SELECTED STUDIES OF THE PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVE FREQUENCY IN LANGUAGE

BY

GEORGE KINGSLEY

2IPF

INSTRUCTOR. I N GERMAN AT HARVARD U N I V E R S I T Y

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
1

PRESS

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS

93

COPYRICHT, 1 9 3 a BY THE PRESIDENT AND FELLOWS O r HARVARD COLLEGE

PRINTED AT THE HARVARD ONIVEASITY PRESi CAMBRIDGE, MASS., O. 3.A.

INTRODUCTION
THE p r e s e n t p a p e r , c o n s i s t i n g of t h e results of s e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s s u b v e n e d b y liberal g r a n t s f r o m t h e G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n B o a r d ' s A p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r S t u d i e s in t h e H u m a n i t i e s , d e a l s w i t h t h e Principle of Relative Frequency, a general t h e o r y of l a n g u a g e first a d v a n c e d p u b l i c l y b y m e in 1929. 1 T h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e t h e o r y , w h i c h b e g a n s o m e y e a r s b e f o r e p u b l i c a t i o n in 1929, h a d e v e n b y t h a t t i m e r e a c h e d such p r o p o r t i o n s t h a t in t h e o r i g i n a l article I c o u l d i n c l u d e o n l y s u c h m a t e r i a l a s I d e e m e d especially salient f o r t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n of t h e n e w h y p o t h e s i s . S i n c e t h e n , the m a t e r i a l h a s a g a i n increased c o n s i d e r a b l y , n o t o n l y f r o m m y o w n i n d e p e n d e n t research, b u t likewise f r o m t h e c o m m e n t s a n d s u g g e s t i o n s k i n d l y t e n d e r e d b y c r i t i c s b o t h here a n d a b r o a d . H e n c e a g a i n , m y s p a c e c o m p e l s o n l y selected s t u d i e s , a selection w h i c h is designed in p a r t to increase t h e i l l u s t r a t i v e m a t e r i a l , in p a r t t o p e n e t r a t e f u r t h e r i n t o t h e a n a l y s i s of t h a t m a t e r i a l , a n d in p a r t t o e x t e n d t h e l i m i t s of t h e v e r y t h e o r y itself. m e n t a l o r g a n i c u n i t y of t h e u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e . a n d t h e t h e o r y of Psychoanalysis T h e c a r e f u l l y d e l i b e r a t e d a r r a n g e m e n t is, of Relative Freh o w e v e r , such t h a t I h o p e t h e reader c a s u a l l y p e r u s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s will sense t h e f u n d a T h e u n i t y of the Principle quency, i t s r a m i f i c a t i o n s a n d scope, its b e a r i n g o n t h e t h e o r y of Gestalt Psychology on t h e one h a n d

o n t h e o t h e r , a n d i t s g e n e r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s b o t h linguistic a n d

otherwise, I ain a t p r e s e n t c o m b i n i n g i n t o a m o d e s t v o l u m e to a p p e a r in t h e i m m e d i a t e f u t u r e . I t is b e c a u s e of this v o l u m e t h a t I n o w i n c l u d e a s a p p e n d i c e s all the essential source m a t e r i a l u p o n w h i c h t h e a r g u m e n t of t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s is b a s e d . O n l y a f t e r t h e m o s t c a r e f u l discussion of t h e m a t t e r w i t h c o l l e a g u e s a n d w i t h t h e C h a i r m a n of t h e G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n B o a r d ' s A p p r o p r i a t i o n w a s i t d e c i d e d t o p r i n t this u n w i e l d l y e v i d e n c e . If, as they say, the Chinese phonetic t r a n s c r i p t i o n s in t h e a p p e n d i x a n d t h e lists of t h e C h i n e s e w o r d s a n d s y l l a b l e s a r r a n g e d a c c o r d i n g t o f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r r e n c e p r o v e t h e m s e l v e s of i n t e r e s t a n d v a l u e t o those w o r k i n g o n g r a m m a r s , readers, o r s t e n o g r a p h i c s y s t e m s in C h i n e s e , a n d if t h e list of all w o r d s o c c u r r i n g in f o u r of P l a u t u s ' p l a y s , a r r a n g e d a c c o r d i n g t o f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r r e n c e , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e c a r d s w i t h line references for e a c h w o r d (deposited in the H a r v a r d C o l l e g e L i b r a r y ) s h o u l d p r o v e of v a l u e f o r one w o r k i n g on P l a u t u s , all of t h a t is i n c i d e n t a l to t h e p u r p o s e of their inclusion here. P e r h a p s t h a t is m o r e t h a n a sufficient j u s t i f i c a t i o n . I h o w e v e r i n c l u d e t h e m solely t h a t there s h o u l d b e no of Relative Frequency. T h o u g h the evid o u b t a s t o t h e m e t h o d used for t h e results a n d a s to t h e v e r a c i t y of t h e results o b t a i n e d , f o r these results o f f e r o v e r w h e l m i n g p r o o f s of t h e Principle dence t h e y g i v e r e p r e s e n t s b u t a s m a l l p o r t i o n of t h e t o t a l e v i d e n c e a v a i l a b l e , y e t it is of s u c h a n a t u r e a s to establish a t l e a s t c e r t a i n a s p e c t s of t h e t h e o r y b e y o n d a s h a d o w of a d o u b t . I t is needless t o s a y t h a t i t w o u l d h a v e b e e n i m p o s s i b l e for m e t o g a t h e r the e n s u i n g m a t e r i a l w i t h o u t t h e h e l p of l o y a l a s s i s t a n t s . T h e t e d i o u s n e s s a n d n e e d of a c c u r a c y of t h e w o r k called f o r almost superhuman patience. O n e w h o h a s never a t t e m p t e d such an investigation will never u n d e r s t a n d t h e e n o r m o u s d e b t of t h a n k s I o w e t o M r . K a n Y u W a n g , M r . H . Y . C h a n g , M i s s D o r o t h y P r i e s t , M i s s M a r y C a m p b e l l , a n d m y w i f e f o r their a s s i s t a n c e , a s s i s t a n c e w h i c h w o u l d h a v e b e e n m a i n l y i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t t h e g e n e r o u s s u b v e n t i o n of t h e G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n B o a r d ' s A p p r o p r i a t i o n for S t u d i e s in t h e H u m a n i t i e s . CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS January 6, 1932
1 G. K . Zipf, "Relative Frequency as a Determinant of Phonetic Change," Harvard Studies in Classical lology, Vol. X L (1929), pp. 1-95.

Phi-

CONTENTS
PART I . PART I I . APPENDIX A . Relative Frequency in Respect to Chinese Phonology Relative Frequency, Abbreviation, and Semantic Change F r e q u e n c y of O c c u r r e n c e of W o r d s in P l a u t u s ' Auluiaria, dolus, a n d Trinummus APPENDIX B . P h o n e t i c T r a n s c r i p t i o n s of 20,000 S y l l a b l e s of t h e D i a l e c t of Modern Peking APPENDIX C . F r e q u e n c y of O c c u r r e n c e of W o r d s in the 20,000 S y l l a b l e s of Appendix B APPENDIX D . F r e q u e n c y of O c c u r r e n c e of S y l l a b l e s in the 20,000 S y l l a b l e s of Appendix B Plates 16-76 P l a t e s 10,-50. Plates 1-50 Mostellaria, Pseu31 I 8

PART I

The Principle of Relative Frequency in Respect to Chinese Phonology

THE p r e s e n t p a p e r s e t s f o r t h t h e r e s u l t s of a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n u n d e r t a k e n c h i e f l y t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r or n o t the m o d e r n v e r n a c u l a r of P e k i n g , C h i n a , a g r e e s w i t h I n d o - E u r o p e a n t o n g u e s in s u b s t a n t i a t i n g t h e Principle able a n d final of Relative Frequency. T h a t a n oriental language would offer v a l u And t h a t of t h e m a n y oriental e v i d e n c e w a s a p p a r e n t l i k e w i s e t o others. 1

l a n g u a g e s , C h i n e s e , o r , m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y , t h e d i a l e c t of m o d e r n P e k i n g , w o u l d b e t h e m o s t i d e a l f r o m a l m o s t e v e r y a n g l e , I h o p e t o m a k e clear in t h e ensuing p a r a g r a p h s . B u t before p r o c e e d i n g t o t h e e v i d e n c e , i t w o u l d b e w i s e t o r e v i e w i n brief t h e m a i n p o i n t s of the theory which the evidence seems to support. F o r t h e t h e o r y of Relative Frequency, unlike e v e r y other linguistic t h e o r y , does n o t l o o k f o r t h e c a u s e s of linguistic c h a n g e s i n c l i m a t e , g e o g r a p h y , v o c a l organs, c h i l d h o o d m i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n s , a n d s o o n , b u t s i m p l y m a i n t a i n s t h a t a n y change in a g i v e n l a n g u a g e is b r o u g h t a b o u t b y t h e i n h e r e n t s t r u c t u r e of t h a t l a n g u a g e itself. T h e gist of t h e t h e o r y is t h a t a n y e l e m e n t of s p e e c h w h i c h o c c u r s in s p o k e n l a n g u a g e m o r e freq u e n t l y t h a n some o t h e r similar e l e m e n t d e m a n d s less e m p h a s i s o r c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s t h a n t h a t o t h e r element w h i c h o c c u r s m o r e r a r e l y . m a k e this clearer. T h e e v e r r e c u r r i n g e n d i n g s of a w o r d d o n o t g e n e r a l l y need a s m u c h e m p h a s i s a s t h e r o o t ; t h e v e r b a l auxiliaries, b e i n g m o r e f r e q u e n t , u s u a l l y d o n o t d e m a n d o r r e c e i v e a s m u c h e m p h a s i s a s t h e m a i n v e r b ; so too t h e article less t h a n i t s n o u n . T h e g e n e r a l t e n d e n c y t o w a r d a b b r e v i a t i o n , s y n c o p e , t o w a r d t h e f u s i o n of e n d i n g s , suffixes, p r e f i x e s , auxiliaries, articles, a n d p a r t i c l e s o f f e r s f u r t h e r possibilities of p r o o f . I n f a c t this s e e m s t o m e t h e v e r y c r u x of Satzphonetik, and takes a paradigm which has some endings rigidly a s I h o p e will be a p p a r e n t t o t h e reader in P a r t T w o of t h i s p a p e r . I f o n e g o e s deeper t h a n t h e w o r d , h o w e v e r , accented and others regularly without a c c e n t , one will find t h a t a c c e n t is c o u p l e d w i t h c o m p a r a t i v e r a r i t y of o c c u r r e n c e , w h i l e l a c k of a c c e n t is i n v a r i a b l y l i n k e d w i t h h i g h f r e q u e n c y of u s a g e . 2 I n t h e l i g h t of all this, I f o r m u l a t e d t h e Principle of Relative Frequency: T h e a c c e n t o r d e g r e e of conspicuousness of a n y w o r d , s y l l a b l e , o r s o u n d is i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y of t h a t w o r d , s y l l a b l e , or s o u n d , a m o n g i t s f e l l o w w o r d s , s y l l a b l e s , o r s o u n d s in t h e s t r e a m of s p o k e n l a n g u a g e . A s a n y e l e m e n t ' s u s a g e b e c o m e s m o r e f r e q u e n t , i t s f o r m t e n d s t o b e c o m e less a c c e n t e d , o r m o r e e a s i l y p r o n o u n c e a b l e , a n d vice versa.
1 Cf. Ed. Hermann, Philologische Wochenschrift, Vol. 51 (1931), p. 602. * For a detailed discussion of supporting evidence, cf. Zipf,o. ct<., pp. s f f . In support of these views, cf. EUse Richter Archivfr das Studium der neueren Sfrachen, Vol. 157 (1930), pp. 291 ff. Against these views cf. Ed. Herman, op. cti., pp. 599 ff. As I expect soon to be able to point out, the e-o gradation in the o-declension and thematic verbs is the answer to Professor Hermann's shrewd question.

I n o t h e r w o r d s , w h a t is e x p e c t e d d o e s n o t n e e d o r re-

ceive t h e e m p h a s i s or c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s of t h e r e l a t i v e l y less e x p e c t e d . A f e w e x a m p l e s w i l l p e r h a p s

T h i s principle b e c o m e s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t i n r e s p e c t t o s o u n d s (phonemes). 1 F o r s t r a n g e l y e n o u g h s o u n d s , a s w e shall see, differ d e c i d e d l y in degree of conspicuousness. T h e v o i c e d a s p i r a t e dh f o r e x a m p l e is m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s , b o t h p h o n e t i c a l l y a n d a c o u s t i c a l l y , t h a n the m e d i a dt since i t h a s e v e r y t h i n g t h e d possesses, p l u s t h e a d d i t i o n a l increment t i o n a l increment of aspiration, of aspiration. B e c a u s e of this a d d i t h e dh is m o r e difficult t o p r o n o u n c e t h a n a d a n d , likewise, m o r e

a u d i b l e t o t h e h e a r e r : in o t h e r w o r d s , i t is b o t h p h o n e t i c a l l y a n d a c o u s t i c a l l y m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s . S o t o o a lenis o r a f o r t i s d is m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y lenis o r fortis tenuis since t h e d possesses e v e r y t h i n g t h e t h a s , p l u s t h e increment has a following spirant. of voice. I n a like m a n n e r , t h e a f f r i c a t e ts is p h o n e t i c a l l y a n d a c o u s t i c a l l y m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s t h a n a t, b e c a u s e in a d d i t i o n t o t h e t i t B u t w e c a n s a y n o t h i n g in r e s p e c t t o t h e r e l a t i v e conspicuousness of a F o r t h o u g h t h e p l a c k s t h e increment of explosiveness of t h e tenuis, i t O b v i o u s l y this s p i r a n t , f o r e x a m p l e t h e p.

c a n m o r e t h a n c o m p e n s a t e for this l a c k b y a p r o l o n g e d d u r a t i o n (e. g . ppp).

a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e d e n t a l s c a n be c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y e x t e n d e d t o labials, p a l a t a l s , v e l a r s , or i n d e e d t o a n y o t h e r o r e v e r y o t h e r s o u n d w h i c h w i l l s i m i l a r l y a d m i t of a c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s . T h a t t h e conspicuousness of a s o u n d is o n l y d e t e r m i n a b l e r e l a t i v e t o a n o t h e r sound h a s seemed t o s o m e c r i t i c s of t h i s t h e o r y u n f o r t u n a t e . B u t in s p i t e of t h e b r i l l i a n t w o r k of m o d e r n e x p e r i mental phonetics, phoneticians have not y e t discovered a n y method which can give for a n y s o u n d , let a l o n e f o r e v e r y s o u n d , e i t h e r t h e a c t u a l a b s o l u t e a m o u n t of e n e r g y required f o r i t s p r o n u n c i a t i o n , or a n a b s o l u t e m e a s u r e either of i t s a u d i b i l i t y or i t s p s y c h i c conspicuousness. A n d i t is d o u b t f u l t h a t s u c h a m e a s u r e w i l l e v e r be f o u n d . F o r this c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s d e p e n d s t o a large d e g r e e u p o n t h e a m p l i t u d e o r l o u d n e s s , a t h i n g w h i c h v a r i e s g r e a t l y in w o r d s , a n d therefore in s o u n d s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m o o d o r e m o t i o n a l s t a t e of t h e s p e a k e r . B u t in regard to t h e r e l a t i v e c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s of a s o u n d , t h e a r r a n g e m e n t of dh t o d, d t o /, a n d ts t o t is s a t i s f a c t o r y . F o r reg a r d l e s s of h o w l o u d l y o r s o f t l y a n i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k s , a lenis o r f o r t i s d t let us s a y , w i l l be b o t h m o r e a u d i b l e a n d m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o p r o n o u n c e t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y lenis or f o r t i s /. A n d n o w , if w e c a n s a y t h a t a lenis o r f o r t i s m e d i a is m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s t h a n a c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y lenis or f o r t i s t e n u i s , a n a l y s i s of l a n g u a g e s h o u l d s h o w , if t h e Principle of Relative Frequency be c o r r e c t , t h a t t h e less c o n s p i c u o u s tenuis s h o u l d o c c u r in c u r s i v e l a n g u a g e m o r e f r e q u e n t l y t h a n t h e

Bulgarian English .. Russian Italian Swedish Hungarian German , . French Caech Spanish Sanskrit . Greek Latin

1 7-54% 7-13 7.49 764 7.18 .... 6.28 5.60 4.2J 6.65 7.58 7-72

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i 3-55 % 4-Ji 3-42 4-74 5.48 3-3 3-75 3-S5 3-73 5.20 =.8S 2.87 3-41

k 2.98% 2.71 3-49 363 3-S2 S-7 2 2.24 4.81 3-93 3.S2 1.99 4.07 3-71

I 1.46% 74 1.10 41 2.so 2.45 1.84 76 IS .07 .82 1.74 .96

P 2.82 % 2.04 2.19 2.7S 1.20 1J34 3-54 3-S 2.64 2.46 3.38 2-OJ

4 1-32 % 1.81 1.76 .89 1.32 '34 >39 r.86 2.05 .46 49 1.40

1 For the sake of those who prefer the word phoneme, an extremely useful philological term which does not yet enjoy the frequency of usage it deserves, let me say that the older and more generally used word sound which X shall adhere to in this paper may be replaced throughout this paper by the word phoneme without modifying my meaning in the slightest degree. B y sound changes I mean, as practically every investigator of this eld now means, phoneme changes. For the meaning of phoneme see Leonard Bloomfield, " A Set of Postulates for the Science of Language," Language, Vol. II (1926), 157. In addition one may profitably consult Edward Sapir, "Sound Patterns in Language," Language > Vol. I (1925), 37.

c :

more conspicuous media.

I n o t h e r w o r d s , w e s h o u l d e x p e c t in c o u n t i n g t h e s o u n d s of a reason-

a b l y l o n g piece of c o l l o q u i a l prose t o find b y a c t u a l c o u n t t h e t e n u e s m o r e n u m e r o u s t h a n their corresponding m e d i a e m o r e i's t h a n d ' s , m o r e k's t h a n g's, m o r e p's t h a n b's. T h e t a b l e o n p a g e 2, r e p r i n t e d f r o m tny original a r t i c l e , i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t this is s t r i k i n g l y true. 1 A n d the c o n c l u s i o n s t o b e d r a w n f r o m t h e t a b l e a r e clear. W h e n , either b e c a u s e of c h a n g e of t h e f r e q u e n c y of u s a g e of w o r d s in the f o l k v o c a b u l a r y , o r because of t h e a d d i t i o n of n e w or the d e l e t i o n of h i t h e r t o f a m i l i a r w o r d s , the r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y of a sound increases, the s o u n d t e n d s t o b e c o m e less c o n s p i c u o u s , e i t h e r b y d i m i n i s h i n g the c o n spicuousness of o n e or m o r e of i t s i n c r e m e n t s , o r b y a b a n d o n i n g o n e o r m o r e of its i n c r e m e n t s entirely. S o a f o r t i s d m a y b e c o m e a lenis d, o r e v e n a t. A n d c o n v e r s e l y , if t h e s o u n d b e c o m e s r e l a t i v e l y rarer, i t m a y a d d to its i n c r e m e n t s . I n this f a s h i o n a i m a y b e c o m e a d, a ih, o r a is; o r a lenis d m a y b e c o m e a f o r t i s d or a dh. I n this fashion sound shifts take place. T h e G e r m a n a n d S c a n d i n a v i a n b are. e x a m p l e s of t h e f o r m e r . H a v i n g b e c o m e m o r e f r e q u e n t than p, a s o u r t a b l e s h o w s , the G e r m a n a n d S c a n d i n a v i a n b h a v e w e a k e n e d in b o t h t h e i r i n c r e m e n t of v o i c e a n d e x p l o s i v e n e s s , a n d h a v e b e c o m e a s o u n d n o t v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m a s o f t l y v o i c e d E n g l i s h p. S p a n i s h l i k e w i s e e x h i b i t s a similar c h a n g e w i t h i t s d, w h i c h , b e c a u s e of i t s excessive a n d b e c o m e a n 3". H e n c e i t h a p p e n s explosiveness, of Relaf r e q u e n c y , h a s in m o s t p o s i t i o n s lost i t s increment of explosion a m o u n t of a s p i r a t i o n , o r v o i c e . tive Frequency. were n o t there.

t h a t t h e s a m e f u n d a m e n t a l s o u n d s in v a r i o u s l a n g u a g e s m a y v a r y i n d e g r e e of

S o m e c r i t i c s b e l i e v e this v a r i a t i o n v i t i a t e s t h e Principle

O n t h e c o n t r a r y , i t w o u l d b e h i g h l y o d d , a s w i l l a p p e a r b e l o w , if this v a r i a t i o n F o r a m o r e c o m p l e t e discussion of t h e t a b l e I m u s t h o w e v e r r e f e r t h e r e a d e r t o L e t u s t u r n n o w t o t h e o b j e c t i o n s t h a t h a v e b e e n m a d e t o the t a b l e , inas-

t h e original article.

m u c h a s t h e p r e s e n t C h i n e s e d a t a a r e i n t e n d e d t o a n s w e r m o s t , if n o t all, of t h e m . T h e first o b j e c t i o n is b y far t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t , n a m e l y t h a t t h e s t a t i s t i c s d o n o t r e p r e s e n t phonetic transcriptions. T o this m a y I s a y a g a i n t h a t t h e figures i n t h e t a b l e for s o m e of t h e languages d o r e p r e s e n t a c t u a l p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n s ; f o r s o m e of t h e m o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n s ; a n d f o r s o m e , n o t a b l y those f o r t h e d e a d l a n g u a g e s , in c o n s i d e r i n g l e t t e r s a s s o u n d s , c o m e a s close to a p h o n e t i c transcription a s w e shall e v e r o b t a i n . I t is c o m m o n p l a c e t o s a y t h a t o u r a l p h a b e t s a r e n o t p h o n e t i c a l l y e x a c t . B u t , in s o s a y i n g , l e t u s n o t f o r g e t t h a t our a l p h a b e t s in g e n e r a l , e s p e c i a l l y in r e g a r d t o c o n s o n a n t s , d o n o t a l w a y s u t t e r l y a n d c o m p l e t e l y disr e g a r d p h o n e t i c e q u i v a l e n t s , representing, a s i t w e r e , n o e a r t h l y c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e a c t u a l p r o n u n c i a t i o n . S a n s k r i t , a s a m a t t e r of f a c t , is so e x a c t in i t s a l p h a b e t t h a t o n e m i g h t s a f e l y s a y t h a t i t is t r u l y a p h o n e t i c w r i t i n g . B u t b e t h a t a s i t m a y . I f t h e reader is n o t i m p r e s s e d b y t h e i n c o n t e s t a b l e c o r r e l a t i o n of t h e p e r c e n t a g e s in t h e t a b l e , h e m a y d i s r e g a r d t h e t a b l e o n w h a t e v e r g r o u n d s he w i s h e s . B u t h e m a y n o t discard t h e C h i n e s e s t a t i s t i c s o n the g r o u n d of p h o n e t i c transcription, f o r the C h i n e s e statistics represent c a r e f u l a n d e x a c t p h o n e t i c v a l u e s ; t h e t r a n scriptions t h e m s e l v e s a r e i n c l u d e d in t h e a p p e n d i x . T h e s e c o n d o b j e c t i o n d e a l s w i t h conspicuousness? I t h a s b e e n o b j e c t e d t h a t a s o u n d w h i c h is B u t this a g a i n h a s e a s y for one p e r s o n t o p r o n o u n c e m a y b e difficult f o r a n o t h e r , m e a n i n g b y t h i s t h a t a G e r m a n , f o r e x a m p l e , finds t h e E n g l i s h ih m o r e difficult t h a n d o e s a n E n g l i s h m a n . n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e Principle of Relative Frequency. J u s t a s t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y of a

s o u n d m e a n s t h e f r e q u e n c y of t h e s o u n d r e l a t i v e t o t h e o t h e r s o u n d s of t h e s a m e d i a l e c t a n d o b 1 Zipf, op. eii., p. 61. The various sources of these statistics and control figures, together with a criticism of the method by which the statistics were obtained, are given on pp. 42 5. 1 Cf. E. Hermann, pp. cii., p. 602.

