Best Irrigation Water Pumping Manual

Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost
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PREFACE
This manual is about reducing the costs involved in small-scale pumped irrigation schemes. Too often, schemes are designed and constructed with thought given only to the immediate cost of constructing the scheme and of buying and installing equipment. Little or no attention is given to operating costs, with the result that some schemes may well be cheap to install but very costly to run. When water is pumped, every litre has a real cost because of the energy needed. If more water is pumped than is needed or is pumped inefficiently, then operating costs can rise significantly because of the additional energy which is wasted. Ways of approaching scheme design and equipment selection are described so as to take account of the operating costs. Simple examples are used to show how this can be done, and how true comparisons can be made between different designs. Guidelines are given, based on experience in many developing countries, so that sound practical choices can be made. The manual is not just for those starting a new scheme. It is also for those who wish to evaluate and improve existing schemes, and practical ways of reducing operating costs by improving the efficiency of water use and pumping are described. The readership envisioned is that group of people with some practical experience in small-scale irrigation but who have little or no technical or engineering knowledge and wish to be able to advise farmers on appropriate equipment selection and its proper and efficient use. Although not numbered in the same series as the FAO/ILRI Irrigation Water Management Training Manuals, this particular publication is seen as being complementary to that series, and, as a consequence, numerous cross-references are made in the text to the various volumes of the Training Manuals series. The text is substantially the work of Dr Melvyn Kay, of Silsoe College, UK, with additional technical input from N. Hatcho of the Land and Water Development Division, FAO, Rome. The text was edited and prepared by Thorgeir Lawrence for publication by FAO. Any comments on the text as it stands and any suggestions for potential improvements that could be included in subsequent editions are welcomed, and should be addressed to: Water Resources, Development and Management Service , AGLW FAO Viale delle Terme di Caracalla I-00100 ROMA, Italy
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CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Small-scale irrigation 1.2 Problems 1.3 Solutions 1.4 Making choices 2. SOME BASIC CONCEPTS 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Pressure 2.3 Discharge 2.4 Energy 2.5 Power11 2.6 Efficiency 3. CHOOSING A NEW IRRIGATION SYSTEM 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Water sources 3.3 Pumps and power units 3.3.1 Pump types 3.3.2 Pump Characteristics 3.3.3 Pump selection 3.3.4 Power units 3.3.5 Efficiency 3.4 Distribution systems 3.4.1 Open channels 3.4.2 Pipelines 3.4.3 Distribution efficiency 3.5 Methods of irrigation 3.5.1 Surface irrigation 3.5.2 Sprinkler irrigation 3.5.3 Trickle irrigation 3.5.4 Selecting an irrigation method 3.6 System capacity 3.6.1 Crop water requirements 3.6.2 Peak scheme water demand 3.6.3 Seasonal scheme water demand 3.7 Peak power and energy demand 3.8 Costs 3.8.1 Capital cost 3.8.2 Operating cost 3.8.3 Overall cost 3.8.4 Effects of changes 3.8.5 Some general conclusions 3.8.6 Some practical considerations Page 1 1 1 2 2 5 5 5 7 9 13 15 15 18 18 18 22 23 24 26 29 29 31 35 37 37 39 40 40 41 42 44 45 45 46 47 47 49 52 53 54
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4. CASE STUDY - 1 Introduction 4.1 Options available 4.2 Scheme water demand 4.3 Peak power and energy demand 4.4 Overall costs 4.5 Conclusions 4.6 Guidelines 5. CASE STUDY - 2 5.1 Options available 5.2 Scheme water demand 5.3 Overall power and energy demand 5.4 Overall costs 5.5 Conclusions 5.6 Guidelines 6. IMPROVING EXISTING SCHEMES 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Inefficient water use 6.3 Inefficient equipment 6.4 Effect of inefficiency 6.5 Evaluating a scheme 6.6 Obtaining data 6.6.1Observing and questioning 6.6.2Some basic data ANNEX 79
55 55 55 56 57 59 59 62 63 63 63 64 65 67 70 71 71 72 73 74 74 76 76 76
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TABLES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. Energy content of fuels and foods A guide to selecting centrifugal pumps Pump selection for small-scale schemes Indicative values of distribution efficiency (%) Typical field application efficiencies for irrigation methods Typical sprinkler data Factors affecting selection of irrigation method Indicative values for crop water needs and growing periods Useful life of irrigation system components Indicative maintenance and repair costs Capital recovery factors (CRF) EAC values for pumps at various discount rates EAC values for pumps for different life expectancies Changing the distribution system and its effects on energy and cost Calculating scheme water demand Overall power and energy demands Overall cost comparisons Calculating scheme water demand Overall power and energy demands Overall cost comparisons Efficiency of surface irrigation methods Page 10 21 23 35 37 39 41 43 47 48 50 51 51 52 56 57 58 64 64 65 73
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FIGURES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. Making choices , the design process Relationship between force and pressure Measuring pressure in a pipe Calculating discharge Measuring discharge Energy conversion - analagous systems in people and machines Illustration of the problem considered in Example 3 Relationship between rate of energy use and power Graph relating flow, static head and power Choosing irrigation system components Components of a typical irrigation scheme Typical axial flow pump The radial flow (centrifugal) pump Typical mixed flow pump Pump characteristics of the three pump types Pump selection based on head and discharge parameters Manufacturer s data for a centrifugal pump Efficiency of components of pumping plant Suction lift limitations Energy demand for open channel distribution Channel design: dimensions and drop structures Pipe system and its energy demand Hydraulic gradient Nomograph relating pipe diameter, discharge, head loss and velocity Basin, border and furrow irrigation Sprinkler irrigation Hose-pull sprinkler system Trickle irrigation Peak and seasonal scheme water demands The concept of water requirements in mm Relationship between pipe size and seasonal energy cost Effect on EAC values of reducing pump efficiency Effect on EAC values of changing interest rate Effect on EAC values of a greater depth to the groundwater table Effect of reducing pumping efficiency on EAC values Effect of greater depth to groundwater on EAC values Effect of increasing scheme size on capital and operating costs Evaluating irrigation scheme performance System efficiency value ranges The relationship between efficiency and seasonal operating costs Page 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 15 16 19 20 21 22 24 25 26 28 29 30 32 33 34 36 38 39 40 42 43 53 60 60 61 66 66 68 71 74 75
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 SMALL-SCALE IRRIGATION
Small-scale irrigation is an important aspect of irrigation development in many countries. Approximately half of the irrigated area in Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, is irrigated in this way. It involves individual or small groups of farms, organized and managed by farmers, usually independent of government resources. This type of development has often proved successful in places where the larger-scale, primarily government controlled, projects have not. This is not to say that small-scale is therefore better than large-scale farming, or indeed that small-scale is more simple to develop. It is a different approach to irrigated farming, with its own challenges. Irigation development requires careful design, construction and management to be successful. It is, perhaps, in the management element that the key difference lies. In a small system there are no tiers of management, as in the large-scale schemes. Farmers alone decide when to irrigate and how much water to apply; start and stop the pumps; and generally run the entire scheme with the help of the family or local community. Small-scale farming can be highly productive in terms of yield per hectare of land. The energy input into large-scale schemes can be up to 15 times greater than that required for smallscale farming for the same output of crops produced. This is in sharp contrast to large-scale schemes where the ratio is normally less than 4. Thus, on a national or regional scale, when considering the use of commercial fuel in agriculture, which in many countries is both scarce and expensive, the small-scale approach can be an attractive one. 1.2 PROBLEMS
Despite their apparent attractiveness in terms of potential productivity, small-scale schemes are, however, not always as efficiently run as they could be. Most schemes rely on pumping to supply their water needs and are often designed on the basis of minimum investment cost, with little or no thought given to the effect that this might have on operating costs over many years. For example, a farmer may purchase a cheap pump which runs at a very low level of efficiency. The energy cost may be considerable and it may require much servicing and spare parts. If the farmer were to purchase a better and more appropriate pump then more money might be spent initially but there should be much more money saved over the years through reduced fuel (energy) costs and maintenance. Similar issues arise when selecting other components of an irrigation system. An equally important issue to consider is how well the scheme is managed once it is operating. The most appropriate system design and selection will be of little use in the hands of an inexperienced or unskilled irrigator. Good equipment is no substitute for good management and, here too, considerable savings in energy and operating costs can be made by ensuring good equipment and water management practices.
Introduction
1.3
SOLUTIONS
This manual describes ways of approaching scheme design and equipment selection which take account of both investment and operating costs, and, in particular, emphasise the significance of energy costs. Some basic concepts need to be understood about water flow, energy and power, and, for those who have little or no knowledge of these, they are described in Chapter 2. In Chapter 3 the basic components of an irrigation scheme are described together with ways of choosing between different pumps, distribution systems and methods of irrigation. There may be many different ways of irrigating a farm and a basis for comparison and selection is needed. Cost is often the dominant factor. Thus the idea of cost effectiveness is introduced, showing that both capital costs and operating costs must be considered when selecting equipment, and that the one affects the other. This is demonstrated in Chapters 4 and 5, where two contrasting case studies show how the principles and practices of Chapter 3 can be applied. Many small-scale irrigation schemes are already in operation, and one question here might be how to get the best results from what is already there. Chapter 6 examines ways of looking at existing schemes to determine energy use and operating costs, and to find ways of reducing them through improved efficiency of equipment and water use. 1.4 MAKING CHOICES
Much of this manual is about the process of design the process of making logical choices between systems of irrigation and equipment (Figure 1). It is important to realize at the outset that there is unlikely to be just one ideal choice; there may be many alternatives, any one of which might be quite appropriate. The job of the designer is to present the options available in relation to good irrigation practice, water availability, equipment, its reliability and cost. The farmer can then choose the system which he or she feels is most appropriate. The design process A preliminary design is usually done first. This is often done quickly in order to establish the options available. Once a choice has been made, work then proceeds to a detailed design which details every nut and bolt to be purchased and every canal and structure to be constructed. To undertake a preliminary design, basic information is needed about the land and crops to be irrigated. However, accurate details about land areas and crops may not be necessary at this stage. To understand this it is important to realize what preliminary design is about. It is to establish the maximum capacity or size of the system to be constructed and the choices available to the farmer. The system capacity must be enough to satisfy the maximum amount of water needed by the crops, and there are simple ways of assessing this without detailed knowledge of the cropping. Clearly the answer will not be exact but great accuracy is not needed at this stage. Remember that when a scheme is operating it will run for most of the time at well below its maximum capacity. It may only run at full capacity for a very short period when the crops are maturing and need most water. It is very much like designing and using a car. It may be designed to operate at a maximum speed of 150 km/h, but most drivers would travel well below this speed and only use the maximum speed occasionally. Thus whether the maximum speed is 150 or 160 km/h is not really very critical to the overall use of the car if it otherwise meets all the demands made upon it by the driver. If the actual maximum performance is less than
150 km/h, then the car will still get there it will just take a little longer. In the same way the capacity of an irrigation system need not be determined with great accuracy as long as the capacity will meet most, if not all, of the operating demands that the farmer will make. If the capacity falls a little short of demand then the difference can be made up by running the system for a longer period. A further aspect of design is considering How will the final cost of the scheme be affected by the decisions made during the design process?. If, for example, the crop water requirement is changed by 10%, or a channel is increased in size by 20%, does this significantly affect the overall cost of the scheme? If it does, then this figure needs to be chosen with considerable care. If it does not, then such accuracy is not needed. A good designer will concentrate on the important factors which will have significant effects on the outcome. The inexperienced designer will need to experiment a little to determine which are the critical factors in the design process. A final aspect of design, which the inexperienced designer may not realize at first, is that there are no formulae which can help with the initial decision making. For example, there is no formula which would show that a pipe should be used instead of an open channel. This is a matter of choice, which may eventually be decided by cost or some other constraint. The designer would thus consider both options, prepare a preliminary design for each one, and then see which was best. Several designs may be done in this way before the best one can be chosen. In other words, the designer will often choose what seems to be appropriate and then set about proving that the choices made are indeed the best. This is where an experienced designer can be invaluable. On the basis of past experience of similar situations the designer may well be able to greatly simplify the design process because he or she may have a very good idea of what will be the best solution. Unfortunately, the inexperienced designer must go through a more rigorous process to arrive at the best solution. This manual is to help the inexperienced designer, and to try and pass on some of the experience of others in order to shorten and simplify the design process. Cost Cost will be an important factor when making choices. In this manual typical costs are used to demonstrate the selection process, but the reader must take great care when using conclusions drawn from this because local costs may vary considerably from those shown. The reader is thus encouraged to go through the design process using local costs and to make judgements based on local solutions. Throughout the text the unit of currency used is the United States dollar ($US).
Introduction
FIGURE 1 Making choices - the design process
Chapter 2 Some basic concepts

2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides a guide to some of the basic principles which affect energy needs in small-scale irrigation. SI units the International Metric System are used throughout the text. Reference is made to other units where appropriate, because it is an unfortunate fact of life that many different systems are in use in irrigation, and sometimes it can be confusing and lead to serious mistakes. The fundamental units in the SI systems are: Measurement Length Volume Mass Force 2.2 PRESSURE Unit metre cubic metre kilogramme newton Symbol m m3 kg N
Pressure is a commonly used term, but it does have a special meaning in hydraulics. It describes the force exerted by water on each square metre of some object submerged in water. It may be the bottom of a tank, the side of a dam, or a pipeline. Pressure is normally measured in kilonewtons per square metre (kN/m2). An alternative to this in irrigation is the bar , where 1 bar is equal to 100 kN/m2. Pressure is calculated by:
force (kN) area (m2)
Pressure (kN/m2) =
Thus pressure is force per unit area (Figure 2).

