haskell, 375-377, 381, during tornado, 34, 35 382 with altitude, 27-29 measurements, 382, 384, 385 479
of, 27,
28
480
INDEX
Evaporation,
Current meter, measurements, field and office notes, 385, 386 Price, 375-377, 381, 382 rating of, 377, 378, 379 section, 368, 369, 370 Cyclonic weather, 29 average velocity of cyclones, 70 characteristics of, 29, 65-71
occurrence of thunderstorms during,
effect of
from water surfaces, wind velocity, 38,
195, 196, 197
formulas, Dalton's, 191, 192

Bigelow's, 198
Russell's, 199, 200, 201
comparison
of,
201
measurement
of,
evaporation
pans, 205
correction for size of pan, 204
71
precipitation during, 65, 66
Piche evaporometer, 199-201
wind accompanying, 36
Dalton's law, 191, 201, 209 Dewpoint hygrometers, 49, 50, 51
porous cup atmometer, 206

observed,
Boston,
Mass.,
207,
208, 210
Grand River Lock,

208, 209
Wis., 206,
temperature, 53, 190
method of measuring stream flow, 403, 404 Drainage, effect of, on evaporation opportunity, 237, 238 effect of, on runoff, 282, 283
Diaphragm
Independence,
211
Calif., 207, 208,
Kingsburg,
Calif.,
207,
208,
210
Lee Bridge, England, 207, 208,

211
Elk River, 307, 310, 313, 318

Evaporation, definition of, 190 effect of, on low-water stream flow,
358, 359
Mount Hope, N.
Y., 212
University, N. D., 206, 208, 209
from land areas, 221-241, 426 author's curve for, 421, 423
effect of relative
effect of temperature,
humidity, 224 221-224
effect of vegetation, 225,
226
from deep water, 214, 216, 220 from shallow water, 209, 212, 220 losses from reservoirs, 439, 451 losses in channels, 449 relative, from land and water areas, 239, 240
FitzGerald,
irrigation investigations, 238, 239
observed, 238, 240
opportunity, 226-241
capillary
effect of
lift of soils, 231-233 depth of water-table, 235, 236 effect of drainage, 237, 238
Float
effect of interception, effect of percolation, effect
227
228 of precipitation, 226
effect of vegetation, 236, 237 from snow and ice, 218, 219 from water surfaces, 188-220, 425, 426 effect of barometric pressure, 192 effect of relative humidity, 194,
Desmond, 195, 208 measurements, applicability, 392, 395 surface floats, 394 subsurface floats, 394 rod floats, 394 Floods, due to heavy rains, 318-324 due to snowfall, 326-333 effect of cultural conditions, 313 effect of open ditch drainage, 281 effect of precipitation, 309, 318331, 323, 324, 329
effect of soil, effect of
effect of effect of
313
temperature, 329
195
effect of
temperature, 190, 191
watershed area, 310, 311 watershed shape and location, 311, 313
INDEX
Floods,
481
ostimates of probable, 310,

320, 321
Gages, automatic recording, 371, 373, 374

chain, 370, 371
formulas
for,
341-347
prevention, 455, 463

control of Mississippi River, 462,
hook, 370
rain,
staff,
.stc
"Rain gages"
368
effect of,
463
conflict
370
station,
with 472-474
other
purposes,
Gaging
Groat, B. F., 377, 402, 405
methods
of, 456 check dams, 456, 457 retarding basins, 458
Ground-water,
loss
on low-water
flow of streams, 358, 361, 362
from
also
impounding
reservoirs,
461,
462 typical winter and spring, on large streams, 351-357
Cane Creek, N. C, 348
Crow Wing
River, 327
Elk River, 314, 318 Great Miami, 356 Heppner, Ore., 348 Hudson River, 345 Little Fork River, 327, 340 Minnesota River, 340
Mississippi River,
332,
333,
351,
353
Monterey, Mexico, 349 Ohio River, 329, 330, 331, 353, 354, 355
Passaic River, 341
"Seepage," "Gravity "Capillary water" and "Water-table" Grover, N. C, 390 Grunsky, C. E., 204, 208 Greaves, Chas., 208 Grain fields, evaporation from, 226 transpiration from, 262 see also "Vegetation" Grasses, evaporation from grass land, 226 root systems of, 254, 256, 257 transpiration of, 261, 262 see also "Vegetation" Gravity water, amount of, in soils, 249-253
see
water,"
Red River
of the North,
335
Hann, Dr. Julius, 23, 29, 30 Hardy, Arkansas, storm, 135,
136, 139
Root River,
314, 341
Scioto River, 355, 356
Seine River, 356, 357
Wild Rice River,

