Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Course overview!
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Fundamentals:!
!! !! !! !! !! !! !! !!
History!
!!
- a home for everybody! !! More rural electrication: lots more things to do! !! Chevrolet - See the USA in your Chevrolet! !! Supermarkets replaced neighborhood stores! !! Newer is better!
!! Levittown
Prosperity!
Monsanto: Better living through chemistry! Pittsburgh Paint & Glass: grape avoring! Cereal chemists -- the biochemistry of grains! Age of the atom -- plant research with radiation! Food chemists - bringing it all home!
Wonder Bread! !! Holsum Bread! !! Etc.!
!!
Artisan Breads!
A tradition with some long-established bakeries: e.g. Boudin (since 1849, in SFO)! !! Created by others who sought to provide artisan products: e.g. Acme Bakery, by Steve Sullivan, in 1983; Artisan Bakers, by Craig Ponsford, in 1992! !! Now a major market: e.g. Essential, Macrina, Le Panzanella, Grand Central, and others, all in Seattle!
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Science in Breadmaking!
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Flour to packaged loaf in ~ 3.5 hours! !! Mixing measured by energy input in kWh, not dough characteristics! !! Negative pressure proong! !! Decreased partial pressure nitrogen compared to air! Most texts emphasize how to, not why! No standardized national basic instruction for bakers!
Questions!
!!
Can we as artisan bakers use knowledge of the science underlying breadmaking to:!
!! Help
avor! !! The desired crumb structure and consistency! !! The crust we are seeking! !! The color we want our loaves to have?!
!! Maximum
!! Help
!!
Flour!
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Starch!
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!! !!
1 branch for about each 30 or more glucose molecules! About 75% of wheat starch!
Starch granules are compact clusters of amylose and amylopectin! !! Starch granules absorb little water at room temp! !! With heat, starch granules can bind large quantities of water!
!!
Starch!
!!
baking! !! Stabilizes the crumb! !! Its ultimate breakdown product (glucose) has a major effect on crust color and avor! !! Its ultimate breakdown product (glucose) feeds yeast (and bacteria, if any)!
Starch!
Wheat consists of ~60% starch! !! Role of starch for wheat: feed developing seedling. ! !! Seedlings, yeast & lactobacilli cannot eat starch! !! Starch must be converted to smaller components to be a useful energy source! !! Conversion is facilitated by enzymes!
!!
!!
Amylase!
!! Beta:
normally present in substantial amounts the wheat kernel! !! Alpha: presence depends upon growing conditions, weather near time of harvest, and other factors.!
!! Barley
is sprouted, dried, powdered, and added at the mill if necessary in order to have appropriate levels of alpha-amylase in the milled product.!
amylase:!
!! Beta
at one end of a chain, and chops off 2 links at a time.! !! Can cut at branch points.!
amylase:!
Starch - Amylase!
Temperature data for wheat amylases:! !! Alpha-amylase!
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!!
Beta-amylase!
!! Optimum
!!
!!
Amylase activity!
!! Measured
!! Falling
number = number of seconds for a weight to settle through a hot, gelatinized starch mixture! !! Rationale: as alpha-amylase cuts the starch chains, starchs ability to continue to hold water decreases, viscosity decreases, and the weight falls faster.! !! The falling time reects, indirectly, the amount of amylase activity.!
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Sound wheat: higher than 300! !! Sprout-damaged wheat: below 200! !! IMPORTANT: Falling number may not accurately reect our characteristics when fungal amylase is the source of alpha amylase in the our being tested. REASON: Fungal amylase is deactivated at a lower temperature than that used in the falling number test.!
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Starch - Granules!
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Granules:!
!! Tight,
Starch - Damaged!
!!
Present at about 5% to 10% of the starch! !! Have very different qualities than native starch! !! Can absorb water at room temperature! !! Easily attacked by amylase! !! Absorb their own weight in water! !! If present at >10%, dough will be sticky! !! The higher the percentage of damaged starch, the softer the crumb! !! At high percentages, may cause keyholing!
Proteins!
Proteins are chains ! !! Each link in the chain is an amino acid! !! The order of the amino acid sequences, and the characteristics of the amino acids, cause the chains to twist into complex shapes. ! !! The shapes are related to what the proteins do (form relates to function)!