FIGURE 2 Relationship between force and pressure
Some basic concepts
EXAMPLE 1 Calculate the pressure when a force of 10 kN is applied to an area of 2 m2. - We know that Pressure = force / area, so P = 10 / 2 = 5 kN/m2. If the area is increased to 4 m2, what will be the nre pressure? - P = 10 / 4 = 2.5 kN/m2. Thus the force has remained the same but the pressure is reduced by spreading the force over
A typical operating pressure for a sprinkler system is 3 bar pressure, or 300 kN/m2. This means that every square metre of the inside of the pipes and pump has a uniform force of 300 kN acting on it. Other common units of pressure are kilogrammes-force per square centimetre (kgf/cm2) and pounds-force per square inch (lbf/in2). For conversion from one unit to another:
1 bar = 14.7 lbf/in2 = 1 kgf/cm2 = 100 kN/m2
Pressure measurement Pressure in pipes can be measured using a bourdon gauge (Figure 3). Inside the gauge is a curved tube of oval section, which tries to straighten out when the system is under pressure. The tube is linked to a pointer which moves across a graduated scale and indicates pressure. Irrigators normally measure pressure in the field using these gauges as they are robust and simple to use. However, engineers often refer to pressure as a head of water in metres (m) rather than a pressure in kN/m2. If the bourdon gauge was replaced with a long vertical tube, the water pressure in the pipe would cause water to rise up the tube. The height of this water column is a measure of the pressure in the pipe. For example, a pressure of 3 bar in the pipe would result in water rising to a height of 30 m in the tube. Thus, engineers may refer to the pressure as 3 bar or 30 m head of water. It is simple to change from pressure to head of water:
Head of water in metres (m) = 0.1 x pressure (kN/m2) = 10 x pressure (bar) FIGURE 3 Measuring pressure in a pipe
In this manual both the terms pressure and head are used to mean the same thing.
Importance of Pressure Pressure is important to the successful operation of both sprinkler and trickle irrigation. Sprinklers must be operated at the right pressure so that the water jet breaks up properly and a uniform water application is achieved (Section 3.5.2.). The right pressure is also required in trickle systems so that each emitter gives the same discharge throughout the scheme (Section 3.5.3). Atmospheric pressure Atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the atmosphere around us, pressing down on our bodies and the surface of the earth. Although air seems very light, when there is a large depth, as at the earth s surface, it creates a pressure of approximately 100 kN/m2. This is equivalent to l bar or 10 m head of water.
Atmospheric pressure = 100 kN/m2 = 1 bar = 10 m head of water
Atmospheric pressure is important to the understanding of suction when pumping water (Section 3.3.3) and particularly its effects on the efficiency of pumping (Section 3.3.5). 2.3 DISCHARGE
The speed at which water flows in a pipe or channel is called the velocity and is measured in metres per second (m/s). The discharge is the volume of water flowing along the pipe or channel each second, and is measured in cubic metres per second (m3/s). To understand this, consider the case of water flowing in a 100 mm diameter pipe at a velocity of 1.5 m/s (Figure 4). In one second the quantity of water moving past some point in the pipe will be equal to the shaded volume shown. This volume is numerically equal to the water velocity multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the pipe, i.e., 1.5 0.008 = 0.012 m3/s.
FIGURE 4 Calculating discharge
In general terms:
Discharge (m3/s) = cross-sectional area of pipe (m2) x velocity of water (m/s)
Some basic concepts
FIGURE 5 Measuring discharge
Figure 5-A
Figure 5-C
Figure 5-B
For most small irrigation systems the unit of discharge (m3/s) is much too large and so litres per second (l/s) is very often used. The conversion is made by multiplying by 1000.
Discharge (l/s) = discharge (m3/s) x 1000
Discharge measurement Discharge in a pipeline can be measured using a flow meter (Figure 5-A). The meter indicates the volume of water passing through the pipeline. By noting the time for a given volume of water to pass the discharge can be determined using the formula:
Discharge (m3/s) = volume of water (m3) / time (s)
A simple way of measuring discharge from a pipe or sprinkler is to catch the flow in a bucket of known volume, measuring how long it takes to fill (Figure 5-C). The discharge is calculated using the above formula. See Example 2. Discharge in open channels can be measured using a weir or flume measuring structure (Figure 5-B). If no measuring structure is available, a rough guide can be obtained by estimating the velocity of flow using a float; measuring the cross-sectional area of the channel; and multiplying the velocity and the area together. (See Training Manual 7: Canals)
EXAMPLE 2 A small plastic tube is connected to a sprinkler nozzle to collect water in a bucket. If the bucket holds 5 litres and it takes 15 seconds to fill, calculate the sprinkler discharge. Discharge = volume / time = 5 / 15 = 0.33 l/s
2.4
ENERGY
Energy is another word commonly used in everyday language, but in hydraulics and irrigation it has a very specific meaning: Energy enables useful work to be done People and animals require energy to do work. This is obtained by eating food and converting it into useful energy for work through the muscles of the body. In irrigation, energy is needed to lift or pump water. Water energy is supplied by a pumping device driven by human or animal power, or a motor using solar, wind or fossil fuel energy. Energy measurement Energy is normally measured in units of watt-hours. One watt-hour is a very small amount of energy and so engineers tend to use a larger unit, the kilowatt-hour (kWh) instead, where 1 kilowatt-hour = 1000 watt-hours. Here are some examples of energy use which may be familiar to the reader and which will provide some practical indication of energy use: A farmer working in the field uses 0.2 - 0.3 kWh every day. An electric desk fan uses 0.3 kWh every hour. An air-conditioner uses 1 kWh every hour. Notice how a time period (e.g., every hour, every day) is always given when describing the amount of energy needed. The farmer using 0.2 kWh every day, for example, indicates that this energy must be supplied from food each day otherwise he or she would not be able to work properly. In irrigation, energy requirements may be determined on a daily, monthly or seasonal basis.
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Some basic concepts
Energy sources Energy comes from food, in the case of animals and people, and from fossil fuel, wind and sunshine in the case of engines and motors. Foods have energy values which our bodies convert into useful energy so that we can do useful work. In the same way fossil fuels, wind and sunshine have energy which can be converted into useful energy to pump water. Table 1 gives some indication of energy values for typical foods, fossil fuels and energy sources.
TABLE 1 Energy content of fuels and foods
Fuel or food Maize Wood Diesel Petrol Wind Solar
Energy
Indicative efficiency (1) 10% 10% 20% 10% 20% 5%
Comment
1 kWh/kg 4 kWh/kg 11 kWh/l 9 kWh/l 0.01-41 kWh/m2 1 kWh/m2
As animal and human consumption Sometimes also expressed as fuel consumption (0.09 l/kWh for diesel and 0.11 l/kWh for petrol) For wind speeds from 2.5 to 40 m/s respectively Maximum solar energy at sea level
Note: 1. Approximate efficiency when converted to mechanical power. FIGURE 6 Energy conversion - analogous systems in people (top) and machines (bottom)
Changing energy An important aspect of energy is that it can be changed from one form of energy to another. People and animals can convert food into useful energy to drive their muscles (Figure 6). In a typical pumping system powered by a diesel engine, the energy is changed several times before it is usefully used by the water. Chemical energy contained within the fuel (diesel oil in this case) is burnt in a diesel engine to produce mechanical energy. This is passed to the pump via
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a drive shaft, and finally to the water. Thus the discharge, pressure or both can be increased. A pump can be thought of as a device for putting additional energy into a water system. The system of energy transfer is not perfect and energy losses occur through friction between the moving parts and are usually lost as heat energy (the human body temperature rises when work hard; an engine heats as fuel is burnt to provide power). Energy losses can be significant in pumping systems, and so can be costly in terms of fuel use. This concept is discussed further in Section 2.6. Calculating energy requirement The amount of energy needed to pump water depends on the volume of water to be pumped and the head required and can be calculated using the formula:
volume of water (m3) x head (m) 367
Water energy (kWh) =
Increasing either the volume of water or the head will directly increase the energy required for pumping.
EXAMPLE 3 600 m3 of water is pumped each day to a tank 10 m above ground (Figure 7). Calculate the amount of energy reguired to do this. Water energy (kWh) = (600 x 10) / 367 = 16.3 kWh. This is the energy required each day.
FIGURE 7 Illustration of the problem considered in Example 3
2.5
POWER
Power is often confused with the term energy. They are related, but they have different meanings. Energy is the capacity to do useful work whereas power is the rate at which the energy is used.
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Some basic concepts
Power is the rate of using energy and is commonly measured in kilowatts (kW). The power needed to pump water is called water power.
Power (kW) = energy (kWh) time (h)
Another commonly used measure of power is horse power (HP). As it is not part of the metric units system it will not be used in this manual. However, if comparison is needed the relationship is 1 kW = 1.36 HP.
EXAMPLE 4 In Example 3 it was calculated that the water energy required each day to lift 600 m3 of water through 10 m was 16.3 kWh. Calculate the water power needed to do this. To calculate water power from water energy it is necessary to know the time over which pumping takes place. If pumping continues for 24 hours per day: Water power (kW) = energy used per day (kWh) / time (h) = 16.3 / 24 = 0.68 kW. If the pump operates only 12 h/day: Water power = 16.3 / 12 = 1.35 kW. If pumping is only 6 h/day: Water power = 16.3 / 6 = 2.7 kW. Note that the water energy is the same in each case, but that the rate of using the energy - the power - changes with the time period. More power is needed when less time is available for pumping the same volume of water.
An air conditioner may have a power rating of 3 kW. This means that it uses 3 kWh of energy every hour. In 24 hours it will consume 72 kWh (3 kW 24 h) of energy at the rate of 3 kW every hour. Thus, power is describing the rate at which the energy is used. The greater the energy use rate the greater is the power need (Figure 8).
FIGURE 8 Relationship between rate of energy use and power
Another way of calculating power and energy is to use the pump discharge rather than the volume of water to be pumped.
Water power (kW) = 9.81 x discharge (m3/s) x head (m)
In this case the water power required can be calculated by first using the formula: Figure 9 is a graph of this formula and from which water power can be obtained. Energy can then be calculated from power. It is the amount of power used in a given time period and so:
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FIGURE 9 Graph relating flow, static head and power
Water energy (kWh) = water power (kW) x operating time (h)
Example 5 demonstrates this approach and shows that the results are the same whichever method is used to calculate power and energy.
EXAMPLE 5 Referring to Example 4, if 600 m3 of water is pumped 10 m each day, calculate the water power and energy required, using the pump discharge approach if pumping is for only 6 h/day. Discharge (m3/s) = volume (m3) / time (s) = 600 / (6 x 3600) = 0.028 m3/s. Using the above equations: Water power (kW) = 9.81 x discharge (m3/s) x head (m) = 9.81 x 0.028 x 10 = 2.7 kW. Water energy (kWh) = water power (kW) x operating time (h) = 2.7 x 6 = 16.3 kWh. These answers are the same as those obtained in the previous example, thus demonstrating that water power and energy can be calculated using either approach.
2.6
EFFICIENCY
When pumping irrigation water it is not enough just to meet the water power and energy requirements. Additional energy and power must be provided because losses occur in transferring fuel energy to water energy via the power unit and pump. The losses in the system are caused by friction and water turbulence and are usually expressed as efficiency. This can be expressed both in terms of energy use and of power use.
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Some basic concepts
Energy use efficiency

Pumping plant efficiency (%) = (water energy / actual energy) x 100
This provides an overall indication of the way energy is used. It would usually be assessed on a seasonal or annual basis. Power use efficiency
Pumping plant power efficiency (%) = (water power / power input) x 100
This provides an assessment of the efficiency with which power is converted from the fuel to the water, but only at the moment of measurement. The efficiency may vary over time, particularly if there is wear in the engine and pump. A system with no friction would have an efficiency of 100% and all the energy and power input would be transferred to the water. However, this is not the case in real life and there are always friction losses in all the components of the power unit and pump. This is discussed more fully in Section 3.3.5. Sometimes efficiencies can be very low without pump users being aware of the problem. This can result in excessive energy use and high pumping costs. This is an important aspect of pumping and is discussed more fully in Chapter 5. For the purposes of this manual, the efficiencies of energy and power use are assumed to be the same. In practice this may not be the case. A seasonal assessment of energy use efficiency may not always give the same value as power use efficiency measured only once or twice during the season. Note that, in calculations using efficiencies, we always use the decimal form [(efficiency in %) / 100] of the value.
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Chapter 3 Choosing a new irrigation system

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Choosing a new irrigation system is about choosing the various components which make up the system. In this chapter the main components are listed, and guidance is given in how to choose, for preliminary design purposes, between the various options and component configurations available. Figure 10 illustrates the process of preliminary design and the decisions to be made. Each part of the process is described in this chapter.
FIGURE 10 Choosing irrigation system components
Small-scale pumped irrigation systems are made up of the following components (Figure 11):
Water source; Pump and power unit; Distribution system; and Method of irrigation.
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Choosing a new irrigation system
FIGURE 11 Components of a typical irrigation scheme
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The water source, the distribution system and the method of irrigation determine the energy demand. The pump and power unit provide the energy supply. Water source The water source may be a river or lake (surface water) or a shallow well or borehole (groundwater). In some cases, water can be abstracted from rivers by gravity, but in many cases pumping will be needed. In the case of groundwater abstraction, pumping is essential. (See also Training Manual 6: Scheme irrigation water needs and supply.) The amount of water abstracted and the height through which it must be lifted from the river or borehole add to the energy demand. Pump and power unit The pump may be driven by a power unit such as a diesel or petrol engine, or an electric motor. In some special cases solar or wind power, or even hand or animal power, may be used to provide the power source for the pump, but they are not so common and are generally limited to very small irrigated plots. In this manual the primary concern is with the use of pumps driven by diesel or petrol engines, as these are usually the main sources of energy supply available to most small-scale farmers. Distribution system The distribution system conveys water from the pump to the fields and may consist of pipes or open channels. Some systems are a combination of both. The choice of distribution system has a significant effect on the energy demand. Method of irrigation The method of irrigation may be surface, sprinkler or trickle irrigation. This may also affect the choice of distribution system and is also significant in determining the energy demand. Surface irrigation may be supplied by either pipe or open channel systems. Sprinkler and trickle irrigation systems would normally use piped distribution systems. (See also Training Manual 5: Irrigation Methods.) Typical systems The most common combinations of components for an irrigation system are:
Pump open channel Pump pipe supply Pump pipe supply
surface irrigation. surface irrigation. sprinkler or trickle irrigation.