Forests, effect of,
316, 320, 321
Forecasting weather, 77, 78
on flood
flow, 313,
326, 327, 329
on low-water flow, 358 on surface runoff, 281, 282 evaporation from, 225, 226 relative humidity in, 224 temperature in, 223, 224 transpiration of, 261, 262 Fortier, Samuel, 442 Fort Madison, Iowa, storm, 134, 139,
effect of,
effect of,
Hazen, Allen, capillary lift of soils, 232 flow of water through soil, 269, 270, 274 over-registration of Venturi meters, 408 storage for municipal water supply, 450 Heat, absorption of, by land and water areas, 14 of vaporization, 42 of fusion, 42
source
of,
13
Henry, A.
J.,
354
Herschel, Clemens, 406
320, 321
Frequency curves, 346, 347, 468

construction
Fuller,
of,
470, 471
Weston
E.,
342
High-water mark, defined, 474, 475 storage below, 474 Hillberg, A. G., 396 Hopson, E. G., 440
482
INDEX
Low-water flow
of streams, effect of precipitation, 358
effect of reservoir storage, 453, effect of temperature,
Horton, R. E., 81, 219, 221, 326, 345, 396 Hoyt, John C, 390 Hoyt, W. G., 360, 364, 392
454
360-363
Hubbard, W. D., 443
observed, 362, 364, 365, 366
Humphreys and Abbot, 394 Humphreys, W. J., 9

Hydrographs
of typical streams,
299-
309, 311
Hydrology, definition application of, 2-4

present state
of,
of, 1
McCulloh, Walter, 450 McGee, W. G., 234, 235 Marsh, evaporation from, 225 effect of, on runoff, 281, 286 Marvin, C. F., 44, 45
float gage,
1-2
80
subject matter
of,
5-8
44,
Mass
use
curves, of temperatures above

freezing, 335, 337,
of,
Hygrometer, direct, indirect, 45
45
338-341
in storage studies, 466, 467

265, 414
wet- and dry-bulb, 50, 51

Ice,
Mead, D. W.,
MeUet,
R.,
402
anchor, 41 evaporation from, 218, 226
Merrill, Wis., storm, 141, 142
Miami
392
River, 355, 356
effect of
formation
41
of, 40, 41,
of,
on stream
flood prevention on, 458
flow, 360, 361, 362, 391,

frazil, 40,
Miimesota River,
338, 340
runoff,
297,
337,
formation
214, 216
Mississippi River, effect of low tem-
heat of fusion, 42
stomas, 87, 88
peratures on runoff, 361, 362

effect of
watershed area on runoff,
Interception of precipitation, 227, 228

Irrigation, investigations, 238, reservoirs, 451,
310, 311 floods at St. Paul, 332, 333
239
452
on lower reaches, 351, 353 rod float measurements of, 393, 395
floods
Kennison, K. R., 394 Kiersted, W., 443 Kiesselbach, T. A., 246

King, F. H., 228, 232, 272, 289 Kuichling, Emil, 342, 362
Kutter's formuhi, 321
variation of different factors
in,
subsurface float measurements
of,
394 temperature and rainfall on watershed of, 297

variation
in
rainfall
and
runoff,
410-413
394
Mississippi River reservoirs, capacity,
437, 453
Lakes, effect
effect of,
of,
on flood
flow, 321 flow,
control of floods by, 462, 463, 464

cost
of,
on low-water
359,
437, 438
360
effectiveness in aiding navigation,
on runoff, 283, 284 temperature of, 214 Lee, Chas. H., 208, 233 Little Fork River, 313, 327, 340 Livingston, B. E., 206, 258
effect of,
453, 454, 455

loss, 443 Monterey, Mexico,
seepage
flood,
349
Montgomery, E.
G., 246
Low-water flow
effect of lake
of streams, effect of
ground-water supply, 358
and swamp
storage,
Moore, Sir John, 26 Moore, W. L., 17, 34 Morgan, Arthur E., 142 Mount Weather, solar radiation
ceived at, 15, 16
re-
358, 359
INDEX
Navigation reservoirs, applicability, 452, 453 Russian system, 453 upper Mississippi River system, 453 effectiveness of, 453, 454, 455
483
Precipitation, annual, records of. El
Paso, Texas, 103
Havre, Mont., 102 Marietta, ()., 97 New Bedford, Mass., 94 New England States, 95
Normal, definition
of, 114, 121,
347
New
Orleans, La., 100

O.,
Ohio River, runoff from watershed above Wheeling, 297

floods on,
96 95 Salt Lake City, Utah, 102

Providence, R.
I.,
Portsmouth,
321-325, 329-332, 340,
351, 353, 354, 355
Olmsted, F. H., 456

