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Kneading Conference West 2011!

Baking Fundamentals - Core Concepts! Lee Glass!

Course overview!
!!

Fundamentals:!
!! !! !! !! !! !! !! !!

Introduction! Starch! Proteins! Yeast! Salt! Mixing! Fermentation! Baking!

History!
!!

Post-World War II!


!! US:

- a home for everybody! !! More rural electrication: lots more things to do! !! Chevrolet - See the USA in your Chevrolet! !! Supermarkets replaced neighborhood stores! !! Newer is better!
!! Levittown

Prosperity!

Post-WW II Prosperity - US!


!!

Chemistry - cornerstone of prosperity!


!! !! !! !! !!

Monsanto: Better living through chemistry! Pittsburgh Paint & Glass: grape avoring! Cereal chemists -- the biochemistry of grains! Age of the atom -- plant research with radiation! Food chemists - bringing it all home!
Wonder Bread! !! Holsum Bread! !! Etc.!
!!

Post-WW II: Europe!


Food and money were scarce following WW II (Rationing ended in England in 1952)! !! Important that production minimize costs and maximize output! !! Adoption of techniques being popularized in the US! !! Result: French Wonder Bread !
!!

Artisan Breads!
A tradition with some long-established bakeries: e.g. Boudin (since 1849, in SFO)! !! Created by others who sought to provide artisan products: e.g. Acme Bakery, by Steve Sullivan, in 1983; Artisan Bakers, by Craig Ponsford, in 1992! !! Now a major market: e.g. Essential, Macrina, Le Panzanella, Grand Central, and others, all in Seattle!
!!

Science in Breadmaking!
!!

Chorleywood Process: Its all science!


!!

!!

Artisan bread: little emphasis on science!


!! !!

Flour to packaged loaf in ~ 3.5 hours! !! Mixing measured by energy input in kWh, not dough characteristics! !! Negative pressure proong! !! Decreased partial pressure nitrogen compared to air! Most texts emphasize how to, not why! No standardized national basic instruction for bakers!

Questions!
!!

Can we as artisan bakers use knowledge of the science underlying breadmaking to:!
!! Help

avor! !! The desired crumb structure and consistency! !! The crust we are seeking! !! The color we want our loaves to have?!
!! Maximum

our breads develop!

!! Help

manage our doughs?!

Goals of this segment!


!!

Explore basic science knowledge related to!


!! !! !! !! !! !! !!

!!

Explore practical correlates of that knowledge!

Flour! Yeast! Salt! Water! Mixing! Fermentation! Baking!

Goals of key players!


Goal of wheat: make more wheat! !! Goal of yeast: make more yeast! !! Goal of lactobacilli: make more lactobacilli! !! Goal of baker: make bread! !! Key challenge for baker: orchestrate a symphony for discordant instruments!
!!

Flour!
!!

Starch!
!!
!! !!

Long chains (polymers) of glucose molecules!


Amylose = straight chains!
!! !! !!

Amylopectin = branched chains!

About 25% of wheat starch!

1 branch for about each 30 or more glucose molecules! About 75% of wheat starch!

Starch granules are compact clusters of amylose and amylopectin! !! Starch granules absorb little water at room temp! !! With heat, starch granules can bind large quantities of water!
!!

Starch!
!!

Some roles of starch in bread making!


!! Absorbs

baking! !! Stabilizes the crumb! !! Its ultimate breakdown product (glucose) has a major effect on crust color and avor! !! Its ultimate breakdown product (glucose) feeds yeast (and bacteria, if any)!

huge amounts of water during

Starch!
Wheat consists of ~60% starch! !! Role of starch for wheat: feed developing seedling. ! !! Seedlings, yeast & lactobacilli cannot eat starch! !! Starch must be converted to smaller components to be a useful energy source! !! Conversion is facilitated by enzymes!
!!

Starch - Interaction with proteins!


Enzymes are proteins that facilitate chemical reactions, without themselves changing! !! Enzymes work within narrow temperature and pH ranges! !! Enzymes are extraordinarily specic in what they do!
!!

!!

Amylase!
!! Beta:

Starch - Interaction with Proteins!

normally present in substantial amounts the wheat kernel! !! Alpha: presence depends upon growing conditions, weather near time of harvest, and other factors.!
!! Barley

is sprouted, dried, powdered, and added at the mill if necessary in order to have appropriate levels of alpha-amylase in the milled product.!

Starch - Interaction with Proteins!


!!

Amylase - two major forms, with some variation. !


!! Alpha
!! Can

cut straight chains almost anywhere! !! Cannot cut branch points!