C3

v i o u s l y not t o s o u n d s in g e n e r a l , so t o o t h e c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s of a n y sound is r e l a t i v e o n l y t o the c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s oS o t h e r s o u n d s i n t h e s a m e d i a l e c t . I t w o u l d b e a b s u r d to think t h a t t h i s l a w s h o u l d w o r k f o r t in g e n e r a l a n d d in g e n e r a l ; a fortis t, a s said b e f o r e , m a y b e m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s t h a n a lenis d. I f so, i t s h o u l d b e less f r e q u e n t t h a n t h e d. M o r e o v e r i t is n o t l i k e l y t h a t a n y s o u n d o r g r o u p of s o u n d s will b e a s e a s y f o r a s p e a k e r t o u t t e r o r a h e a r e r t o p e r c e i v e a s a s o u n d o r s o u n d s of t h e n a t i v e s p e e c h p a t t e r n . I f t h e reader wishes, h e m a y discard t h e p r e v i o u s t a b l e o n t h e s o m e w h a t d o u b t f u l g r o u n d s t h a t a F r e n c h t, f o r e x a m p l e , is p r o n o u n c e d in m a n y w a y s , a n d a d d t h a t t h e s t r i k i n g c o r r e l a t i o n is n o t h i n g b u t r a n d o m c h a n c e . d i a l e c t of P e k i n g . T h e third, a n d I t h i n k t h e last, serious o b j e c t i o n , is t h a t t h e s a m e s o u n d v a r i e s i n i n t e n s i t y , a n d h e n c e conspicuousness, a c c o r d i n g to t h e n a t u r e of t h e s u r r o u n d i n g sounds. T h i s is u n d o u b t e d l y true. A s P r o f e s s o r E l i s e R i c h t e r p o i n t s o u t , ' a m o n g o t h e r excellent e x a m p l e s , t h e Germ a n p a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of a w o r d , b e t w e e n s y l l a b l e s , a n d a t t h e e n d of a w o r d represents t h r e e d i f f e r e n t a n d p h o n e t i c a l l y d i s t i n c t s o u n d s ; she i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p e r c e n t a g e s for G e r m a n p a r e , therefore, n o t v a l i d u n t i l t h e s e p's a r e e a c h s e g r e g a t e d . S h e s u g g e s t s recourse t o e x p e r i m e n t a l p h o n e t i c s . I t h a s also been s u g g e s t e d b y a n o t h e r t h a t I a v o i d t h e issue e n t i r e l y b y using t h e w o r d phoneme i n s t e a d of sound, i m p l y i n g t h e r e b y t h a t s o u n d s w h o s e d i f f e r e n c e is d e t e c t a b l e o n l y b y t h e skillful r e a d i n g of a r e c o r d i n g a p p a r a t u s m a y b e r e g a r d e d f o r linguistic p u r p o s e s a s i d e n t i c a l s o u n d s . I m y s e l f h a d h o p e d t o a v o i d t h i s t r o u b l e s o m e issue o n p a g e 41 of t h e original article b y s t a t i n g t h a t w h e n a s o u n d b e c a m e m o r e f r e q u e n t , a n d t h e r e f o r e t e n d e d t o diminish in c o n spicuousness, i t s w e a k e n i n g w o u l d first c o m m e n c e in those p o s i t i o n s w h e r e s u r r o u n d i n g s o u n d s were p r o p i t i o u s f o r a w e a k e n i n g . F o r e x a m p l e , if a b, b e c o m i n g t o o f r e q u e n t , t e n d e d t o lose, l e t u s s a y , i t s increment oj voice, i t w o u l d in all p r o b a b i l i t y lose i t s o o n e r a n d easier if s u r r o u n d e d b y A n d if o n e considers l a n g u a g e a s s o m e t h i n g d y n a m i c , s o m e t h i n g failed to function simply because a difvoiceless s o u n d s , t h a n i t w o u l d b e t w e e n v o w e l s ; i t w o u l d b e m o r e a p t t o lose i t s v o i c e in g ebst o r hebst t h a n in geben or heben. l i v i n g , a n d one h a p p e n e d t o r e c o r d t h e l a n g u a g e p h o n e t i c a l l y a s a g r a d u a l w e a k e n i n g w e r e t a k i n g p l a c e , o n e c o u l d n o t r e a s o n a b l y s a y t h a t t h e Principle ference of a r t i c u l a t i o n w a s o b s e r v a b l e in d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s . H o w e v e r , t h e r e is a n easier w a y t o r e f u t e t h e p h o n e t i c i s t t h a n b y a t t e m p t i n g t o d e m o n s t r a t e t o h i m t h a t t h e v e r y p h e n o m e n a h e p o i n t s t o a s disproof a r e i n r e a l i t y a n essential p a r t of t h e w o r k i n g of t h e Principle. L e t us t a k e r a t h e r a l a n g u a g e w h e r e t h i s p r o b l e m d o e s n o t arise a n d In t e s t its c o n s o n a n t s . L e t u s e x a m i n e t h e d i a l e c t of P e k i n g , w h i c h i s m o n o s y l l a b i c i n s t r u c t u r e . B u t h e m a y n o t discard t h e C h i n e s e figures f o r t h a t r e a s o n ; for t h e a n a l y s i s h a s b e e n r e s t r i c t e d t o the m o d e r n v e r n a c u l a r

t h e d i a l e c t of P e k i n g , a c o n s o n a n t is used o n l y a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of a s y l l a b l e a n d is a l w a y s f o l l o w e d b y a v o w e l . T h e r e is n o s u c h t h i n g a s a final c o n s o n a n t . T h e l a n g u a g e , b e i n g e s s e n t i a l l y m o n o s y l l a b i c , o f f e r s n o serious p r o b l e m of i n t e r s y l l a b i c c o n s o n a n t s . I n r e s p e c t t o the position of t h e c o n s o n a n t , e v e r y t h i n g is a b s o l u t e l y c o n s t a n t . T h e r e is n o t h i n g t o consider b u t t h e a c t u a l c o n spicuousness of t h e s o u n d . N o r is there a n y d i f f i c u l t y in d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h c o n s o n a n t i n e a c h p a i r is m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s . E v e n t h e earliest r o r o a n i z a t i o n s s h o w i t ; all p h o n e t i c i s t s a g r e e a b o u t i t ; i t is a t once e v i d e n t t o a n y o n e listening t o a n a t i v e o f P e k i n g s p e a k . s p i c u o u s t h a n t h e f a i n t lenis m e d i a . 1 T h e f o r t i s t e n u i s a s p i r a t a is decidedly m o r e c o n F o r so w e a k is t h e v o i c e i n t h e lenis m e d i a , t h a t there is

d o u b t a s t o w h e t h e r i t s h o u l d b e s t b e t r a n s c r i b e d w i t h a R o m a n m e d i a o r t e n u i s (e. g . b y a 6 or p). A n d so s t r o n g i s t h e a s p i r a t i o n a n d f o r c e of t h e t e n u i s , t h a t s e v e r a l of the transcriptions i n d i c a t e i t Op. cit., pp. 293 B. For a careful and thorough discussion of Chinese phonetics, see Bemhard Karlgren: Etudes sur la phonologic chinoise, Leyden and Stockholm, 1915, pp. 223 ri.
1 2

C+3

w i t h a f o l l o w i n g " , (e. g . p c , k", t", etc., a s in t h e W a d e S y s t e m ) . F o r m y o w n t r a n s c r i p t i o n s I h a v e used the p h o n e t i c s y s t e m r e c o m m e n d e d b y C h a o , 1 p u r e l y for i t s g r e a t e r s i m p l i c i t y a n d b r e v i t y : t h e m e d i a is used t o represent the lenis, t h e t e n u i s t r a n s c r i b e s t h e f o r t i s tenuis a s p i r a t a . B u t t h a t the reader m a y n o t b e c o n f u s e d , t h e p e r c e n t a g e s f o r all s o u n d s i n t h e t a b l e s o n p a g e s 6 a n d 7 indicate t h e f o u r d i f f e r e n t w a y s in c u r r e n t use f o r t r a n s c r i b i n g C h i n e s e s o u n d s . A n d so t h e C h i n e s e figures will b e a n a n s w e r t o e v e r y criticism m a d e of t h i s p o r t i o n of t h e t h e o r y . If P r o f e s s o r H e r m a n n o n p a g e 6 0 2 2 d o e s n o t find i t s t r a n g e t h a t t h e s o u n d s of m o s t of t h e l a n g u a g e s a g r e e r o u g h l y in p e r c e n t a g e s , i n a s m u c h a s t h e y g o b a c k t o t h e s a m e d i a l e c t f o u r t h o u sand y e a r s a g o , such a n a r g u m e n t , a s s t r a i n e d a s i t s e e m s to m e , d r o p s w h e n one c o n s i d e r s C h i n e s e . I f P r o f e s s o r H e r m a n n o n p a g e 603, i n c o n c l u d i n g his criticism, expresses his surprise, a f t e r all, t h a t t h e t e n u e s s h o u l d b e g e n e r a l l y m o r e f r e q u e n t t h a n their c o r r e s p o n d i n g m e d i a e , a n d w o n d e r s a t t h e reason, let h i m l o o k a t these figures a n d r e m e m b e r t h a t o n p a g e 599 he d i d , a f t e r all, c o n cede t h a t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l side of the a r g u m e n t a p p e a r e d i n c o n t e s t a b l e . I n t h e l i g h t of t h e Principle of Relative Frequency, mediae t h e f a i n t lenes mediae s h o u l d b e d e c i d e d l y aspiratae, cj/a 2.69 % 1.04 and they are: ts/ts 2.63 % r.40 m o r e f r e q u e n t t h a n t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g fortes d/t lenis media fortis tenuis aspirata 6.iS% 2.56 i/p 2-37 % 56

t/t
2.58 % 1.02

m 2.44% 1.23

M a y i t b e o b s e r v e d t h a t l i k e w i s e in C h i n e s e t h e d e n t a l s (cerebrals) are d e c i d e d l y m o r e f r e q u e n t t h a n t h e l a b i a l s o r g u t t u r a l s . 3 I n t h e e v e n t t h a t one b e i n t e r e s t e d in t h e n u m b e r of o c c u r rences o f a l l s o u n d s , h e w i l l find in t h e t a b l e s , o n p a g e s 6 a n d 7, t h e a c t u a l n u m b e r of o c c u r r e n c e s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e n t a g e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e v a r i o u s s y s t e m s of t r a n s c r i p t i o n . T h e c o l u m n w i t h a n X a t t h e t o p is C h a o ' s r e c o m m e n d e d p h o n e t i c s y s t e m w h i c h is u s e d in t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n s g i v e n in f u l l in A p p e n d i x B . T h e figures a r e b a s e d o n a t r a n s c r i p t i o n of t w e n t y s e l e c t i o n s of c o l l o q u i a l C h i n e s e , e a c h s e l e c t i o n o n e t h o u s a n d s y l l a b l e s or i d e o g r a p h s l o n g . T h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n r e a d s f r o m l e f t t o r i g h t ; each square contains a Chinese ideograph representing a syllable. I n the upper left h a n d corner of e a c h s q u a r e is t h e n u m b e r of t h a t s y l l a b l e in t h e s e l e c t i o n of a t h o u s a n d s y l l a b l e s ; t h e n u m b e r a t t h e l o w e r r i g h t is t h e t o n e of t h e w o r d ( * , r , 2, 3, 4) ; a n d u n d e r n e a t h is t h e p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n f o r e a c h s y l l a b l e . T h e t o n e s a n d t r a n s c r i p t i o n s a r e a c c o r d i n g to D r . Y u e n R e n C h a o ' s A Phonetic Dictionary of the Chinese National Language, Shanghai (1926), the Commercial P r e s s . T h o u g h C h a o g i v e s a l l t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n s f o r e a c h w o r d , m y t r a n s c r i p t i o n s in t h e a p p e n d i x use o n l y t h e " B r o a d e r S y s t e m of I n t e r n a t i o n a l P h o n e t i c S y m b o l s " b a s e d u p o n " L ' c r i t u r e phontique internationale expos populaire," published b y the International Phonetic Association.
1 See infra. ' Of. cit. 3 See Fu Lu: Etude Exprimentale sur les tens du Chinois, Paris and Peking, 1925, p. 105, for a transcription, according to a different system, of 25s Peking words. The frequency of the consonants in Lu's transcription indicates the same relationship as my own and can be considered a control.

i s l

I n t h e 20,000 s y l l a b l e s , t h e r e a r e 20,000 v o w e l s , a n d 1 7 , 3 3 8 c o n s o n a n t s . tones are as follows: First tone Second " Third " w Fourth Entering " (*)

T h e n u m b e r of

3484 3028 3783 6209 3496 20,000

T h e n a m e s o f t h e t w e n t y d i f f e r e n t w r i t i n g s f r o m e a c h o f w h i c h a s e l e c t i o n of one t h o u s a n d c o n n e c t e d s y l l a b l e s w a s t a k e n a r e g i v e n in C h i n e s e o n t h e l a s t p l a t e ( 7 B ) of A p p e n d i x D . 8 S A Wade * Wi b P m t r a t n 1 8 k q h 1 ch n sb i ch eh r P Pc m 1 w t te n 1 k k< wo h cb eli< h hs ch ch< Eh Count 887 210 815 395 o 2306 958 371 1096 965 382 220 781 looj 389 7 423 912 458 1714 552 % 2.37 .56 2.18 1.06 .00 6.18 2.56 -99 2.93 2.58 1.02 .59 2.09 2.69 1.04 -31 M3 2.44 1.23 459 1.48 A * a Si V & X. "f au en <m A5 8 1

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X b P m f V a t n 1 a k 9 X Cj cs J> c '3 t(

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Wade Count ts, ' t z t<a, G, Igs ih a i a , -u? J, - a 0, ( ) ' 6 6 ai ei no ou an 6 ang fing er h'z 983 522 877 I302 321 2717 1381 363 794 1199 279 264 673 J15 580 341 615 879 492 420 106
%

X
ti9 tz ts B 3 z i u 7 <1 0 9 9 e ai el

b * pe m E W f V 4 f n 1 9 ke 9 X ciC o 1 1 5

2.63 1.40 2-35 3-49 .86 7.28 3-7 97 2.13 3-21 75 7 1.80 3t 55 .91 165 2-35 1.32 1 .31 .28

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Wade Count 260 m 300 79 694 593 86s 442 406 491 62 S83 % -70 47 .80 2t 1.86 I-S9 2.32 1.18 1.09 132 .17 I-S6

a.

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y a , -ia (yeh, -iieh) yeh, -ieh yaj, yao, -iao jti > -iu

XW xs.

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X u a n uan nan w o n , -uan X t. nan u a n uen w e n , un X * X U U1t y n a g naq w a n g , -uan g oq yo ye oq (wng), ung,

(ieh)

iuou iuo iao iu la iu

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71

PART II

Relative Frequency, Abbreviation, and Semantic Change

THE present s t u d y deals with the problem of semantic c h a n g e a n d is intended to show the relationship between semantic c h a n g e a n d a b b r e v i a t i o n . M u c h h a s been w r i t t e n on t h e s u b j e c t of semasiology b y linguists, psychologists, and philosophers, y e t , as far as I k n o w , little or nothing h a s been done f r o m the angle of abbreviation. A n d b e l i e v i n g t h a t abbreviation is the v e r y c r u x of t h e m a t t e r , I prefer to disregard, for the present, all p r e v i o u s investigations of the s u b j e c t a n d t o b u i l d up m y present theory b y a consideration of the o b v i o u s examples of semantic change such as t h e y occur in the e v e r y d a y language of an i n d i v i d u a l of a n y individual, be he old or y o u n g , wise or foolish, sick or well, m a d or sane. I n the ensuing pages m u c h will be said a b o u t the " m e a n i n g " of words and a v e r y g r e a t deal a b o u t the " e m o t i o n a l q u a l i t y a n d i n t e n s i t y " of words, domains^bitherto a n d for no good reason considered p r i m a r i l y proper for the philosopher a n d psychologist. B u t since these properties of words are, to m y m i n d , n o t divorced f r o m a b b r e v i a t i o n , a s incomprehensible as t h a t m a y seem to the reader a t this time, I shall k e e p this p a p e r w i t h i n t h e limits of linguistics, a n d t r y t o a v o i d first, an intricate portrait of w h a t is considered the nature of h u m a n m i n d , a n d secondly, t h e e t e r n a l question of the relationship of the " s y m b o l i c " to t h e " r e a l , " hoping, thereby, to escape t w o k n o t t y problems which i n v a r i a b l y spell the downfall of semasiologists w h o begin with a c o n t e m p l a t i o n of mind or r e a l i t y . F o r f r a n k l y , we k n o w n o t h i n g a b o u t the n a t u r e of h u m a n m i n d a n d v e r y little a b o u t r e a l i t y . T h e r e are theories to be sure, b u t these theories conflict so g r a v e l y t h a t a frank examination of the f a c t s of l a n g u a g e will, in m y belief, be m o r e a p t to t h r o w l i g h t on the process of m i n d t h a n theories of mind on the process of language. F o r t h e f a c t s of l a n g u a g e are the facts of l a n g u a g e , j u s t as the f a c t s of g r a v i t a t i o n are the facts of g r a v i t a t i o n . A n d j u s t as w e should smile a t a physicist w h o d e v o t e d his time to explaining h o w m u c h m o r e picturesque nature w o u l d b e if g r a v i t a t i o n followed the inverse cube instead of the inverse s q u a r e , so we should smile a t t h e person-who spends h i s time t r y i n g to persuade u s t h a t " c o r r e c t " l a n g u a g e should be of this nature a n d n o t of t h a t . H e n c e , h o w one should express oneself is of n o concern in this p a p e r , b u t r a t h e r h o w one does express oneself. T o be sure, t h e reader will occasionally glimpse behind m y s t a t e m e n t s t h e thoughts of others. T h e reason I do n o t interlard the present p a p e r w i t h references to the investigations of others is not t h a t I do n o t w i l l i n g l y concede t h a t the w o r k s of o t h e r s h a v e o f t e n been either a n inspiration or a re-assurance, a n d t h a t w i t h o u t t h e m this t h e o r y of a b b r e v i a t i o n w o u l d h a v e prospered more slowly, b u t rather that this theory for b e t t e r or f o r worse should stand o n its own f e e t w i t h o u t resting in a n y w a y upon authority. B e f o r e proceeding f u r t h e r , there is another p o i n t to be considered inasmuch as this p a p e r is addressed primarily to linguists. ability. T h e t h e o r y of Relative Frequency is a statistical l a w a n d , as s u c h , falls within the laws of probability. L e t us r e v i e w , briefly, w h a t is meant in p a r t b y p r o b W h e n the o d d s are even, i t m e a n s t h a t either e v e n t u a l i t y covered b y t h e o d d s m a y m

happen; when the odds are ten to one, it means t h a t either e v e n t u a l i t y m a y h a p p e n ; w h e n the odds are a trillion to one, either e v e n t u a l i t y still m a y h a p p e n , a n d i t is no disproof of a law, based on probability, if t h a t remote chance should t a k e place. Frequency is based on probability. T h e entire Principle of Relative Sound changes are too general a n d consistent to allow t h a t

sound laws are a n y t h i n g b u t basic, dynamic, p e r v a s i v e l a w s ; b u t the exceptions are numerically too a b u n d a n t a n d conflicting t h a t they m a y all be c h a r g e d w i t h o u t f u r t h e r evidence to the aceotmt of prehistoric linguistic substrata or prehistoric dialectal divergences. One c a n n o t d e n y the possible influence of linguistic substrata a n d remote dialectal divergences; b u t t h a t pure chance plays some rdle in sound change likewise c a n n o t be disregarded. F o r , a f t e r all, h o w else can one explain the enormous diversity following u p o n a n y m a j o r sound shift? I allude to all this n o w because some h a v e t a k e n exception to the Principle quency simply because i t is statistical. of Relative FreUnF o r statistics are h a t e f u l t o t h e h u m a n m i n d ; t h e y are

painfully definite for t h e group w i t h o u t being p a r t i c u l a r l y definite for the i n d i v i d u a l .