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Proteins!
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Water-insoluble!
!! Most
!! Gliadins
-- low molecular weight storage proteins! !! Glutenins -- hi molecular weight storage proteins! !! Note: storage proteins are found principally in the endosperm!
!!
Gliadins!
!! Most
Proteins!
extensively studied (to nd markers that might correlate with wheat quality)!
!! Hundreds
of different, distinguishable gliadin components! !! Gliadins are compact, tightly folded molecules! !! Relatively stable to temperature challenges! !! Contain the portion of gluten that causes celiac disease (an immune reaction that damages the small intestine, causing malabsorption problems)!
Proteins!
!!
Glutenins!
!! Made
up of a series of protein subunits that are cross-linked in a way that produces a broad spectrum of sizes! !! Huge molecules, compared to the gliadins! !! How these molecules are cross-linked is not exactly clear.!
Proteins!
!!
Gluten structure!
!! Clear
Proteins!
!!
The gluten resists breakdown during mixing! !! 2. The gluten aggregates quickly during rest and during stretch-and-folds!
Proteins!
Flour protein is often expressed as a simple percent: e.g. 11.5%! !! A percent number tells nothing about!
!!
!! The
nature of the protein! !! The quality of the protein! !! The characteristics of the dough that might be made with the our!
Proteins!
!!
20% of the proteins are soluble in water! !! The remaining 80% are not. It is in this 80% that the gluten-forming proteins can be found! !! Note: It is because these proteins do not dissolve in water, and because bread is made with water, that gluten forms. Were bread made with acid, in which the proteins can be dissolved, gluten would not form.!
Proteins!
!!
Water-soluble proteins!
!!
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Albumins! !! Globulins!
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Amylases! Maltase!
Note: physiologically active proteins are found principally in the aleurone layer, and in the germ! !! The fraction of total wheat protein that is physiologically active depends on factors such as climate, nitrogen availability, season during which wheat grew, etc. !
!!
Proteins!
!!
Distribution of proteins!
!! Note
that the distribution of proteins varies from one part of the kernel to another. (See above.)!
!! Implication:
the portions of the wheat kernel blended by the miller to make a given our may tell more about the ours protein than may a stated percent:!
!!
E.g. absent treatment by the miller, a patent our may have little enzymatic activity compared to a whole grain our from the same shipment of wheat kernels.!
Yeast!
Saccharomyces cerevisiae! !! Single cell organism that can live with or without oxygen!
!!
!! With
oxygen: glucose => CO2 + energy! !! With oxygen: reproduce several times an hour! !! Without oxygen: glucose => CO2 + ethanol !! Without oxygen: no reproduction
Salt!
!!
as an anti-oxidant - Calvel recommends its addition at the beginning of mixing! !! Salt increases cohesiveness of dough during mixing. (Without salt, dough stays slack.)! !! Salt decreases fermentation (2% salt reduces fermentation by 20%; 4% => 70% reduction)! !! Salt makes a benecial contribution to taste!
Mixing!
!!
Mixing - Overview:!
!! Homogenizes
!! Disperses
the ingredients!
Mixing!
!!
Homogeneous mass:!
!! Initially,
!! Water
!!
not homogeneous!
absorption is uneven - rst particles to become wet get more water than later particles!
Becomes uniform by end of mixing! Both may affect yeast activity!
!! Salt
!!
!! Fats
!!
Mixing!
!!
Gas nuclei -- a critically important concept! !! Bubbles: Pressure resisting expansion = surface tension X 2 divided by bubble radius! !! Mixing atmosphere: in craft bakeries, O2 and N2
O2 is consumed immediately !! N2 is poorly soluble, and stays in nuclei !! CO2 diffuses into nuclei
!!
!!
Mixing!
!!
changes weak SH bonds to strong SS bonds! !! Dough strengthener: L-Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)!
Ironically, not an oxidizing agent!! !! It must rst be oxidized (to dehydroascorbic acid)! !! All vitamin C is volatilized during baking!
gluten development!
!! Oxidizes
avor elements!
!! Carotenoid
Mixing!
!!
During mixing:!
!! Water
!! Minimally
!!
is absorbed:!
!! Water
Mixing!
!!
During mixing:!