The first system is the most common for small-scale irrigation, although the advantages of the second are now being more fully realized. Sprinkle, and especially trickle, irrigation are growing in importance in some areas where soils are very sandy and water is scarce, or energy costs are high, or both, but surface irrigation is the dominant method and is likely to remain so in many countries for the foreseeable future.
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3.2
WATER SOURCES
Rivers and lakes Many small irrigation schemes are located close to natural river channels and lakes and obtain water by pumping from these sources. They provide a supply which can be seen by the farmer and be judged whether sufficient or not for the seasonal needs of the farm. Usually, the pumping pressures , and hence energy requirements, needed to use such sources are small because the difference in elevation between the source water level and the level of the field are usually not large. Shallow groundwater This is an ideal source of supply for farms located some distance from a river or lake. Usually the groundwater table is fed by seepage from a river or lake and may be only a few meters below ground level. This source may be less reliable than surface water because except through pumping experience there is no easy way of assessing whether there is a sufficient reserve of water to ensure adequate irrigation. However, the farmer can save the cost of an expensive canal or pipe system to bring water from a more distant surface supply. As with surface supplies, the energy costs involved in pumping are relatively low. Deep groundwater This may be water which has permeated through the ground from a surface source many kilometres away or water which has been trapped in the ground by impermeable soils for many thousands of years (fossil water). Pumping deep groundwater which may be 20 - 100 m or more below ground level can be expensive in terms of energy use, as well as in the cost of drilling the borehole, and requires special, deep borehole, pumping equipment, which may also be expensive to buy. 3.3 PUMPS AND POWER UNITS
A pump is a machine which changes fuel energy into useful water energy and needs a petrol or diesel engine or an electric motor to drive it. In special circumstances it may also be possible to use wind or solar energy. For surface irrigation the pump lifts water from a river or groundwater into a channel or pipe system. For sprinkler and trickle irrigation the pump provides the energy for the pressure and discharge needed to distribute water in the pipes to the sprinklers and emitters, in addition to the energy needed to lift water from the source. 3.3.1 Pump types Although there are many types of pumps and water lifting devices, many are unsuited to irrigation use. The most commonly used types are the axial flow (or propeller) pump, the radial flow (or centrifugal) pump, and the mixed flow pump. These are looked at in detail below. Axial flow pump An axial flow pump consists of a propeller hence its alternative name housed inside a tube which is located below the water level (Figure 12). The tube acts as the discharge pipe, and the power unit turns the propeller by means of a long shaft running down the middle of the
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FIGURE 12 Typical axial flow pump
pipe and this lifts the water up the pipe. This pump is very efficient for lifting large volumes of water at low pressure and is ideally suited to lifting water from a river or lake to provide surface irrigation water to a farm with open channel distribution. However, these pumps tend to be very expensive because of the high cost of materials, particularly the drive shaft and bearings to support the shafted propeller. For this reason there are no small axial flow pumps manufactured of a size suitable for the small farm of 1 - 2 ha. They tend only to be used on larger farms and for communal schemes, where several small farms are irrigated from the same pump. They are particularly suited to paddy rice schemes because of the large volumes of water usually needed for this crop. Radial flow (centrifugal) pump Centrifugal pumps are the most common type of pump used on small schemes because they are much cheaper than axial pumps to buy and maintain. Small pump sets are often readily available in most developing countries (Figure 13). They are best suited to sprinkler and trickle irrigation, where a higher pressure is needed than for surface irrigation. To understand how a centrifugal pump works, consider first how centrifugal forces occur. Most readers will at some time have spun a bucket of water around at arm s length and observed that no water falls from the bucket even when it is upside down (Figure 13). Water is held in the bucket by the centrifugal forces created by spinning the bucket. A centrifugal pump makes use of this idea and can be thought of as many buckets all spinning around together. The buckets are replaced by an impeller with blades or vanes which spin at high speed inside the pump casing (Figure 13). Water is drawn into the pump from the source of supply through a
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FIGURE 13 Radial flow (centrifugal) pump
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short length of inlet pipe called the suction pipe. As the impeller spins, water is thrown outwards and is collected by the pump casing and guided towards the outlet. This is called the delivery. Some pumps have very simple impellers with straight vanes. These tend to be inefficient because TABLE 2 they create a lot of turbulence in the flow and hence A guide to selecting centrifugal pumps energy losses. However they are cheap to make and are used in cases where efficiency is not important. Pump size (mm) Discharge (l/s) Most irrigation pumps have curved vanes so that the 0-5 25 water enters and leaves the impeller smoothly. This 5 - 15 50 means lower energy losses and higher energy use 15 - 25 75 efficiency. Some impellers have side plates and are 25 - 35 100 called closed impellers. When there is debris in the 35 - 50 125 water open impellers are used to reduce the risk of blockage. Centrifugal pumps can be classified into two types: volute pumps, and turbine (diffuser) pumps. The main difference between them is that the turbine type has diffuser vanes, which provide diverging passages to direct the water flow. Centrifugal pumps are often described by the diameter of the delivery connection pipe, e.g., a 50 mm pump . Table 2 is a guide to selecting centrifugal pump sizes for different flow ranges.
FIGURE 14 Typical mixed flow pump
Mixed flow This pump is a mixture of the axial flow and the centrifugal pump and has the advantage of combining the best features of both pump types (Figure 14). Mixed flow pumps are more efficient at pumping larger quantities of water than centrifugal pumps and are more efficient at pumping to higher pressures than axial flow pumps. They can also operate as submersible pumps, i.e., being completely below the source water surface.
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FIGURE 15-A Pump characteristics: discharge - head
FIGURE 15-B Pump characteristics: discharge - power
3.3.2 Pump Characteristics Axial flow, centrifugal and mixed flow pumps are designed to run at a constant speed and their performances are described by the following characteristics:
FIGURE 15-C Pump characteristics: discharge - efficiency
Head and discharge; Power requirements; and Efficiency of operation.
Typical characteristics for operating head and discharge for the three pump types appear as Figures 15-A, 15-B and 15-C. They show how head, power and efficiency vary as the discharge changes. For example, when the head requirement is 120% of the design head value, discharge is reduced to 60%, 80% and 90% of design discharge for centrifugal, mixed flow and axial flow pumps respectively. Head and discharge Pumps can deliver a wide range of discharges depending on the pressure required and the speed at which the pump is operated. However, there is a trade off between head and discharge. If more discharge is needed the head drops, and if less discharge is needed, then the head rises. A different set of curves would be obtained if the pump was running at a different speed. The faster it runs the greater the head and the discharge.
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Power All pumps need power to rotate the impeller. The amount of power needed depends on the speed of the pump and the discharge that is required. The faster the pump rotates, the more power is needed. For axial flow pumps there is a very large power demand as the pump is starting because there is a lot of water and a heavy pump impeller to get moving. Once the pump is under way the power demand drops to its normal running level. Centrifugal pumps behave quite differently. The power demand is very low when starting, but as the discharge increases the power also gradually increases. Mixed flow pumps operate in between these two contrasting conditions and have a more uniform power demand over the discharge range. Efficiency The concept of efficiency was first developed in Section 2.6. It measures how well the mechanical energy and power from the power unit is converted into water energy and power in the pump. The pump power efficiency is calculated by:
Pump power efficiency (%) = (water power output / actual power output) x 100
The efficiency generally increases to some maximum value and then falls again over the discharge range. The maximum efficiency is usually between 30 - 80% and there is only a limited range of discharges and heads over which the pumps operate at maximum efficiency. Outside this range the pump will be less efficient and so more power and energy will be needed to operate the system. Smaller pumps tend to operate at lower efficiencies than larger ones because they have more friction to overcome relative to their size. 3.3.3 Pump selection There are many pumps on the market and the designer must try to select a pump which will provide the discharge and head needed for the scheme while the pump is operating within its maximum efficiency range. Table 3 indicates the range of good operating conditions for different pump types.
TABLE 3 Pump selection for small-scale schemes
Irrigation system Surface irrigation - open channel distribution - pipe distribution - deep tube well Sprinkler system Trickle system
Pressure or Head (bar) (m) 0.5 1.0 >2.0 2-6 1-2 5 10 >20 2 - 60 10 - 20
Discharge (l/s) any any any any any discharge discharge discharge discharge discharge
Pump type
axial1 or mixed axial1 or mixed mixed or centrifugal centrifugal centrifugal
Note: 1. The ideal pump type, but not usually available for small-scale farming.
A large number of irrigation schemes use surface irrigation and open channel distribution pumping from shallow water supplies. This situation is ideal for axial flow pumps but unfortunately few, if any, pumps are available at a reasonable price for the small discharges
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FIGURE 16 Pump selection based on head and discharge parameters
required on many farms. The only alternative is to use centrifugal pumps instead and accept that they will run at well below their peak efficiency (Figure 16). For sprinkler and trickle irrigation much higher pressures are needed and so centrifugal pumps are ideally suited to this use and will operate more efficiently. A typical example of pump selection using the data supplied by a manufacturer would be as follows:
EXAMPLE 6 A centrifugal pump is required for a small sprinkler irrigation system. The discharge required is 12 l/s, at a pressure of 2 bar. Using the information supplied by the manufacturer (see Figure 17), determine the pump efficiency. If the same pump was to be used to pump water into an open channel and the pressure needed for this was only 1 bar, show what effect this would have on the pump discharge and the efficiency. From Figure 17, the efficiency of the pump at a discharge of 12 l/s and pressure of 2 bar (20 m of head) is 52%. This is within the high efficiency zone of the pump. If the pressure required was only 1 bar (10 m of head) the discharge would increase to 18 l/s, but at the much reduced efficiency of only 12%. Thus, using an inappropriate pump for the surface irrigation option has a significant effect on the efficiency of pumping.
3.3.4 Power units There are two main types of power unit: internal combustion engines, and electric motors. Internal combustion engines Many small irrigation schemes do not have access to electricity and so rely on petrol (spark ignition) engines or diesel (compression ignition) engines to drive the pumps. These engines have a good weight:power output ratio, and are compact in size and relatively cheap due to mass production techniques.
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FIGURE 17 Manufacturer s data for a centrifugal pump
Diesel engines tend to be heavier and more robust than petrol engines and are more expensive to buy. However, they are also more efficient to run and if operated and maintained properly they have a longer working life and are more reliable than petrol. In some countries petrol-driven pumps have needed replacing after only 3 years of operation. Diesel pumps operating in similar conditions could be expected to last at least 6 years. However, it must not be forgotten that engine life is not just measured in years, it is measured in hours of operation and its useful life depends on how well it is operated and serviced. There are cases in developing countries where diesel pumps have been in continual use for 30 years and more. A diesel-engined pump can be up to four times as heavy as a petrol-engined pump of equivalent power, and so if portability is important a petrol pump may be the answer. Electric motors Electric motors are very efficient in energy use (75 - 85%) and can be used to drive all sizes and types of pumps. The main drawback is the reliance on a power supply which is beyond the control of the farmer, and which in many places is unreliable. Inevitably electrical power supplies usually fail when they are most needed. Heavy demands occur when crops are needing most water and so a power failure over several days can have disastrous consequences for a crop. When using trickle irrigation on light sandy soils, serious crop losses may well occur after only a few days without power.
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3.3.5 Efficiency The efficiency of power units and pumps is very variable, and few data are available on actual field performance of small-scale irrigation pumping installations. The data that are available indicate that efficiencies are very low, in the range 0.5 to 8%, and that such poor levels are quite common. Many of the common causes of low efficiency can be corrected at little cost once the problem is identified, but unfortunately it is easy to run an inefficient pumping system without even realizing it. Any shortfall in output is simply made up by running the system for longer than would otherwise be necessary. Pumping efficiencies are likely to be much higher for sprinkler and trickle systems as the head needs of these systems are more favourable to the hydraulic characteristics of centrifugal pumps. Figure 18 shows the main components of a small pumping system and the poor efficiencies that can commonly occur. The main reasons for inefficiency are listed below. Note that improved efficiency can be achieved by rectifying the common faults.
FIGURE 18 Efficiency of components of pumping plant
Fuel efficiency 90-100%. Fuel is often spilt or leaks from tanks, or from joints in the
fuel pipeline.
Power unit efficiency

Small petrol engines (1 kW) 10%. Small diesel engines (1.5 - 2 kW) 15-35%. Large diesel engines 30-40%. (Text books normally quote 30-40% for engines but these are optimistic. Ageing of engine, poor quality maintenance, excessive power consumed by cooling fans, injectors, etc., all bring down efficiency.) Electric motors have much higher efficiencies 75-85% but a reliable electricity supply may be difficult to obtain in many locations.
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Power unit to pump transmission If the engine and pump are direct coupled, then
transmission efficiency nears 100%.
Pump efficiency A pump running at optimum head and speed has an efficiency of between
40% and 80%. Many pumps are not run at optimum head and speed, and so their efficiency could be much lower. This is particularly true for small pumps where the frictional losses are a higher proportion of the total power requirement. The overall efficiency of the pumping system can be found by multiplying together the efficiencies of each component:
Pumping plant efficiency (%) = fuel efficiency x power unit efficiency x transmission efficiency x pump efficiency x 100
Note that in any calculation of this type the decimal equivalent of the percentage is used, i.e., an efficiency of 10% becomes 0.1 in the calculation, 20% becomes 0.2, and so on. Taking the worst and best possible combinations of all the above efficiencies provides some indication of the most likely range of overall efficiencies:
EXAMPLE 7 Worst condition = 0.9 x 0.1 x 0.9 x 0.4 x 100 = 3% Best condition = 1.0 x 0.35 x 1.0 x 0.8 x 100 = 28%
This implies that the worst likely efficiency is around 3%. Even this seems good when compared to the actual field measurements of 0.5% referred to earlier in this section! Although an efficiency of 30% might be expected from a centrifugal pump operating a sprinkler or trickle system, it is unlikely to reach this level of efficiency for surface irrigation. The best that can be achieved would be around 10%. Peak power demand The water power and overall efficiency of the pumping plant are used to calculate the overall power demand.