Ottertail River, 307, 386
San Diego, Calif., 103 San Francisco, Calif., 103 Savannah, Ga., 99 St. Louis, Mo., 101
St. Paul,
Minn., 101
Valley, 97
Passaic River, 341

Percolation,
Upper Ohio River

Wasliington, D.
convective, 65
cyclonic, 65, 66
effect
of,
change in seepage flow
C, 98
following, 287
effect
of,
on evaporation oppor-
tunity, 228
on evaporation opporevaporation on,
ponds on, 283, 284 into rock strata, 263-269 rates of, 228, 229
effect of
soil
tunity, 226
effect of increase of
188
effect of,
moisture available
for,
251
on transpiration, 256, 257
Pit River, rmioff, 298, 299
estimating probable maxinnnn, on
Pitot tube, 404-406
watersheds, 141, 142, 143

excessive rates
of, 122 daUy, 122, 123 records of, 124-127
Pitometer, Cole, 406
Polar regions,
annual temperature,
in,
variations
19
daily atmospheric jiressure, variations in, 29, 30
hourly, 144
intense, 152-187
daily temperature, variation
in,
22
comparison of formulas
187
for, 186,
hom-s
of
daj'light,
in,
twilight,
and
night
18
frequency of recurrence
runoff, 283, 284,
of,
176-
Ponds, effect
of,
on
of
185
records
of,
286
Power,
145-187
of,
water "Reservoirs" Precipitation, annual, 64

storage
cycles in, 93, 94, 110
for,
see
irregular
occurrence
in
the
United States, 89
lack of direct relation
to
runoff,
415-421
monthly, 114
determination of true mean, 121, 122
excessive, 122, 123
of, 127, 128 frequency of recurrence 123 measurement of, 78 orographic, 65
maps of maximum and minimum,

112, 113
map
mean, 93 relation between length of record and extremes of, 93

of
records
records
of,
at typical stations,
of, 122,
Astoria, Oregon, 104
Boston, Mass., 94
Cincinnati, O., 96
484
Precipitation, relation of, to
INDEX
number
Reservoirs, power, limit of economical
of thunder-storms, 73
development, 465
relation of, to temperature, 73, 8688, 188
mass curve, 466, 467

regulation to increase dependable
flow, 467
variation
with latitude,
altitude,
88, 89
regvilation to increase utilizable
variation
on
typical
watersheds,
flow, 467,
468
466
441
410, 411, 412
size of auxiliary plant, 465,
Psychrometers, 51
Rafter, G. W., 416, 418
Rainfall, see "Precipitation"
sedimentation
of,
seepage losses from, 439

spillway capacity, 440
storage below ordinary high-water
Rain gage, exposure Marvin, 80

standard, 78, 79
of, 80,
81
mark, 474-476 Retarding basins, 458, 459
Root River,
of out-
307, 313, 314, 319, 340,
tipping-bucket, 79, 80
341, 366, 429, 432
Rainy Lake, frequency curve

flow,
Rum
River, 311
468
Runoff, definition
mass curve of inflow, 466, 467 Red Lake River, 307
Red River
of the
North, 311, 313,
340 Relative humidity, 53 effect of, on evaporation, 194, 195, 224 variation with altitude, 27, 28 variation with season, 53 variation with temperature, 53 Relief map, of the United States, 426, 427 Reservoirs, applicability dependent on cost, 437 characteristics of good site for, 438
of, 279 from typical watersheds, 297, 298 methods of computing from physical data, 414-417 author's method, 424-436
relation of, to evaporation, 189
seepage flow, changes

percolation, 287
of,
following
effect of character of precipita-
tion on, 286

effect
of
tics on, 285,

loss,
watershed characteris286
263
282, 283
surface flow, effect of drainage on,
effect of lakes
and ponds
on, 283,
dam
site,
441
284
conflict of storage purposes,
472-
effect of physical characteristics
474
of watersheds on, 280

effect of precipitation
441-449 evaporation losses from, 439 flood prevention, 455-462 for improving sanitary conditions, 450 increasing low-water flow, 429 irrigation, 451, 452 logging, 452 Mississippi River, 462-464 municipal water supply, 449 navigation, 452-455
effectiveness, 311,
and tem-
perature on, 279, 280

variation
of, on Mississippi River and Tohickon Creek water-
sheds, 410, 411, 412

see also
"Stream Flow," "Floods," "Low-water Flow"