doubtedly, a primary law which k n o w s no fluctuation within itself is pleasanter. I f nature had consulted m a n in the m a t t e r , we should all h a v e suggested p r i m a r y l a w s , from t h e instinctive fear t h a t some d a y W h i r l m i g h t otherwise become king, f o r g e t t i n g first of all t h a t e v e n in a statistical law it is difficult for W h i r l to become c o m p l e t e k i n g , f o r g e t t i n g , likewise, t h a t in m a n y personalities Whirl does seem in a w a y to be king. B u t nature did n o t consult us in the m a t t e r and has seen fit to let t h e l a w s of chance g o v e r n v a s t p o r t i o n s of the b a s i c order of the p h y s i c a l universe, as well as n o small a m o u n t of the biological. Y o u m a y disregard the Principle tive Frequency of Relabecause you do not consider the statistics significant; you c a n n o t discard it,

however, o n the grounds t h a t a statistical law is n o t respectable. A n d so w i t h the critics w h o h a v e resented the m a t h e m a t i c a l nature of this t h e o r y , a n d whose n a m e s I here omit, I c a n o n l y agree t h a t i t is perhaps n o t pleasant to k n o w t h a t all colors go b a c k to three p r i m a r y colors, t h a t all m a t t e r is reducible to protons and electrons in motion, y e t n a t u r e really seems to h a v e been so bold as to decide these difficulties w i t h o u t asking for the philologist's exquisite opinion. A n d now to the m a t t e r a t h a n d . T h e r e are four i m p o r t a n t characteristics w h i c h are easily recognizable in words, p e r h a p s not all four in e v e r y word, b u t certainly there are words which h a v e a t l e a s t one a n d e v e n more, nor are the characteristics so unusual t h a t the reader will not recognize t h e m as i m p o r t a n t . The first is meaning, t h a t elusive a t t r i b u t e of a word, so i m p o r t a n t and y e t o f t e n so h a r d to describe. Secondly, there is quality, b y which I m e a n t h a t a w o r d m a y represent something desirable for the ego (positive quality) or something undesirable f o r the ego ( negative quality). is nothing more than v a l u e : c o m p a r a t i v e l y speaking, the intensity " H o n o r " is which generally positive; " d e a t h " generally negative. T h i r d l y , w o r d s h a v e emotional intensity,

indicates h o w m u c h we

should like to obtain the positive or h o w m u c h we should like to avoid t h e n e g a t i v e . T h e fourth characteristic I shall call order-, and for the present, let us consider order nothing more than the word's p a r t of speech, a d v e r b , noun, etc. I shall n o t t r y to define these four characteristics further here, b u t b y examining the processes of semantic change t r y to m a k e clearer m y understanding both of their nature and of their importance in semantic change. B y semantic change I shall mean a change w h e r e b y one s y m b o l is temporarily or permanently substituted for another. Examples are without number. Calling a " m a n " a " d o g , " a " w o m a n " a " p e a c h , " the " m o o n " a
il

c a n d l e , " m a y be considered temporary semantic changes, until their

use in this sense becomes so frequent and general t h a t the original p r i m a r y m e a n i n g of " d o g , " peach," and " c a n d l e " becomes secondary to the new primary meaning of a particular kind or aspect of " m a n , " " w o m a n , " and " m o o n . " W h e n a given substitution occurs b u t rarely, we call the change a metaphor. H o w e v e r , as the given substitution becomes ever more frequent and gen[ 9 ]

eral, the originally rare meaning of the word finally becomes a sub-meaning, a co-integral p a r t of the word, a connotation. I n this fashion, " k i d , " a t one time " a young g o a t / ' came to have the W h y " k i d " was ever substituted for " c h i l d " or " b o y " need not connotation " c h i l d " or " b o y . "

concern us now; it is simply self-evident that once substituted the permanency of the substituted meaning depends largely, if not entirely, upon the frequency of occurrence of the word with the substituted meaning. T h i s one thing we must remember, since it is important for a n y study of semantic change, that there is no fixed boundary between metaphor or connotation. I t is disputable whether " n u t " is Likewise, merely a metaphor, or whether b y now " q u e e r p e r s o n " is not a connotation of " n u t . "

there is no definite law establishing for all time w h a t is the primary meaning or denotation of a word and w h a t its secondary meaning or meanings, the connotations. If we take the word " b u g h o u s e " as an example, it is questionable whether the primary meaning is " i n s a n e a s y l u m , " or " h o u s e for the preservation or propagation of b u g s . " I n determining the primary meanings of words, one is a p t to feel t h a t either the original meaning or the oldest meaning or the aptest meaning is decisive. B u t that none of these are final is evident from the f a c t that often a t a given m o m e n t the original or oldest meaning is either obsolescent, obsolete, or indeed even entirely unknown. W h a t e v e r " l o r d " means today, it certainly does not mean as in Old English " g u a r d i a n of the loaf." A n d as for aptness of designation, one can bring forth examples without limit to illustrate the frequent inaptness of designation. If one takes " c o c k t a i l , " " h i g h - b a l l , " " m a r s h m a l l o w , " " b o o t l e g , " without examining the special history of each word and without knowing w h a t the words refer to, one would simply be a t utter loss to guess their meaning. A g e , derivation, and appropriateness must be all discarded if one seeks the absolute in the meaning of a word. Sometimes t h e y explain the primary meaning; sometimes not. T o m y mind, it is highly doubtful t h a t there is an absolute primary meaning over any period of time, or within a group of individuals. shifts of meaning, semantic changes. T h e temporary, semi-permanent, and permanent semantic changes, for so I shall henceforth designate t h e sliding scale from metaphor through connotation to complete and irrevocable substitution, differ among themselves only in respect to degree of probability. T h e greater the probability that a n y given word when used will h a v e the derived or secondary meaning instead of the primary meaning, the greater the degree of permanency of the semantic change. E v e r y v o c a b u lary a t a n y time reflects these various stages of semantic development in its words so clearly that the semasiologist m a y rightly say t h a t meaning is shifting and determinable in respect to prima r i l y only b y the relative frequency of usage. A n d this frequency of use likewise explains our feelings about the importance of the original meanings or the fitting meanings of words. For often these meanings remain primary. Y e t t h a t original meanings or a p t meanings so often continue to remain p r i m a r y meanings is simply because of a favoring probability. becoming permanent, thereby replacing the older meanings. " H a m " means to us a kind of meat, to a theatrical circle a " p o o r a c t o r " ; " l a m b " means to us a kind of animal, to the racketeer a "guillible person." A n d so we might proceed with many words whose primary meanings, or the permanency of whose semantic changes, varies between different social, occupational, regional, cultural circles. A permanent semantic change in one circle m a y be only t e m p o r a r y or unheard of in another. Hence, p e r m a n e n c y is really a relative affair, primarily relative to a given circle in w h i c h i t e n j o y s a preponderant relative frequency of usage. A person is a member of m a n y circles, his family, his office, his club, the circle covered b y his journals, his church, and this free interlocking is the conservative influence in language. For within a given [ r o ] A n d it is this favoring probability as we shall see t h a t prevents every temporary semantic change from automatically One gains best insight into meaning b y examining

circle a certain meaning, arrived at by semantic change, m a y , because of Ihe rights of relative frequency, be undisputed king, and y e t in other circles be unheard of. Indeed, a word m a y have a different, decided primary meaning in every different circle and y e t , when one measures the relative frequency of occurrence of meanings in the large group which includes all the other circles, find that all these local primary meanings are insignificant. A n y t h i n g t h a t tends to hinder the free interlocking of these social and occupational circles, whether the impediment be caused by nature in the form of rivers, oceans, mountains, deserts, and the like, or b y man himself through custom barriers, hostile feelings, different and separated market centers, travel, differences in culture and religion, and the like, will tend to remove the conservative influence of the large group and cause the language to drift apart slowly into dialects. E a c h small circle broken from the whole pursues its semantic changes unhindered until its v o c a b u l a r y as used becomes more a n d more unintelligible to a separated circle. If the changed frequency of the changed v o c a b u l a r y upsets the inner balance of vowels and consonants, as explained in P a r t One, phonetic changes m a y a d d to the cleavage. One circle cannot expand a t the expense of others, or one circle cannot isolate itself from all others without upsetting the stability of meaning, which is based on the relative frequency or relative probability of occurrence. T h e N o r m a n invasion of England or the M i d d l e A g e s in G e r m a n y exemplify the consequences of an expanding circle and of contracting circles. Conservative change in language is found where the status remains fairly fixed through time, and is not a t all connected with the a m o u n t of slang in the language. For all languages have slang; if the slang of today does not in toto become the good usage of tomorrow, it is not because slang is not older or not more appropriate than good usage, for it is often v e r y old and its usage reflects its suitability. L a n g u a g e in good usage has the laws of chance to thank for its longevity, and not, contrary to the belief of schoolmasters, a n y inherent venerability or suitability. T h i s is, to m y mind, an explanation of the phenomena covered b y Johannis Schmidt's Wellentheorie, and is the basis of a n y t h i n g important in the current theories on linguistic substrata. H o w e v e r a word m a y receive its meaning, and whether the meaning is original or appropriate or not, the permanency of the meaning and of the word itself is ultimately a matter of Relative Frequency. T h e primary meaning simply is the customary or usual meanBut ing. A word m a y change its meaning over night. Y e t only those semantic changes are likely to remain which are of service to a decided m a j o r i t y . T h e meaning of a word is far from stable. let us turn to a consideration of just w h a t a word is. A word, whether it be written, spoken, felt, or thought is a t root, regardless of the degree of attendant consciousness, a mental event. T o be sure, sometimes it m a y be perceptibly accompanied b y gestures of the vocal cords or other members of the body, or, as in the case of pure thinking, it m a y not. I n itself, a word is nothing b u t an event in time. T h e meaning is supplied b y the mind of the speaker and the mind of the auditor, if there be an auditor. T h e meanings do not necessarily need to agree between speaker a n d auditor, nor is there necessarily a consistency of meaning for the speaker or hearer over a period of time. N o w " c a t " means " f e l i n e a n i m a l , " now it means " w o m a n . " If the mental event is in the mind of the speaker, the word is an expression; if in the mind of the auditor, a perception, regardless of the age, wisdom, experience, training, health, or sanity of either. T h e definition of a word as a mental event applies to every living organism t h a t h a s language. " C o r r e c t " meaning 01 " p r o p e r " meaning of a word signifies nothing more than that the circle or circles in which that meaning e n j o y s high relative frequency seem to y o u , because y o u are or are not in them, " p r o p e r " and " c o r r e c t . " B u t though a word exists both as a perception and as an expression, I shall henceforth, as far as possible, consider it only as an expression, not because i t is more interesting or important as an expression, b u t because a word is a l w a y s an expression, even in an hallucination, though not [ n ]

a l w a y s a p e r c e p t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , l e t u s c o n t i n u e o u r e x a m i n a t i o n for convenience b y first exa m i n i n g o n l y t h e s p o k e n w o r d . F o r the s p o k e n w o r d is a m e n t a l e v e n t w h i c h is a l w a y s a c c o m p a n i e d b y p e r c e p t i b l e gestures. B y g e s t u r e s , I d o n o t m e a n p r i m a r i l y gestures of the h a n d s , legs, a r m s , b u t r a t h e r certain small g e s t u r e s of t h e m e m b r a n e s a n d tissues of the t h r o a t , m o u t h , lips, l u n g s , p h o n e t i c gestures. Y e t t h a t is n o t all. T h e c i r c u l a t i o n of t h e blood, b r e a t h i n g , a n d o t h e r basic p h y s i o l o g i c a l processes, t h o u g h n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e s p o k e n w o r d , are also a n e x t r e m e l y essential p a r t of a s p o k e n w o r d a n d I shall call t h e m substrata gestures} W e h a v e these substrata gestures, w h i c h a r e a n essential p a r t of the s p o k e n word a n d w h i c h , a s f a r a s w e c a n see, are a c o n s t a n t escort of m e n t a l e v e n t s t h r o u g h life, v a r y i n g to be sure in their a c t i v i t y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n a t u r e of the m e n t a l e v e n t . s a m e phonetic gestures or the s a m e substrata gestures. B u t of t h e m e n t a l e v e n t w e k n o w n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n i t is c o n n e c t e d w i t h m e a n i n g a n d t h a t t h e s a m e m e a n i n g is n o t a l w a y s l i n k e d w i t h the T a k i n g t h e s p o k e n w o r d a s s t a n d a r d , t h a t is, gestures, w e find t h a t t h e m e a n i n g m a y gestures m a y v a r y d e n o t i n g , in a d d i t i o n ; i t c o n t a i n s t h e T h e mental e v e n t contains somet h a t p a r t of t h e s p o k e n w o r d w h i c h w e s h a l l c a l l phonetic t h e r e b y , a n e m o t i o n differing b o t h in quality m o m e n t a r y a p p r a i s a l of the m e a n i n g . B y quality, I m e a n the n a t u r e of t h e m e n t a l e v e n t , w h e t h e r t h e m e n t a l e v e n t expressing t h e I f t h e m e n t a l e v e n t s e e m s u l t i m a t e l y to b e on t h e I f , on the o t h e r h a n d , t h e m e a n i n g a t a g i v e n t i m e is positive o r negative.

v a r y f r o m m e t a p h o r t h r o u g h c o n n o t a t i o n ; l i k e w i s e , t h e substrata a n d intensity. t h i n g m o r e t h a n m e a n i n g ; i t c o n t a i n s b o t h quality a n d intensity

one h a n d a r e a c h i n g o u t i n t o e n v i r o n m e n t t o g r a s p in a n y f a s h i o n for s o m e s u p p o r t for t h e org a n i s m f r o m t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e m e n t a l e v e n t h a s a positive quality. e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e m e n t a l e v e n t h a s a negative quality. substrata gestures. Quality like meaning intensity. m e n t a l e v e n t is a shrinking b a c k f r o m e n v i r o n m e n t t o e s c a p e a n d to d e f e n d the organism f r o m t h e T h a t t h e s e qualities exist in l a n g u a g e is ind i s p u t a b l e . I t is l i k e w i s e i n d i s p u t a b l e t h a t t h e y e x i s t a s p a r t a n d p a r c e l of t h e m e n t a l e v e n t a n d T h o u g h the q u a l i t y of a w o r d m a y d i f f e r f r o m s p e a k e r t o s p e a k e r a n d f r o m is s u b j e c t i v e ; y e t quality is n o t meaning. T h e q u a l i t y of a w o r d is p a r t of time t o time w i t h t h e s a m e s p e a k e r , y e t i t is, n o n e t h e less, e x c l u s i v e l y a p a r t of the m e n t a l e v e n t . w h a t w e shall call the inner v i v i d n e s s of a w o r d . T h e r e m a i n i n g p a r t of inner v i v i d n e s s is w h a t w e l o o s e l y call T o m a k e inner v i v i d n e s s clearer, let u s t a k e t h e w o r d " c a t " f o r a n e x a m p l e , a s a n y g i v e n pers o n m a y use i t a t a n y g i v e n time. D i s r e g a r d i n g t h e m e a n i n g of the w o r d a t t h a t t i m e , t h e q u a l i t y will b e either n e g a t i v e or p o s i t i v e . than positive. T h a t is, " c a t " will t o t h a t p e r s o n a t t h a t t i m e b e either desirable f o r t h e ego, or undesirable, o r n e u t r a l , or m o r e p o s i t i v e t h a n n e g a t i v e , or m o r e n e g a t i v e I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e m e n t a l e v e n t " c a t " m a y b e colored b y desire or fear, o r b y n e i t h e r , or a m i x t u r e of t h e t w o w h e r e o n e or n e i t h e r m a y p r e v a i l . I n a d d i t i o n t o this q u a l i t y is the i n t e n s i t y . I f t h e q u a l i t y is a n x i e t y , t h e i n t e n s i t y is t h e a m o u n t of a n x i e t y a t t h a t t i m e w i t h t h a t person. T h e m o r e t h e a n x i e t y , t h e g r e a t e r I shall call t h e i n t e n s i t y . T h e s a m e h o l d s true of desire, ox a m i x t u r e of a n x i e t y and desire, o r of f e a r , r e m o r s e , o r h a t r e d . H o w l o w t h e i n t e n s i t y of a m e n t a l e v e n t m a y b e is p r o b l e m a t i c a l .
1

B u t t h a t i t m a y g o so h i g h a s t o d e r a n g e or d e s t r o y t h e

These basic physiological processes the functioning o nerves, lungs, liver, heart, and the like which I call substrata gestures, are concomitant with the mental event, and intimately linked with it. li the mental event varies suddenly in emotional intensity, the activity of the substrata gestures is apt to vary: sudden wrath or anxiety, and a sudden change in heart-beat and rapidity of breathing. Whether the wrath or anxiety causes the change in the substrata gestures, or whether the change in the substrata gestures causes the wrath or anxiety, it is hard to say. Much has been argued on each side. It is sufficient for the purposes of this paper to assume that the mental processes and the physiological processes are concomitant, without an attempted inquiry into which comes first in time or importance. If the reader finds this procedure arbitrary, let him miss several meals and notice the emotional condition of his mind; and having done so, let him wait until he is beset with worry and anxiety, and notice the condition of his appetite. C 1 2 :

organism is not unheard of. All this is contained in the inner vividness of the mental e v e n t " c a t . " A s to the meaning, i t m a y h a v e meant " f e l i n e a n i m a l , " or " w o m a n , " or a n y number of things. A s meaning m a y fluctuate, so too m a y quality a n d intensity fluctuate. E a c h one m a y v a r y among persons, or within the same person from time to time. E v e n if there is no instrument to measure intensity, or record quality, our experience tells us t h a t they are not necessarily constant. T h e word " w h i s k e y " m a y be uttered with desire in one individual and w i t h aversion in another. Within twelve hours the same person m a y shift from high desire to complete aversion. I n fact, if it were possible for a person to compile the words he uses and the occasions a t which he uses them in expressing himself, he would be surprised to see the differences in meaning, quality, and intensity of m a n y of the words over a period of time. Y e t I believe he would be equally surprised to find that these fluctuations in meaning a n d inner vividness were n o t absolutely a t random, as he might expect from a d a y to d a y observation. T h o u g h it is conceivable t h a t a word h a s a different meaning every time it occurs, y e t i t is probable that m a n y words will h a v e b u t a few meanings and will show a m o n g those meanings decided preferences; the m t a n i n g s will arrange themselves as primary, secondary, etc., even though there be competing meanings for the first, second, third place. So, too, the positive or negative quality of a word, though i t m a y be randomly shifting for some words, certainly with other words will show a decided preference for either the positive or negative or a certain mixture of the two. L i k e meaning, quality m a y not be invariably constant, but like meaning, i t m a y h a v e a marked t e n d e n c y or preference. I n the like manner, the intensity, although it too m a y fluctuate greatly for some words, should for others show a tendency toward a more marked stability, high or law. T o be sure, a man while starving might use " b r e a d " with a considerably higher intensity than he would while walking b y a bakery shop after dinner. Y e t though these fluctuations m a y be great, depending upon the varying situations, still you would hardly be willing to say t h a t from d a y to d a y the meanings, qualities, and intensities of your words v a r y absolutely a t random. So, too, y o u cannot say that they do not v a r y a t all, estimating meanings, qualities, intensities as they are a t the beginning and a t the end of a period of time a d a y , a month, a year, a decade, a score of years, a life-time. the inner vividness for m a n y words does not fluctuate a t all over a given period, or if i t If fluctuates

a great deal over a period of time, this m a y be s y m p t o m a t i c of a serious mental condition. Y e t no matter how serious the mental condition of the individual, the events of his mind would constitute language. I n light of the a b o v e , we m a y say then of inner vividness t h a t for a considerable group of individuals a t one time, or for a single individual over a considerable period of time, words in spite of all their fluctuations show a t e n d e n c y toward a preference of meaning, toward a stability of quali t y , whatever the quality m a y be, a n d toward a c o n s t a n c y of intensity. T o be sure, we have no positive w a y of knowing whether or not this applies to ail events of the mind, since we have no w a y of examining mind except through its expressions, and we can only appreciate expressions of the mind when they h a v e something approaching a preference for meaning, a stability of q u a l i t y , and a constancy of intensity. B u t t h a t i t is in general true for the mental events of spoken language is crystal clear, since all communication depends upon a tacit " a c c e p t a t i o n " of primary meanings, qualities, and intensities. T h e " a c c e p t e d " meanings need only b e approximate, likewise the qualities and intensities, v a r y i n g more or less as they do from individual to individual. B u t that there is a general agreement somewhere is evidenced by the v e r y existence of dictionaries. In other words, the usual meaning is the usual meaning, the usual q u a l i t y the usual quality, the usual intensity the usual intensity. W e are again in the field of probability.

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A n d even in cases where the spoken language is not w h a t we normally consider communication, that is, in the case of the language of a person raving with madness or delirium, still this language over a period of time reveals to the skillful observer a certain consistency of meaning, quality, and intensity perhaps a t utter variance with the " a c c e p t e d " inner vividness y e t none the less, fairly consistent, relative to the patient. A n d even where speech is not accessory to mental expression, t h a t is, in our dreams and phantasies, though the meanings of the symbols are illusive even to the dreamer, and the qualities and intensities far from obvious, y e t the great specialists in that field have made it clear that some of the symbols tend to recur with a consistency of inner vividness, not only frequently consistent to the individual, but sometimes consistent over great groups of people. A s a matter of fact, there must be a rough consistency of inner vividness throughout life, even though the mental event is in no w a y perceptible. A t least, every living mortal assumes a d a y to d a y consistency both in himself and in others. W e assume that we shall like and dislike tomorrow what we like and dislike t o d a y ; that we shall think and feel a n d " r e a s o n " tomorrow as w c think and feel and " r e a s o n " today. W e expect the same of others; and y e t our surprises, disappointments, and sudden fears show that in this we are often mistaken. I t is not only that external conditions alter, b u t we, likewise, change, change where to all intents and purposes externals are identical. Inner vividness is only something approximate, something that varies within a range; something constant enough so that life and society can generally function with an amazing degree of orderliness, y e t something fluctuating enough so that life and society generally function also with an amazing amount of conflict and friction. W h a t has all this to do with semantic change, the reader m a y ask. I t is the propelling cause behind semantic change. W e have seen how meaning m a y shift; this illustrates w h y meanings do shift, w h y one word is substituted for another at all. W h e n a mental event, from whatever cause, deviates decidedly from the normal in quality or intensity, another word m a y be substituted which more nearly approaches the quality and intensity dictated b y the exigencies of the moment. T h i s is not the whole story of semantic change, but it is b y far the most significant part, for the similarity in quality and intensity is to m y mind far more important in the substitution than similarity in meaning. In calling a " w o m a n " a " p e a c h , " or a " c a t , " or a " r o s e , " or a " b i t c h , " or a " v a m p i r e , " or a " m o u s e , " are we in the last analysis doing m u c h more than simply substituting the quality and perhaps intensity (I say advisedly " p e r h a p s " ) of " p e a c h , " One would rarely refer endearingly to a person as " p e s t - h o u s e . " H o w great a rle the accepted intensity of the substituted word plays in the substituting is problematical. I am of the opinion that it is in m a n y cases negligible. For in m a n y instances of substitution, the substituted word has normally only a mild or indifferent intensity, and the intensity of the substitution arises much more from the f a c t t h a t an unusual epithet has been bestowed than that it is an epithet of unusual intensity. I a m f a r from convinced t h a t a word of normally high emotional intensity, such as " b i t c h , " is selected for substitution because of its high emotional intensity; I believe rather that its present high emotional intensity has arisen from former sporadic substitution of unpleasant nature, a seemingly paradoxical proposition which we shall presently develop. W h e n asked or desiring to give the clear meaning of a n e v e n t , we do not normally " substit u t e " ; we " e x p l a i n . " Definition, exposition, synthesis, analysis, or whatever else you are inclined to p u t under the heading of logical explanation, seem to m e primarily a question of order or sequence of words. I n " e x p l a n a t i o n " it is a m a t t e r of using the " a c c e p t e d " meaning and " a c c e p t e d " inner vividness as far as possible. Occasionally in " e x p l a n a t i o n " there is metaphor and l H i "cat," " r o s e , " " b i t c h " and so forth? Surely there can be little doubt about the substitution of quality.

connotation-

B u t are not metaphor and connotation, that is, semantic change, rather used to convey

vividness than clarity? I s it not true that the more an explanation is in the world of metaphor, which is the world of feeling, the less likely it is that the auditor will follow, or, if he follows, the less likely that he will lend to the words the meaning with which the speaker intends to endow them? For with metaphor, by its very nature, the primary meaning is not to prevail. B u t with explanation, clarity depends upon a fairly strict adherence to " a c c e p t e d " meaning and " a c c e p t e d " inner vividness, and if I m a y here say so, upon a comprehensible o r d e r coherence. T h i s is then really the very problem of semantic change, the relationship between emotional intensity and clarity of meaning. T h o u g h we cannot define emotional intensity or clarity of meaning, we are all conscious of what they are; and I believe the solution to the riddle is to be found in what I term "order." Order, as I shall later explain and define it, is the essential difference between high intensity and clear meaning. Such a statement is in itself utterly meaningless. I mean that clarity tends to collect around " n o r m a l " order, and intensity around abnormal or " b r o k e n " or unusual order. I do not say there is a n y causal relationship, I simply state w h a t I hope to show is a fact. T h e more primary the meanings, the more fixed the qualities, the more normal the order, the lower will be the concomitant intensity. In other words, the usual is not Though emotionally intense, a proposition which is certainly not unheard of. H e n c e , intensity, like meaning, must somehow, even though only remotely, be connected with relative frequency. portant, let us proceed to examine the facts of order as far as language reveals them. E v e r y language has a pattern, so rigid that certain small violations of the pattern m a y lead instantly to obfuscation or incomprehensibility. A n d y e t the pattern is so loose and supple that an individual within his pattern m a y describe his entire consciousness, regardless of w h a t it be. But there is no divine decree behind a linguistic pattern, though the schoolmaster is rare who does not believe so. If we compare pattern with pattern, p u t t i n g one language beside another, we find nearly every conceivable order represented in the various patterns a d j e c t i v e s generally precede in one, follow in another; verbs precede in one, follow in another; inflectional suffixes are added in one, prefixes in another, neither in a third. If one looks a t linguistic patterns, one is forced to conclude that here, if anywhere, the usual order is the usual order. W e say " t h e black h o r s e " instead of " h o r s e black the," because it m a k e s better sense; y e t the reason it m a k e s better sense is not because of divine decree, b u t because the order is more usual. Again, exactly w h a t normal order is, I , for one, do not know. W h e n one says normal order, one means usual order. W h e n one speaks of the normal course of events, one means the usual course of events. W h e n the order of certain events becomes so fixed t h a t one does not e v e n think of the possibility of changing, we refer to those events in that crystallized order as h a b i t . A g a i n , there is obviously no divine decree behind order, although the temptation is a l w a y s great to assume that our habits, or our arrangement of events in the flow of time, is " p r o p e r " and " c o r r e c t . " The more often in the past a certain event preceded or succeeded another certain event or events at a relatively approximate interval in the flux of time, the more we are inclined to consider those events as being in a fixed order and expect they will continue to occur in the future in the like arrangement. W h e n A is a l w a y s followed by B , or B always preceded b y A , we say that A and B relative to each other are in firm sequential order; and judging from our p a s t experience, we postulate the same for the future. T h e less fixed the order in the past, the less positivelv do w e prognosticate the arrangement in the future. Let. us express this feeling in different terms: the more often that two or more events occur in a certain sequential order in the stream of time, the more fixed we consider those events in order. I n other words, briefly, the greater the relative frequency absolutely nothing is known definitely about order other than that it is everywhere extremely im-