!! Starts

amylase:!

!! Beta

at one end of a chain, and chops off 2 links at a time.! !! Can cut at branch points.!

amylase:!

Starch - Amylase!
Temperature data for wheat amylases:! !! Alpha-amylase!
!!

!!

Beta-amylase!
!! Optimum

range: 60 C to 70 C! !! Thermal inactivation: 70 C to 85 C!


!! Optimum

!!

Fungal amylase are less heat stable!

range: ~50 C! !! Thermal inactivation: 55 C to 75 C!

!!

Amylase activity!
!! Measured
!! Falling

Starch - Interaction with Proteins!


by falling number!

number = number of seconds for a weight to settle through a hot, gelatinized starch mixture! !! Rationale: as alpha-amylase cuts the starch chains, starchs ability to continue to hold water decreases, viscosity decreases, and the weight falls faster.! !! The falling time reects, indirectly, the amount of amylase activity.!

!!

Falling number results:!


!!

Starch- Interaction with Proteins!

Sound wheat: higher than 300! !! Sprout-damaged wheat: below 200! !! IMPORTANT: Falling number may not accurately reect our characteristics when fungal amylase is the source of alpha amylase in the our being tested. REASON: Fungal amylase is deactivated at a lower temperature than that used in the falling number test.!

Starch - Interaction with Proteins!


Products of alpha- and beta-amylase on starch:! !! Alpha: principally =>!
!!

!!

Beta: principally =>!


!! 2

sugar (monosaccharide) = glucose! !! 2 linked glucose molecules = maltose! !! Longer chains!


!! 1

linked glucose molecules = maltose!

Starch - Granules!
!!

Granules:!
!! Tight,

compact bundles of amylose and amylopectin! !! Compactness resists effects of amylases!

Starch - Damaged!
!!

Damaged starch granules:!


!!

Present at about 5% to 10% of the starch! !! Have very different qualities than native starch! !! Can absorb water at room temperature! !! Easily attacked by amylase! !! Absorb their own weight in water! !! If present at >10%, dough will be sticky! !! The higher the percentage of damaged starch, the softer the crumb! !! At high percentages, may cause keyholing!

Proteins!
Proteins are chains ! !! Each link in the chain is an amino acid! !! The order of the amino acid sequences, and the characteristics of the amino acids, cause the chains to twist into complex shapes. ! !! The shapes are related to what the proteins do (form relates to function)!
!!

Proteins!
!!

Water-insoluble!
!! Most
!! Gliadins

-- low molecular weight storage proteins! !! Glutenins -- hi molecular weight storage proteins! !! Note: storage proteins are found principally in the endosperm!

important for bakers: gluten proteins:!

!!

Gliadins!
!! Most

Proteins!

extensively studied (to nd markers that might correlate with wheat quality)!
!! Hundreds

of different, distinguishable gliadin components! !! Gliadins are compact, tightly folded molecules! !! Relatively stable to temperature challenges! !! Contain the portion of gluten that causes celiac disease (an immune reaction that damages the small intestine, causing malabsorption problems)!

Proteins!
!!

Glutenins!
!! Made

up of a series of protein subunits that are cross-linked in a way that produces a broad spectrum of sizes! !! Huge molecules, compared to the gliadins! !! How these molecules are cross-linked is not exactly clear.!

Proteins!
!!

Gluten structure!
!! Clear

underlying science (disulde bonds, etc.)! !! Considerable controversy remains! !! Possible:!


units link together! !! Gliadin units, singularly or as a polymer, link to adjacent glutenin units! !! Result: A three-dimensional protein fabric that has multi-directional extensibility!
!! Glutenin

Proteins!
!!

Gluten correlates of baking quality of our:!


!! 1.

The gluten resists breakdown during mixing! !! 2. The gluten aggregates quickly during rest and during stretch-and-folds!

Proteins!
Flour protein is often expressed as a simple percent: e.g. 11.5%! !! A percent number tells nothing about!
!!
!! The

nature of the protein! !! The quality of the protein! !! The characteristics of the dough that might be made with the our!

Proteins!
!!

Classication - based on solubility!


!! About

20% of the proteins are soluble in water! !! The remaining 80% are not. It is in this 80% that the gluten-forming proteins can be found! !! Note: It is because these proteins do not dissolve in water, and because bread is made with water, that gluten forms. Were bread made with acid, in which the proteins can be dissolved, gluten would not form.!

Proteins!
!!

Water-soluble proteins!
!!
!!

Include physiologically active proteins:!