evaporation
198, 199,
Russell,
formula,
192,
200
St.
Croix River, runoff, 297

runoff, 298, 299
power, applicability, 464, 465 frequency curves, 468
Sacramento River,
Sand, evaporation from, 225
INDEX
Sand, percolation through, 228, 229 see also "Soil" Santa Catarina River, 349 Sargent, Edward H., 412
Scioto River, floods on, 321, 356
Soil,
485
determining moisture content of, imder field conditions, 253
effect of character of,

loss,
on evaporation
240
retarding basins on, 458, 459
Sedimentation of reservoirs, 441 Seepage flow, change in, following percolation, 287 computation of, 432 effect of drainage, 282, 283 effect of temperature, 361 effect of watershed characteristics, 285, 286
on on on on
flood flow, 313, 327
natural vegetation, 256
seepage flow, 284, 285

surface runoff, 281, 432
effect of soil
tion,
moisture on transpira-
249
flow of water through, 268-278
Hazen's formula, 269 Slichter's formula, 272-274

gravity water
14
rates of percolation in, 229, 230
in,
249
measurement
277, 278
of
underflow,
276,
heat absorption and reflection by,
motion of undergroimd water, 268274

relation
typical of arid region, 442, 443
to
low-water
of,
flow
of
Solar radiation, 13
streams, 358
retardation
absorption
of,
by atmosphere,
18
445
amount
effect
received, 15
underground reservoir, 263, 264 Seepage losses, in conveying channels, 441, 442, 443
from
of forest fires
and volcanic
eruptions on, 15
effect of
of,
water vapor on absorption 14-18

of,
Seine River, 356, 357
measurement
variation
15
Shantz, H. L., 250, 258. 259
of, 14,
15
Shenehon, Francis C, 377-378 Sherman, C. E., 142 Siemens, William, 248 Simpson, Dr. G. C, 71 Shchter, C. S., 234, 264 formula for flow of water through soU, 272, 273, 274 method of measurement of underflow,
Soundings, methods of making, 369,
370
Specific heat, of the atmosphere, 11,
56
42 water vapor, 11 SpiUway, required capacity

of water, of
of,
440
Stabler,
Herman, 441
276
Snow, 64
accumulation of, 325, 326 determining water content of, 82, 84 evaporation from, 218-220 floods due to, 78, 79, 226-241
Stefan formula, effect of barometric pressure on evaporation,
192
Stewart, C. B., 141, 142 Stewart,
J. B.,
234
Storage, see "Reservoirs"
Storms, areas covered by, 129-139
measuring
melting
of,
fall of,
86
average velocity
exceptional, 149
ice, 87,
of,
70
326, 327, 429-431
surveys, 85, 86
Soil, capillary hft of,
88
139,
230-235, 249
paths
of,
354
at
formation of
alkali,
234
typical
excessive,
Beaulieu,
capillary water in, 230-232,
249-254
classification of grains of, 250, 251
Minn., 128, 129, 132, 133 at Cairo, 111., 132, 138, 139
486
Storms,
typical
excessive,
INDEX
at
Fort
Madison, la., 130, 134, 139, 320 at Hardy, Ark., 131, 132, 135, 136 Stream-flow, data from power plants, 368, 408, 409 discharge curves, 382, 386, 389, 390 effect of ice on, 391, 392 mean velocity, 379-382 measurement of, 382-385 chemical method, 400-403 current meter, 364, 375, 376, 377 diaphragm, 403, 404 floats, 392, 394, 395 Pitot tube, 404, 405 traveUng screen, 403, 404 Venturi meter, 406, 407, 408
modification
of,
Temperature, relation to amount of water vapor, 12, 13 variation with altitude, 23-28, 31
variation of character of precipitation with, 86, 87
ladies, 214-216 Thermograph, 21 Thermometers, maximimi, 19
of
deep
minimum,
21
recording, 21
Thief River, 307 Thunderstorms, 71-73 Tohickon Creek, runoff, 297

variation
in
rainfall
and
runoff,
410-413
Tombigbee River, runoff, 297 Townsend, Col. C. McD., 462, 463

Transeau, E. N., 225
Transpiration,
by
storage,
see
amount
of,
of,
259, 260
"Reservoirs" Swamps, evaporation from, 225 effect on runoff, 281, 286, 307, 358, 359, 360
Tate, Thomas, 193
base curve
of,
244, 424
computation
effect
426
definition of, 242

of
character of vegetation,
254
effect of
humidity, 246
Temperature, 13-27 annual variation, 22 at spring break-up, 220 daily, 21, 22

data, 19
effect of Ught, 246,
247
effect of precipitation, 256,
257
effect of soil moisture,