H i ]

of an event in a certain sequence or sequences rather than in no sequence, the more fixed the order of the event. This is first of all true regardless of causal relationship, whatever causal relationship may mean. If great portions of life processes are found in a causal relationship in a sense other than that outlined b y the theory of Relative Frequency, the a b o v e statement of order will still hold true, in spite of the fact t h a t " c a u s a t i o n " should be found the basic factor of arrangement. Secondly, the definition of order does not necessitate the organism's " c o m p r e h e n s i o n " of the inner arrangement or of the possible appropriateness of the order. " I planted a seed, a tree grew, and here is an apple from the tree." Seed, tree, apple, are in fixed normal sequence, even though we cannot explain the connecting steps. T h e reason we say t h a t planting a seed and after a certain interval plucking an apple is reasonable and understandable is not that it is in the least understandable or reasonable according to our present knowledge, but that it is usual. L e t a man marry his grandmother and it is incomprehensible t o us; let a m a n beget a child and most of us do not wonder an instant about the processes involved. reasonable and understandable as the other. A n d yet, one is as much or as little W e make a greater stir about the one than the

other because it is less usual. N o t a small amount of h u m a n experience ma}' be lined up behind the acid statement that the greater the relative frequency the less the ado. A n d can we not say that one of the reasons that a pleasant thing becomes unpleasant to us is because it suddenly becomes too frequent or too rare in our life, or in the wrong order? " There is a time for all things." A n d does not the comprehensibility of the event become clouded, and isn't the meaning of the event unsettled by sudden shifts in frequency? Just as e v e r y e v e n t has some kind of quality and some " m e a n i n g , " so, too, every event of mind must h a v e a degree of determinacy of order. E v e r y event must be preceded and succeeded by another e v e n t , from the first event to the last event, whenever that m a y be. There is then no harm in estimating future probabilities of sequence from past occurrences. A n d y e t we also have breaches in norma! order. E v e r y word has syntactical possibilities and limitations; a word is unthinkable except as somehow ordered in the stream of time. A n y breach against usual order tends to unsettle the stability of both quality and meaning, and to increase the emotional intensity. A breach in order does not cause the unsettling, for one m a y just as reasonably commence with an unexpected emotional intensity and find order deranged. One m a y argue the causal relationship until the end of time; broken order is simply emotional intensity; emotional intensity is simply broken order they are concomitant. One is definable only in terms of the other. Y o u may consult all the specialized works on emotion y o u will; y o u m a y read investigations intended to measure, investigations intended to analyze, investigations intended to cure. W e talk daily about emotions y e t w h a t are they? T h e r e is no p a r t of the brain reserved for t h e m ; w h a t we consider the " c a u s e s " of them can arise in the lungs, liver, or in the mind itself. T h e y can have a source anywhere. All definitions of the emotions seem to gravitate about the proposition that emotion is inalienably connected with conflict. I s there any harm in saying that conflict is broken order, a deviation from whatever cause, from the normal course of events? D o not y o u r greatest sorrow's, greatest fears, greatest jovs come from an unexpected change in the habitual course of events? Is not the intensity of the emotion greater, the greater and more unexpected the deviation? Y e t as the unexpected event recurs more and more, in fact becomes less unexpected and more usual, in fact more and more a matter of course, does not the intensity correspondingly diminish? Of course there arc flash-backs, b u t we expect that in probability. the less the likelihood of flash-backs. B u t the greater the relative frequency, A n d if to our above factors of meaning, quality, intensity,

and order, we a d d likewise gradients of attention, fatigue, volition, as we shall when all of this is

[ 16 ]

brought together in one v o l u m e , a certain sense of e v e r y - d a y reality will b e g i n t o collect a r o u n d the Principle of Relative Frequency. O r d e r , a s used here, is b u t the sequence of e v e n t s . In the B u t w h a t is order, v o u m a y a s k ?

sequence of the e v e n t s A , B , C , D , E , t h e g r e a t e r the d e t e r m i n a c y , in the l i g h t of p r o b a b i l i t y , with which one e v e n t a n d n o t a n o t h e r a p p e a r s i m m e d i a t e l y or a t a certain i n t e r v a l i n s t e a d of less i m m e d i a t e l y or at an u n c e r t a i n i n t e r v a l , or n o t a t all, before or a f t e r a n o t h e r e v e n t , the more fixed the order of those e v e n t s . p b e n o m e n o l o g i c a l h ' of A f t e r the degree of p r o b a b i l i t y of a certain sequence b e c o m e s so g r e a t t h a t the likelihood of non-occurrence in t h a t s e q u e n c e b e c o m e s negligible, w e b e g i n t o s p e a k causation. A s t o W h i r l , let m e T h e reader m a y rebel at this definition, p a r t l y b e c a u s e he feels t h a t W h i r l m a y b e c o m e k i n g , and p a r t l y because order m a y w i t h passing t i m e b e c o m e v e r y d e t e r m i n e d . s a y t h a t with order so defined W h i r l ' s c h a n c e s of p a r t i a l or c o m p l e t e r e g e n c y in h u m a n personalities are, of course, definitely e x i s t e n t , a n d n u m e r o u s h u m a n beings behind or not behind l o c k e d doors g i v e p i t i f u l e v i d e n c e t o t h e v e r a c i t y of this s t a t e m e n t . T h e o b j e c t i o n of c o n s t a n t l y g r e a t e r d e t e r m i n a c y of certain s e q u e n c e s a t the e x p e n s e of o t h e r s is just as valid. W h e n , o u t of all possible e v e n t s arranged a c c o r d i n g to p r o b a b i l i t y of o c c u r r e n c e , one e v e n t i n s t e a d of a n y of the o t h e r s occurs, t h a t e v e n t f r a c t i o n a l l y increases, t h e r e b y , i t s p r o b a b i l i t y of re-occurrence b y c o r r e s p o n d ingly diminishing the p r o b a b i l i t y of the others. S o i t is t h a t w i t h passing y e a r s a n i n d i v i d u a l , regardless of his speciss. b e c o m e s more fixed a n d set in his w a y s , and a new order or a new i n t e n s i t y or a new q u a l i t y suffices to a n n i h i l a t e h i m , e v e n t h o u g h it be o n l y of a slight d e g r e e of d e v i a t i o n from the normal, so slight t h a t in the i n d i v i d u a l ' s y o u t h he w o u l d h a v e a d j u s t e d himself to i t c o m p a r a t i v e l y easily. A n d w h y does n o t l a n g u a g e b e c o m e so c r y s t a l l i z e d , for l a n g u a g e r e p r e s e n t s this order par excellence? I t does. B u t t h e g r e a t t h i n g t h a t s a v e s l a n g u a g e f r o m b e c o m i n g e n t i r e l y c r y s t a l l i z e d F o r w h e n the sequence A , B , C , D , b e c o m e s so fixed t h a t w h e n e v e r A o c c u r s is abbreviation.

the odds are enormous t h a t B , C , I ) , E will f o l l o w , the e c o n o m y of l a n g u a g e a b b r e v i a t e s B , C , D , E , using only A . S o , too, w h e n t h e o d d s are in f a v o r of B , or C , or D , or E , so t h a t w h e n a n y one or more of them occur, it o r t h e y will o c c u r in this s e q u e n c e , t h a t s y m b o l o r those s y m b o l s m a y stand for the sequence. T h e r e is n o t h i n g in the n a t u r e of m e a n i n g t h a t it c a n n o t b e c o n t a i n e d in one s y m b o l r a t h e r than in a n o t h e r or others, p r o v i d e d t h a t it once b e c o m c s e s t a b l i s h e d either b y a b b r e v i a t i o n or s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , w h i c h are to all i n t e n t s and purposes the s a m e t h i n g . W h e n for the sequence A , B , C , D , E one of the s y m b o l s therein c o n t a i n e d is s u b s t i t u t e d , w e call it abbreviation, w h e n an outside s y m b o l A" is s u b s t i t u t e d , w e call it s e m a n t i c change. I s p e a k of s y m b o l s adv i s e d l y ; a s y m b o l is s o m e t h i n g t h a t s t a n d s for s o m e t h i n g else. B u t I shall show t h a t a s y m b o l is also a mental e v e n t . T h e c o n s e r v a t i v e t e n d e n c y w h i c h causes a b b r e v i a t i o n is the s a m e t e n d e n c y which m a i n t a i n s the a b b r e v i a t i o n a n d tends to p r e v e n t regression to the original s e q u e n c e w h i c h , wherever it m a y exist a f t e r it h a s been a b b r e v i a t e d , c o n t a i n s the m e a n i n g a t t a c h e d t o t h e new s y m b o l . A n d so the s y m b o l arising f r o m a b b r e v i a t i o n m a y c o m b i n e with o t h e r s y m b o l s arising from a b b r e v i a t i o n until a fixed sequence arises, a n d a new a b b r e v i a t i o n t a k e s place tion upon a b b r e v i a t i o n ad infinitum. atter s t r a t a of s y m b o l s in e v e r m o r e fixed a n d c r y s t a l l i z e d order. abbreviaIf w e d e l v e i n t o the roots of a s y m b o l , w e m a y h i t s t r a t a W h e n d o e s one finally reach

reality, do y o u a s k ? I likewise ask. T h e o r d e r m a y b e c o m e so firm as to be s u b c o n s c i o u s , instinctive, to be reflexive, t o be s t r u c t u r a l these are t h e substrata gestures, of w h i c h t h e p e r m u t a t i o n s and c o m b i n a t i o n s in time m a k e up consciousness. and y o u are still in the field of s y m b o l i s m . F o r as we review the d e v e l o p m e n t of life, as f a r as it is k n o w n to us, we see t h a t these a b b r e v i a tions of sequences arising b y c h a n c e h a v e led to t h e g r e a t e s t v a r i e t y of species. A n d as a m e m b e r [17 3 W h e r e is r e a l i t y ? G o e v e n i n t o cell s t r u c t u r e

of a species b e g i n s to d e v e l o p , if it h a s an e m b r y o n i c s t a g e a t all, it rehearses, as we all k n o w , the entire previous essential his tor) - of its species in abbreviated order. T h e r e is no essential d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a n a m o e b a distending its wall for a f o o d p a r t i c l e , a d o g d i g g i n g for a bone, a child reaching for a cookie, and an old m a n c r y i n g for b r e a d . T h e y are all r e a c t i n g to their e n v i r o n m e n t in a d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n w i t h different r e l a t i v e frequencies. A s the r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y b e c o m e s g r e a t e r , Y o u d o not need to think y o u r h a n d is the likelihood of definite i n h e r i t a b i l i t y b e c o m e s g r e a t e r .

less a s y m b o l t h a n y o u r words s i m p l y b e c a u s e y o u c a n p e r c e i v e the material s u b s t a n c e in t h e one. T h e essential d e v e l o p m e n t , m o v e m e n t , g e s t u r e , o r d e r i n g in y o u r h a n d are really i m p o r t a n t ; t h e molecules are replaced r e m a r k a b l y o f t e n t h r o u g h o u t life. L o o k a t y o u r h a n d in the light of e v o lution and consider it a s l o w l y d e v e l o p i n g a b b r e v i a t i o n of m a n i f o l d gestures of defense a n d aggression therein c e n t e r e d , b e c o m i n g ever m o r e c r y s t a l l i z e d in t h e order of its d e v e l o p m e n t a n d f u n c t i o n s , all i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d , like a w o r d , w i t h t h e w h o l e ego. I n d e e d , we m i g h t go o n indefinitely w i t h this t h e o r y , regarding p h y s i c a l disease as i n t e r r u p t e d or broken essential p h y s i o logical order, regarding m e n t a l disease as b r o k e n or i n t e r r u p t e d instincts or h a b i t s , s h o w i n g t h a t our intelligence a n d reason, of which we are so p r o u d , h a v e been o b t a i n e d a t the e x p e n s e of the s t a b i l i t y of i n s t i n c t i v e process, a b a r g a i n of t h e p a s t w h i c h , a s our propensities for drugs a n d narcotics i n d i c a t e , is n o t n o w a l w a y s u n a n i m o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d wise. w h a t f a c i l i t a t e d b y using t e r m s of the Gcstalt a n d Freudian A n d it is fitting t h a t such a t h e o r y of life should c o m e from the philologist, e v e n t h o u g h his expression of it w o u l d be somes y s t e m s of p s y c h o l o g y , those t w o p o w e r f u l s y s t e m s which h a v e so g r e a t l y a i d e d o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of ourselves. T h e m o d e r n t h e o r e t i c a l linguist h a s a p o s i t i o n of n a t u r a l a d v a n t a g e . H e f i n d s his e v i d e n c e all sorted and classified for h i m , e v i d e n c e g o i n g b a c k t h o u s a n d s of y e a r s and e x t e n d i n g o v e r millions of s q u a r e miles, the record of billions of m o r t a l s , s t u d i e d a n d o r d e r l y a r r a n g e d b y some of the m o s t brilliant m i n d s of the last a n d p r e s e n t centuries. A n d t h o u g h he w o r k s alone he has at his hand the fruits of i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d s p e c u l a t i o n of the m o d e r n p s y c h o l o g i s t s , physicists, c h e m i s t s , philosophers to e n c o u r a g e and p o i n t the w a y . Y e t t h e g r e a t e s t a n d m o s t unique a d v a n t a g e he h a s in the v e r y n a t u r e of his m a t e r i a l . H e can o b s e r v e b o t h b y l o o k i n g into himself a n d a t others. The p r o b l e m of c h a n g e a n d m u t a t i o n is t h e s a m e for h i m as f o r the b i o l o g i s t ; b u t the linguist c a n observe m u t a t i o n s t a k i n g place in his v e r y l i f e t i m e w i t h o u t s u b j e c t i n g his o b j e c t of e x p e r i m e n t to a strain w h i c h , in being g r e a t e n o u g h to b r e a k e s t a b l i s h e d order, m a y be more t h a n sufficient t o annihilate the o b j e c t . H o w e v e r , all of this is e a s y to say. L e t us n o w t u r n to the proof. F o r the great p r o b l e m is h o w w e c a n d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t this t h e o r y of a b b r e v i a t i o n and the f u n c t i o n a l relationship of order a n d e m o t i o n is true. A n d t h e g r e a t i m p e d i m e n t to proof is the question of w h a t in all l a n g u a g e shall we t a k e a s a basic u n i t for m e a s u r e m e n t . F o r there h a s never been a g r e e m e n t as t o w h a t t h e u n i t of l a n g u a g e is. O n e m a y argue e q u a l l y p l a u s i b l y for s o u n d s , syllables, words, phrases, c l a u s e s , s e n t e n c e s , a n d so f o r t h , and each one of these units is serviceable, d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e n a t u r e of the p r o b l e m . Y e t there is no c o m m o n We Takbasic u n i t w h i c h unites p h o n o l o g y w i t h m o r p h o l o g y , w i t h s y n t a x , w i t h s e m a n t i c c h a n g e . h a v e no m e a s u r i n g rods, scales, or w a t c h e s to s h i f t p i n t s i n t o p o u n d s , or hours into meters. q u e n c y , the less the conspicuousness, a s d e f i n e d a n d i l l u s t r a t e d in P a r t O n e of this p a p e r . to w e a r a w a y the syllable. A n d elsewhere
1

ing sounds a s a u n i t , w e find e v i d e n c e to s u p p o r t t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t the greater the relative freTaking syllables as a u n i t , e v e r y philologist is w i l l i n g t o c o n c e d e t h a t i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y of usage is a p t 1 h a v e s h o w n t h a t s y l l a b i c a c c e n t t h a t g r e a t supB u t w h e n w e come t o w o r d s , let p o r t of form is a p t to diminish w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y . t h a t will include all these?
1

alone phrases, clauses, a n d sentences, w e are f r a n k l y at our w i t s ' ends. W h a t is the c o m m o n unit

Zipf, op. ciipp.

5 ff.

[ 18]

The common unit is a time triangle.

W h e n 1 s a y that A is a n a b b r e v i a t i o n for A B C D E , a

sequence which h a p p e n e d to be preceded b y e v e n t Y a n d f o l l o w e d b y e v e n t Z, I h a v e really said that the a b b r e v i a t i o n A is a short cut t h r o u g h time f r o m Y t o Z , a n d h a v e g i v e n t h e r e b y an example of a t i m e t r i a n g l e : A

d i r e c t i o n of t i m e

Y A Z is shorter than Y A B C D E Z . If o n e s u b s t i t u t e s an o u t s i d e s y m b o l , X ( s e m a n t i c c h a n g e ) for the sequence, Y X Z is still shorter in time t h a n Y A B C I ) E Ze v e n t intervenes i n s t e a d of five. T h e s u m of Y A I t is shorter b e c a u s e one If the + A Z is s h o r t e r t h a n Y A B C D E Z. 1

reader wonders a t this, let m e assure him t h a t I a m not m e a s u r i n g b y solar t i m e , e v e n t h o u g h solar time u l t i m a t e l y belongs most d e c i d e d l y in the p i c t u r e . 1 can m a k e the t i m e of this triangle clearer to y o u b y a little e x p e r i m e n t . L e t me lock y o u in an enclosure from w h i c h sun a n d s t a r l i g h t are e x c l u d e d . deduce solar time. I s the e x p e r i m e n t clear? w h a t measure is it long or short? I shall t a k e y o u r w a t c h , but in return I shali g i v e y o u e v e r y t h i n g y o u a s k for, e x c e p t a n y o b j e c t b y which y o u can N o w as long as y o u are e n t e r t a i n e d there, y o u will find time short; while y o u are bored, y o u will find time long. I s t h a t n o t true? B u t , a c c o r d i n g to I t h i n k y o u will a d m i t t h a t y o u r feelings a b o u t s l o w n e s s or swiftness of passing time h a v e little or n o t h i n g to d o w i t h a c l o c k , b u t e v e r y t h i n g t o do w i t h the nature and i n t e n s i t y of y o u r e m o t i o n s a t the t i m e . N o w , t h a t s u b j e c t i v e s t r e a m of t i m e a c c o r d i n g to which y o u s a y t h a t a g i v e n p o r t i o n of y o u r life seemed long or short, seemed to p a s s e s p e c i a l l y s l o w l y or r a p i d l y , is the same s t r e a m of time in which I shall s a y t h a t the unit of l a n g u a g e f o r m s a t i m e triangle. I shall call it psychic time. I shall s a y the unit of l a n g u a g e is a m e n t a l e v e n t w h i c h in t u r n is a lime triangle in psychic time. It is And

' ' B u t this psychic time is not a b s o l u t e like clock time. H o w c a n y o u use it a s a measure?"' just exactly as little a b s o l u t e as clock t i m e ; t h a t is precisely the p o i n t of the m a t t e r . from Y to Z b y m e a n s of A , it t a k e s less t i m e than f r o m Y to Z b y m e a n s of A B C D E .

In going

since time is merely t h a t b y m e a n s of w h i c h we m e a s u r e v e l o c i t y , we m a y , therefore, s a y t h a t the mental e v e n t A , being t h e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n Y a n d Z , is r e l a t i v e l y f a s t e r than A B C D E , being also the i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n Y a n d Z . W i t h o u t the a b b r e v i a t i o n , the e v e n t s of y o u r m i n d run, let us s a v , W Y A B C D E Z with the a b b r e v i a t i o n the e v e n t s run V W Y A Z - * a n d the o n l y w a y y o u c a n tell f r o m the stream of consciousness t h a t a b b r e v i a t i o n h a s t a k e n p l a c e (or s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , if one uses X instead of A ) is t h a t there is a s u d d e n a c c e l e r a t i o n b e t w e e n Y a n d Z . I f Y and Z in turn are likewise a b b r e v i a t i o n s o r s u b s t i t u t i o n s a n d t h e r e b y . e n j o y a c c e l e r a t i o n , there is then no w a y of telling
1

Cf. A. S. Eddington: The Natura of the Physical World, New York, MacmiHan (1930), pp. HI ft., for a
T h i s b o o k , t o g e t h e r w i t h A . N . W h i t e h e a d ' s Sy?>t-

c l e a r a n d p o p u l a r d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t i m e t r i a n t e in p h y s i c s .

bo!ism, Its Meaning end Effect, New York, Mac.millan (jg -'7), and Kurt Koffka's The Growth of the Mind, New York,
H a r c o u r t B r a c o ( 1 9 2 8 ) , t o g e t h e r w i t h m a n y h a p p y d i s c u s s i o n s of F r e u d i a n p r i n c i p l e ? w i t h P r o f e s s o r H . A . S h a w a t

Harvard, hive been helpful to me in revamping and expressing the Principie of Relative Frequency, though it has
o f t e n b e e n i m p o s s i b l e t o r e c o n c i l e s o m e of t h e m o r e s p e c u l a t i v e t h e o r i e s o f t h e Geslalt w i t h t h e f a c t s of l a n g u a g e .

[ 1 9 ]

that A is an abbreviation except from the f a c t that it does not slow down. I need not point o u t t h a t V W Y A Z are loosely ordered mental events, and should they through relative frequency o! occurrence become sufficiently crystallized to j u s t i f y abbreviation, and should some other e v e n t than A be used for the abbreviation, and should A likewise disappear from other sequences b y the same process, A m a y utterly disappear from consciousness, and simply be carried on in essence by the abbreviating symbols. T h i s is the structure of language to m y mind. A n d " m e a n i n g " is really w h a t lies behind, or if y o u will, below the symbols. B u t before we proceed to quality a n d intensity of mental events, let us sum up w h a t we h a v e said on the basis of our assumptions: the greater the relative determinacy of order, the less the relative speedy and vice versa. T h o u g h this is a n astonishing statement, I shall, none the less, p r o v e that i t is true, as an analysis of language will show. N o w , it follows from w h a t we h a v e said before that the greater the relative acceleration, the greater the proportionate emotion, for emotion is b u t a lack of determinacy of order. V W Y A Z are less determined in order than V W Y A B C D E Z , even though A B C D E are the only
u

events in determined sequence. I t seems almost as if the persons w h o coined

abbreviation" and W h a t happens to

" e m o t i o n " were somehow conscious of the Principle of R e l a t i v e Frequency.