Overall power demand = water power (kW) / pumping plant efficiency
Developing the formula from Section 2.5:

Overall power demand (kW) =
3 9.81 x discharge (m /s) x head (m) pumping plant efficiency
EXAMPLE 8 A small diesel-driven pump delivers a discharge of 2 l/s when lifting water 3 m from a river. Calculate the peak power demand when the overall efficiency of pump and power unit is 10%. Peak power demand = (9.81 x 0.002 x 3) / 0.1 = 0.59 kW Note that the discharge of 2 l/s must be divided by 1000 to convert it into 3 m /s.
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FIGURE 19 Suction lift limitations
Pump suction An aspect of using centrifugal and mixed flow pumps which is not always fully understood, and which can seriously impair efficiency, is the suction side of the pump. In cases of shallow groundwater or surface water pumping, the pump is located above the water surface and water has to be sucked up a short length of pipe into the pump, as shown in Figure 19. The difference in height between the water surface and the pump is called the suction lift. When a pump is operating it draws in water in much the same way as a person sucks water up through a drinking straw. There is a limit to how high water can be lifted in this way and it depends on atmospheric pressure (Section 2.2). At sea level this is approximately 10 m head of water. Sucking creates a low pressure in the drinking straw and the outside pressure of the atmosphere pushes down on the water surface and forces water up the straw. As atmospheric pressure is the driving force, this puts a practical limit on the height to which water can be lifted in this way. Ideally it should be possible to lift water 10 m, but because of friction losses in the pipe and pump a practical limit is 7 m. Even at this level many pumps will have difficulty sucking water. Considerable energy will be needed to suck the water and the pump operator may have difficulty keeping the pump primed (i.e., keeping the pump and suction pipes full of water when starting the pump). For this reason, pumps should be located so that the suction lift is less than 3 m if possible. If the depth to the water is greater than 3 m, then a small shelf can be excavated and the pump located nearer to the water surface (Figure 19). Note that these rules only apply when operating in areas close to sea level. Here the atmospheric pressure is approximately 10 m head of water. For schemes operating at higher altitudes in mountainous regions the atmospheric pressure may be much lower than 10 m and so the suction lift will need to be reduced well below 3 m to ensure proper pump operation. However, not all pumps suffer from suction lift limitations. Pumps designed to work below the water surface submersible pumps have no such problems. An example of the effects of variations in suction lift on pump discharge is given by the case of a small centrifugal pump, which delivered 6.5 l/s when operating at 3 m suction. When the suction lift was increased to 8 m the discharge dropped to 1.2 l/s a loss in flow of 5.3 l/
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s, or a loss of 85% of the original discharge! Thus, at the greater suction lift the pump would have to be operated considerably longer to meet water demand, and at such a low flow rate the pump may be well away from its best operating efficiency. This example was cited by Wagner and Lanoix1 (1969). 3.4 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
The distribution system conveys water from the pump to the fields. This may be by open channels or through pipes. The choice of distribution system affects both the power and energy requirements. 3.4.1 Open channels The most common method of distribution is through open channels, which may be lined or unlined. Channel design affects the energy demand of the system in three ways:
by determining the energy requirement to lift water from its source into the channels; by influencing energy losses resulting from friction between the water and the canal; and by influencing the extent of any additional energy required to pump water which is lost
through seepage, canal breaches and misuse. Water will only flow downhill in open channels and so the layout of canals should ensure that the highest point in the canal system is near to the pump and water source. In this way water will then flow downhill under the force of gravity and out onto the fields. Sufficient power must be provided in this case to lift water from its source into the channels (Figure 20). The head required is determined by the difference in level between the water source and the water level in the channel. The water level in the channel at the source must be high enough to ensure an adequate flow of water to the field, and must include adequate head to allow effective flow from the channel to the field.
FIGURE 20 Energy demand for open channel distribution
Large water losses can easily occur in open channels. This may be due to seepage through the bed and sides of a channel. However, open channels, particularly unlined ones, are prone to breaching, whereupon considerable amounts of water can be lost. They are also easily
1 Wagner, E.G. & Lanoix, J.N. 1969. Water Supply for Rural Areas and Small Communities. Geneva: World Health Organization.
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misused. Channels may be left open, particularly when control gates are not working properly, and water runs to waste. These features of open channels mean that considerable amounts of water may be pumped which are wasted, using additional energy and fuel for which there is no benefit in terms of additional crops. Of course channels can be lined to reduce seepage, but this requires additional capital expenditure. A choice must then be made between the additional cost of lining and the cost of pumping the water which would be lost through seepage. This involves a comparison between capital expenditure and operating costs, which is discussed later in Section 3.8.3. Lining canals can often seem an attractive way of reducing seepage losses. It can also reduce maintenance costs and improve irrigation system distribution efficiency. However, if linings are to be successful they must be constructed with great care. A concrete lining, for example, needs to be well vibrated as it is poured so as to be impermeable, and must be placed on channel beds and banks that have been well compacted. If settlement occurs after construction and the lining cracks, then not only will seepage losses be high but the cost of the specialist repairs will also be significant. Water losses in channels for typical irrigation schemes expressed in terms of efficiency are shown in Table 4.
FIGURE 21 Channel design: dimensions and drop structures
Channel hydraulics Most irrigation channels excavated in the natural soil are trapezoidal in shape and slope downhill away from the water source. Channels usually follow the natural ground slope but if the land is steep, then drop (or fall) structures may be needed to avoid serious erosion problems (Figure 21). Channels with longitudinal bed slopes of less than 1:1000 will usually avoid serious erosion problems, but a minimum slope of greater than 1:5000 is needed to discourage siltation and plant growth problems. Channels which are lined may be trapezoidal but can also be rectangular or semi-circular. The main aspect of channel design is choosing the bed width and depth of flow. This can present some difficulties because choosing a value for one affects the other. Thus channel design is a little more complicated than pipe design because pipes are always circular and so only one value is chosen the pipe diameter. The reader must look to other texts for the detailed design of channels, but as guidelines:
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Unlined channels are designed so that the velocity is low and the bed and sides are not
eroded by the water. For this reason, unlined channels tend to be wide and shallow, spreading the flow over a large area to reduce the erosive power of the water.
Lined channels are expensive to construct. For this reason they tend to be narrow and deep
which ensures the minimum area of lining for a given channel carrying capacity. The velocity also tends to be high, but this is not usually a problem as the channel is protected from erosion by the lining. 3.4.2 Pipelines Pipelines are often thought to be too expensive for many small irrigation schemes except when sprinkler or trickle irrigation is used, as then the use of pipes is essential. However, expensive is a relative word and does not convey a specific meaning. It may well be that when the full operating advantages of pipes are considered they may be a viable alternative to open channels. For small-scale surface irrigation schemes, recent research has shown many advantages for piped distribution systems:
Very low distribution losses even less than lined channels, as it is much easier to close off the flow in a pipe than in an open channel (See Table 4 for water losses in pipelines expressed as an efficiency). Less land area is taken up by buried pipes. Channels can take up 0.5-2% of the command area. Pipes can often be installed at lower cost than lined canals. Pipe systems can provide a more flexible and reliable system of supply. Reduced contact with water has potential health benefits.
Pipelines for surface irrigation usually operate at low pressures, typically around 0.5 bar (5 m of head). Pipelines are essential for the use of sprinkler and trickle irrigation, and they need to operate at much higher pressures (typically 2 - 6 bar for sprinkler and 1 - 2 bar for trickle systems) and need to be strong enough to withstand up to twice the working pressure. The reason for this is that pressure surges which are much greater than the normal working pressure can occur in pipes, and can cause bursts. It is thus important to install a pipe with the correct pressure rating to avoid the expense of repair or even replacement of a complete system. Energy is needed in pipe systems not only to pump water from the source to the pipe but also to overcome the energy losses due to friction as water flows down the pipe (Figure 22). If surface irrigation is used, then water can flow freely from the pipe into the field. If sprinkler or trickle irrigation is used, then additional energy is needed to ensure the water sprays or drips properly. Predicting head losses in pipes is not an exact science, and it easy to make mistakes when calculating them. In addition, losses can increase as the pipe ages and becomes rougher inside through continued use. For these reasons the losses in the distribution system should be kept low at the design stage by choosing pipe diameters that are large enough for friction to not dominate the operation of the system at some later date. As a guideline, energy losses in the pipes should be less than 30% of the total pumping head.
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FIGURE 22 Pipe system and its energy demand
energy needed to pressurize sprinklers
Pipeline hydraulics Energy is lost when water flows along a pipe. This is due to friction between the flowing water and the pipe wall. This energy loss means that the pressure near the pump will always be greater than at the far end of the pipe. The change in pressure is called the hydraulic gradient (Figure 23). Additional power and energy must be supplied by the pump to overcome that friction so that sufficient water is still delivered to the scheme at the right pressures. Energy loss in pipelines can be measured as a head loss in metres (m). It depends on the following factors:
Discharge small changes in discharge can cause very large changes in head loss. Pipe diameter small changes in pipe diameter can cause very large changes in head loss. Pipe length changes in pipe length cause similar changes in head loss. Increasing a pipe
length from 100 m to 200 m will double the head loss.
Pipe layout the kinds and numbers of bends and junctions.
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FIGURE 23 Hydraulic gradient
Pipe material it determines frictional resistance by its smoothness or otherwise.

Energy loss in pipes can be determined from information supplied by pipe manufacturers. A typical nomograph for PVC pipes is shown in Figure 24. The following examples will demonstrate effects of discharge, pipe diameter and pipe length on the head loss. A good guide to selecting the right pipe diameter is to keep the velocity below 1.6 m/s. This is good engineering practice. It ensures that head losses are low and it will help to avoid the surge and water hammer (sudden oscillations in water pressure) problems which can cause pipes to burst. Practical considerations
Different pipe materials have different friction characteristics. The example used in this
text is PVC. If other pipes are used, then values for friction head losses must be obtained from the supplier.
The smallest diameter pipe may be the cheapest, but it is not always the best choice. Pressure
losses can be very high and so can the cost of providing the extra energy to overcome the losses. It may be cheaper in the long term to use a larger pipe size, which may have a higher capital cost but requires less energy in use and so has a much lower operating cost. This issue is discussed in detail in Section 3.8.5.
Think long term when selecting pipes. Will more water be needed in the future? Will the
system be extended? If so, investment now in a larger pipe size may save high energy costs later when trying to pump an increased discharge down a pipe which is too small. A common problem across the world is that farmers install pipelines which are too small. Many regret the decision later when they see the potential for irrigation and wish to expand their system.
It is not necessary to use a pipe size which is the same diameter as the pump delivery pipe.
For example, a 50 mm diameter pump does not mean the farmer must use a 50 mm diameter
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FIGURE 24 Nomograph relating pipe diameter, discharge, head loss and velocity
pipe. The diameter is selected according to the above guidelines and if it is different from the pump diameter then a special section of pipe with a varying diameter (a reducer) is simply used to connect the pump to the pipeline.
It is important to see what pipe sizes and pumps are available in the local market and to
design around this equipment. This may not always give the most efficient system from an energy use point of view but it will mean that local support for servicing, maintenance and repair will be available. Such an advantage may far outweigh any fuel efficiency use issues.
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EXAMPLE 9 An irrigation scheme uses a 100 mm diameter pipeline, 130 m long, to deliver a discharge of 8 l/s. Determine the head loss. From Figure 24: When discharge is 8 l/s through a pipe of 100 mm , head loss is 10 m/km. Therefore, over 130 m [= 0.13 km] head loss will be 10 x 0.13 = 1.3 m. What will be the increase in head loss is the discharge is increased to 16 l/s? From Figure 24: When discharge is 16 l/s through a pipe of 100 mm , head loss is 37 m/km. Therefore, over 130 m [= 0.13 km] head loss will be 37 x 0.13 = 4.8 m. The increase in head loss is 4.8 - 1.3 = 3.5 m. Increasing discharge causes a large increase in head loss. Determine the change in head loss if a pipe of 80 mm is used to deliver the same discharge [8 l/s] over the same distance [130 m]. FromFigure 24: When discharge is 8 l/s through a pipe of 80 mm , head loss is 29 m/km. Therefore, over 130 m [= 0.13 km] head loss will be 29 x 0.13 = 3.8 m. Difference is 3.8 - 1.3 = 2.5 m, i.e. anincrease in head loss. A decrease in pipe diameter causes an increase head loss. Determine the change in head loss if the 100 mm pipe is used to deliver the same discharge [8 l/ s] over twice the distance [260 m]. FromFigure 24: When discharge is 8 l/s through a pipe of 100 mm , head loss is 10 m/km. Therefore, over 260 m [= 0.26 km] head loss will be 10 x 0.26 = 2.6 m. Difference is 2.6 - 1.3 = 1.3 m, anincrease in head loss. An increase in pipe length causes a corresponding increase in head loss.
3.4.3 Distribution efficiency Water is not always distributed efficiently, and losses may occur from channels through seepage, evaporation and mismanagement of the system. In the case of open channels this may involve gates being left open when no one is irrigating, and canal banks breaching through poor maintenance. For pipe systems, there may be leakage from the joints because of poor sealing and, again, valves may not always be closed properly. However, it is likely that pipelines have a potentially higher efficiency than open channels. For design purposes, Table 4 indicates typical values of distribution efficiency.
TABLE 4 Indicative values of distribution efficiency (%)
Earth canals Scheme size (ha) Large: >2 000 ha Medium: 200 - 2 000 ha Small: <200 ha sand 60 70 80 loam 70 75 85 clay 80 85 90
Lined canals
Pipes
95 95 95
95 95 95
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FIGURE 25 Basin, forder and furrow irrigation
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3.5
METHODS OF IRRIGATION
There are three methods of irrigation commonly used on small schemes (See also Training Manual 5: Irrigation Methods):
Surface irrigation Sprinkler irrigation Trickle irrigation
The main objectives of these methods are to:
Apply an adequate amount of water to meet crop needs Apply water uniformly across the field Ensure there are no long-term problems (e.g., soil erosion, salinization).