!! Gluten
!! Air
is entrapped in the developing gluten matrix! !! Starch is entrapped in the gluten matrix surrounding entrapped air! !! Dough cohesiveness begins to occur! !! As gluten develops, doughs viscoelastic properties change!
development begins!
!!
Mixing intensity - !
!! Dough
Mixing!
!!
Degree of mixing -!
!! Stage
properties: water absorption - absorption increases with mixing intensity! !! Dough texture: shear & elongation forces distribute and resize gas nuclei! 1: end of homogenization - short dough! !! Stage 2: middle of mixing - coherence increases! !! Stage 3: strong coherence - window possible! !! Stage 4: sticky, extensible, soft - overmixing!
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Mixing!
!!
Inuence of temperature!
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Affects fermentation (10% change / 1C)! !! Note: 8g ice/kg dough => temp drops 1C! !! Affects gluten development - increased speed of development with increased temperature! !! May affect moisture on surface of dough!
Fermentation!
!!
Process of fermentation:!
!! Begins
as soon as yeast cells are hydrated! !! Begins aerobically, as yeast respire oxygen that is entrapped in the dough! !! Aerobic metabolism ends almost immediately after mixing ends; oxygen is rapidly exhausted from the gas nuclei!
!! From
!!
Food supply!
!! Damaged
!!
Fermentation!
!! Hydration:!
Expands granule size! !! Separates starch chains, one from the next! !! Leaves damaged starch subject to attack by amylases!
!! Enzyme
activity:!
!! Amylase
!!
Formula:!
!!
!!
Fermentation - no oxygen!
2 molecules of ethanol (ethyl alcohol)! !! 2 molecules of CO2
!!
Fate of products:!
!!
Ethanol: enters liquid matrix, may combine with other elements to produce flavor compounds !! CO2:
dissolves in water !! Diffuses into entrapped gas nuclei (now depleted of oxygen, and containing only nitrogen from the atmosphere)
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!!
Bulk fermentation!
!! Purpose:
!! Mechanism:
Fermentation!
!!
!!
Final Proof!
!! Purpose:
!! Mechanism:
!! Mechanism:
Fermentation!
!!
Bulk fermentation!
!! Begins
with production of CO2 from respiration! !! CO2 is in a liquid phase in the space between gas nuclei!
!! Concentration
!! CO2
!! Force
Fermentation!
!!
Gas Cells!
!! Very
stable: walls strengthen with stretching! !! Crumb: virtually no loss of CO2 from membrane rupture, etc.! !! Surface: CO2 diffuses from dough into atmosphere!
accounts for crust structure! !! If proofed in CO2-rich atmosphere, crust is blistered and torn!
!! This
Fermentation!
!!
Change in pH!
!! Multiple
!! Carbonic
are buffered by wheat proteins! !! pH yeast dough: 5.4 -- 5.7! !! pH sourdough: 4.0 -- 4.5!
!! Acids
acid -- in all fermenting doughs; from CO2 and water! !! Acetic acid -- sourdough! !! Lactic acid -- sourdough!
!!
Fermentation!
is produced!
!! Condensation! !! Evaporation!
!! 1g !! 1g
!! 12g
moisture /kg dough => 1C temperature increase! moisture /kg dough => 1C temperature decrease!
!! Air
capacity of air is 1.2 kJ/m3*C! !! Specic heat of dough is 2.7kJ/kg*C! !! Result: air temp plays minor role in dough temp!
!! Heat
temperature!
Baking!
!!
!!
(liquid) => crumb (solid)! !! Dough (foam) => crumb (sponge)! !! Dough (.8 liters/kg) => bread (up to 5 liters/kg)!
Baking!
!!
Heat transfer!
!! Radiation
= transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves from a source of heat! !! Convection = transfer of heat by movement of a uid away from a source of heat! !! Conduction = transfer of heat by molecular agitation with the object, without overall movement of the object itself! !! Condensation/Evaporation: heat transfer as a result of phase change!
Baking!
!!
Radiation!
!! Heat
!! Electromagnetic
radiation (between radio waves and visible light)! !! Short- and Medium wave infrared wavelengths! !! These waves do not bend! !! Result: color differences may occur between top and sides of the bread ! !! Penetration: maximum = < 1/4 (~4 mm, max)!