A B O D E while abbreviated, I do n o t know (nor do you). B u t that they are not annihilated forever is evidenced b y their chance occurrence again in that sequence in the stream of consciousness. Surely such an exposition explains the significance of order, intensity, and meaning, b u t it leaves quality o u t of the picture. A n d y e t quality is most important, for i t furnishes the motive. One m a y proceed from A to B for one of several reasons. I t m a y be an escape from A because A is unpleasant (in which case A has a negative quality); or one m a y proceed from A to B because B is more pleasant (in which case B is more positive or is j u s t as positive with a greater degree of intensity). W e m a y speak of negative as fear a n d positive as desire. A n d these two well recognized qualities, as roughly as they are here stated, are really the propelling m o t i v e s behind the sequence of events. W i t h a proper understanding of quality, we c a n ultimately gain great light on this theory from previous studies of the neurosis, and, if this theory of emotion be correct, throw a great deal of light o n the s t u d y of t h e neurosis. T h e reader m a y n o t understand the important role of quality in life. H e m a y say t h a t he can understand w h y an individual should w a n t to p u t a negative e v e n t behind him, or flee f r o m a low positive intensity to a higher positive intensity, b u t w h y should h e wish to leave a v e r y high positive intensity for something else? I n simple words, y o u h a v e said " I can see w h y a person w a n t s to escape an unpleasant e v e n t , or leave a pleasant event for a more pleasant event, b u t I cannot see w h y he should w a n t to leave a v e r y pleasant e v e n t for one which is less p l e a s a n t . " I n short, w h y don't we a l w a y s do just w h a t we like most to do? A v e r y frequent question in this world! L e t us try to answer i t according to Relative Frequency. L e t us assume t h a t the e v e n t h a s a high positive intensity, + A . N o w let us Being assume that there are, likewise, -f- B and + C , different, b u t approximate in intensity. L e t u s now restrict our a c t i v i t y to t h e m : + A - f B + C - f - C + B - f - A + B - | - C + B , etc. limited to three events, t h e y can h a v e only a limited number of permutations. of the sequences, order will become more crystallized. N o matter h o w

hard y o u try, with passing time they will develop sequences, and with the high relative frequency W i t h increased crystallization or determinacy of order, emotional intensity begins to decrease. A n d after the intensity diminishes far enough i t will be less than t h e emotional intensity of e v e n t s other than A , B , C , and to these other events y o u then proceed. F o r as you conceded a m o m e n t ago, y o u can easily understand passing from pleasant e v e n t or e v e n t s to more pleasant events. If y o u would like to experiment in the matter, p i c k out the most delicious article of diet, or the most exquisite piece of music, or the m o s t refreshing form of exercise, mental or physical, and con-

gge yourself to i t d a y on end, week on end. Y o u will become tired of it? I agree. F a t i g u e is a ftinction of relative frequency and serves to keep y o u f r o m increasing t h e relative f r e q u e n c y too g r t as X hope to explain when I have more available space. B u t in spite of the f a c t t h a t you are Incoming tired of your favorite dish of lobster that y o u h a v e eaten daily f o r ten days, continue gating lobster for another ten days. A n d now how do y o u feel a b o u t lobster? So y o u are sick of it |itd don't w a n t another! A f t e r a further ten days of forceful feeding of lobster y o u would most ^ f i n i t e l y not w a n t a n y more a t all. T h e erstwhile high positive intensity has become a high itegative intensity. T h i s is surely an e v e r y - d a y phenomenon, familiar to all. Over-indulgence brings satiety. A n d yet, to m y mind, it is nothing b u t too rapid acceleration of the relative freq u e n c y . T h e attendant derangement of the substrata gestures which m a y be broadly termed sickness whether it be an upset stomach or cancer of the skin, is in m y opinion in the last analysis d u e to nothing more than a breach in crystallized order, f r o m w h a t e v e r source or trauma t h a t y o u wish. I n increasing the relative frequency of lobster y o u h a v e b r o k e n the strict order of the everyday; it is both the increased frequency of the one a n d the broken order of the other t h a t leads to the resultant trouble. Certainly the fault is not w i t h the lobster; for customary activities are appallingly different among individuals and everywhere w e notice t h a t w h a t is food for one m a y h e poison for another. I t is regrettable to me that right a t this point where the physiological, men" tal, and evolutionary aspects of the Principle of Relative Frequency are becoming so pertinent we must return to linguistic considerations. B u t before returning to linguistic considerations, let m e say here for the sake of a n y mathematician w h o m a y p l a n to formulate the ensuing d a t a more exactly, the ability of the highly intense positive to become the highly intense negative, in m y opinion, introduces the devil into the formula in the f o r m of V i . A n d now to linguistics. Highly emotional mental events are rare. If t h e y are of negative quality, they tend to be rare because of a natural desire to avoid them. If they are positiye, they t e n d to occur rarely because of their tendency to shrink in emotional intensity when their frequency increases. A n d they b y the same token tend to be manifold in v a r i e t y . For nothing c a n intervene between m e n t a l events except mental events; and these intervening mental e v e n t s will be positive or negative or neutral, and subject to the same general laws of abbreviation. T h i s tendency of mental e v e n t s to be rare and manifold in variety I shall call the life tendency. I n simple terms it is the tendency to increase experience b y a hazardous seeking for the new. B u t , opposing the life tendency, w h i c h increases variety, is abbreviation which reduces number when frequency increases. I shall call this tendency to decrease number a n d variety b y abbreviation when relative frequency increases, the death tendency, being willing to agree if the reader insists t h a t this is roughly identical w i t h F r e u d ' s death instinct, though I h a v e no space to argue the point. Life tendency and death tendency are constantly counterbalancing each other, emotional intensity o n the one h a n d versus the stability of meaning and order on the other. A s I look a t life, I think one can say t h a t the one tendency takes us from our mothers' w o m b and with passing time hands u s over more a n d more to the other tendency which gives us surcease in the g r a v e . I n m a n y w a y s we seem to be like the physical universe, which we are told expands only to c o n t r a c t . B u t b e t h a t a s i t m a y . If i t be true that there is this balance in mind between the rare occurrence of m a n y dissimilar e v e n t s a n d the frequent occurrence of a small number of events, this balance is the basic law of life a s well as mind. L e t us translate the law into terms of language. L e t us take the word " a u t o m o b i l e , " and remember t h a t w e shall use as our measure the time triangle. Shall we call the sounds the events? If y o u like; there are eight of them a n d the sequence i s A B C D E F G H . These sounds occur in other sequences, b u t their order in this sequence, as in other sequences, is v e r y fixed, and the emotional intensity of a n y one is practically nil. Sounds are meaningless if not fixed in sequences. A n d each sound represents particular ges[ 2 1 ]

tares o i v a r i o u s o r g a n s of t h e m o u t h , p l u s t h e s u b s t r a t a g e s t u r e s . T h e p h o n e t i c g e s t u r e s a r e c r y s tallized in a r r a n g e m e n t a n d sequence in time. A s a s o u n d increases in r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y , t h e s e S h a l l we g e s t u r e s are a b b r e v i a t e d m o r e a n d m o r e , losing, t h e r e b y , w h a t I call consficuousness.

t a k e s y l l a b l e s a s t h e e v e n t s ? T h e r e are f o u r s y l l a b l e s in " a u t o m o b i l e " a n d the sequence m a y b e referred t o a s L M N O w h i c h is r e a l l y a n a b b r e v i a t i o n o f A B C D E F G H w h i c h are s u b s t r a t a w h e n t h e m e a s u r e m e n t is of syllables. L , M , N , a n d 0 each occur elsewhere p r e s u m a b l y . elsewhere. 1 Though f a i r l y c r y s t a l l i z e d , a c c e n t t e n d s i n t h e l o n g r u n t o h o v e r a b o u t the r e l a t i v e l y r a r e a s I h a v e s h o w n L e t us a s s u m e t h a t t h e sequence L M N 0 , f o r one r e a s o n o r a n o t h e r , b e c o m e s relaA n y one, t w o , o r three of t h e m e n t a l e v e n t s m a y b e a b b r e v i a t e d , those So w e m a y t a k e tively more frequent.

g o i n g first w h i c h a r e less essential, t h a t is, w h i c h o c c u r in m o r e o t h e r sequences.

" a u t o , " o r " b i l " (as in I c e l a n d i c ) f o r e x a m p l e . I f " a u , " o r " a u t , " or " t o , " o r " m o " d o n o t o c c u r a s a b b r e v i a t i o n s , i t m a y b e b e c a u s e t h e y a r e a l r e a d y a b b r e v i a t i o n s or s y m b o l s of s o m e t h i n g else a n d would lead to confusion, or it m a y b e simply chance. C a n w e shorten " a u t o " f u r t h e r ? Yes, b y semantic change, we can substitute " c a r . " T h i s tendency toward abbreviation and substitution is e v i d e n c e d b y t h e t e n d e n c y of s h o r t w o r d s t o be f r e q u e n t a n d long w o r d s rare. 2 B u t n o w l e t us t a k e t h e w o r d " a u t o m o b i l e " a s a single s y m b o l , X , a n d consider, a s s u b s t r a t a , s y l l a b l e s a s w e l l a s s o u n d s . V e r y g o o d , b u t t h e n w e m u s t h a v e a s t r e a m of w o r d s in w h i c h t h e s y m b o l X o c c u r s a m o n g i t s f e l l o w s so t h a t w e m a y e s t i m a t e i t s f r e q u e n c y . a b o u t Rdative Frequency, I f all w e h a v e s a i d a b b r e v i a t i o n , a n d s e m a n t i c c h a n g e b e true, t h e n in e x a m i n i n g a suffiT h a t would be the

c i e n t n u m b e r of w o r d s in t h e s t r e a m of l a n g u a g e , w e s h o u l d e x p e c t t o find m a n y d i f f e r e n t w o r d s occurring relatively rarely, and only a f e w occurring relatively frequently. language m a y be. I h a v e i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e w o r d s of 20,000 s y l l a b l e s of m o d e m colloquial C h i n e s e of P e k i n g ( t h e s a m e selections of w h i c h t h e s o u n d s w e r e e x a m i n e d in P a r t O n e ) . c u r r e n c e of all w o r d s in P l a u t u s ' Aulularia, Mostellaria, T h e actual words with their a n d Pseudolus,3 and the f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r r e n c e are t o b e f o u n d in A p p e n d i x C . I h a v e i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e f r e q u e n c y of ocTrinummus, w o r d s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e n u m b e r of their o c c u r r e n c e s m a y b e f o u n d in A p p e n d i x A . In addition, proof of the p u d d i n g ; a n d i t h a p p e n s t o b e true, regardless of h o w inflected or u n i n f e c t e d t h e

I h a v e t a k e n R . C . E l d r i d g e ' s a n a l y s i s 4 of the f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r r e n c e in A m e r i c a n n e w s p a p e r s of selections t o t a l l i n g 43,990 w o r d s (exclusive of n u m e r a l s a n d p r o p e r n a m e s ) . I h a v e n o t used F . W . K a e d i n g ' s 5 e l a b o r a t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of t h e G e r m a n l a n g u a g e b e c a u s e u n f o r t u n a t e l y his r e s u l t s a r e n o t in a f o r m s e r v i c e a b l e t o s t a t i s t i c s . B u t K a e d i n g a g r e e s ( p a g e 54 ff.) w i t h m y o w n r e s u l t s a n d those of E l d r i d g e , t h a t m a n y w o r d s o c c u r r a r e l y , a n d o n l y a f e w f r e q u e n t l y . B e l o w are t a b u l a t e d t h e n u m b e r of w o r d s a n d t h e t i m e s of their o c c u r r e n c e , in C h i n e s e , E n g l i s h , a n d L a t i n selected for their importance for future work. t h a t is, in a n e g l i g i b l y i n f l e c t e d , in a s l i g h t l y i n f l e c t e d , a n d in a f a i r l y h i g h l y i n f l e c t e d l a n g u a g e , so U n d e r each language the left-hand column gives t h e n u m b e r of t i m e s t h e w o r d o c c u r s , t h e r i g h t - h a n d c o l u m n g i v e s the n u m b e r of w o r d s , e a c h o n e of "which o c c u r s t h a t m a n y times. I n p a r e n t h e s e s a f t e r t h e n u m b e r of w o r d s in C h i n e s e a n d L a t i n a r e g i v e n the n u m b e r of s y l l a b l e s . F o r C h i n e s e t h e a c t u a l n u m b e r of w o r d s in e a c h f r e q u e n c y w h i c h h a v e o n e , t w o , three, etc., s y l l a b l e s is g i v e n w i t h a s m a l l n u m b e r a t t h e u p p e r r i g h t to d e s i g See supra, p. 1. See infra, p. 23. According to the Oxford edition. The elision of est withaprecedingwordisindicatedbyitalicsfe.g.inopiaj/); the elision of es is indicated by apostrophe (e. g. pessumu's). Differences in vowel quantity were not recorded, nor would their consideration seriously alter the statistics, as the reader will see for himself by examining the list of words in the Appendix. 4 R. C. Eldridge: Six Thousand Common English Words, copyright i g n , privately printed at Niagara Falls, New York. s F. W. Kaeding: Haufiskeitsworterbuch der deidschen Sprache, Steglitz, bei Berlin, 1898.
1 1 3

CaaD

C HINESE
Number of Words with their Syllables

L ATIN OF P LAUTOS
Average number of Syllables

2046 494 316 too 99 66 41 25 3 20 25 22 10 14 13 10 10 6 5 5 4 2 5 3 4 4 6 6 2

(315' (no1 ( ( ( ( ( ( 59 1 24 1 39 l 24 1 16 1 io

1571' 358' 147*

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( I3 1 ( '31 ( I4l ( I51 ( 6> ( 7' ( 5' ( 4' ( 6' ( 21 ( 4' ( 5') ( 3' < 2'! ( 4' ( 2> ( 31

58* 41* 25") 14' 15* in

144' 14' 3') 23 1 9' 3") 2') Is) 1') l>

2976 1079 516 294 212 151 105 4 86 4S 40 37 13 14 15 16 17 18 ig 25 28 26 17 18 IO 15 16 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

I4)

54!9 J19S 492 299 161 126 87 69 54 43 44 36 33 31 '3 25

i-23) .92) 77)

05)

60) 53) 39) 44) 35)

32)

!,)
7') 4) 7s)

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5' 41) 4') >) i4) 1') **) 1*) 3') 2') 2') i4)

29) 3) 3) '9) 07) 4) 09) .04) (2.18)

( >

23 H 25
26

( ( (

4 4' I1

27
28

23 24 25 26 27 28 29 3 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 5 Si 53 54 55 56 58 61 71 62-514 71

(2.08)

(2.00)

i1 i1

i') 2s)

i')

9 JO 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 40 5 51 52 54 55 56 58 60 61-4290

(2.05)

(1.70)

()

(1.40)

[ 2 3 ]

nate the number of syllables, thus permitting u s to see the tendency of long words to occur rarely, which we should expect from the Principle of Relative Frequency and A b b r e v i a t i o n . Where the number of syllables is not marked, the words are monosyllables. I n L a t i n the parentheses embrace the average number of syllables of all the words h a v i n g the given occurrence. T h e astonishing thing about this marked tendency is not t h a t i t is new for i t is well-known among linguists and as self-evident as gravitation. T h e astonishing thing is that i t should occur to anyone to build up a law of language and mind upon it. B u t even more astonishing it is that, like gravitation, there is not only a pull t o w a r d abbreviation, b u t the pull toward abbreviation I I ' i varies in an orderly fashion as the frequency increases. T h a t is, regardless of whether the language is highly inflected or not (and this is v e r y important to show the functional interrelationship of morphology and syntax), the number of words decreases with a marked similarity u p o n increase of usage. B u t the overwhelming disclosure is this, t h a t the formula for abbreviation is ab* = k, a formula e x a c t l y identical to t h a t of gravitation. F o r we can plot these figures on double logarithmic charts, marking off on the horizontal axis the actual number of words w h i c h occur a t a given frequency, and marking off on the vertical axis the frequency with which the words occur. T h e charts for the w o r d s in P l a u t u s and English are given opposite on p a g e 25. T h e upper c h a r t on p a g e 26 is for Chinese words. on page 26, f o r Chinese syllables, should be disregarded. T h e lower c h a r t T h e reasons for its inclusion are g i v e n

below. T h e diagonal line represents the formula ab* = k , a n d the reader can judge for himself if this does not pass through the indicated points with reasonable closeness. T h e deviations from the line a b ! are in all three cases r e m a r k a b l y slight. If it deviates in E n g lish a t the v e r y low frequencies, t h a t is because Eldridge omitted proper names and numerals which are as m u c h words as a n y of the others. B u t the slight deviation is due to two other causes: (1) the natural probability of error; (2) the fact t h a t they are based on written language a n d n o t spoken or thought, and hence the authors of the selections, in m a k i n g a n y erasure for re-writing, have artificially distorted w h a t was the normal course of events. Y o u m a y a s k , " w h y did y o u not also p l o t t h e w o r d s w i t h h i g h frequencies which, according to the lists o n p a g e 23, w o u l d m a k e t h e diagonal line suddenly j u m p , and not follow the straight line of t h e f o r m u l a a b s = k i n the w a y y o u indicate b y the dotted line on all three charts? F o r P l a u t u s , for example, y o u did not include words w h i c h occurred more often than fifty times. A n d so too, correspondingly, for E n g l i s h and C h i n e s e . " Y o u will find t h a t the line would j u m p a t exactly t h a t p o i n t where, according to the formula., fractional words are called for. I shall call this the scattering point a n d it is where the problems of syntax, morphology, and semantic Change meet. For w h e n w e say t h a t the square of the frequency of occurrence times the number of words possessing thai frequency remains constant, we must perforce have, with high frequencies, fractional words which do not exist. T h i s demand of the formula for fractional words is represented b y the sudden spurt of frequency w i t h ever greater intervals in between. T h e chart for Chinese syllables I include here simply because t h e present publication seemed ideal for the inclusion (in A p p e n d i x D ) of the frequency lists of Chinese syllables and tones, of which I shall m a k e future use in a t t e m p t i n g to show t h a t t h e degree of inflection of a language is possible of rough computation. I t is with true regret t h a t m y space now necessitates conclusion, without m y even broaching the question of language as a perception. If one chooses to regard w h a t I call a sequence as a Galalt, or t o c o m p a r e m y definition of emotion w i t h t h a t of the F r e u d i a n school, well a n d good. T h a t I have not done so myself is p a r t l y because I wished the Principle of Relative Frequency to

L 241

FREQUENCY OF THE

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OCCURRENCE. IN T H E

LATIN OF PLAl/TUS
(Avl -UUftRIA, MosTELLSRIft ^EuOOLUS 4 TRINUMMUS.)

WORDS

FRE&UENCY OF THE

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stand on its own feet, and p a r t l y because some of the theories of the Gestalt, as I understand them, definitely do not agree w i t h the phenomena of l a n g u a g e as I observe them. A n d as we h a v e argued of words, so we m a y argue of phrases, clauses, sentences, regarding in turn the phrase, the clause, the sentence, as the s y m b o l , a n d considering the words as substrata, even though in doing this, order a n d abbreviation p l a y a less perceptible role. T h e w o r d seems roughly to be that unit of consciousness in which the degree of determinacy of order a n d the intensity of emotion are within such a range as to be b o t h perceptible. A n d where does the ciple of Relative Frequency stop? I t stops where neither order nor value are existent. PrinI n other

words i t is all pervasive in life. 1 believe t h a t from the single cell to the most highly organized society of individuals the law prevails t h a t F r e q u e n c y times Conspicuousness is C o n s t a n t .

F R E Q U E N C Y OF OCCURRENCE OF W O R D S
I n P l a u t u s ' Auluiaria, -quid ego me est ut te et si In coil mihi tu -tibi qui tque nunc quod nie ad 514 506 482 473 445 408 373 349 338 308 305 300 296 295 27 S 250 24S 312 199 jam hoc quam sed esse nam id neque ita hercle ne ubi mi modo quae rem quom haec sunt 19 r 188 170 170 169 169 159 145 140 134 12g 123 122 114 113 108 102 101 98 quill sum nisi edepol quidem a cum es aut hodie er etiam tine hue sit de ffli hunc is Mostellaria, 94 94 93 9J 91 88 88 86 84 84 S3 8i 79 7 78 77 77 76 75 Pseudolus, uolo di bene aedis homo quo uis an hominem quia haud (hau) argentum istuc res at quis scio sis ilium and 74 72 70 68 67 66 66 64 64 64 63 62 62 62 61 61 61 58 56 Trinumtnus male raeura intro ille ab ei eo mea se uerum hanc nec i meo iaciam immo pater nihil pol 56 56 55 54 53 53 53 53 51 51 S S 49 48 47 47 47 46 45 nos dum ea facere sine aurum pro uos credo huic magis dare igitur malum nomen dicam numquam 44 43 45 43 43 41 41 41 40 40 40 39 39 39 39 38 38

7 Words Occur 37 T i m e s earn ergo meam Words Occur 36 Times heus meus 3 Words Occur 36 T i m e s m fuit 6 Words Occur 34 Times iilic lubet opsedo operam potest quad omnes quem sibi

4 Words Occur 33 T i m e s enim ero tuom

3 Words Occur 32 T i m e s apud omnia 8 Words Occur 31 T i m e s sic simul uideo

4 Words Occur 30 Times bac per

4 Words Occur 29 Times mmis re

12 Words Occur 28 Times autem dabo equidem factum foras [ S O habeo ibi illud tecum turn uero

9 W o r d s O c c u r 27 T i m e s ammo intus mecurn postquam profecto quando 7 Words Occur 26 Times argen ti prius tua

ha bes ibo

inquam minas

1 1 Words Occur 25 Times probe quoque 9 Words Occur 24 Times

seruos suo

adeo erus

mulierem ob

pacto perii

qur

8 Words Occur 23 Times fui istaec licet

8 Words Occur 22 Times fieri Iuppiter 3 post tute

10 Words Occur 21 Times ilico metuo ni nolo opera opinor 16 Words Occur 20 Times eccum facit faenus gratiam hominum illara ipse ire miser mores omnibus pnmum qua recte siet

1 1 Words Occur 19 Times dote fidem filio bomini minus omnis smt solus suom Tranio

21 Words Occur 18 Times amicum audio caue eras die dicere diem egomet facis stum multo nemo nummum quas quibus tace uiginti uxorem

adest dedit dies diu

dbri eho erat erura

fac

21 Words Occur 17 Times noui numquid nunciam

opus opus* peregre

fecit in mo rtales inter

possum si m uti

25 Words Occur 16 Times fUiam filium fore illo inde istx malam manu negoti nescio omnium Philolaches placet porro pnu quam Pseudole semper uerbis

bona caput

1 3 Words Occur 15 T i m e s aedes facio item lepide loqui med nempe num oportet patrem quidquid satin uerba

3*

jgjgf-.. Sysaulescens i * equora - .Etat -ittitror idt

3 1 W o r d s Occur 1 4 T i m e s dudum eius epistukm faxo fores foro forum his idem maii maJo mane man us meis pectore plus quantum sat sciam scire Simo tui tuis uelim uolt