3.5.1 Surface irrigation This is the most common method used on small schemes and involves flooding water across the soil surface so that it can infiltrate into the root zone and be used by the crop. Basin irrigation, border irrigation and furrow irrigation are all surface methods (Figure 25). The choice of surface method depends on the crop, cultivation practices, soils and topography, and farmer preferences. Surface irrigation is a labour-intensive method but generally requires less energy than other methods because of the low head required for distribution. Although surface irrigation is considered to be a simple method of irrigation this can be very misleading. Surface irrigation design and construction is relatively simple and little or no imported specialist materials are needed. However, the proper management of the method is very complex. The efficient use of irrigation water all depends on the skill of the farmer, who must decide when to irrigate and how much to apply, and then provide the right discharge into the field so that water infiltrates adequately and uniformly into the root zone. This is not an easy task, as the soil and topographic conditions can be very variable and the farmer may not have the necessary degree of control over the discharge and timing of the application Potentially, surface irrigation can be very efficient if all the factors involved are under the careful control of an experienced irrigator. More often however, the water management skills are lacking and efficiency tends to be low. As the designer will not know the level of field application efficiency that the farmer will achieve once the scheme is built, a typical value is used for design purposes (Table 5). If the actual efficiency is less than the typical value once the scheme is operating, then the farmer will need to operate the system for longer each day, or to reduce the cropped area to compensate. This fall in efficiency will increase the energy demand (Section 5.2).
TABLE 5 Typical field application efficiencies for irrigation methods
Irrigation method Surface Sprinkler Trickle
Efficiency (%) 60 75 90
For additional information on surface irrigation see Kay (1986)1.
1. Kay, M. 1986. Surface Irrigation: Systems and Practice. Cranfield, UK: Cranfield Press.
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3.5.2 Sprinkler irrigation Sprinkler irrigation involves distributing water in pipes under pressure and spraying it into the air so that it breaks up into small droplets and falls to the ground like natural rainfall. Sprinkler systems are generally more efficient and use less labour than surface irrigation and can be adapted more easily to sandy and erodible soils on undulating ground. There are many types of sprinkler system available, but the most common is a system using portable pipes (aluminium or plastic) supplying rotary impact sprinklers (Figure 26).
FIGURE 26 Sprinkler irrigation
An individual rotary impact sprinkler produces a circular wetting pattern with poor uniformity. To obtain good uniformity, several sprinklers are always operated close together so that the patterns overlap. Pressure is an important factor in successful sprinkler operation. Typical operating pressures range from 2 to 6 bar, and so energy requirements can be much greater than for surface irrigation. If sprinklers are working at the pressure recommended by the manufacturer then the distribution will be good. If the pressure is above or below this value then the distribution will be adversely affected. The most common problem is when pressure is too low and this happens when pump and pipes wear, increasing friction and so reducing pressure. Typical data for rotary impact sprinklers are shown in Table 6. It is usually assumed that sprinkler irrigation is more efficient than surface irrigation. Potentially this is the case, but it largely depends on how well the system is operated and maintained. If pipe seals leak or burst, and if sprinklers are left running for longer than necessary, then wastage is inevitable. For design purposes, a field application efficiency of 75% is generally used. Traditional sprinkler irrigation is not so well suited to small farms. Typical spacings for sprinklers are 18 m 18 m, and so they are not so flexible and adaptable to the multitude of small plots usually found on many farms. An alternative which may be more applicable to
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TABLE 6 Typical sprinkler data
Nozzle diameter (mm)
Pressure (bar)
Diameter of wetted circle (m)
Flow (m3/h)
Application rate (mm/h) for spacings:
18 x 18 m 4 5 6 8 10 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 4.5 29 32 35 43 48 1.02 1.67 2.44 4.96 8.13 3.2 5.2 7.5 15.3 25.1
18 x 24 m .. 3.8 5.7 11.4 18.9
24 x 24 m .. .. 4.2 8.6 14.0
small farms is the use of smaller sprinklers connected to the mainline by flexible hoses (Figure 27). This is often called a hose-pull system. These sprinklers have great flexibility in operation and are easily re-located around the farm. For fuller details of the methods, their design and management the reader should refer to standard text books and other publications3.
FIGURE 27 Hose-pull sprinkler system
3.5.3 Trickle irrigation Trickle irrigation involves dripping water onto the soil at very low flow rates (2-20 l/h) from a system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with outlets called emitters. Water is applied close to the plants so that only the part of the soil volume in which the roots develop is wetted. Applications are usually frequent (every 2-3 days) and this can provide a favourable high moisture level condition in which the plants can flourish. Many other claims are made about the method, including increased crop yields, greater efficiency of water use, possible use of saline water, reduced labour requirements and its adaptability to poor soils. An important advantage is the ease with which nutrients can be applied with the irrigation water. The relative importance of each of these attributes will vary depending on the situation. A typical trickle irrigation system is shown in Figure 28.
1. Two publications for further reading are: FAO/ILRI. [1988]. Irrigation methods. Irrigation Water Management Training Manual 5. Kay, M. 1983. Sprinkler Irrigation: Equipment and Practice. London: Batsford.
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FIGURE 28 Trickle irrigation
Trickle irrigation is potentially a very efficient method of applying water to crops. Field application efficiency can be as high as 90%, but like any other method it relies very much on the skill of the irrigator to achieve this. Field measurements on trickle systems have shown application efficiencies as low as 25%. This was the result of poor system management rather than design. The farmers had not fully understood the concept of partial wetting of the root zone and so they wasted a lot of water trying to wet up the entire area. Because of the potentially higher efficiency and the operating pressure of only 1-2 bar this method can use less energy than sprinkler irrigation and in some cases less than surface irrigation. Trickle irrigation is very adaptable to small-scale irrigation. It can be ideal for small plots of trees and row crops requiring different amounts of water. Trickle laterals may also be moved from one crop row to another to reduce the cost of the system. Many claims are made about trickle irrigation, such as that it saves irrigation water, increases yield, etc., but care should be taken in accepting such claims. Crops need a certain amount of water to grow (Section 3.6.1) and generally they are not aware of where the water is coming from. If it comes from surface flooding, sprinkling or trickle, it makes little difference to the plants they respond to water. The saving in water comes from the efficiency with which the water can be applied and it is here that trickle has a distinct advantage. Some yield increases have been shown with trickle and this may be due to the favourable soil water conditions and the nutrients added to the water. For further detailed information reference should be made to specialist publications1. 3.5.4 Selecting an irrigation method The selection of an appropriate irrigation method depends on a wide range of technical, economic and social factors. The main features which would be considered are summarized in Table 7.
1. Such as: FAO. 1980. Localized irrigation. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper, 36.
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TABLE 7 Factors affecting selection of irrigation method
Irrigation method Surface - basin - border - furrow Sprinkler Trickle
Crop suitability
Soils
Labour1
Energy demand Low Low Low High Medium
All All except paddy rice All except paddy rice and sown or drilled crops All except paddy rice Row crops; orchards
Clay, loam Clay, loam Clay, loam Loam, sand All soils
0.5 - 1.5 1.0 - 3.0 2.0 - 4.0 1.5 - 3.0 0.2 - 0.5
Note. 1. Labour requirement in hours per hectare per irrigation.
3.6
SYSTEM CAPACITY
An irrigation scheme must be capable of supplying the water needed to grow the crops. In other words the supply of water must be equal to the demand. The capacity to supply the required amount of water is called system capacity. The demand for irrigation water varies considerably throughout the growing season. For most crops only small amounts are needed in the early stages of crop growth but then demand rises to a peak as the crop matures. An exception to this is flooded rice when large quantities of water are needed at the beginning of the season to flood the field. This initial water demand may even exceed the peak water demand when the crop matures. Design criteria To design a scheme for such conditions the designer needs to know (Figure 29):
The maximum discharge required to satisfy the peak water requirements of the scheme, i.e.,
the peak scheme water demand. This is the rate at which water must flow to meet the peak demand. It will determine the size of the pump and the distribution system and the power needed for the scheme. The pipes or channels must be large enough to carry this discharge and the pump and power unit must be powerful enough to deliver the discharge at the pressure required. It is useful at this point to consider the possibility of future extensions to the scheme. If this is a possibility, then the designer may oversize the current scheme to allow for this.
The volume of water required over the season, i.e., the seasonal scheme water demand.
This is the total amount of water needed over the growing season and the designer must be satisfied that there is enough water available to meet the total water demand for growing the crops. From this the energy demand for pumping over the growing season can be determined. System capacity depends on the following:
Crop water requirements, determined by

crop type, stage of growth, and climatic conditions; Field application efficiency; and Distribution efficiency.
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FIGURE 29 Peak and seasonal scheme water demands
These factors vary from day to day throughout the growing season and from one season to another and so this is the reason why the designer is first interested in the maximum daily demand for water so that a large enough system can be provided. The following explains how the peak scheme water demand and the seasonal scheme water demand are determined for the purposes of design. 3.6.1 Crop water requirements This is the amount of water needed to grow a crop, and can be determined in several ways. There may be local data available from extension services or research stations, and these are commonly used as a basis for design. Another approach is to calculate crop water requirements using information about the crop, the stage of growth and the rate of evapotranspiration of water from the crop. For details of this calculation procedure the reader should refer to FAO and other publications1.
1. Suggested publications are: FAO/ILRI. 1986. Irrigation water needs. Irrigation Water Management Training Manual, 3. This is a simple, practical guide to assessing water needs for small-scale irrigation. FAO. 1977 (Rev. ed. 1984). Crop water requirements. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper, 24. This is a more comprehensive and scientific approach to the whole aspect of crop water requirements. FAO. 1992. CROPWAT - A computer program for irrigation planning and management. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper, 46.
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For most design purposes, however, some estimate of crop water requirement can be made from the information below. Table 8 provides an indication of the seasonal water needs of several important crops and the range of growing periods. Crop water requirements are given in millimetres (mm), which is the normal way of expressing crop water needs. It is the depth of water which must be applied over a season to grow a crop. Just how much is applied at each irrigation and the interval between successive irrigations is determined by the ability of the soil to store the water for use by the crop.
TABLE 8 Indicative values for crop water needs and growing periods
Crop Cereals Vegetables Rice (paddy)
Crop duration (days) 120-140 90-120 90-120
Need1 (mm) 450-650 400-600 800-1500
Note: 1. Seasonal crop water requirement FIGURE 30 The concept of water requirements in mm
Irrigation water is normally supplied in cubic metres (m3) and so crop water requirements in mm are usually converted into a volume of water needed for 1 ha of land. If more (or less) than 1 ha is to be irrigated, then the amount of water required is found by multiplying the rate per hectare by the area in hectares (Figure 30).
Seasonal crop water requirement (m3/ha) = Seasonal crop water requirement (mm) x 10
If the number of days over which the crop grows the crop duration is known, then the average crop water requirement per day can be calculated:
3 Average crop water requirement (m3/d/ha) = Seasonal crop water requirement (m /ha) Length of crop duration (days)
Crop water requirement can vary considerably throughout the growing season and the peak requirement can be at least double the average value calculated above. It is the peak water demand which the system must be capable of supplying, and so it is this value which must be used to design the system. Thus one way of estimating the peak crop water requirement is:
Peak crop water requirement (m3/d/ha) = average crop water requirement (m3/d/ha) x 2
A discharge in m3/d/ha is not a very convenient unit to use for design purposes. A more common unit is l/s/ha, calculated by:
Peak crop water requirement (l/s/ha) = peak crop water requirement (m3/d/ha) x 0.012
If no information is available on the crops, then assume peak crop water requirement to be assume 1 l/s/ha for vegetables and cereals and 1.5 l/s/ha for paddy rice.
Peak crop water requirement = 1.0 l/s/ha for vegetables and cereals (as a working assumption) = 1.5 l/s/ha for paddy rice
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EXAMPLE 10 Calculate the peak crop water requirement for a vegetable crop in m3/d/ha and in l/s/ha, using the indicative values given in Table 8. From Table 8: Seasonal crop water requirement for vegetables = 400 mm = 400 x 10 = 4000 m3/ha; Crop duration = 120 days. Average crop water requirement = 4000 / 120 = 33 m3/d/ha. Peak daily crop water requirement = 33 x 2 = 66 m3/d/ha. Converting this to l/s/ha: - Peak daily crop water requirement = 66 x 0.012 = 0.79 l/s/ha
3.6.2 Peak scheme water demand The peak scheme water demand is the discharge in litres per second (l/s) required to meet the peak crop water requirements, plus the losses which occur in field application and the distribution system. The overall loss is called irrigation efficiency and can be caslculated by:
Irrigation efficiency (%) = field application efficiency x distribution efficiency x 100
Peak scheme water demand can be calculated from:

Peak water demand (l/s/ha) = Peak crop water requirement (l/s/ha) Irrigation efficiency
This discharge in l/s/ha is called the duty. The value assumes that 1 ha of land is being irrigated and the system will be running 24 hours every day to meet the water demand. In practice the irrigated area may be more (or less) than 1 ha, and pumping systems are not normally run 24 hours a day, and may only operate during the day or for a few hours each day. To take account of areas more (or less) than 1 ha and for different hours of operation, use the following equation to calculate peak scheme water demand:
Peak scheme water demand = Peak water demand (l/s/ha) x cropped area (ha) x 24 hours of operation (h)
Note that peak scheme water demand is now expressed as a discharge in l/s and not as a duty in l/s/ha. Note that to change l/s to m3/s, divide by 1000.
EXAMPLE 11 Continuing Example 10, calculate the peak scheme water demand in both l/s and m3/s for an irrigation system where the irrigation area is 0.5 ha and pumping will take place for 10 hours each day during the peak demand period. Surface irrigation will be used, with unlined canals on a sandy soil. - From the previous example, peak crop water requirement = 0.79 l/s/ha. - From Tables 4 and 5, distribution efficiency = 0.8, and field application efficiency = 0.6. Thus, peak scheme water demand (duty) = - 0.79 / (0.6 x 0.8) = 1.65 l/s/ha and peak scheme water demand - (1.65 x 24 x 0.5) / 10 = 1.98 l/s, say 2 l/s [=0.002 m3/s].
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3.6.3 Seasonal scheme water demand The seasonal water demand of a scheme is the volume of water (in cubic metres (m3)) used over the growing season, taking into account the water losses in the distribution system and in field application. It can be calculated from:
Seasonal scheme water demand (m3) = Crop water requirement (m3/ha) x cropped area (ha) irrigation efficiency
Continuing Example 12, calculate the seasonal scheme water demand in m3. From a previous calculation, the seasonal crop water requirement = 4000 m3//ha. Seasonal scheme watger demand = (4000 x 0.5) / (0.6 x 0.8) = 4166 m3.