Enzymes, e.g.!
!! !!

Albumins! !! Globulins!
!!

Amylases! Maltase!

Note: physiologically active proteins are found principally in the aleurone layer, and in the germ! !! The fraction of total wheat protein that is physiologically active depends on factors such as climate, nitrogen availability, season during which wheat grew, etc. !
!!

Proteins!
!!

Distribution of proteins!
!! Note

that the distribution of proteins varies from one part of the kernel to another. (See above.)!
!! Implication:

the portions of the wheat kernel blended by the miller to make a given our may tell more about the ours protein than may a stated percent:!
!!

E.g. absent treatment by the miller, a patent our may have little enzymatic activity compared to a whole grain our from the same shipment of wheat kernels.!

Yeast!
Saccharomyces cerevisiae! !! Single cell organism that can live with or without oxygen!
!!
!! With

oxygen: glucose => CO2 + energy! !! With oxygen: reproduce several times an hour! !! Without oxygen: glucose => CO2 + ethanol !! Without oxygen: no reproduction

Salt!
!!

Salt has several actions:!


!! Works

as an anti-oxidant - Calvel recommends its addition at the beginning of mixing! !! Salt increases cohesiveness of dough during mixing. (Without salt, dough stays slack.)! !! Salt decreases fermentation (2% salt reduces fermentation by 20%; 4% => 70% reduction)! !! Salt makes a benecial contribution to taste!

Mixing!
!!

Mixing - Overview:!
!! Homogenizes
!! Disperses

air in the developing dough! !! Exposes dough components to oxidation!


!! Entraps
!! Enhances

dry ingredients! !! Equalizes absorption of liquids!

the ingredients!

gluten development! !! May oxidize avor elements and decrease avor!

Mixing!
!!

Homogeneous mass:!
!! Initially,
!! Water
!!

not homogeneous!

absorption is uneven - rst particles to become wet get more water than later particles!
Becomes uniform by end of mixing! Both may affect yeast activity!

!! Salt
!!

and sugars dissolve! spread!

!! Fats
!!

Affect gluten development! !! Timing of fat addition may be important!

Mixing!
!!

Entraps air in dough!


!!

Gas nuclei -- a critically important concept! !! Bubbles: Pressure resisting expansion = surface tension X 2 divided by bubble radius! !! Mixing atmosphere: in craft bakeries, O2 and N2
O2 is consumed immediately !! N2 is poorly soluble, and stays in nuclei !! CO2 diffuses into nuclei
!!

!!

Size of nuclei: depends upon atmosphere, mixer speed, shear forces!

Mixing!
!!

Exposes dough components to oxygen!


!! Enhances
!! Oxygen
!!

changes weak SH bonds to strong SS bonds! !! Dough strengthener: L-Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)!
Ironically, not an oxidizing agent!! !! It must rst be oxidized (to dehydroascorbic acid)! !! All vitamin C is volatilized during baking!

gluten development!

!! Oxidizes

avor elements!

!! Carotenoid

pigments => decreased avor!

Mixing!
!!

During mixing:!
!! Water
!! Minimally
!!

by starch (max = 20% of starch weight)! !! Maximally by proteins!


Proteins swell from entrapped water!

is absorbed:!

!! Water

is dispersed, and serves as a uid matrix in which dough activities occur!

Mixing!
!!

During mixing:!
!! Gluten
!! Air

is entrapped in the developing gluten matrix! !! Starch is entrapped in the gluten matrix surrounding entrapped air! !! Dough cohesiveness begins to occur! !! As gluten develops, doughs viscoelastic properties change!

development begins!

!!

Mixing intensity - !
!! Dough

Mixing!

!!

Degree of mixing -!
!! Stage

properties: water absorption - absorption increases with mixing intensity! !! Dough texture: shear & elongation forces distribute and resize gas nuclei! 1: end of homogenization - short dough! !! Stage 2: middle of mixing - coherence increases! !! Stage 3: strong coherence - window possible! !! Stage 4: sticky, extensible, soft - overmixing!

!!

Inuence of mixing on nal product!


!! !!

Mixing!

Coherence increases with mixing! Result:!


!!

!!

Inuence of temperature!
!!

Crumb softness and resiliency increases! !! Crust toughens!

Affects fermentation (10% change / 1C)! !! Note: 8g ice/kg dough => temp drops 1C! !! Affects gluten development - increased speed of development with increased temperature! !! May affect moisture on surface of dough!

Fermentation!
!!

