Chapter 2: Portraying Earth

McKnights Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation, Tenth Edition, Hess

Portraying Earth
The Nature of Maps Map Scale Map Essentials The Role of Globes Map Projections Families of Map Projections Isolines

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Portraying Earth
GPSGlobal Positioning System Remote Sensing GISGeographic Information Systems Tools of the Geographer

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The Nature of Maps

2-dimensional representation of Earths surface Show 4 key properties of a region
Size Shape Distance Direction

Figure 2-2b

Maps are imperfect, since Earth is a sphere

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Map Scale
Maps are usually smaller than the area they represent Map scales are necessary to understand realistic distances on map Scale is relationship between area on map and area on Earth Three primary types
Graphic Fractional Verbal
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Figure 2-3

Map Scale
Large versus small map scales

Figure 2-4
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Map Essentials
Need several properties of maps to help with interpretation:
Title Date Legend Scale Direction Location Data Source Map Projection
Figure 2-5
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The Role of Globes

Advantages of Globes
Maintains correct geographic relationships between points Can accurately represent spatial relationships between points on Earth

Disadvantages of Globes
Only can see a hemisphere at a time Large and bulky Cannot contain much detail

Figure 2-6
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Map Projections
Challenge of the cartographer (mapmaker)
Combine geographic exactness of globe with convenience of flat map

Definition of map projection Principle behind map projections Two primary types
Equivalentratio of areal size on map and Earth is the same Conformalshape of locations on the map is the same as on Earth

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Map Projections
Equivalence versus conformality dilemma

Figure 2-10
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Families of Map Projections

Cylindrical Projections
Wrap the globe in a cylinder of paper Paper tangent to Earth at equator Conformal projection Mercator projection is most famous

Figure 2-7

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Families of Map Projections

Plane Projections
Project globe onto a paper that is tangent to globe at some point Displays one hemisphere well Equivalent projection An example is an orthographic plane projection (Figure 2-13)
Figure 2-9
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Families of Map Projections

Conic Projections
Project the map onto a cone tangent to or intersecting the globe Principal parallel Good for mapping small areas on Earth Impractical for global mapping
Figure 2-8

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Families of Map Projections

Pseudocylindrical Projections
A mix of conformal and equivalent Central parallel and meridian cross at right angles Oval shaped; distortion increases as you move away from the center

Figure 2-11

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Families of Map Projections

Interrupted Projections
Minimize distortion Discontinuous map, shapes and sizes maintained Typically oceans are distorted; land masses maintain original shape and size Goodes projection

Figure 2-14

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Isolines
Definition Many types
Isobar: line of constant pressure Isotherm: line of constant temperature Isohyet: line of constant rain Isoamplitude: line of constant wave amplitude

Construction steps/rules
Figure 2-16
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Isolines

800 700

600

500

400

300

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Isolines
Topographic Maps
Show elevation contours Contour lines Lines closer together represent steeper terrain Often used in geography

Figure 2-15
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Isolines
Topographic Maps
Show elevation contours Lines closer together represent steeper terrain Often used in geography

Figure 2-15
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GPSGlobal Positioning System

Global navigation satellite system for determining location on Earths surface Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) Continuously Operating GPS Reference Stations (CORS)
Figure 2-19
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Remote Sensing
Measurement by a device not in contact with Earths surface Common types include:
Aerial Photographs Orthophoto maps Visible Light and Infrared (IR) Scanning Thermal IR scanning Radar and Sonar Many others

Aerial PhotographyFigure 2-20

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Remote Sensing
Orthophoto maps
Photographic maps that are multicolored and distortion free Useful in low-lying coastal regions to show marsh topography

Figure 2-21

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Remote Sensing
Visible light and IR scanning
Based off of visible light and IR part of electromagnetic spectrum (Figure 2-22) Shows false color

Figure 2-23
Figure 2-22
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Remote Sensing
Radar Imagery
Radio Detection and Ranging Useful for identifying atmospheric moisture

Sonar Imagery
Sound Navigation and Ranging Permits underwater imaging

Thermal IR scanning
Scans in the thermal IR part of spectrum Shows images based on temperature Often utilized in meteorology
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GISGeographic Information Systems

Computer systems used to analyze and display spatial data Layers of data used in mapping Requires high powered computing to process multiple maps
Figure 2-29
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Tools of the Geographer

Vast array of maps, remotely sensed satellite imagery, and computer applications Difficult to determine the best way to use all of this information Some tools better at identifying features on Earth than others Ultimate goal: To better understand Earth.

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Summary
Maps are essential to portray features on Earths surface Need a map scale to identify how a map relates to the actual surface features on Earth Many other map properties are essential to interpreting a map Globes have several advantages and disadvantages Representing Earth in 2 dimensions can be done through map projections
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Summary
Many different map projections exist Dilemma of equivalent versus conformal Plotting isolines on a map can help with interpretation of features on the map The global positioning system (GPS) helps to identify location on Earths surface Remote sensing is a measurement of Earths surface from a system not on Earths surface

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Summary
Many different remote sensing instruments exist, including satellite, radar, and sonar GIS are computer systems used to analyze and display spatial data, often in layers The geographer has many tools, but the ultimate goal is To better understand Earth.

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