3.7
PEAK POWER AND ENERGY DEMAND
Peak power demand is determined using the equation developed in Section 3.3.5, namely:
Overall power demand (kW) = 9.81 x discharge (m3/s) x head (m) pumping plant efficiency
where discharge is the peak scheme water demand expressed in m3s. Energy demand can be calculated from peak power demand, using the equation from Section 2.5:
Energy demand (kWh) = Peak power demand (kW) x operating time (h)
This formula is useful when calculating the maximum daily energy use based on the peak scheme water demand. It is not so suitable for calculating seasonal energy use because the demand for water may vary considerably from week to week. The demand is low at first and then builds up to a peak as the crop matures. The pump will still deliver water at the same power (i.e., same discharge and pressure) and so the hours of operation are varied in order for the required volume of water to be provided at each stage of crop growth. Thus, to calculate overall seasonal energy demand the total hours of operation throughout the season (or year) would need to be known. Another way of approaching this is to work from the total amount of water to be pumped in a season (or year) using the equation developed in Section 2.4.
Water energy = volume of water (m3) x head (m) 367
The volume of water is the seasonal scheme water demand (Section 3.6.3). Allowing for he efficiency of the pumping plant gives the overall energy need as follows:
volume of water (m3) x head (m) 367 x pumping plant efficiency
Seasonal energy demand (kWh) =
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EXAMPLE 12 Continuing Example 12, a small diesel pump working at an efficiency of 10% delivers 2 l/s [= 0.002 m3/s] to irrigate 0.5 ha of vegetables from a shallow well 5 m deep. Maximum daily pumping is for 10 hours. Calculate the peak power required to do this, the daily energy use, and the seasonal energy demand over the season. Peak power demand (kW) = (9.81 x 0.002 x 5) / 0.10 = 0.98 kW Energy demand per day = 0.98 x 10 = 9.8 kWh. For seasonal energy demand an assessment of the seasonal scheme water demand must first be made: Seasonal crop water requirement = 400 mm 3 Seasonal crop water requirement (m ) = crop water requirement (mm) x 10 = 400 x 10 = 4000 m3/ha. Allowing for field application efficiency (60%) and distribution efficiency (80%): 3 Seasonal scheme water demand = (4000 x 0.5) / (0.6 x 0.8) = 4 166 m 3 Overall seasonal energy demand =volume of water (m ) x head (m) 367 x pumping plant efficiency = (4 166 x 5) / (367 x 0.1) = 568 kWh. From the power of the pump and the seasonal energy requirement it is possible to calculate the average number of hours that the pump must operate daily: Crop duration = 120 days Average daily hours of pumping = overall seasonal energy demand (kWh) crop duration (days) x power (kW) This can be compared to the maximum daily pumping of 10 hours, and indicates that there are considerable periods when the hours of pumping will be well below the maximum.
3.8
COSTS
The selection of an irrigation system cannot be done without considering the cost. The designer will try to select the least costly system or one which meets the farmer s requirements at a cost that can be recovered from the sale of the produce from the scheme. In other words it must be financially worthwhile to irrigate. The system capacity, the choice of technology and its management and maintenance, determine the overall cost of the scheme. This is not just the cost of constructing the system and buying pumps and irrigation equipment (capital cost) but also the cost of running the system over many years (operating costs). The idea of cost-effectiveness is an important one. Although the choice of irrigation system should involve both capital and operating costs, sometimes the choice is not an easy one. Capital costs are easily identified sums of money which must be paid out when installing a scheme. Operating costs are much less clear and are spread over many years, and so there is a tendency for farmers to choose a scheme based only on a minimum or acceptable capital cost. They may also lack the immediate cash to invest in the more expensive systems which could save them money in operating costs in the longer term. Even choosing capital equipment can create difficulties. Should a farmer, for example, buy a cheap pump which may only last a few years or buy a more robust but more expensive model which may provide good service for many years? Faced with a choice of using pipes or open earth canals, a farmer may opt for canals as they are cheaper to construct. But they do require regular maintenance; they are prone to seepage problems; and are difficult to manage efficiently. Pipes, on the other hand, may be more expensive to buy but they will need little maintenance; there should be no loss of water; and they are easier to manage.
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For sprinkler or trickle irrigation, a farmer may prefer to buy small diameter pipes because they are cheaper than larger ones. What may not be considered is the increase in power required to pump water along smaller pipes because of increased friction, and the resulting, and often considerable, rise in energy use and hence the energy cost. This additional energy cost over a few years of operation may well be far greater than the cost of installing larger diameter pipes. We now come to the key question that this manual has been gradually leading up to: How can the designer reconcile all these issues and come forward with sensible advice for the farmer? The following method is the one that is normally used to make real cost comparisons between systems, but it must be stressed that it may not always provide the right answer. There are some very practical considerations which may influence the farmer s final choice of equipment. One other point to bear in mind is that both capital and operating costs will vary a great deal from country to country. They will depend on the cost and availability of materials and labour, and taxes or duties imposed by countries on manufactured and imported goods. Hence it is not possible to provide a universally applicable list of costings in this manual and from which the designer could choose. Such costings must be prepared locally to suit local circumstances. However, there are broad guidelines, and they are given. 3.8.1 Capital cost This is the cost of constructing the irrigation scheme to the point where it is ready for use. It may include pumps; pipes and field equipment; construction of open channels; and land preparation such as bush clearance and levelling.
TABLE 9 Useful life of irrigation system components
Item Petrol-engined pump Diesel-engined pump Electrically-driven pump Pipelines - on the surface - buried Sprinkler and trickle equipment Open channels - unlined - lined
Years 4 10 10
Just how long equipment lasts before it 4-7 needs replacing obviously depends on the qual10 - 20 ity of the equipment, how much it is used and 5 - 10 how well it is maintained. Table 9 is a guideline to the useful life of equipment for 5 10 small-scale schemes when it is properly used and maintained according to the manufacturer s recommendations. Clearly if the equipment is badly treated then its useful life will be considerably shortened. 3.8.2 Operating cost There are three main operating costs: Energy Maintenance and repair Labour These costs are incurred regularly throughout the useful life of the scheme and so a time period needs to be set over which the costs can be assessed. Usually the operation of a scheme is similar from one season or year to the next and so a common approach is to consider costs on the basis of one cropping season or over a full year as a suitable period.
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Energy This is the cost of providing fuel to operate the irrigation system. In some cases it can be the most important of the operating costs, and needs to be considered most carefully at the design stage (see Chapter 4). If diesel or petrol is the main fuel used, then the cost per litre can be determined from the local market. The scarcity of such fuels must also be considered. If there are occasional shortages, particularly at peak pumping periods, then the farmer may have to pay a higher price than normal. Electricity, if available, will be costed at each unit of energy consumed, i.e., in kWh. The energy cost is calculated from the seasonal energy demand (Section 3.7), the fuel consumption of the engine (Table 1), and the cost of fuel, using the formula:
Seasonal energy cost ($) = seasonal energy demand (kWh) x fuel consumption (l/kW) x cost of fuel ($/l)
EXAMPLE 14 Continuing Example 13, if the cost of diesel fuel is $ 0.35/l, and the fuel consumption is 0.09 l/kWh, calculate the seasonal energy cost. Seasonal energy demand is 568 kWh (from Example 13). Overall seasonal energy cost = 568 x 0.09 x 0.35 = $ 18
Maintenance and repair These are difficult costs to determine and will vary greatly depending on the type of scheme. Consider, for example, a surface irrigation scheme with open earth channels which may require substantial annual maintenance and repair. This may be done by the farmer and his family in between irrigation seasons, and so no money is actually paid to outsiders for this work. However, it can be argued that this effort does have a money value. If the farmer or his family are able to find paid work elsewhere then they will be foregoing this income in order to do the maintenance work. It may be better in money terms to seek paid work, particularly if the farmer has skills which are in demand, and to pay others to do the maintenance. It all depends on local circumstances. In many cases no money is paid out by the farmer and so maintenance is done with little or no cash being spent outside the family. TABLE 10 However, maintenance of pumping equipment and Indicative maintenance and repair equipment for sprinkler and trickle irrigation may need costs outside specialist help and spare parts (often imported), Item Cost1 and so cash will be needed for this. To allow for maintenance and repair costs at the design stage, a percentage of the capital cost is usually allocated. Table 10 gives some indication of likely cost as a percentage of the capital cost. Labour Labour is needed to operate irrigation systems, including such jobs as pump operation and the day-to-day irrigation
1 Maintenance and repair cost as a percentage of capital cost
Petrol-engined pump Diesel-engined pump Electrically driven pump Pipelines, sprinkler and trickle equipment Unlined channels
10% 5% 1% 2% 10%
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of plots. The labour required will vary from system to system. Surface irrigation tends to be more labour intensive than sprinkler or trickle irrigation. As in the case of scheme maintenance, a farmer and his family may provide the labour and so it is not something to be paid out for in cash. 3.8.3 Overall cost When a suitable irrigation system has been selected and a capital cost determined, the operating costs can then be calculated. From this the overall cost can be found, which is the sum of the capital cost and the operating cost.
Overall cost = capital cost + operating cost
The designer may then consider other suitable systems to see what effect they have on the overall cost of the scheme. From this process the designer, with the farmer, can investigate different ways of irrigating and select the most appropriate system at the right level of overall cost. Adding capital costs to operating costs to determine the overall cost is not just a matter of simple addition. The capital cost is easily determined and is fixed at the time of purchasing the equipment, but how can the life of the equipment be taken into account? How can a petrol-engined pump with a relatively low cost, but lasting only 4 years, be compared with a diesel-engined pump costing much more, but lasting 10 years? Operating costs can also be easily assessed for the coming year because the cost of fuel and spare parts will be known, but prices change from year to year, and may be quite different in 4-5 years time. Also, how many years of operation should be considered when trying to compare a capital investment now with possible savings in operating costs in the future? Comparing different costs There are several ways in which both capital and operating costs can be combined for comparison, but one simple approach is to use the idea of Equivalent Annual Cost (EAC). In order to use the EAC method, the interest rate (sometimes called the discount rate) on money invested locally in the bank must be known, as this affects the overall costs of systems. This rate is usually published by the bank on a regular basis. The reason for this is that the value of money changes each year and this needs to be taken into account when making decisions about costs over several years. For example, $ 100 invested in the bank now at an interest rate of 8% will have a value of $ 108 in one year s time. Conversely, if $ 100 needs to be spent in one year s time then its present value this year would be $ 93 this being the amount that would have to be invested now to produce $ 100 in one year s time. It is called the Present Value (PV). For $ 100 to be spent in two years time, the present value would be $ 86. EAC is a way of adjusting the probable costs of items to the stream of equal amounts of payment over a certain period (equivalent annual cost) so that they can properly be compared with each other. EAC Method The EAC method works in a slightly different way to the idea of Present Value. Rather than converting future running costs to present values, it converts initial capital costs to an equivalent
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annual cost over the useful life of the equipment, by multiplying the capital cost by a factor the Capital Recovery Factor (CRF) which permits one to calculate the equal installments necessary to repay a loan over a given period at a stated interest rate. To this is added the annual operating cost. This is done for each alternative option or system and the one which shows the lowest EAC is the cheapest solution. CRF values are based on bank interest rates and are listed in Table 11 for different interest rates and years of useful life.
TABLE 11 Capital recovery factors (CRF)
Interest rate % 2 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 .538 .545 .553 .561 .568 .576 .584 .592 .599 .607 .615 3 .367 .374 .381 .388 .395 .402 .409 .416 .424 .431 .438 4 .282 .289 .295 .302 .309 .315 .322 .329 .336 .343 .350 5 .231 .237 .244 .250 .257 .264 .271 .277 .284 .291 .298 6 .197 .203 .210 ..216 .223 .230 .238 .243 .250 .257 .264
Years 7 .173 .179 .186 ..192 .199 .205 .212 .219 .226 .233 .240 8 .155 .161 .167 .174 .181 .187 .194 .201 .208 .216 .223 9 .141 .147 .153 .160 .167 .174 .181 .188 .195 .202 .210 10 .130 .136 .142 .149 .156 .163 .170 .177 .184 .192 .199 15 .096 .103 .110 .117 .124 .131 .139 .147 .155 .163 .171 20 .080 .087 .094 .102 .110 .117 .126 .134 .142 .151 .160
Example 15 and the Case Studies of Chapters 4 and 5 show how this method is used in practice.
EXAMPLE 15 Two pumps - one petrol driven and the other diesel driven - are being considered for an irrigation scheme. Based on the information given below, determine which is the cheaper pump to buy and operate. Diesel-engined pump Petrol-engined pump Capital cost ($) 2000 500 Useful life expectancy (years) 10 4 Annual operating costs ($) 100 300 Interest rate (%) 6 6 First calculate the EAC for the diesel pump: EAC of capital cost = CRF x capital cost. From Table 11: CRF = 0.136. Therefore EAC = 0.136 x 2000 = $ 272 To find the full EAC the annual operating cost must be added to this: Full EAC = 272 + 100 = $ 372. Similarly for the petrol pump: EAC of capital cost = CRF x capital cost. From Table 11: CRF = 0.289. Therefore EAC = 0.289 x 500 = $ 145 To find the full EAC the annual operating cost must be added to this: Full EAC = 145 + 300 = $ 445.