Process of fermentation:!
!! Begins

as soon as yeast cells are hydrated! !! Begins aerobically, as yeast respire oxygen that is entrapped in the dough! !! Aerobic metabolism ends almost immediately after mixing ends; oxygen is rapidly exhausted from the gas nuclei!
!! From

that point, reproduction ceases!

!!

Food supply!
!! Damaged
!!

Fermentation!

!! Hydration:!

starch granules quickly hydrate!

Expands granule size! !! Separates starch chains, one from the next! !! Leaves damaged starch subject to attack by amylases!

!! Enzyme

activity:!

!! Amylase

maltose! !! Maltase breaks maltose down into two glucose molecules!

breaks damaged starch down, principally to

!!

Formula:!
!!
!!

Fermentation - no oxygen!
2 molecules of ethanol (ethyl alcohol)! !! 2 molecules of CO2

One molecule of glucose =>!

!!

Fate of products:!
!!

Ethanol: enters liquid matrix, may combine with other elements to produce flavor compounds !! CO2:
dissolves in water !! Diffuses into entrapped gas nuclei (now depleted of oxygen, and containing only nitrogen from the atmosphere)
!!

!!

Bulk fermentation!
!! Purpose:
!! Mechanism:

Fermentation!

Continue dough development!

!!

Stretch & Fold / Punch down!


!! Purpose:

biaxial stretching due to gas development => toughening of the dough!

Increase gluten strength!

!!

Final Proof!
!! Purpose:

!! Mechanism:

increase protein cross-linking!

Increase specic volume!


gas production!

!! Mechanism:

Fermentation!
!!

Bulk fermentation!
!! Begins

with production of CO2 from respiration! !! CO2 is in a liquid phase in the space between gas nuclei!
!! Concentration

!! CO2

almost immediately! !! Remains proportional to liquid-phase CO2


!! Commences

is in a gas phase within the gas nuclei!

increases during rst ~30 minutes!

!! Force

resisting gas cell expansion: surface tension, not dough viscosity!

Fermentation!
!!

Gas Cells!
!! Very

stable: walls strengthen with stretching! !! Crumb: virtually no loss of CO2 from membrane rupture, etc.! !! Surface: CO2 diffuses from dough into atmosphere!
accounts for crust structure! !! If proofed in CO2-rich atmosphere, crust is blistered and torn!
!! This

Fermentation!
!!

Change in pH!
!! Multiple
!! Carbonic

acids are produced, including:!

are buffered by wheat proteins! !! pH yeast dough: 5.4 -- 5.7! !! pH sourdough: 4.0 -- 4.5!
!! Acids

acid -- in all fermenting doughs; from CO2 and water! !! Acetic acid -- sourdough! !! Lactic acid -- sourdough!

!!

Temperature changes during fermentation!


!! Heat

Fermentation!

is produced!

!! Condensation! !! Evaporation!
!! 1g !! 1g

!! 12g

sugar / kg dough => ~2.8C /kg dough!

moisture /kg dough => 1C temperature increase! moisture /kg dough => 1C temperature decrease!

!! Air

capacity of air is 1.2 kJ/m3*C! !! Specic heat of dough is 2.7kJ/kg*C! !! Result: air temp plays minor role in dough temp!
!! Heat

temperature!

Baking!
!!

Baking produces massive physical changes!


!! Dough

!!

Baking produces massive chemical changes!


give up water! !! Starch granules become hydrated! !! Maillard reaction occurs in the crust!
!! Proteins

(liquid) => crumb (solid)! !! Dough (foam) => crumb (sponge)! !! Dough (.8 liters/kg) => bread (up to 5 liters/kg)!

Baking!
!!

Heat transfer!
!! Radiation

= transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves from a source of heat! !! Convection = transfer of heat by movement of a uid away from a source of heat! !! Conduction = transfer of heat by molecular agitation with the object, without overall movement of the object itself! !! Condensation/Evaporation: heat transfer as a result of phase change!

Baking!
!!

Radiation!
!! Heat

radiates from oven walls/deck/roof!

!! Electromagnetic

radiation (between radio waves and visible light)! !! Short- and Medium wave infrared wavelengths! !! These waves do not bend! !! Result: color differences may occur between top and sides of the bread ! !! Penetration: maximum = < 1/4 (~4 mm, max)!

!!

Convection!
!! Cold

Baking!

object (dough) in oven => movement of air over the object and downward! !! Air movement causes heating by convection! !! Without a fan, convection is minimal! !! At 1 m/s airow, convection is about 1/3 total heat transfer! !! To prevent excessive crust browning from forced convection, must lower oven temperature 20C -- 30C!

Baking!
!!