33 W o r d s O c c u r 1 3 T i m e s certum ecquid egone eiius estis etsi eugae facinus facta fiat fide fiiius ilia istis istoc loquere manum minis minus multa nobis nusquam oculis rebus salutem Stasime uides

i> us argento aun

36 W o r d s O c c u r 1 2 T i m e s -lii SHucam |!harmides consilium cor corde det dicas dicta die dotem eloquar facias faciunt genus iiiuc iussit Leno marume meae molestus nimium officium pudet quamquam quemquam saluom seera sequere sumboium tantum ted uelle uobis

44 W o r d s O c c u r 1 1 T i m e s aduorsum aetate ago alhim arnent amor Ballio bonum capite certe cupio dem dixit esset fateor fit Harpax hicquidem i Iiis ingenio istas loquor mala minae mod is multum mutuom neu ostium postea praedcas puere quadraginta reddam rogitas rogo scin seruom solet tandem ueniat uera uerbum uidi

43 W o r d s Occur 1 0 T i m e s > . annco : ausculta bono censeo coquom coquos da datur decet emit epistuias Euclio face /orte frugi habent habere habitat hisce istam iube lenoni meas miles misero miserum nostrum omnem palam probus Pseudolus quidum quoniam saluos sane soror sororem sumus tene tuae uiam uidetur ultro

54 W o r d s O c c u r 9 T i m e s abeo ac aduenit ait aliam continuo crucem dari dat dedisse eas ere exemplum extempio iaciant feci fiet fuge gratia habeas istac istos melius mentem mrito mille modum morem moribus moror natus nihili nimio nugas obuiam optumum perdant Phoenicium posse propera Fseudolum quoiquam redde redi ioga Scapba sequor sicut sub terra tun uirtute uolui uolunt

69 W o r d s O c c u r 8 T i m e s accipe admodum adulescentem aedium gas agat ain alia aliquem axmcis attinet audire aulam cape censes cito consilia conuenit credam debet ducere ecquis eheu eorum eos facile feceris fecisti gaudeo gnatus hos huius ibidem iste it Lesbonice magna magnum malus mei mirum negotium nequam occidi omni oppido OS pectus pedibus perdidit Phiito postulas potin pridem propere quaero rationem ruri rus sciaa sermonem spondeo stulte thensaurum uah uideor uitam uostra utrum

[33]

87 Words Occur 7 T i m e s accipere actunu aequoms/ amica amicus aquam arbtratu audacter Callicles certo certums contra coqui credere dabit date deaeque dos dici dicito dictis e ecastor eloquere epistula erga eri eris faciat facito factis fecisse ferre liae foris frater genere illius inteilego Iouis ius lege Lesbonicum locum manibus mater maxumam misere misit more nequiquam nulla nummo nuptias nuptiis omne opturoe partem patre patris peto plane potes propter quanti queo quinqu quisque repperi responde sciunt seni seruo sex sient spes suis taceas uelis uenire uia uino uiuere uiuo uix usquam utrumque

126 accepisti adir aduenis adulescenti aeque agere agit agrum alio alios alius alteram amabo amare amat amicos amoris amplius aperite audi audin ausculto Callidamates censeas cuncta cura dabis dabitur dederis des do domo dos ducam duco duo egestatem emi etiamne faceres facies facite Fides foret foribus fuerit gnatam guato hem hominis homoii horum ingeoium interim Ioni ipsi ipsum itidem iubeo loquitur lubens tudos maiorum

Occur 6 T i m e s manufesto Megadore meos mortuom mulier mufls namque negat neminem nequeo nescis nostras nouom oculos olim paz petit placide possis postremo praedico praeter prope proxumo Pseudolo quapropter quippiam quisqus quoiusmodi ratio rogas rusum salua sapis scelestus scies scit secum sedulo sentio sin soleo sortem speculo st! sbito sui summo sumptu taces teneo tibicinam tribus uendidit uenio uiden uidere uiri uita uocant uoles usus utinam

161 abis accepisse adnitatem aduenio aduenisse aduorte aes aetati ager agi tu r aibat aiio aliis aliquis amantem amanti amet amicitiam amocem anum apscede apsente Athenis auferam boues Calliclem Callipho canes cena cesso coctum condirionem culparn dedisti dicant dignum dimidium disperii dixeris docte doctum ecce eras estne ezi Cabulam faxint fero fides flocci fuat fur furem futurum gentium geratn gras gnate habe habuit hi huiius iamne incedit inimicos inprobis inspicere iratus itaii lenonem lepida loco loquar Lysiteles Macedonio magister xnagnam magnis malis maxumo Megaionides

Occur 6 T i m e s mentionem metuara meturo militi mioime multos neuis nihilo noctu noster nostra nostrae nullam nuptura. occasio opere oportuit optuma optumo ordine paene par te r patri patriam pessume petam petere petunt Philippum Philolachem pistrinum possim possunt postulo potissumum praedam pretio principio probo proinde properas quaerit quidque quique quorum redeo rerum reuortar saepe sciant secus sententia serui seruitutem sinam sino siquidem soli strenue stultus suos tamquam tenes Theoprapides totum triginta uae uideas uidisse uin uirgnem uitae ullam unam uoluit uortant uortat uox urbe uxor

[ 3 4 ]

299 W o r d s O c c u r 4 T i m e s abe&ni beat abin addecet aderit dhuc adueoi aduenetis duenientem aquiescente -astas : agedum agite agitis aiebat alias alicunde aUquantum aliquid alquo alter lteri alterum amant amato r ambo ambula amo animi aperit apstulisse argumenta astant astat attulit audes audis aula auro bis bonae bonam bonis caelum cantharum capere caueas Cbanndem circumducere ciues clam clanculum cogito commodum conduxit consili consilio corruptum credidi credis culpa cures currere dam.no danunt dapsilis dato datura daturum deceat dedero Delphium demum denuo deum dicat dictum diues divitias dolos domino dormi tum duas duce ducit eadem ecfodiam egon misse erilem erili esses Eucli'onis euenit experiar exsequi extra fac/Iius facinora factiones facto factuntt/ f actus famam feram /erat ferunt filia filial frustra furcifer fures gloriara gnatae gnati gnatum gradum habeam habui hae heia heri heu hosce iltae illaec indicium inmicum iouriam insidias interii iauitus ipsa istanc istinc itaque iubes iaborem leges legibus Ienone Lesbonico liber liberauit liceat licebit litteris longe ludo magni magtio maiorem malae maxumum Megadorus melius memini menses meque meridie metuont meumj* minoris miseret miserls mittam mitte mittere mitti mones mot a m mortalem mortal is mortuosi muliere mucus nemini nomine noscere nostro nouisti nouo noxiam nullo oblitus occepi occlude oculi oh onustam oppidum oras orat ornamentis ornata ornatus ostende pactum par pars parui pati patiar pauci pauper pedes penes perdidi perge periisse periit perit Philematium piget placeat Polymachaeropla^ides populi populo possint possit potare pote potero potui potuit prae praeda praesens praesenti preti procuJ proloqui promisi pueri pultabo quaeras quamuis quidnam. quiduis quindecim. quippe quispiam. quoiius quoius redearn refert reliqui saltern sapio scelesta sceleste scilicet sdmus sermone sies signum simile similis simus Solent solum specta speculum Strobile sua suamque Surus tabellas taceo talentum temperi tempestas temp us tergum totus tris tune ualide uellem uelles ueneris ueniam uenisse ueri uesperum uicissim uideam uidisti uinum uir uirgini uiros uiuis unguentis uolturios uoluptas uostram uostrum uterque

492 W o r d s O c c u r 3 T i m e s abduxit abest abii abite accedam Accheruntem accipiam adesse ad finis aduecti aduenienti aduentu aduorsa aduortite aedificare agito agnum agro ah aiebant aio alibi aliquam aliter allatum altra amabit amabunt amatorem amicae amice amittat angiportum antenac antidhac actiquom anus apstrudam apstulerit apstuli aram argentario argenteam arraboni attat attuli audiui aufer auribus ausim auxilio Baiiionem beluam beneficium beneuolentem bibam bibere Calidore. CaUicIi canem capio capitis carnufex centum certa cetera ceteris ceterum cibum circumspice cluet coepit colas comissatum comoediis compellabo concedam concessero condimentis condiunt conductus congrediar conloquar conlocjui conspicio consulere contempla copiait coquere cordi cornicem credat crederet credideris crepuit crux cupit curare curera curo curram cursuram custodes damni danista darem data debentur decern deinde deliciae demissis dentes detur dices dicit dicto dignu's dique dis diuinis diuites dixeram dixisti dixti

[ 3 5 ]

42 "Words O c c u r 3 T i m e s doleo dolis dolo do'ium dominum donicum dormit dotis drachumam dubitas duint dulce eat ebrium ecfecta ecierri edim edunt egere eget ehern elocutus emoriar empta eram erus eu eueniat eueniunt exemplis existumat exit expeto expetunt exturbauit fabri fabula fabulae fabulare fabularier facie facturus factusf fallaciis familia familiam fassu's faxis fecero feres fcrme flagitium fori formido Fortuna fugiam fustibus futurumsf gerere gestio graphicum gratias gregem gynaeceum habeat haben habeto habitatio habitet haeret herbas homine hominibus honorem hospes hostis ianua ianuam ibit ign oseas iflinc iUorum illunc impera Imperium inaais innoxium inops insanum insidiis insipientior interdius vnUTta inuenire inuentum inuito ipsam istae istunc ite ito iubet iudicem Iuno iure iusserat iussero iussi lanos Iaudant lenonis lepidis lepidum Lesbonici les liberos liberum liceret ligna liquet lubeant lubenter lucri maceEum machaera magisque magnuee malas malos maneam matrem matrimonium maxuma mel raendariis mendacium mentiar messis metu mihique milite m litis miseram morae mortuis mortuos mos mox mulieres mulierum nate nato nauem necau it neget Neptune nequior neuolt noctesque norme nosce nosmet nostram DOS tris nouisse nouos nullum nullus numerum nummos occasionem occepisti occulto occupatus oculum odio olet opino oportere opperiar opgeruare opsignatas opgonium

Continued propemodum propero prosus proxuma proxumum publico puer puero pugnam pulchre quaeris quaeritas quaerunt quaestioni quattuo r queat quicquid qukum quidam quoquam quoquo ratem recipere recipe recipit recta reddere regem reliquit reperire repudium roges sacruficem saluere sapere sauia sce\erum scelus scit scibam scibo scite sei Seleucia sempiternum senecta sententiam serio sero seruat seruatum seruem seruet seruis simitu sinas sola soles sollicitt somnis somno speciem spero sponden stas stulta su m a m sumes sum mis sump tus super surge suspicer tabllis tanta temere terram tetigi
tibisi

optutmum/ optumus orationem orator oro otiose otium paenissume paenitet pallium parata parentes paetes parum paucis paullo pauperem peccaui pecudes peculio pecunia peius pendere perdas perddisti perdit perductet pergam perpetuom pessum pessumis petas Philulachetem pietatem pigeat piscis placent plenam pone poplo poscam poscere poseo posset possies posthac postulat postules postulet poteris potior praeceptis praesente praetorem primumdum prior probum profectus promisit proraitte promittere

totae tria tri um tuas tuorum tutelam uale uelint uelit uelut uenalem uendidisse uenerit ueni uenbaus ueniunt uerberas uerbero uestis uetera ueteres uetus uicino uictu uidentur uidet uillaro uirgo uiuom uiuos uitium ullum unguent a unguBs uno unus uoltis uolumus uostrorum uter utor utut uxores

1198 Words Occur Twice abducere abduceres abduceret abeamus abeas abibam a b ie ri t abire accepi accepit accepti acceptum accersam accerse accessit acdpias accipiat accubas accubat acerrume actum adde addideris adducam adduxi adeam adeas adferre adferret adfinem adgrediar adiit adleauit admjsit admoenire adsiet adsiste adsum adueniat aduenire adulescentia aduorsus aduortas aegre aegrotant aequius aequo agedum agerem agimus agitat agninis agundae agunt aiunt aliae alieno alienum aliorum aliquanto

[36]

1198 W o r d s O c c u r Twice Continued aliqui alto -amaos amantum amara amas amatares amatonbus ambas ambos ambulacrum ames amici amisisti amoUmini amoue amplexabere ancillas angporto ngulos animai animam animatus nimos anno annon annuos annum anu aperi aperis appareat appeilabo appellare apscessero apsentem apsenti apsoluam apsolutos apsque apstuleras apstuleris apstuiit aqua arbitrare arbitran arbitro arborem arca arcano argn tari um argumento arte artero artibu' artis aspice aspicias asta astas astato astu astutum Athenas atiamento attulerit attlxsti auaritia auarua auctox audacissume aueren auferri augent audis aunculo aunculus aurem auris auspicio ausu's au turnen t au tumo bacchana Ballioni beatus beneuolens bnigne bibat bibi bibite bonaque bonos bonus bonu-rf cadam cades celo Calidorum calidum Callicle callidum canto capiam capias capiatur capillum capiti caram Carysto cassam castigatorem cauere caui caussae caussae/ cautum cedit ceiata celatum cenat censeam censeat censebam censen censu cera cerebrum cernitur certi certiorem cerussam ceteri Charine Charinus Charmide chlamydate chlamydatus circum circumspicedum cita citius ciuibus ciuitas clamas clamat ci ami tant clamore clamoris clitellarios cogita cogitare cogites cognatos cognosco coloniam columine coiunt comedit comes comef comitia commendaui commentus comminisci commit tam commoda commode commutet compedis compendi concede conceptis concliarem concrepuit condalium condam codecet condidi condimenta condio condita conducibile conductor confer confido confregi confregit conspectu conspectum conspicatus consuadet consulis consulit consutis conueniant conueniunt conuiuarum conuiuas conuiuis copia coque coquinatum coquinum coquo coram corium cornix corona coirumpit coruos crapulam creaant credas crede crederem cribrum crucior cubitum cult rum euncti cupiat cupis curas cu rassis curriculo dabin dares das daturin debetur deceptus decretum dedam dederat dederim dedrnus dedistin dedta deferam deferre defodit defrudaui deludificatuj demonstrauit demutabo denique dent derisum deseram deserunt desinat desponde despondisse deuorti dice diceret dicuii t differam digitum dignam dgnis dignumj/ dignus dscipuiis distrahitur diui diuidere duinam diuitem diuitiis dixerit dixero dixin dixisse doce docta docuit doctos dolet doli dolorem dominus domis dono dormiam dormiens dormitet dormiunt dotaae duc ducat ducis duorum duritia eae campse ebrius eccere ececero ecfecturum ecficiam ecfodiebam edicam edico edictioaem edidi edit edixit educat eduxi egeris egredere egreditur eire eiulans eloquor ' eraere emigrauit emptae emuuxti enicasso enicem eodem eosdem erant erimus errabo erras erunt eruom essent esto Euclionem EucHoni eumpse eumque euocem exanimatus excruciari exercitor existumo exite exitium exorare exorari exoritur exarna-uit experior experiri expetis expetit exprobras exsolatum exspectatus exspectetis exstinguere exta fabrorum facerem faciamus faciet faclem faciies faciundum facta facti facturura factu's faenore faenori fallaciam falladas . falso fama famem familiae amiliarem farailiaribus fano fan um fastidit fatere fatetur faxim faxit fecerit fecisset femina fert fidei ducia duciae fidus fieret fiunt fies lodere foedus fretus fructus frugem frumenti fu fuerant fuerat fugiat fugis fumus funditus fustem futura gallo gallum gaudiis gere gerit germanam gesserit gesta gladium gloriosum gnata grandem grandis gulam gutturem habebo habemus haberem haben habitare hahito harum harunc basts herba hoccirte honore honoris hortum hospitem hospitium hostbus

C37:

1198 W o r d s Occur Twice Continue^ iamdudum ibis ignem ignis ignobilis iliac illas illa st illequidem illisce illos imagine imaginem imperas imperatumrt imperauit imperia impero impetratum impetraui impleuisti lmprobi impulsu incedere incenatus incipit indeque indicem indignum indiligens indoctus industria inest ineunte infamiam infectum infeliz infitias ingetii ingere inhiat inicere inimici inimicis inopia Inopiam inprobi inprobior inprobum inprudens inpune inpure inquito inridere inrides insciens institu intemperiae interest interuisam intra inueniam inueniat inuenio louem ipsuSK irem ista istius isto itane itur iubeam iura iusseram iuuentute iuues iuzta labore labra labris lacrumas lacrumis laetus lapidem latum legionem legiones lepidam Lesbonicus libera liberare libere liberi liberis linguam liquido litterae litterarum loca locare locaui loces loci locis locus longior longius longum lubeat lubido lubidoj luco lucro ludis Lysiteli maiore maledictis males/ malitia mamma-madere mammia mancupio mandatum mandauit mani manta manufestarium mastigia mauellem maxuma mearum mezst mecastor media medio Megadoro melior meliora meliores memineris meminisse memor memora memorant memorare memoras memorem mendacia mensa meopte mercatus mercedem mercedis mercimoni merenti meres meriti merui meruisti metuas metuere metuit mhiraet mihis/ militarem mina minimi minimo minore mira miror misereat miseria misericordia missa mitto mittunt mod molestos mulestum moles tumr/ moneo monere monitum montis mora mora ta moriuntur mortui mulieri muliers mulioncs mulos multas munditiis mundo murenam narrauero natali natalis natum nauci necesse necne negas neges neg nemost nequeam nequeas nequis nequiter nescias nescioquem nescit neue nilne nimisque noli noluit nominat noua nouistin nouit nudius nugari nugator nullust nummus numquis nutricem obiurigem obnozius occasio st occidam occidis occidisti occipias occludam occupabo occupes ocius octoginta odi odos offendet olant olere oleum omitte omnino onera onerabo onustos operae opes opperiri opportune opsignatum optes optestor optigere optigit optuere optulit optumi opulento opulentus orare oratio oratum Orcus ores ornamenta ornatu otio pakoam para parant paratus parce parcum parcus parsimoniam participem participes partitudo parumper paru m/ patinae patinas patrissat patronus paullisper paullum pauperi pauperibus pauperiem peccatis pecauisse peculi pecuniam pedem peiiurum peiorem pellegam pellegere peni penus pepulit percontabor percontare perconteris perdere perdiderit perdis perditum perditus perduci perductorem perduint pergin pergulam periclis periclum peere perierint perierit periimus periisti perlubens permities permitto perpetuo persequi peruorse pessumi pessumo petat petiraus petito Philolachi Philtonis pignori pinguior piraeura placere places planissume plateam Plautus pluris plu rum um poeta poUicitus popli porta portam porticum possem postid postilla postis postremum potat potesse potestate potis praecipio praedices praedones praemium praequam praesensit praestituta praeterea praeterire prandium primo principium prorem probant probare probiorem probis probos probrum prohibet proin promam promus propius proprium Pseudolui publice publicum pudeat pudere pdico pudicum pugna pulchra pulchrum pultando pultare pultas purpura purpuram purus puteo putes puteum putus quadrilibrem quaerere quaeritat quaes ti quaes tione quaestum qualis quandoquidem quanta quanto quantum;? querere quicquams quidlubet quiesce quietus quippini quit quoia quoiuis quonam quondam quot radvcitus rape rapere ratione ratu'

[38]

1198 W o r d s O c c u r T w i c e Continue^ rectam reetius red reddet reddite redditur redeat tedii redusse redit xefer referre regiones regionibus ren untiant leperio repperisse repperisti rpudis respexis respice respicias restas rex rogitem sacra sacrum saeuiter saginam saiuam saius salutat salutis sanus sapiens sapit sarcinam satine sceiestiorem scibas sciet scires scitum scorta scortis scortum scripsit scriptam scriptum semel semul senatu senatum sene senes sentit seque sequimini sermo sermonibus seruant seruas seruassint seruiam seruio seruire seruit sescenta seu sextus sicine siem Siluani Simia similem Simoncm sitis sitne sodalem solere solide solio solitum soiitun soluta somnias somnum sonitu sorori spectatores spernit stabulum Stapbyla Stasimus statum stimulis sto stultitia stultitiam suae subdole subolet sumboluJ sume sumet summa summas suma os sumne sumpsit sumptum superfit suppetat Surorum surrupias surrupui surrupuisti suscenseo suscensui suscita suspendere suspicarier suspicio suspicionem suspicor sutor sycophan ta sycopbantam sycophantari sycopbantam/ sycophantiae sycophantiam sycophantias tacerc tactioi/ talentis tali tangere tangerem tantis tantisper tanto tantumdem teneam tenebras tenent teneor tenet tergi tergo tcrtiam tertius test tetigistin Thensauro thensauros tigna time tis tolerare tot tota totidem trabo triduom Trinummo turba turbare tuto tutum ualere lales ualet uapulabis ubinam uectus uebicla uehit uellet uenalis uendas uendidi uenis uentrem uentri Venu' uenusta uerberibus uerborum uereor uestem uias uiatico uicini uicinia uicinum uicinus uicsti uictor uictum uictumas uigila uile uincam uincunt uini uiris uirtutem uirum r uisne uisum uiues uiuet uiuit uiuitur uiuont ulciscar ulcisci ullo uus umbia umbram uni uocare uocas uocat uoce uocem uociuas uoco uocor uolat uolentibus uoltu uoluisse uoluntate uorte uortit uosmet uoster uostras uotat uotet urbem usui utamur utendam utere utimur utram

6429 Words Occur Once abalienare abalienarier abalienatur abdiderunt abducant abducas abducat abducet abducito abducitur abducturum abducturus abduxisse aberat aberis abes abeundum abeunt abierunt abhinc abibo abiectas abiero abiisse abiisses abiisti abimus abiret ahit abituru's abitus abrpite abrogant abusus accederes accedito acceperam acceperim acceperis accepto acceptor accersat accersunt accesseris accessi accessio accheruntis accidisse accidunt acciperem accipi' accipient accipies accipite accipito accolae accommodem accuba accubans accubantis accubes accubitum accubo accumbas accumbe accumbere accurarier accurassis accusas accusem accusites acerui aceti acidissumi acie acrem acriorem acriter acrius acta actam actast acturu's acturus aculeus acutis adaeque adaxint adcurare adderes addidero addidit addito additum additur adduc adducerem adducite adduint addunt adduxit adegero ademit aderat adero adesses adessunuit adeste adeundi adeunt adfatim adectat adfer adferat adferet adferetur adfero adferrier aeit adfertur adferto adfigi adnes adfini adfinitate adfini um adflictas adflicter adfligi adfuerunt adglutinant adgredundui adhibendur adhibet adhibete adibit adigit adii adiisse adiisti adimerem adimit adit adiungit adiunxeris adiurasti adiutorem adiutrice adiutum adiuua adiuuabere adiuuare adiuuas adlegatu adlicere adloquar adloqui admemordit adminicium admittam admonitus admordere adorna adpetit adplicare adplaudere adportas adposita adprime adprobare adpropera adsedero adsentabor adsentari

[39]