!!
Convection!
!! Cold
Baking!
object (dough) in oven => movement of air over the object and downward! !! Air movement causes heating by convection! !! Without a fan, convection is minimal! !! At 1 m/s airow, convection is about 1/3 total heat transfer! !! To prevent excessive crust browning from forced convection, must lower oven temperature 20C -- 30C!
Baking!
!!
Conduction!
!! Very
little through still air! !! Very high at the deck/dough interface! !! Because deck and dough have low conductivity, the dough does not burn at its point of contact.!
Baking!
!!
Condensation!
!! With
steam injection:!
!! Condensation
!!
!! Within
dough:!
!! Moisture
evaporates from warmer side of gas cell, travels across cell, and condenses on other side.! !! Moisture moves towards center of dough! !! The higher the specic volume of the dough, the greater the contribution of evaporation/condensation!
Baking!
!!
Crumb formation!
!! Starch
begins at about 55 C! !! Starch granules lose their orderly arrangement! !! Amylose leaks from the granules!
!! Swelling
gelatinizes!
!!
Effect of heat!
!! Initial
Baking!
increase in cell activity: initial increased rate of CO2 and ethanol production! !! When temp >40C, CO2 production declines! !! Increased rate of extra-cellular activity! swollen with water, expel the water! !! Heat, in the presence of water, overcomes the binding of one starch chain to the next in the granules!
!! Proteins
!! E.g.
amylase!
Baking!
!!
Effect of heat:!
!! Temp
< 40 C, gas production is largely from cellular production of CO2! !! Temp > 40 C, gas production is from:!
dissolved in water changes to gas! !! Ethanol becomes a gas!
!! CO2
!! As
!!
Effect of heat!
!! At
Baking!
!! Separation
in wheat our is active to about 167 F; higher still in rye ! !! Sugar results from the increased action of amylase!
!! Yeast
cells have died from heat, so the sugar is not metabolized! !! The resulting sugar softens and smooths the crumb!
!!
Effect of heat!
!! Starch
!! Heated,
Baking!
starch holds water up to 10X its weight! !! Hydrated starch gelatinizes as temperature rises! !! Dough (foam with 100% gas retention) => sponge (interconnected cells with no gas retention)! !! Rigid gas cell walls fracture! !! When cooled, gelatinized starch provides rigidity to the crumb structure!
hydration continues!
Baking!
!!
Crust formation!
!! With
Non-enzymatic browning caused by reaction of! !! Reducing sugars (glucose, fructose, maltose) and! !! Proteins (gluten, albumins, etc.)! !! Dough = starch + glucose => no browning! !! Dough = starch + protein => no browning! !! Dough = starch + glucose + protein => browning!
reaction occurs!
Baking!
!!
moisture evaporates and diffuses to interior of crumb.! !! As moisture moves to center, the crumb begins to dry and become stiff! !! As interior crumb temperature increases, moisture moves to exterior of loaf! !! Crust formation is time consuming: baguette crumb at 100 C in ~ 7 min; baking time ~25 min.!
Baking!
!!
fermentation => reddish, not golden-brown! !! Low protein => pale, not golden brown! !! Low sugar => light colored crust! !! Skinned dough => faint crust color!
!! Moisture
Staling!
!!
retrogradation, amylose, our protein, water-insoluble pentosans; watersoluble pentosans, interaction of pentosans with proteins, pentosans and starch retrogradation, native lipids, storage temperature, moisture migration, crumb-crust moisture redistribution, moisture redistribution among other components, processing factors!
Staling!
!!
crystallization with!
Primary cause: Retrogradation (recrystallization) of amylopectin, associated with! !! Water distribution shifts, changing the nature of the gluten network.!
!!
Temperatures:!
!! At
Cooling!
oven removal: Crust 180 C; crumb 100 C! !! After a few minutes: Crust and crumb 100 C! !! Thereafter, crust temp < crumb temp!
!! Moisture
from crumb evaporates; condenses in crust! !! Evaporating moisture in crumb lowers pressure! !! Atmospheric air enters crumb to raise pressure!
!! Note
that forced convection cooling will allow more water retention in the crumb than free convection cooling, because of the difference in evaporation rates!