Comparing the EAC of both pumps as calculated in Example 15, the diesel-engined pump would be the cheaper solution, even though it has the higher capital cost. However, this
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is not the complete picture, as changes in both the interest rate and the life of the pump can affect things quite significantly. Changing interest rate Using the figures for the diesel and petrol pumps to calculate the EAC values for different interest rates allows us to see how this would affect the choice of pump. Table 12 is a tabulation of the above calculations repeated for different discount rates. The interest rate clearly has a significant effect on choice of pump. If interest rates are low then the more expensive capital equipment with relatively low operating cost is favoured. If they are high then it may be more cost effective to choose a less durable pump with a lower capital cost and a relatively high operating cost. Changing useful life expectancy Table 13 provides a tabulation of the above calculations for different useful life expectancies for the two pumps, based on an interest rate of 6%. If the life expectancy of the petrol pump is extended due to good care and maintenance then it becomes a more attractive option. If the life expectancy of the diesel is reduced below 10 years then the cost of this option rises and it becomes less attractive. To summarize: At a low interest rate: invest in low capital cost equipment with high operating cost. At a high interest rate: invest in high capital cost equipment with low operating cost. Extending the useful life of equipment reduces overall costs and may influence equipment selection What about other equipment? The above example was applied only to pump selection, simply to demonstrate the principle and the process of calculation. Clearly there are many other components that together make an irrigation system (pipes, canals, structures, etc.,) and these would all need to be taken into account when comparing the overall costs of different scheme. The EAC for each scheme option would be determined in total and this would form the basis for comparison. In Chapters 4 and 5 there are examples of how this process is applied to a scheme as a whole. In the Annex, a simple program for calculating EACs for the various options is provided for those with access to a computer and Lotus 1-2-3 software.
TABLE 13 EAC values for pumps for different life expectancies TABLE 12 EAC values for pumps at various discount rates
Interest rate (%)
EAC values ($)
Choice
Diesel 6 12 15 372 454 498
Petrol 445 465 475 diesel diesel petrol
Petrol pump Life (years) 2 4 6 EAC (%) 572 445 401
Diesel pump Life (years) 6 8 10 EAC (%) 506 422 372
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3.8.4 Effects of changes A good designer will always ask What happens if one or more of the design parameters changes? and How will the change affect the design and the cost?. If small changes can have significant effects on cost, then these parameters need to be selected with care and accuracy. Changing the distribution system Suppose the distribution system used in Example 13 were changed from unlined open channels to a pipe system. What effect would this have on the overall seasonal energy demand and the operating cost? To investigate this, assume that the system is 100 m long and a choice of pipe diameters is available. As the distribution is now a pipe system the efficiency will be improved from 80% to 95% (Table 4). This will directly reduce the volume of water to be pumped and hence the energy demand. However, the head required to deliver the discharge will increase depending on the energy loss in the pipe. The cost of each option can be calculated using the above procedures. The following Table 14 and Figure 31 summarize the results.
TABLE 14 Changing the distribution system and its effects on energy and cost
Distribution system Unlined channels 100 mm dia. pipe 75 mm dia. pipe 50 mm dia. pipe 40 mm dia. pipe 30 mm dia. pipe
Seasonal scheme water demand (m3) 4166 3360 3360 3360 3360 3360
Head (m) 5.00 5.06 5.11 6.10 9.50 16.80
Seasonal energy demand (kWh) 568 463 468 558 869 1538
Seasonal energy cost ($) 18 15 15 18 27 48
The results demonstrate that there are savings in energy to be made by changing from an unlined channel to a pipe system. However, remember that this does not take account of the capital cost of the pipe and so it is difficult at this stage to say which will be cheaper overall. What is clear, though, is the dramatic rise in energy cost as the pipe diameter is reduced in size. Note the significant difference in energy cost between 50 and 40 mm and between 40 and 30 mm diameter pipes. The extra energy cost here over several years of pumping may well make it worthwhile to buy the larger pipe. Changing the irrigation method The effects on seasonal energy use of changing the irrigation method can also be calculated using the procedures described. However, a direct comparison between the methods solely on the basis of seasonal energy use does not in itself have any significant meaning and must be considered in the context of the scheme as a whole. This is done in Chapters 4 and 5, where two contrasting case studies are examined. The reasons for this are as follows:
Each irrigation method has a different level of field application efficiency, which means different volumes of water will be pumped. All three methods will require significantly different pressures. Sprinkler irrigation requires much higher pressures than surface irrigation and so may require more energy. Trickle
53
FIGURE 31 Relationship between pipe size and seasonal energy cost
irrigation may require less energy than surface irrigation because of the greatly improved potential efficiency of water use.
Pumping plant efficiency may also be different. If a centrifugal pump is used it is better suited to the pressure and discharge requirements of a sprinkler or trickle system than a surface system and so it is likely that it will operate at a higher efficiency.
All these factors have a direct influence on energy use. Some increase energy use whilst others reduce it. The amount of increase or decrease largely depends on the numbers chosen. For example, sprinklers may operate between 2.5 and 4.0 bar pressure and centrifugal pump efficiency may vary between 10 and 30%. Choosing one set of numbers for surface irrigation and other sets for sprinkler and trickle would not allow any meaningful comparison to be made. The choice between methods can only really be considered on a cost basis in the context of the whole scheme (Chapters 4 and 5). 3.8.5 Some general conclusions A detailed analysis involving both capital and operating costs of each option available can be carried out to determine the most cost-effective solution. However, this has been done many times by others and from this some conclusions can be drawn which are generally applicable to small-scale irrigation.
Mains electricity, if it is available, can usually provide the cheapest method of pumping for
farms of all sizes.
Petrol pumps are normally cheaper to buy and operate for small farms of 0 - 2 ha). Diesel pumps are normally more cost effective for farms larger than 2 ha.
Individual farms in many countries are much less than 2 ha. Diesels can be made cost effective by grouping a number of small farms together to share a common irrigation system.
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A detailed analysis of the cost of buying and operating pumping systems was made in an FAO (1986) publication, Water Lifting Devices1. The reader is referred to this document for further detailed reading. 3.8.6 Some practical considerations Availability of equipment In practice the designer may not always have the full range of choice of pumping systems, pipe sizes, etc. For example, if only 75 mm petrol pumps are available on the local market there is little point in specifying a 50 mm pump. The 50 mm pump may be the most cost-effective choice on paper, but the availability of pumps and spares may be the deciding factor. Availability of money The availability of cash may well determine what the farmer can afford to buy and this may not always be the most cost effective in the long term. If the farmer has access to good credit or is receiving a cash grant from an agency to build an irrigation system, then the best type of scheme to buy would be one which requires a high capital cost and low operating costs. If, on the other hand, the farmer is buying from his own resources or has to borrow money at very high interest rates, then the best scheme might be one with a low capital cost (that the farmer can afford to buy) involving higher operating costs. In this way the farmer will avoid a large debt during construction and will be able to pay the operating costs from revenue from the scheme. Availability of labour On many small farms the farmer and his family provide the labour for operating the irrigation system and no direct cash payment is made for outside help. In this case the cost of labour may not be included in the operating cost calculations. However, in some cases the farmer and some members of his family may have employment elsewhere and have to hire labour for irrigation. In this case the cost of the labour would need to be included. This can be a significant cost and may well have an influence on the EAC values and the choice of system, particularly as some systems are more labour intensive than others.
FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper, 43.
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Chapter 4 Case study - 1

A small vegetable farm using surface water or shallow groundwater
INTRODUCTION In this chapter and the next the principles and processes described in Chapter 3 are brought together to show how they can be applied to two typical small-scale irrigation schemes. The two examples that have been chosen are:
a small farm growing vegetables and using surface water or shallow groundwater, which is
considered in this chapter, and
a group scheme of several small farms growing paddy rice and using deep groundwater,
which is considered in the next chapter. Alternative methods of irrigation and distribution will be considered to show how choices can be made and how this selection is influenced by energy costs. 4.1 OPTIONS AVAILABLE
A farmer visits the local extension office and indicates an interest in irrigating vegetables in the dry season. The farm size is 0.5 ha, the soil is a sandy loam, and at this stage the farmer has only a vague idea of the cropping pattern but wishes to get the best returns from the market place in terms of expenditure on the scheme. There is a river nearby and the local groundwater is only 2 m below ground level, and this source of water supply is assumed to be adequate. There are several possible design options. The main ones are: i. ii. iii. iv. Pump open channels surface irrigation. Pump pipelines surface irrigation. Pump pipelines sprinkle irrigation. Pump pipelines trickle irrigation.
Several more combinations could be added to these by choosing lined or unlined canals, or different pump motors , diesel, electric or petrol. These are not considered here but would all be part of the design process. The design follows the general steps in Figure 1, and the more detailed steps in Figure 10.
56
Case Study - 1
4.2
SCHEME WATER DEMAND
The first step is to establish how much water is needed for the scheme. Two estimates are needed: - Peak crop scheme water demand (l/s) - to determine the size of the system; and - Seasonal scheme water demand (m3) - to determine the amount of water needed over the season. The procedure for calculating both of these values is given in Section 3.6.
Assumptions! As the farmer is not sure about the crops to be grown and their timing assume a peak crop water requirement of 1 l/s/ha. To assess the seasonal crop water requirement assume an average seasonal crop water requirement for vegetables of 500 mm. Seasonal crop water requirement (m3/ha) = 10 x seasonal crop water requirement (mm) = 10 x 500 = 5000 m/ha Assume average crop duration is 110 days.
Check! To check the peak crop water value of 1 l/s/ha use the seasonal crop water requirement as follows: Average crop water requirement (m3/d/ha) = seasonal crop water requirement (m3/ha) crop duration (d)
= 5000/110 = 45.5 m3/d/ha. Peak water requirement = 2 x 45.5 = 91 m3/d/ha. Peak daily crop water requirement = 0.012 x 91 = 1.09 l/s/ha. Therefore an initial estimate of 1 l/s/ha is acceptable at this stage.
Note that when more detailed information becomes available this figure can be refined, but at present it is good enough for preliminary design. Based on the above figures for crop water requirements, the scheme water demand can be assessed by taking account of the efficiencies of the distribution system and the method of irrigation. Different demands will result from using different systems and methods. Table 15 uses the various values of efficiency taken from Chapter 3 to show the effect of these on the peak scheme water demand and on the seasonal scheme water demand.
TABLE 15 Calculating scheme water demand
Design option
Crop water requirement Peak daily (l/s/ha) [1] 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Seasonal (m3/ha) [2] 5000 5000 5000 5000
Efficiency (%) Distribution [3] 85 95 95 95 Irrigation method [4] 60 60 75\90
Scheme water demand Peak (l/s) [5] 3.9 3.5 2.8 2.3 Seasonal (m3) [6] 4900 4385 3510 2925
i. ii. iii. iv.
Notes: Columns [3] and [4] are obtained from Tables 3 and 4 respectively. Columns [5] and [6] are from formulae
in Sections 3.6.2 and 3.6.3 respectively, where [5] = ([1] x 0.5 x 24) / ([3] x [4] x 6.0); and [6] = ([2] x 0.5) / ([3] x [4]). In the calculations, efficiency in % is expressed as the decimal equivalent, e.g., 85% is 0.85.
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Assumptions! - Assume that there will be a maximum of 6 hours of pumping each day. - Assume that the entire area of 0.5 ha is under cropping.
Note that from Table 15 it can be seen that a lower peak scheme water demand and seasonal scheme water demand is required for the sprinkle and trickle options than for the surface irrigation. This may lead to lower energy requirements for pumping the water and lower operating costs, but this may be offset by the higher capital costs of the system. 4.3 PEAK POWER AND ENERGY DEMAND
From the calculation of scheme water demand, an assessment can now be made of power and energy demand (Section 3.7). The calculations are tabulated in Table 16.
Assumptions! Assume that a small petrol-driven centrifugal pump will be used. This will not be very efficient for the surface irrigation option, but there is unlikely to be an axial flow pump available. The centrifugal pump should operate at a higher efficiency for the sprinkler and trickle irrigation (Figures 16 and 18). Therefore assume efficiencies of - 10% for options (i) and (ii), surface irrigation; and - 30% for options (iii), sprinkler, and (iv), trickle irrigation. Assume the following factors which make up the total pumping head:
Option Suction lift (m) [1] 2 2 2 2 Pressure loss in distribution (m) [2] 0 1 6 2 Operating application pressure (m) [3] 0 0 30 10 T otal pumping pressure (m) [1] + [2] + [3] 2 3 38 14
i. ii. iii iv.
Pressure losses in distribution are assumed to be 1 m for Option (ii) because of the low pressure requirement, and 20% of operating pressure for options (iii) and (iv). Fuel: assume that fuel consumption is 0.11 l/kWh, and fuel cost to be $ 0.35/l.
TABLE 16 Overall power and energy demands
Design option Scheme water demand - peak discharge (m3/s) - volume (m3) Pump - efficiency (%) - head (m) Peak power demand (kW) Energy demand (kWh) Energy cost ($) [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7]
i. 0.0039 4 900 10 2 0.76 267 10
ii. 0.0035 4 385 10 3 1.03 358 14
iii. 0.0028 3 510 30 38 3.48 1211 47
iv. 0.0023 2 925 30 14 1.05 372 14
Notes: Rows [1] and [2] are taken from Table 15, columns [5] and [6] respectively. Rows [5] and [6] are calculated from formulae in Section 3.7, where [5] = (9.81 x [1] x [4]) / [3]; and [6] = ([2] x [4]) / (367 x [3]). Row [7] is calculated from the formula in Section 3.8.2, where [7] = [6] x 0.11 x 0.35. Efficiency in the calculations is expressed as the decimal equivalent, e.g., 10% is 0.1.
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Case Study - 1
59
4.4
OVERALL COSTS
Both capital and operating costs are tabulated in Table 17 to calculate the Equivalent Annual Cost (EAC) of each scheme in order to demonstrate which is the cheapest option. 4.5 CONCLUSIONS
A number of conclusions can be drawn from this example:
Overall, Option (i) is the least-cost solution. There is not a great difference in cost between the options , $ 125/year between the cheapest
and the most expensive alternatives. This difference is narrowed to only $ 60/year when labour costs are taken into account. Labour cost has the largest effect on Option (i). Energy costs are not significant and represent only 4 - 13% of the total annual cost. The dominant cost is the capital equipment. This example follows the widely accepted method of analysing costs and therefore should lead to the correct answer. But is it reasonable just to accept this without question? The answer must be No!. There are two reasons for this:
Too many assumptions were made in the calculations which, if they were to be changed,
might affect the final answer.
Local practical and financial constraints may over-ride the calculation completely.