1198 W o r d s O c c u r Twice Continue^ adsentatrix adsequere adsequitur adsidam adsidui adsiduo adsint adsistite ad sit aduenae aduenam aduenat aduenerit aduento aduentum adulescentiae adulescen tiaeque adulescentis adulescentulum adulescentuluii adulescenturn adulta adultam aduocare aduocato aduorsari aduorsatrix aduorsatus aduorsis aduortam aduortes sduortetis aduorti aduortitis aduortito aduorto aedem aedificantur aedificatio aedicato aedificiis aedilium aegritudine aegritudinem aegritudo aegroti Acgypto Aegyptum aemulos aequa aequali aequalis aequiperabilis aequiperet aequissumum aequomque aequos aerumnas aerumnis Aeschinum Aeschrodora aestate aetatis aetatuia aetatulam aeternum afluam agant Agathoclem Agathocli agebat agetis agi agitandumj/ agitant agninam agno agnos a g o us agrumque agundam ahena ahenum aibas aiebas albitudinem alere aleret Alejandrina Aiexandrum algu aliato alicubi aliis alienas aliena tur alienis aliouorsum aliqua aiiquantisper aliquos aliquot alis aliunde allata alia tai/ aliatu/ alJigem alteras alterca to alternae altero altrim altrinsecus alumnus aluom amabas atoantes a mantis amarem amaret amarumque amata amato aniatori amatur ambabus ambae ambages ambiguo ambiguom ambitio ambobus ambulatis amburet arnicas amicissumam amicissume amicitia amicorum amctus amicu's amicu/ amiseris amiserit am i tto amnem amoliri amolirier amore amores amori amorin amouerem amouerim amoueris amoues amplectare affiplexator ampliuscule angina aogmam angiporta aflguillai/ aiiimae axiimati anime animis animumque axiimu' animuii anne annis annona anno rum annus arvtecesseris antemnas anteueniat anteperta antepotens anteueni anteueniam Anthrax antidibo antidit Antimachus antiqua antiquae antiquam antiquis antiquo antiquos anu* anui anuli aperient aperio aperitin aperiuntur apertas apiscitur Apollo apsens apsinthium apsolue apstandus/ apsterreres apstine apstineant apstineas apstinebit apstineo apsnere apstrudat apstrudebat apstrudere apstrusisse apstulero apstulerunt apstulisti apsumpta apsumpti apsumptum aquai aquilinis ara Arabia Arabiam Arabiai araneas arais arbiter arbi trabare arbitramini arbitrantur arbitrarem arbitrarer arbitrarier arbitraris arbitratus arbitremini arbitremur arbitren tur arbitrer arbore arbores arce arcessam arcessas arces sebat arcessere arcesserem architectonem arculam arcularii arcum ardus argentaria argentata argentea argenteis argenteos argentos/ argutusf argumen t a q u e Argus argute argutias argutum arma armis artae artes artibus artoptam asellum Asia Asiam as n asinis asinos asinus aspee ta aspellit asperneris aspexerit aspexi aspicedum aspicere aspiciam aspicio asseres assus ast astate astitisse astterunt astrinxeris as t u t e atrensem atrensi atriis atrum attactam attatae Attca Atticam Atticis attigatis attinere attingere attuleris auaritiam auctorem auctoritas auctorque aucupes aucupet audacem audacia audacia;/ audacior audax audeam audeant audeat audebit audias audiens audies audetis audireque audisses auditin auditum auditores audiueris audiuimus auduisti auduit auem auferas auferat auferre auferres aufert aufugiat aufugisse augebis aui auidos auidum auis auius auo auom auorsari auortere auosque ureos aureum aurichalco aurium auruex aurumque ausculta bo auscultan* auscultas auscltate auscultes ausum ausus autumas autumaui autumet auxiii auxiliarier auxilium babae Bacchas balineas balineis BaUione Ballionia BaUionis ballista barba barbare barbarus baslica basilicum bat bellator bellatores bellum belua beluae beluata ben ef acta benefactis beneficio beneuolente beneuolentibus beneuolentis benigneque benigniorem benignitate benignius benignum betam bibe biberis bibes bibisti bibto bibitur bibunt biariam bilingui bitere blanda blande blandiloquentulus

apparere apparet appellabis appellassea appellat appellaueras appellem apptit apponam appone apponito apponunt apscedam apscedere apscedite apse ess erit apsconditum

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blands blsuditerne blanditur blandios blandus blandurf blitum borabax bonan bonasque bone bonisne bontf bonum bos bouem bracchia bracchium brassicam breuis breuem bubula bubulam bubulcitarier bubuli bubulis bubus bucaedae bustirape c' caculam cadas cadere cado cadum caeca caecus caedere caedite caedito caedundum caeno caenum caeruleos calamita tis calamo calator calceolari calet Calidori Caldoro Calidorus callent callet Callias Callidamatem Callidamati Callidemides callidiorem Callimarchus Callinicus CaUiphone CaUippus callum Campanica Campans campos cncer candef acere candida candido candor em cantantem cantari

cantas cantat cantharus cantheris cantores can trices caperratam capessere capesses capitale capital i Capitolio eapitur capiundas capram capsit capta captandums/ captas captat capti cap ti 0 captioni captum capturum captus cara carbunculus carcerem carent careo carinarii canora carissumum carissumus camaria camarium camuficium caros carum caruisse cassidem caste castigabilem castigabit castigare castigatum castrandum casum catam catapiratera cataractria cati catum catus caudicali caueam caueant cauebo cauendum cauendumr caueo cauerem caueres cauero cauet cauiiiam caupones causificor caussam caussasi cante cautioj cautiores

5429 W o r d s O c c u r O n c e Continued circumspectat cauto circumspectatrix cautos circumstabant cecidit circumuectus cecidero drcumuortant Cecropio circumuortor cedis eis cedodum cisteatrices cedunt citis celebra citu si celem cjuem celere ciui celerem ciuis ceJeri ciuitate celerior clama celeriter clamitatoi celerius clamo celes clamores celo clara celocem claram cenaene claro cenandum clarum cenas claudam cenati claudus cenaverat c lauem cenavero clauim cenes clauis censebit clementi censebo clepe censet cliens censetur clientes censione clitellas censu dueant census cluear centuriata cluent cepero cluentibus cepisse clupeum cepit clupeus cepolendrum coagmenta ceram cecendrum Cercobuius coctam Cerconicus coc taque Cererin coctumr Cereris cogatis certast cogere certior cogit certis cogitando certissumus cogitas certius cogtate cogitato certos cogitatumrf certus cogitaui cerussa cogite t ceterae cognati ceteros cognatum cetum cogn ornen ta Chares cognosce Charrnidatus coimus Charmidei colere Charmidi colitis cblamyde Collabus cblamydem eolio chorago Collum Chrysidem colorem cibo colors cibuj columen ccmandro comburere CUiciam comedent cnaedus comederit crciter comedis circumcirca comedunt circumdari comesse circumdcam comessum rircumducat comessurus circumduce circumspectabam

comis comtatem comitat comitem commeatum commemini commeminit commmora commemorabilem commmorant commmoras commmora turn commemoraui commendaueras commendauit commensi commentu's commentus commerci commeream commenta commeritum comierui commigrauit comminatu's comminlscere comminiscor commissurum commiztam commodi commodis commodius commonerier commoni commonitu' commoror commune commun em communi communia communicesque communis commutauit commutemus commuto comoedia comparebas comparem compares comparet compecti compecto compeUarem compella t compellit compendium compilor complexui/ compluris compositumj/ comprehendite compressiones compressisse comprimere compmenda comprimor comprimunda tonare conatus concastigabo concedere concelebrare concenturiat concenturio

concepisti conciet conciiiabulum conciliati conciliauerit concilles concinnat ccnclaui conclauia concluium conclusos concordior concexit concredere concrederet concredidi concreditum concreditunu/ concreduo concubinatum concubium concustodiui condemnabo cocdiam condicio condicione condidici condigne condimentums conditam condite conditum conditums condiuero condormiuimus conducatur conducebas conduce conducta conducta^/ conductum conducunt condulpicant condus conduxi conectite confeci conferam conferemus confessu' coDessu's confestim conciet conficimus confidentem confidenter confidenterque condentia confidentiae confidentiloquius confidit confige confirmabimus confirmare confit confiteor conodere confringit confudit confugere confugiant confugisti congerronem congerrones

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6429 W o r d s Occ congerunt congestae congestum congialem congliscat congrediri congrio congrione con g r a m cohibcrent conicere coniecit coniectura coniuent coniunctus conlaudant conlaude conlegit conlibitum c onligati s conligi conlinunt conlocata conlocaui conlocem coalocet conlocutu's conlutulentet conqueritur conqueror conquiescere conquiestito conquiniscet cooquiniscito conrepserit cooscius conscribito conscriptam conscriptis consectarier consenserunt consequere conseruauit conseruomm consident considero consign abo consignemus consiliis consiliri consistam consistunt consociauit c onsolatu r conspexeris conspexi conspicari conspicere conspico constituatur constitueram constrictis constringam consudaueris consuetudine consuetudines consuetum consulas consuiui contabefacit contechnatus contemnam contemnit contemnor contemplt contemplo conteram conterere contiens contigit continens continere contione controliam controuorsia contuderunt contui contumeliam conturbabunt contutu conuenerat conuenero conueni conueniam conueniat conueniebatne conuenimus conuenire conuenisse conuenistin conueniundujf conuentum conuicium conuiuae conuiui conuocaui conuocem conuoco copi copiaeii copiam copias copulantur coquas coquant coquat coquinare coquite coquo' coquont corbulis corcotarii corcotis corculum cordique coriandrum Corinthiensem corio cornibus cornu cornua corolla coioas coronam coronas corpora corporis corporum corpus corrigere corrigis corrumpat cormmpe corrumpi corrumpiter corrupisse corruptor coruom costae cottabi cottidianum.T cottidie coxerint crassam crassas crassis crassitudine crastini crastinum creas crebri crebro credatis credibile crediderim credidero credier crdito creditum crediturus creduas crepent creta crimen crimina criminaret crinis Crinnus croccibat cruci crudabiliter crucatu crucatum cruciatur cruda crudum cruminam crura cruricrepidae cubandums/ cubat cubem cubiculum cubilare cucule cuculus cudere culcitulam culina cu liis cu Ileo culpan culpent culpes cummam cumque cumulatissume cunctae cunctam cunctis cunctos cunila cunis cupi' cupiam cupias cupidae cupide Cupidinem cupido Cupido cupidos

O n c e Contin cupidum cupiebam cupienter cupies cuppes curabit curabitur curabo curant curantur c u r a ta curatam curate curatio/ curatum curaui curer curiae curialium curio curiosam curis curre currendums curren ti curriculum curro cursim cursori cursu curuo custodem custodelam custos cyathum dabam dabimus dabisne dabunt dabuntur damnare damnoseis damnum danistam danisticum dant daret daretur Dareum datam datare dataria datas datat datis datu datum's datus dea debebas debent debeo debere deberet debes deblaterauisti debuit decedam decent deceret decidunt deciens declaramus declinaui

decorari dedecorant dcorum decretum/ decumus decumo decus dedas dederam dederamque deducam defaecato defaecatunu/ defendat defetigo deficatam deformata defossa def rudes defrustratur defrutum degam dego dehibuisti dehinc deices deiuuare deis delatum delectauerit dlicat u's deliciis deliciisque deliquimus deliquit Delphio Delphis deluctaui deludam deluds dems demeret demeritas demerui deminuam demonstra tae demonstretis dempserat demum/ demutant demutauit denegem denis denos dentatum denumerato denumerauero deorsum deorum deosque depellar depend deperit deplorabundus deprome deponat deportatum deportere deposiuit depromi depromptum depugnat deputas derepente

deridebo derideo derideri deridiculum deripiamus desedisti deserat deserere deseres deseret deseruerunt deseruit deseruitque desideres desidia desidiam desine desiste desistum despoliatoc despondeat desponderi despondes despondi despondisti despondit desponsatam desquama destinant destinat destinatam destiteris destitisti desubito deterior deteriorem deterrui deterruma detexit detexitque detexundam detraxe detrudi detrusti detuli deturbauit deu' deueneris deuenires deuincis deuincit deuinxere deuorari deuoravi deuoret deuorsum deuorteris deuortor dexteram dexteras diabathrarii Diapontius dicebat dicendumrf dicet dicetis dicimus didsne dicitur dicta tor dictatorem dictitatur dictu dctums<

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6 4 2 9 W o r d s O c c u r O n c e Continued -dictura dicturum ddici diebus ^ecuiae {jjei ^ierecta 'di erecta jerecti diffrant cilarf clis Hgitis ; dgitos dignissumumj/ dilectum dfluont dimidiam -dimidiumj/ dimminuam Dionysia ipuio Dircam disceptator disddxum disciplinas/ discipulam dasaputina discipulinae discpulos disco disconducit discrucior discunt discupio disperdidit dispertirem dispertirier dispertiuisti dispudet disputa disputaui disputa ta -disque dissignata dissimulabam dissimulabo -dissimuiando dissuadetur d i s trac do ftrasissent distringam disturb ditiis ditior diuidam diuides diuidi diuis diuitior diao diuom diuorse diuorti diutius dixerim dizimus dixis dizistis dixtine doceas docent docet doctaca doctior doctlr/ doctius docuisset doctrinam doctus docuit dolent dolerem doleres doletne doliarem dolium dolore dolose doloso?/ domare domini domiusque domos/ dona donabo donatis dormas dormiat dormibo dormitaren t dormitas dormita tor dormitatur dorsum dotata dotatam dotes dotibus drachuma drachuraarum drachumis drachumissect dromo duarum dubis dubitem ducas ducant ducendi ducenos ducentae ducerem duces duci ducto ducitur ductarem ductarier ducunt ducuntur duim duit dulca dulciferum duobus duos duplicis dura duraui durius dux duxeris eademque eadems/ eaepsae eamque eamus eatvdem eant eapse eaque eatenus ebeat ebibere ebibit ebore ebrio ebrios ebriu ebur eburata eccam eccas eccilam eccilum eccos ecfeceris ecfecissem ecfecisset ecfectum ederantur ecfercite ecferendum ecferet ecert ecficere ecficio ecfici' ecfitt ecfoderis ecfodio ecfugi ecfugias ecfugiet ecqua ecquam ecquas ecquem edemus edentulae edes edi ediscat edisne edixeram edoceam edoceas eductam egernt egerit egestas egetne egetur egj egisti egit egredior egrediuntur eidem eine eiulas eiusrnodi elabitur electili elegans Eteusium eliciunt elig elinguandam elixus eleborosus elleborum eloqui elotnm eludificatus elue eluito emam emat eme ementitus emeram emeras emeres emerit emeritum emicare emigra emigraumus emisimus emisset emissiciis emistin emite emittam emittar emittat emitiere emitti emittis emolumentum emoriri emortualem emortuam emortui emortuom emortuos empti emptujn enica enicet enitor enixe enumquam enuntiarem eon eosne eost epistulasque epithecam epulae equidem equo equos eradicarier erepsisti erile erilio erilis eriperes eripis eripuit errasse errata erret erro errare erumne erunt esca escs escendisti esne essetne essitabunt

, essu este estur euasurui/ euenat eueniant eueniet euenisse eueniunt euentus eugepae eundem Eunomia eunt euoca euocabo euocadum euocarem euocate euoluam. euomunt euortat euortisset, euortit exactus cxaedificaret exaedificatas exaedificauisset examussim exaudiat exballistabo excesseris excetra exciderunt exciet excipies exdssos exduit exclamai exclamem excludito excruciant excrucior excucurrerit excurato excusare excuscmus excutedum excutiunt exdorsua exeat exedint exegerim exegit exemi exempla exemplo exercent exercitum exercitus exeundum exheredem exhibam exhibent exhibes exibo exigas exigat exigere exii exillis exin exinde exis xistuma existumas ext exmouetis exoptatissume exoptem exoriatur exorarier exordiri exorem exomas exornata exoraatis exornatum exornauero exornetur exomo exortus exossabo extica expediam expediant expelle expensi expenso experirier expertem expertus expetam expetant expetas expetebant expetessam expiare expietis explica tam exploratorem expolitae expoli un t expostulare expotum erpressam exprobrem expugnatum expugnauit expugno exputem exquaere exquiratur exquire exquirendi exquirere exradicitus exsignauero exsiliatis exspectabam exspectare exspectat exspectatior exspectes exspecto exspuant exstat exstillent exstinctum exstingui exstruito exsulatum exsurge exsurcexi extempulo extentatum exterge extimueras

C 4 3 ]

6429 W o r d s Occur O n c e Continued extis extolli extollunt extrudit extrusisti extudi exturba exturbasti exuuiis exussum faba faber fabris fabrum fabulabimur fabulatasi fabulor facete facetis faciebat faciem facient facJumum facimus facin facinorum facitis factam factio factiosum factius facto;/ factu facturi facunde faeceos faenoris faenusculum falas fallaciae fallere fallis faUunt falsa falsidicum falsis falson famae famas fame fameque fames famigeratio famigeratori famigeratorum familiariter fartim fas fatear fauces faucis fausta faxem febrim fecerim fecerunt fecimus felat feliciterque felix femin as feniculum ferant ferare feras feratur ferebat ferentarium feret feriam ferias ferio ferit ferocem ferratile ferreis ferret ferriteri ferriterium ferritribaces ferrum fertur feruefaciunt feiuont festnate festine festinet festino festo feta 6am fiamus fictor fictorem fjcturae fideli fideliam fidelis fideli tasque fideli tatem fideliter Fidi fidicinas fido fierem fierent fieres filias finem firma firmiora firmiorem firmitate firmi tatem firmum firm us fissile fissorum &xae flabelliferae flagitabere flagitare flagitator flagiti flagitio flagris flagritribae flammarii flare fleam fleas flentem fleueris fioccum floreas fluctibu' fluctus fluctusque fluont foco focum fodi foedarim foede follem fontem forabunt forent formal formicis formidas formidolosas fors fortasse fortem fortis fortiter fortuito fortunabunt fortunam fortunas fortunatam fortunataque fortuna tas fortnate fortunatorum fortunatus fortunatu's frangat frangere frang tis frate fratrem fratri fraude fraudem fraudulenta fraudulente fraus fricari frgida frit frons frontem frugalior frumentariis frumento frumentum frustramini frustrationes frutex fuant fuas fuco fue fueram fueris fuerunt fugam fugat fuga tis fugere fugereque fugin ugit fugitat fugitiuam fugitiue fugitiuo;/ fugitorem fugiunt fuisti fuitne fulguritae fullo fullones fullonius fulmentas fundamento fundamentum fundes fundis fundus fungaris fungatur fungi fungino fungit furandum furatum furcilles furibus furinum furum furtificas fusti galea Gallicis gallina gallincea gallinacio gallinacius gallinae gallus garrir gaudeant gaudeas gaudent gaudere gaudia gaudsque gaudium gemiti gemitu genera genere;/ generibus generum geniumque gens gentium;/ genua genuerunt gerat geratur gerebat geretur germana gerrae gerundum Geryonaceo gessi gessisse gessit gestam gestant gestandu;/ gestas gestasl gestire gestis gestores gignitur glabrae glabriorem gladio glandium gloriae gnaruris graderere gradibus gradietur gradu Graece grandinem grandibo gtandior graphice graphicus gratiae gratiasque gratiis gratis gratulator g ra turn grauabor grauaris grauem graui' grauida grauior grauiter grauius greges Grumio gurguliorf gustare gustato gustauerit gutta guttam gymnasium gymnastica habeant habebam habebis habemur habeon habitas habitatum habitauit habitent habiti habiturum habituru;/ habitus habuerim habuisti habuitne haecine haecj/ habae hahahae hallec hamum hapalopside hara hariolus harpaga harpagatum harpagauit Harpage baipago Hedylium herbasque herbis hercle;/ Herculem Hercules Herculi hereditas heres hesternum hiberna hicin hieine hiemem hilari hilarus Hilurica hircum hircus hirquina hiscunt historiam hiulca hocine hodie;/ holera holitores bolus hominirf homo's homunculi honeste honestet homo Honor honori honos hora horriola horridularum horti hospite hospiti hostias hosticas bostilibus hostisne huccine huiusmodi humani humanis huncine iaceam iaceant iacebis iacentem iacentis iacere iacitur iactari iamque ibam ibas ' ibat ibir/ ibitur ictus idcirco identidem ideo idne idoneum idoneus lasonem ignarissumis ignaui ignauia ignauiam ignauissumus ignauom ignauos

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6429 W o r d s O c c u r O n c e Continued , -jgnorandurf gnlgnosco r^gnota jgnotam "Hffcet "lianc 1 llef/ UJidnej/ ifflic'/ lllis aioc Imago Imber imbre -ibremque mbres 4mbncesque mbrim imbuas ynmigrat jmmgraui inmutare ^mmutassis impeliere imperabo impera ta -imperator imperatum mperauerim imperes mpetus imperio imperiosus imperitas imperti -impertit impetrabilis impetrabit impetrare iiopetrari impetrassere impluat impluit imponam imporias imponentur imposisse impulsor impulsore impune inanem inaniis inanilogistae incedo incedunt incenati incendes incendor inceptat incerta incerti incerto incertum incessi incid indpissis incitas inclementer inclutae incohatam incoiae incommode incommodi incommoditates incommodum inconciliare inconciliastin inconsultu increpitauit incumbat incursent incus incuses incutes indagator indaget indaudisse indaudiuerit indicabis indicant indicare indicassis indice indidem indidi indidit indignis indipisces indipiscor indue ti indoles indomito indotata indotatam indotatas induitur indunt indusiarii indus triae industriis indus trior induxeris induxerunt in' inepte ineptus ineusebeme infamis infecta infectores infensae inferi inferiorem infert infidelis infidum int infortunio infortunium infumo ingenia ingenuom ingerimus ingredere ingrediri ingreditur inhiauit inhonestis inibis inicit iniecist iniimus inimico inimicus iniquire iniuria niurium iniuste inlexit inlocabilem inluuies inmanem inmemor inmemorem inmoene inmortale inmortalia inmortalis nmundus inmuni inmunis innocentem inopem inopia^ inpia inpium inportunam inpoti inpransus inproba inprobae inprobe inprobiores inprobissumum inprudentein inprudenti inpudens inpudice inpurae inpura-te inpuris inque inquinaui inquit inrideas inrideat inridet inriqua in ructas insaniam insaniaeque insanin insanis insatietatibus inscendam insciente inscita inscite inscitissumus inscribit insepultum inseruibis inseruire insidiantur insimulas insipiens insipientiaj/ inspectas inspec tasque insperata inspice inspiciat instipulatus instrenuos instruere nsula nsulas insulsum insuper integra integumentum intellegara intellegas intellegere intellegis intellegit intempestiuos intende interbibere interbitat intercedat intercepi interduim interdum interfecero interfjciant interfieri interib interiit interimam interminatus intermissum intermortui interpellatio interpolare interpoles interp retari interpretes interrogare interrumperc interstringam interuias interuorteret intestina intestinis instituta intolerabiles intolerandum introirit intuli intuor inuasit inueneris inuenerit inuenero inueni inuenias inuenies inuenietis inuenimus inuenires inuenisse inuenisti inuento inuentu inuenturum inuentu's inuestigare . inuideat inuident inuidere inuides inuidia inuidus inuisam inuises inuitet inuoca inuoco inuolem inutilem iocaris ioculo iocum iocus Inica Ioue ipsissumus ipso ipson ira iram irasci irati irato iratum ires iret isque isse ist istacin istacine istest istiusmodi istocine istorum itan iterant iterari iterum itidemque itinera ituru* iubeat iubebis iubebo iuben iubent iuberes iubeto iucundum iudex iudicare iudicium iudico iugis iuisse iunculae iurando iurandum iurauistin iuratori iuratus iussisse iusta iustus iuuabo iuuas iuuerit iuuentis iuuentutem iuxtaque labella labellis labitur laborent labores labori laboris labos Lacina Laconicam Iacrumam lacrumans lactibus laetantem laeticantur laetitia laetitias laeto laeua lacuam lamberas lamentare lanarius latiii languorem linterna lapides lapidi laqueo Larem large largiri largiter largitu's Lari Iaruae lasciuiae laserpici lassus late latebis latebricolarum latebris latebrose latent latera lates Iatitabat latiu' latrocinatum latu latuit lauabo lauat lauatio lauationera lauatum laudari laudas laudasse laudauisse laudem laudent laudis laudo Lauerna laui lauis lauit lautaque lectae lectisterniator lecto lectus lectus legam legeiit legerupa legerupam legioni legis lemniscos lenam lenoniam lenonium lenonium/ lenonius lenonum lepidas*