Conduction!
!! Very

little through still air! !! Very high at the deck/dough interface! !! Because deck and dough have low conductivity, the dough does not burn at its point of contact.!

Baking!
!!

Condensation!
!! With

steam injection:!

!! Condensation
!!

on dough with steam injection => surface temperature of 80 C, instantaneously!


Gelatinizes starches, dissolves sugars!

!! Within

dough:!

!! Moisture

evaporates from warmer side of gas cell, travels across cell, and condenses on other side.! !! Moisture moves towards center of dough! !! The higher the specic volume of the dough, the greater the contribution of evaporation/condensation!

Baking!
!!

Crumb formation!
!! Starch

begins at about 55 C! !! Starch granules lose their orderly arrangement! !! Amylose leaks from the granules!
!! Swelling

gelatinizes!

!!

Effect of heat!
!! Initial

Baking!

increase in cell activity: initial increased rate of CO2 and ethanol production! !! When temp >40C, CO2 production declines! !! Increased rate of extra-cellular activity! swollen with water, expel the water! !! Heat, in the presence of water, overcomes the binding of one starch chain to the next in the granules!
!! Proteins
!! E.g.

amylase!

Baking!
!!

Effect of heat:!
!! Temp

< 40 C, gas production is largely from cellular production of CO2! !! Temp > 40 C, gas production is from:!
dissolved in water changes to gas! !! Ethanol becomes a gas!
!! CO2

!! As

volume expands due to expanding gasses! !! Water becomes steam!


!! Loaf

temperature increases further!

!!

Effect of heat!
!! At

Baking!

about 150 F, starch begins to hydrate!

!! Separation

of hydrated starch chains leaves them subject to attack by amylases!


!! Amylase

in wheat our is active to about 167 F; higher still in rye ! !! Sugar results from the increased action of amylase!
!! Yeast

cells have died from heat, so the sugar is not metabolized! !! The resulting sugar softens and smooths the crumb!

!!

Effect of heat!
!! Starch
!! Heated,

Baking!

starch holds water up to 10X its weight! !! Hydrated starch gelatinizes as temperature rises! !! Dough (foam with 100% gas retention) => sponge (interconnected cells with no gas retention)! !! Rigid gas cell walls fracture! !! When cooled, gelatinized starch provides rigidity to the crumb structure!

hydration continues!

Baking!
!!

Crust formation!
!! With

increasing heat, the crust loses its moisture!


!! Maillard
!!

Non-enzymatic browning caused by reaction of! !! Reducing sugars (glucose, fructose, maltose) and! !! Proteins (gluten, albumins, etc.)! !! Dough = starch + glucose => no browning! !! Dough = starch + protein => no browning! !! Dough = starch + glucose + protein => browning!

reaction occurs!

Baking!
!!

Crust formation and movement of moisture!


!! Initially,

moisture evaporates and diffuses to interior of crumb.! !! As moisture moves to center, the crumb begins to dry and become stiff! !! As interior crumb temperature increases, moisture moves to exterior of loaf! !! Crust formation is time consuming: baguette crumb at 100 C in ~ 7 min; baking time ~25 min.!

Baking!
!!

Crust color is affected by crust composition:!


!! Short

fermentation => reddish, not golden-brown! !! Low protein => pale, not golden brown! !! Low sugar => light colored crust! !! Skinned dough => faint crust color!
!! Moisture

is necessary in rst ve or more minutes for Maillard reaction!

Staling!
!!

Potential factors that have been examined:!


!! Amylopectin

retrogradation, amylose, our protein, water-insoluble pentosans; watersoluble pentosans, interaction of pentosans with proteins, pentosans and starch retrogradation, native lipids, storage temperature, moisture migration, crumb-crust moisture redistribution, moisture redistribution among other components, processing factors!

Staling!
!!

What can be said at this point:!


phenomenon! !! Multiple mechanisms!
!! Complex
!! Polymer
!!

crystallization with!

Primary cause: Retrogradation (recrystallization) of amylopectin, associated with! !! Water distribution shifts, changing the nature of the gluten network.!

!!

Temperatures:!
!! At

Cooling!

oven removal: Crust 180 C; crumb 100 C! !! After a few minutes: Crust and crumb 100 C! !! Thereafter, crust temp < crumb temp!
!! Moisture

from crumb evaporates; condenses in crust! !! Evaporating moisture in crumb lowers pressure! !! Atmospheric air enters crumb to raise pressure!

!! Note

that forced convection cooling will allow more water retention in the crumb than free convection cooling, because of the difference in evaporation rates!

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