effect effect effect
249 of temperature, 242-245 of wind, 246

of,
data required for runoff computa^ tions, 424, 425 effect of, on evaporation, 190, 221
effect of,
on low-water flow of
streams, 358
observed, 238
proportional
to
effect
water through soil, 270, 271, 273, 361 of, on runoff, 297
on flow
of
dry matter pro-
duced, 258, 259
Tuolumne River
Reservoir, 441
on flood
flow, 326, 329, 330, 333,
335 on low-water flow, 360-362, 366 effect of, on state of water, 39

extending short-term records
of,
Van Hise, C. R., 263, 264 Van Ornum, J. L., 437

Van't Hoff's law, 242 Vapor, see "Water vapor" Vaporization, heat of, 42 Vapor pressure, 43, 48
effect of,
27
extremes
of,
23
map map
of
of
maximum recorded, 24 minimum recorded, 25
on rate
of evaporation,
mass curves of, 335, 337 measurement of, 19

of artesian water, 264
of dewpoint, 53, 190
190-192, 198, 199

variation
see also
of, with temperature, 49 "Relative humidity"
of,
Vegetation, effect of character
on
periodic variation in, 23
transpiration, 254, 262
INDEX
Vegetation, effect of precipitation on
effect
487
effect of,
Water vapor,
air,
on weight
51
of
effect
256 of, on evaporation opportunity, 236, 237 of, on rate of evaporation, 225
character
of, of,
62
measure
pressure
specific
of, 44, 45, 50, of,
43-48
of, 1
heat
of,
rapid growth
17
257,
variation
258,
with altitude,
13, 27,
water requirements of, 259 Velocity curves, 380, 382 Velocity of approach, 408 Venturi meter, 407, 408 Vermeule, C. C, 414
28 weight
of,
11
Water
year, 417-421
Weather, Bureau, 15, 19, 27 cyclonic, see "Cyclonic weather"

forecasts, 77
maps, 77
Waldo, Frank, 18
Water, as a natural resource, 5 capiUary, 231-235, 249-254
composition of, 39 cycle of, 5, 188
effect
observation stations, 19
index
map
of, 150,
of,
151
Wells, breathing
289-291
of
barometric pressiu-e
of, of,
on
39
effect
38 of temperature on state
state
of, 39, 41,
elasticity of, 41
depth to water in, 266, 268 White, W. M., 402, 403 Whitney, Milton, 234 Wild Rice River, 320, 321 Wilting coefficient, 249 Wind, as aid in weather forecasting,
77,
physical properties
42
cause
78
weight
of,
41
of,
of,
35
Water-table, depth
235, 236, 289

for reservoir
effect of,
on rate
of evaporation,
desirable location
sites,
of,
195-200
effect of,
439, 440
relation to low- water flow, 358, 361
periodic
on transpiration, 246 and non-periodic, 36

of,
Water vapor, amount

phere,
9, 11,
of,
of,
in atmos-
pressure
34
81
12
protection of rain gage from effect

of, 80,
characteristics
43
condensation
density
of, 11
of, 61,
64-66
44
velocity
of, 34, 35,
66
zones, 35
distribution
effect of,
of, 12, 13,
on solar radiation, 14
Wisconsin River, 308, 313 Wollny, E., 229, 236
7773
DUE DATE
NORTHEASTERN UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES
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Society of Civil Engineers

NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS,

& HALL, Limited

H.GILSON COMPANY BOSTON, U.S.A.

has received relatively

attention in the United States until recent years, has a wide

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lems in water-power, water-supply, sewerage and sewage disposal,

protection and pre-

Although basic to a large

founded upon numerous other sciences, as well

Although the material presented in the following pages represents

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a book which should

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intended to be of assistance to professional men,

has been prepared

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the fundamental principles and facts underlying the science of

hydrology have received sufficiently general acceptance to per-

mit their condensation into handbook form.

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and are believed

summaries of important data were checked, and many were

was not duplicated, because the

possibility of errors being

so small as not to warrant the expense of the extra work.

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with the proof

Present State of Hj'drology

The Subject Matter

TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND

Water in Atmosphere Distribution of Water Vapor

Water Vapor on Solar Radiation

Measiu-ement of Solar Radiation Amount of Solar Radiation Received

Temperature Data Thermometers

Variation with Altitude Extending Short-term Records

PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Variation with Altitude

Velocities in the United States

AND THEIR PROPERTIES

THE VAPOR OF WATER AND

Dew-point Hygrometers Wet- and Dry-bulb Hygrometers Humidity

OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION

Rain, Snow, etc

Convective Precipitation Orographic Precipitation Cyclonic Precipitation

Thunderstorms Weather Forecasts Measurement of Precipitation Standard Rain Gage

Marvin Float Gage