C 45 3

6429 W o r d s lepidi Iepidissume Iepidissummn Jepido lepidus leto leuem leues leuiorcm libella libellai libellam libello liberam librant librasse liberasso libera;/ librt liberate liberaui liberet liberorum liberosque libertam libertas librara libro licentiam licetne licetque lictum;/ lignean limbular limen liaeam Unguis lin teones linteum linum linquere liqueant liquida liquidu-r/ liquitur litationem litem litteram litteras litterasque locassem locassim locata locos loco;/ locuples Iocutus longae longi Iongissuma longo loquaces loquendi loquentis loquerer loqueris lora loris lubeat lubentissumo lubitum lubuit lucem lucernam \uc'i lucrifugas luctator luculentum lucus ludam ludere ludibundus ludicram ludlficabo ludificat ludificatorem ludificatu' ludvficatust ludificauerit luditicetur ludimus ludiu;/ ludus lumbrice lupos lupus luscus lustrantur lutitant luto luto;/ lutum iuxantur Luxuriae Lyconides macchaera maccidem Macedoni Macedonia Macedoniensem Macedonius macrant macero macet Machaerio machinas mactant mactari macto madeam madefactatis madent madeo madet madide madidum madulsam maerens maerore maeroris maestitiaeque maestitudoque maesturi mage magisterio magnas magnisque magnucus magnus maiiores malaque malcdicis malefacta maie fi ce malficos maleficura maleque malesuada maVi&cus malim malique malitiam roalitias/ malorum malumque malum;/ malu;/ mammicula mandasse mandata;/ mandatus mandatus/ maneat manebo manere manesne manicas maniplatim mansi mantant manubrium manufesta manulearii manuleatam manum;/ manuplares manuplaris mare mari maria maris maritumis Massici mastigiae materiae matronae matronarum matronis matula matulam matura maturam maturate mauelim mauelis mauelit mauis mauolo maxumas maxumi maxumi;/ meai mean meaque Medea mediam medicabo medicamento medico meditabar meditabor meditati medita tu m mcditatus medullitus mehercle Melinum mellam mellillae memento meminerunt meministi

OccurO n c e Continued , mimtare meministin minor meminit minusculum memorarier mirabilis memorat mirare memorato miran memoret miremini memoriam mirimodis men mi rum;/ mendacem mis mendaciloquius Misargyrides mendaciloquom miscent mendax misceres mendicabula misces mendicare misera mendice miserae mendicis miseras mendico misereret mendicus misereri mens miserescat mensam m5eri mense miseriae mensulam miseras mensum miseritumji mentir miserius ments miseros men ti tu;/ miserrume meosque miserrumeis mequidem miserrumus mera mi se rum;/ mera;/ misi mercatum misisse mercatura misissem mercaturan misisset mercede;/ missus mercimonio misti mercu mittatur merear raitteres merendam mitteret meiens mittimus merere mittis meret mittit meretricis mixtum meretricium modesti meretur modestia merita modes tiam meritam modicis meritus moenia meritu;/ Molas meruerunt moles tam meruisse moles tiaeque merum molestu's messem molestu;/ messim molles meteie metimur mollior moUiter metit mollitiis metuant molocinarii metuculosa mone metuebam moneas metuenda monendu's metuis monet metus monstra meu's monstrare migrare monstres migrat montem minin montes mi lia moramur miliens morare militariis moratur militaris moratus militem morbo muinis morburn miluom morbus miluos C46D

mordicibus morer mori morigerae morigeru's morior morologis moros morosos mors morsiunculae mortales mortarium mortem mortua mortuam mortuo mostra mostrare moueant moues mouet mucci mua mulcari mulcet muli mulierculam mulieremque mulsi multabo multae multam multasque multauit mu ti multiloquom multipotenti multoque muera munerigerul murmurt murobatbarii murrinam murum musice mussari mussitabas mutabit mutam muttire mutuam mutuis mu tumi f myropolae nac nactus naenia nanctu's nare narrabit narrabo narras narrat narrato narraui narret narro natalem nati natu natura naui nauis

J,.

ebuJam aecdum ecessitas iiecuilum "'negabo negauit negiegens Regentes Beglegentiam egleere . aegotiis negotio negotiosus/ negotis/ negotiums/ lient Neptuni Neptuno nequams/ -. nequaquam . nequeat : nequeunt Neri neruo nesdat nescioquid nescioquo aesciunt neutrubi nidoricupi nihils/ nimiae nimias nimioque nimirum niteant nitidior nitidiuscule nftidiusculum nitorem nituntur niue aobilerf nobilis nobiscum noceas noceat nocet noctem noctes noctis noenum nolebam tiolint nolit nolui nominabo omini nonum noram ooscitat nosco cosque nosse nostramo nostri nostrorum ostros/ nota otis otisque

.u'

nouam nouarura nouas nouercam noueris nouerisne nouerit nouicium nouorum nox noxia nu nubant nubent nucem nuda nugacissume nugae nugamini nugare nugatorem nugatori nugatorias nugatorium nugatur nugigerulis nugis nulli nuUiw' nullums/ numeras numera tae numeratis numeratum nummis nummorum numnam numqui nundinales/ nuntiaret nuntias nuntiate nunties nuntiet nuntietur nuntii nuntium nupssti nupta nuptiae nusquams/ nutrice nutrix obambulatum obdormiui obducam obest obicere obicias obicitur obiciunt obiectare obiectas obiectas obiectent obiectes obiurgandus obiurgans oblectem oblinam obiitum obnoxios obnoxosae obojuisti

6429 Words Occur obrepat obrepseris obrepsisti obsonas obuenerit obuoluto obuortat occasiuncula occedamus occepistis occepit occep turns/ occessit occideret occiderit occidimus occidit occidor occipiam occipiat occiptio occisa occisus occlusa occlusae occlusioremque occlusii occulant occultabo occultandaes/ occultatum occultassis occuitum occulunt occupassis occupato occupatu's occupauit occupias occurrit occurro ocelle occlJo oceliu's oculata oculeus oculicrepidae oculisque oculus oderit odiosas odiossaeque odiosus odorem odores offendam officio offigantur offudam offusam oggerunt ohe olent oleo oles oliui oliuom Olympico omine omittis mnibus/ onerabi' onerat onere

Once Continued onerem oneris onus operaes/ operamque operas/ operi operiri operito opibus opifex opinione oporteat opperiam opperiare opperibor opperire opperitui opperitus opplebo oppletae oppletus opponam Opportunitas opportunius opportunum opportnnus oppressiunculae opprimt opprimitur opprobra opprobrarier oppugnando oppugnas opsaeptas/ opscurasse opsecraeram opsecrauisset opsecrauit opsequentem opsequentis opsequi op se rendo opseri opseruabo opseruauit opseruemus opsessor opseueris opsidione opsignatam opsignato opsisti opsit opsonate opsanari opsonauit opsoni opsoniumque opstant opstinauit opstringit opstrinxero optegere optemprem optemperas optines optio optrudere optrunco optuerier optumam optumas optumas/ optumis opturat opulentiae opulentiores opulentissumus orabo orant orasque oratione orationis oratios/ orauit ordinem orditur ordo ore orgiorum oritur oriundi ornatum ossa ostendam ostenta rier ostendi ostentat ostio otiosse otiosus oues ouis pacem pacisci pacta pactam pactas/ pactionem paedagogus paenulas palams/ pallam pallas pallo palliolatm pallos/ palpum panem pais panticesque pantopoum papaueFem papillarum parabit parabo parare parasite parasitos parasitus parat paratae paratas/ paratis paratragoedat paratum paraui parcere parcior parcissumum parcunt parent parerem pari pariant parietem parietum pari tas parricida parsi parsimonia parsimoniae parsis parsissem parta partas parte particeps partura parturit parua paruis paruisti paruolus paruom paruoms/ pascite passim passum pastum patagiarii pateant patefeci patere paterer paternam paterni paterque patibulatum patientia patientissumums/ patinis patior patiunda patiundums/ patres patria patrium patrone patrono patronum pauca paucas pauciores pauciorum paucorum paue paullulum pauperant pauperculum pauperioris pauperiorum pauperis pauperrumum paupertate paupertatem pauperum pauxillo pauxillulo paiurillum peccarim peccata peccatum peccauisti pectori peculiaris pedisequa pedsequos peiiurare peiiurauisti peiiure

C47]

5 4 2 9W o r d s O c c u r O n c e penun peiiurissume peiiurius peiius peior Peliam pellego pellcrem pellis pellucet pendam pendeant pendens pendentem pendes pendet pendis pendo penetrarem penetraui penetrauit penitus pensilem peperceris peperisse peperit perambula peracuit perbene perbitere perbonam perbono perbonum percepi percoles percontabere percontari percontarier perculsu;/ percussi percussisses percussit percutiam perdat perde perderes perdidero perdidici perdidisse perdita perdoces perdocte perduellibus perduellis perduim perduxerunt pereat peregri peregrina peregrinos peregrin um peregrinus perendie perendinum pereo perfacile perfeceris perferam perfidiam perfidias perfidiis perfossor perfrigefadt pergere pergite pergitin pergraecaminei pergraecamini pergraecari pergraphicus pergunt perhibeatur pericli periclum;/ periclo periculo periissem periisses perinde perire peris peristromata peritissumus perlongums/ permadefecit permanascere permanauit pernam pernegare pernegat pernego pernoui pernouit peraix perperam perpessu's perpeti perpetiar perpetor perpetraui perpetuae perptut perp lacent perplexarier perpluant perpluit perpluont perpotasse perpotaui perscrutabor perscrutatus perse rutaui persentiscat persequor perspecta perspexi perspicue pertegito perterruit pertimescit pertundat perturbt pertussum peruenant perueneris peruenerit peruenisti peruiam;/ peruigilat peruium peruolgatunL/ pessuiis pessuma pessumu's peste petaso petasus pete petet petis petitum Phanisce pharetram Phiiemo Philemoni Philippeum Philippus Philolache Philolachei Philolachesne Philolachete PhiJolacheti Philolachetis philosophatum philosophatur Philtonem Phoenicio Phrugia phyrgio pice picis picta p ictam pictum pictura pietas pietati pietatis pigere pigmentum pigra pila pilum pinguiorem pipulo Pirenam pirum piscator piscatu pisca t u m piscium pistillum pistor pistrino pius placari placeam placeant placenda placeo placida;/ placido plagas plagigera plagigeruli plagipatidae planam plateae plaudite plaudo plaudunt plaustro rum plausum plebi plenas pleno plenum pen us plerique plora plorans plorat

Continued ptate p o t a tum potem poterat poteris poterit poterunt potestas potestatem poti potiatur potiorem potitus potuisti praebeo praeberi praecellet praecepi praecepta praeceptor praecidam praecipere praecipitauit praecipitem praecipue praecipuos praecurram praedae praedatoribus praedicem praedicet praedicitur praediti praedo praefectum praefectus praeficio praefulcior praegnatem praehiberem praemandatum praemature praemostrauit praemostro Praenestinus praeoccupabo praeoptauisti praeponeres praeripiam praerodat praerodatis praesagibat praesegmina praesensisset praesentaria praesentariis praesentarium praesentem praesentes praesertim praesidebo p r a estt praestinem praestituta;/ praesto praestolabor praestrigiator praeterhac praeuortar praeuortaris praeuortere prandero prandio p r at a precator prehendam prehenderit prehendunt prehensi premam pretium pretium;/ primaria primoribus primus principi priuatae priuatum priuos proauo probasse probes probior probiores procedere procellae processerunt processi processit procreandis procudam procurator procures prodegeris prodi prodigi prodire prodit profanum profecturus proero proferto proferunt profesto proficisci profugiens profndele progigni prognatum progredimino progreditur prohibeas prohibere prohibes prohibessis prohibessit promat promere promeres promerita promi promiscam promiseram promisisse promissi piomittitis promptas pronuper propemodo properant prop erare p ropera te propera to;/ properes properet propinare propinqua propinquitate

pluma plmbeos plumbeum plura pluribus plurimis pluris plurumae plurumi plurumis plurumos plusque pocula poeniceo polliceor pollicetur pollicitatio pollicitos pollucibiliter Polymachaeroplagidem Polymachaeroplagidi polypos ponam ponat pondo ponere ponitur Ponto Pontum ponunt populrem populares populum porcinam porge poriciam porree t a m porrexi porta;/ portenditur porticus portitorem portitores portitori portorium portu portum poseas posee poscerem posceret poscis posiueris posiui posses possidere possidet possiet possimus possumus poste posterorum posticulo posticulum posticum postidea postulare Postumus pota potandus potantis potarier

[48]

6429 W o r d s propor -pfopitia propitii -wopolae ; r0 prio propterea piopromptu ftforogare -firorogatur tjroscmditur jrosilui prosint ^ prospere propereque prospicere prostibulum prostituam prostituat prosum proterritum pro thyme pjotinus protollet -protractum proueniant prouenit prouidero prouinciae proumciam prouincias prouocas prouorsus prox proxumam proxumas proxume pioxumumsf proxumus pube publicae >publicisne pueros puerum pugnabo pugnis pulchram pulchrior pulchriores pulchrius pulmento pulmentum pulpamentis puitabit pultadum pultandi pultaui puitem pultiphagus pumex pumiceos pungit Pnica puplicis pure purget purigant purpurata purpurissum puta putas putat putatur putefacit putent putidum puto q quadrigis quaedams/ quaen quaepiam quaepiams/ quaeq' quaequomque quaeram quaerat quaere quaerebas q uaererem quaerite quaeritem quaeritemus quaeritet quaerito quaeritur quaerundum quaesso quaestio quaestus quaeuis quali qualine qualubet quamobrem quamue quantas quantilio quantillum quantis quaquam quaque quartus quasique quassas quater quempiam quemque querimonia queunt quian quibara quiddam quiddarm/ quietae quieto quinam quinauicenaria quineto quingentos quiis quintibi quintus qui's quisquanu/ quoad quocum quodam quoiam quoidam quoii quoipiam quoiuismodi quoium quoiums/ quomodo quopiam quotiens quotumas quotumo quouis radebat radicibus rapacidarum rapax rapiam rapi' rapitur raptas raptores latkraesque ratis rauim rean tur rear rebitur recens recenti recepit recipiam recnarmida recita recludat reclude recommentatu's recomminiscar Recordatu' recten recurre recursem redactu si reddat reddatur redderem redderes Teddes reddeturne reddi redd di reddit redditae reddituru's redditurus reddundum reddunt redduxit redemi redhibere redierit rediero rediget redigunt rediit redipisci reditio rdito rediturum reducem referam referas referxet refers refertur reges regi reginae regione regno regredere relictae relicui relicuos relinques

O n c e Continued relinqui relinquo reliquiae remisit remittam remittal remitte remittere remoramque remoran tur remoratur renuntiabo renuntiantur renunciare renuntiatum renuntii reor reparcunt repente repentino reperias reperiatur reperiri reperit repertam repetas repetundi repetunt reposcam reposco repperero repperissem reprehendam reprehende reprehendit reprehensi reputes reputo, requintas rere resciscat resciuerit resciui resciuisse resciuisti resecroque resigna tas resonat respicere respiciam respicis respondeam respondeat respond endi respondeo respond respondisset responset r esponsiones responsum res tat restim restinguas restio ' restiteras restitit restitus retiere retinen retullit retunsas/ retunsumrf reueniat reuenit

reuocamus reuocas reu'que Rhadamantem rides ridetis ridicularia ridicule riuabo rogamus rogandi rogant rogare rogat rogaturu's roget rogitant rogito ruant rubicundo ructare ructus ruere rufus rumicem rumori ruont rustici rusticus rusus sacerrumus sacrilege sacris sacruficassem saeclo saeculum saepissume saeuiendum saeuomque sagina sagittas sagittatis sagittis saGat salicto salillum salit Salsipotenti saisis saluae saluete saluomque saluomi/ Sal us salutabant salutant sal u tare salutas salute saluti salutigerulos saluto sanae sanctaj/ sanctums/ sandaligerulae sanein Sangarionem sanguinis sapiat sapienter sapienti sapientia sapientiam

sapies sa reina sarcinatores sarcire sarciri sarmenta Sarsinatis sarta satellites satias satietate satius satius/ saucaptidem sauiis sauium saxo saxum sea b rae scaenam scaeuast scalpurrire scandit Scaphae Scapham scapulis scatat scelera scelestae scelestam scelestior scelestum scelestu's scibis sciens scindant scindere scintillam scirpea scita scitis scitius scitne scito scitus/ sciui sciuin .r scortintur scribatii- ^ scribuntr^ scrobes : scrutari scurra scurras scuta secat secreto sectatur sector secunda securi securim sedebas sedem sedens sedent sedentarii sedet seduxi seges segnities segregant segregent segreges

6429 W o r d s 0< Seleuciam semita senectus senectuti senis senserim seoserit sensi sensim sensit sententiasque sentiat sepeliui septem sep turnas sepulcro sequitur sera serere sermonatus sermones sermoni sermonisque serua seruanda seruando seruari seruasso seruator seruaueio seruaui seruauisti serue seruent seruiant seruitum seruitus seruitutis seruiui seruiunt seruorumque seruosne sescentae sesquipede seuerumque seuocas sexaginta sextum sibique Sibulla siccoculum siccus Sicyone Sicyonem Sicyoni signis signo sileatio Siluano simia Simiae Simiam Simoni simulacrumque simulant simulas simulauit simules simultatem simulter s i n api s sincerum singillatim sinistera sinito sintne siquid siris sistendae sistere sis ti sita sita st si ti situm situim siturf siue siueris sobrie sobriu' socco socerum socienno sociofraude socordiamque Socratem sodalis sodalitate sodes sol solam solas sol soleam soleant solear soleas soleatis solitus solitu's solstitiali solstitialis soluam soluere soluite solutum soluturm somniatis somniauit somnu' sonant sonat sonitum sonitus sopor sorbereque sorbitione sororis sors sospitalis sospitent sparsa spatium specieque specimen spectabit spectant spectare spectato spectatorum specto speculabor speculatum speculatur speculoclaras Spemne speras speres spernere spernis Sphaerio splendorem spolia spoliera sponsione sponte spopondi spurcificum s ta stabile stabit stacta s ta mus stant Stasimum stat statin statis statuam statuisti Statur stemuas stilis stimulatricem stimulatrici stimulorum stimulum Stipendium stipularier Stirpe stolide stolidius Strata stratioticum stratioticus stratu' strenui strenuom strenuosos strepitai strigibus Strobilum Strobilus Strolum strophiarii strophiis structa studeat studeo studes studet stultam stul ti stultiloquentiam stultis stultitiae stultitiarf stultitiis stultius stultum stultu's suadeam suadeas suades suadetur suarum suas suasore suaui suauior suauis

O n c e Coniinu suauisauiatio suauitate Subbalo subblandiebar subditiuom subducemus subducta subegero subegi subest subeunt subigere subigis subigit subigor sbitos* subitum sublegam subleui subleuit sublinat sublingulo subniger subolebat subolem subueni subuenisset subuenistl subuenit succieuere sucopbantis sudor sues sulco sumas sumen sumere sumeret summam summatum suramus sumpsero sumpsi sumpsimus sumpsisse sumpti sumptibus sumptui sumptumque sumptums sumptusque supellex superant superare superauit superbe superbum supercilium superi superiores supero superstes suppeditat suppetant suppingi supplex supplicabo supplicat supplicatum supplici suppositicium supremi supremum supremus

supsequar supsequere supsequitur supsequor supset supstruont suram surdu' Sure surgara surgedum surgunt suris Su ro surrupere surruperem surruperent surruperes sunuperet surrupio surrupuisse surrupuit susceoseas suscenses suspendito suspendium suspcamini suspicentur suspicetur suspicione sustinent sustinet susum sutures sycopbantae sycophantiose symbolo Syrus tabern a tabernculo tabern am tabulas tacebo tcente tacet taciturnitati tactu' taesuau taeterrume taetriorem taetrius tale talenta talento tametsi tangam tangeres tangite tantam tantas t a n tillo tantillum tanton tan tu tantums tappetia tarde tardus tarpezitae tarpezitara tarmes taurus taurum tecbinae

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5429 W o r d s O c c u r O n c e Continued tuaique tuams/ tuapte tuar/ tuisque tuli tulissent tumultuoso tune tnica tunicam tnicas tuomrf tuo st turarme turbae turbant turbat turbauimus turbauit turbellas trbidas/ trbidos turbines turbo turget turpes turpi turpilucricupidum turpitudinem tuquidem turtures tu's tus tusculum tutin tutor uaginam ualeat ualen ualent ualeo ualete ualui ualuisti ualuistin uana uanidicis uapulem uapulo uaria uasa uasis uastities uaticinamini uberi uberrume uberrumos ubiquomque uecturam uehar uehementer uehunt uein ueis uela uelintne uellent uellicat ueluti uenales uenalium uenderes uendidisti uendito uenditurum uendundusf ueneficae ueneficu's uenenis ueneram uenerare uenerim uenias uenient ueniet uenibit ucniisse ueniret ueniri uenisti uentne uenti uentriosus uenturum uentus uenustates uerberabilissume uerberare uerberari uerberarier uerberate uerberauisti uerbeream uerberonem uerbi/ uerbo uerbumst uereare uerecundari uerecundiam uerums uerus uesanum uestibulum uestipica uestitu uestitu's uetere ueterem ueteris uetulae uexillum ui uiaticum uicem uicerit uici uicine uicinos uicit uictibus uictis 'uictitabam uictitare uictoria uictorum uicturaque .uictus/ uideare uideat uideatur uidebis uidebo uidebunt uidelicet uidendum uidendums uideon uideri uideto uidetque uideturne uidit uigilans uigilanti uigilas uigiliam uigilias uigiliis uigilo ues/ uiliores uilissumus/ uim uinarium uincere uinces uincite uinciti' uinctam uinctus uindex uinolentum uiolarii uirgarum uirginis uirgis uiris uiritim uirium uiro uirtus uirtuti uirtutibus uirtutis uisam uise uisitata uisitatus Visso uisu' uiuam uiuamus uiuat uiue uiuito uite uitia uitilena uitio uitulinam uituperarier uituperas uiuam uiuere uixert uixirous uixisse uixit ulciscare Vlixem Vlixes ulmearum ulmeis ultumas umerum umiditate unae unct unctitant unctiusculo unctor undam undique unguem unguendam unguis ungulas uniuorsis uniuorsum unos uoca uocabo uocari uocauerit uoces uocis uocitantur Volcano uolebam uolebas uolgo uolpes uolsus uolturium uolueram uoluere uoluimus uoluisses uoluisti uolup uoluptates uolup tati uoluptati' uoiuptatibu' uolup ta tum uolutaui uomitum uorem uorsa uorsabatur uorsari uorsa tur uorso uorsoriam uorsus uorsute uorsutus uortere uorterit uorti uortitur uostrae uostrarum uostro uostros uotem uotes urbani urbanus urbis urit urnam uspiam usquams/ usquequaque usquin ussurae USSUJ usu usum usura usurpari usurpaui USUJ utar utare utenda utendums/ uterum utibile utibiles utile utitur utra utramque utrique utrisque utrumuis uxorio Xytilis zamiam zonarii zonarius

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