Changing assumptions The answers obtained by calculations need to be tested by asking: What happens if --------? . What happens if the pumping efficiency is lower than expected? The assumed efficiency of pumping for Option (i) is 10%. In practice this may not be the case and it could be as low as 3% or 1% (Section 3.3.5). The efficiencies of Options (ii), (iii) and (iv) may be similar to those selected because the pump characteristics are more suited to pipe systems. In this case a comparison of total EAC values would be as follows (See also Figure 32): - In the example, the pumping efficiency for Option (i) was assumed to be 10%, and this gave a Total EAC of $ 240. If the pumping efficiency is less than this , 3% , Total EAC becomes $ 264. If efficiency is lower still, at only 1%, the Total EAC increases to $ 333. - If water management practices are poor and the distribution efficiency dropped from 85% to 75%, and field application efficiency from 60% to 50% for Option (i), then the total EAC would further increase to $ 276 with 3% pumping plant efficiency. Thus, if Option (i) were not operated as designed, which past experience indicates may very well happen, then the overall cost of Option (i) could rise rapidly. Then Options (ii), (iii) and (iv) become more attractive financially. . What happens if the interest rate changes? The effect on cost is set out in the accompanying table (See also Figure 33). A change in interest rate would not affect the decision as the cost of each option rises
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Case Study - 1
61
as the interest rate increases. This is contrary to the outcome of the example given in Section 3.8.3 because the operating costs of Options (ii), (iii) and (iv) are generally higher than Option (i). . What happens if the groundwater source is much deeper than expected? The effect on EAC of increasing groundwater depth is set out in the accompanying table, where the original example, with a depth of 2 m, is compared to three greater depths (See also Figure 34). The costs of the different options are much closer together as the depth to the water source increases. This is because the increased depth adds directly to the head and the energy for pumping. An increase in head from 2 to 17 m has a significant effect on Options (i) and (ii), where pressure requirements are small, and only a relatively small effect on Options (iii) and (iv), which operate at much higher pressures.
Practical and financial constraints Local practical and financial constraints may very well over-ride the above calculations completely.
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Case Study - 1
Equipment available (Section 3.8.6) may be limited so that an ideal choice cannot be made.
An example is the choice of a small centrifugal pump for surface irrigation in Option (i). It is not the ideal pump but it is usually the only type available. Availability of spare parts, good maintenance facilities and a regular supply of fuel. The experience of local farmers and extension officers in irrigation. If people have the experience, they may be able to take advantage of more technically advanced equipment such as that needed for trickle or sprinkle irrigation. If not, then it is advisable to start with surface irrigation, as that usually can be easily supported with the resources available. The availability of money will influence what the farmer can afford to buy and when (Section 3.8.6). What to choose? What is clear from this example is that the choice between options is not a simple one. Too much can depend on local costs and constraints, and some of these issues may be difficult to resolve. There is no simple way of calculating the answer. All the above factors must be reconciled in the process of choice. A general comment that might be drawn from the example, though, is that Option (i), which is the most common one chosen, will only be the best option if everything works as planned. Experience in the field, however, indicates that it is unlikely to operate this way without a great deal of effort, because of the complexities involved in water management (Section 3.5.1). Few designers set out to design for the very worst operating efficiencies and so Option (i) invariably works out as the most attractive on paper, but may not always be so in practice. Options (ii), (iii) and (iv), with piped distribution, will be much easier to manage and are more likely to work as designed because water management skills are built into the design and are not left to the farmer to decide. 4.6 GUIDELINES
The two case studies are treated together in Section 5.6 with regard to guidelines.
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Chapter 5 Case study - 2

A group scheme for paddy rice irrigation, using deep groundwater
5.1 OPTIONS AVAILABLE
A group of 15 farmers wish to develop an irrigation scheme for the production of 2 crops of paddy rice each year. The total area to be irrigated is 19 ha, and water will be obtained from groundwater, abstracted by pumping from a depth of 20 m. Both diesel- and electrically-driven pumps are available, and so there are four main options: i. ii. iii. iv. Electric pump open channels surface irrigation.
Diesel pump open channels surface irrigation. Electric pump pipelines surface irrigation. Diesel pump pipelines surface irrigation.
This Case Study follows a similar path to Case Study , 1, and so much of the explanation between steps is not repeated. 5.2 SCHEME WATER DEMAND
Scheme water demands for the four options are given in Table 18, based on the following assumptions: Assumptions! Peak daily crop water requirement = 1.5 l/s/ha. Assume seasonal water requirement for rice is 1 200 mm. As two crops will be grown each year, annual water requirement = 2 400 mm, but this is used as the seasonal crop water requirement in the calculation. Seasonal crop water requirement (m3/ha) = 10 x seasonal water requirement (mm) = 10 x 2 400 = 24 000 m3/ha. Field application efficiency = 60%. Distribution efficiency - for open channels = 85%. - for pipelines = 95%. Hours of operation daily (maximum) = 18 hours.
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Case Study - 2
65
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Case Study - 2
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5.5
CONCLUSIONS
Three important conclusions can be drawn from this case study.
Options (i) and (iii), involving electrically-driven pumps, are much cheaper to operate than Options (ii) and (iv) that use diesel-engined pumps. This is generally the case, as electric pumps operate much more efficiently than diesels. However, much depends on the price of electricity, and there is also the problem of security of energy supply. Is the electricity source reliable? If not, then the cost advantages mean very little and the diesel option may be the best.
The energy cost is a much more significant part of the overall cost than was the case in Case Study , 1. It ranges here from 73% to 84% of the total cost, depending on the option chosen. Thus any savings in energy will result in significant cash savings. The use of a piped distribution system costs only a little more than the open channel options, and may well improve irrigation water use efficiency through simplifying irrigation water management practices.
Changing assumptions If some of the assumptions made in the calculations are changed, what happens? . What happens if the efficiency of the diesel pump falls below 10%, or that of the electric pump below 50%?
Design option Pumping efficiency(1) (%) Total EAC ($) Pumping efficiency (%) Total EAC ($) Pumping efficiency (%) Total EAC ($) Pumping efficiency (%) Total EAC ($) i. 50 13 270 40 15 700 30 19 770 20 27 890 ii. 10 22 960 5 41 720 3 66 730 1 191 800 iii. 50 14 130 40 16 850 30 21 390 20 30 480 iv. 10 24 890 5 45 870 3 73 840 1 213 720
Note: 1. Original values from the example.
All the costs increase as efficiency levels drop, but the costs of the diesel options, (ii) and (iv), rise much more rapidly than the electric options, (i) and (iii) (Figure 35). A fall in efficiency from 50 to 40% increases the cost of the electric options by only 15%, whereas a fall from 10 to 3% increases the cost of the diesel options by 160%! . What happens if the groundwater source is much deeper than expected?
Design option EAC in example (20 m) ($) EAC if 30 m deep ($) EAC if 40 m deep ($) EAC if 50 m deep ($) i. 13 270 18 140 23 010 27 890 ii. 22 960 32 340 41 720 51 100 iii. 14 130 18 490 22 850 27 210 iv. 24 890 33 280 41 670 50 060
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Case Study - 2
The figures given for the various EACs if groundwater is deeper than in the original example show clearly that although all the options rise in cost for both diesel and electric pumping, the use of a piped distribution (Options (iii) and (iv)) becomes more attractive economically as the depth to groundwater increases (Figure 36). Changes in the expected useful life period of the pump or of the distribution system, or changes in the interest rate, all also affect the overall cost, but do not change the overall result of the calculation. Practical and financial constraints As in Case Study , 1, any local practical or financial constraints may well over-ride the above calculations completely. The availability of a reliable supply of electricity would be a great asset to the farmers, but in many countries such power supply security may not exist. This is not to say that the supply of diesel fuel is always reliable. This also can be in short supply, with difficulties in delivery and on-farm storage. With shortages at critical times can come cost increases, further increasing the operating costs. What to choose? There is a very clear choice between diesel and electric pumping, and the costs involved are clearly very different. Options (iii) and (iv), based on a pipe distribution system, also appear attractive, with little increase in cost at the shallower pumping depths and a cost saving if deeper pumping is needed. This means that, in this example, the reduction in maintenance costs and savings in energy for the pipe systems outweigh the lower capital cost of the open channel systems.
FIGURE 37 Effect of increasing scheme size on capital and operating costs
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5.6 GUIDELINES The following general guidelines emerge from the two case studies chosen as examples.
When dealing with small farms, energy and other operating costs are not important issues. It is the capital cost of the system and its useful life expectancy that dominate financial decision making. As schemes increase in size, energy costs become more dominant in the decision making process (Figure 37). Channel distribution with surface irrigation is usually the cheapest option when planning a new scheme. However, it will only be the best option if it works as planned. Field experience indicates that it too often does not work properly, as surface irrigation is very difficult to manage efficiently. Pipe distribution systems for surface irrigation should be considered as a serious option. On larger schemes it may work out to be as cheap as canal distribution, and will simplify water management practices. Piped distribution, sprinkle and trickle irrigation are more likely to work as planned because they are easier to manage. Labour costs can have a significant effect on the choice of irrigation system. Whether to include labour costs or not will depend on the availability of any employment opportunities for the farming family away from the farm. Operating efficiencies, both of the pumping plant and of water use, can have a significant effect on energy use and hence on operating cost. The effect is very pronounced at low levels of efficiency and when relatively large volumes of water are being pumped. If electricity is available and reliable, then this will usually be the cheapest source of energy for all sizes of irrigation schemes. Although bank interest rate affects the Equivalent Annual Cost of scheme options it will generally affect all the options in a similar manner and so is unlikely to influence the final choice of system. The results of the financial analysis are not the only factor to consider when making choices between different systems. Practical physical (availability of equipment, spares, and maintenance facilities) and financial (availability of credit) constraints may over-ride the analysis.
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Case Study - 2
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Chapter 6 Improving existing schemes

6.1 INTRODUCTION
There are many thousands of small-scale irrigation schemes already in use and many of these may be operating well below their potential, either through poor design or through poor operation and maintenance. This chapter shows what can be done to improve such schemes. It involves evaluating scheme performance and comparing it with what can be reasonably expected of the scheme and identifying aspects which are in need of improvement (Figure 38)
FIGURE 38 Evaluating irrigation scheme performance
What performance can be reasonably expected from a scheme? To answer this question, a thorough understanding of Chapter 3 is needed. The design is based on what can be reasonably expected with good design, equipment selection and irrigation management practice. The actual performance of the scheme can then be measured and compared with these criteria. Where performance falls below expectation, then ways of improving
72
Improving existing schemes
performance can be identified. Such improvements can involve either changes in design and equipment, or changes in the way the equipment is used. There are two main areas of potential inefficiency in a scheme:
Inefficient use of water, and Inefficient equipment.

6.2 INEFFICIENT WATER USE
One of the major problems in irrigation is the proper management of the irrigation system. This involves:
Scheduling irrigation water on the farm. Managing the irrigation method. Managing the distribution system.
Scheduling irrigation The farmer must decide: When to irrigate the crop and how much water to apply? This must be decided for each crop and implies that the farmer understands about crop water use; about water storage in the soil around the crop roots; is able to measure how much water is needed; and can measure and apply water to meet the demand. Few peasant farmers have this knowledge and often think that more water means more crops. This is true up to a point, if it is properly applied, but beyond that point additional water can have a bad effect on the crop as well as wasting both water and energy. Irrigation method Surface irrigation is the most common method of irrigation and can be the most inefficient. This is not because it is a poor technology, it is because it is difficult to manage properly. It is often chosen for its simplicity but its success relies entirely on the skill of the farmer irrigating, requiring the right discharge into the right shape and size of field that has been properly graded, and so forth. Farmers do not always have these skills, and so the method tends to be inefficient. Table 21 shows some of the common problems of surface irrigation and the effect they can have on efficiency. Sprinkler and trickle irrigation are much less common and are considered to be sophisticated technologies. However, what it not understood by many people is that several aspects of water management are built into their design, making them much easier for the farmer to use. The designer has already chosen pipe and sprinkler sizes, trickle emitters and a pump so that they all match. The farmer has only to lay out the system as recommended by the designer and to turn the system on and off to achieve a reasonably efficient irrigation. Thus the choice of irrigation method in relation to skills available can have an important bearing on water use efficiency. Distribution system If the farmer is working on a scheme sharing the supply with others, additional decisions will be needed regarding the distribution system, namely How to get the right amount of water through the distribution system to the right place at the right time?
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TABLE 21 Efficiency of surface irrigation methods Basin 60 90 subtract 10 - 20 5 - 10 10 - 20 10 - 15 ... Irrigation method Border 60 80 subtract 10 - 20 5 - 10 10 - 20 10 - 15 ... Furrow 60 90 subtract 10 - 20 5 - 10 10 - 20 10 - 15 20 - 40
For design purposes Well-managed method Common problems(1) Poor land preparation Different soil types Fixed irrigation schedules Discharge too low No return flow system
Note: If common problems exist then the figures shown should be subtracted from the w ell-managed efficiency value to give an indication of the actual efficiency that might actually be achieved when the scheme is operating.
For small schemes this is not a problem, but where channels are several kilometres long and serve several farmers, the management of water distribution becomes more difficult and less efficient. In shared systems, farmers at the tail end of a scheme tend to get less water than those at the head. This may be a result of mismanagement, the additional losses through seepage in the distribution system, or both. This is a common problem, referred to as the top-ender tail-ender problem. The levels of efficiency referred to in Tables 4 and 5 are for well-managed systems. Efficiencies can be much lower than these values when there are seepage problems, poor maintenance and poor liaison among the farmers using the same system. 6.3 INEFFICIENT EQUIPMENT
This may be the result of poor design, for example the selection of pipes which are too small or the wrong type of pump or power unit. However, a lot of inefficiency is the result of poor operation and maintenance. It does not seem to be a part of human nature to maintain equipment, but to run it until it stops, and then fix it! It is thus difficult to instil in people the importance of regular maintenance for the operating efficiency of equipment. In Section 3.3.5 the factors which affect pumping efficiency are described. Improvements can be made by rectifying the common faults. The efficiency that can be expected from a diesel or petrol driven pump is about 28% at best and, at worst, 3%. Efficiency from an electric pump will be much higher, at around 50%, but usually the electricity supply is not reliable enough for irrigation. Also in Section 3.3.5 are details of how the siting of pumps in relation to the water source can affect efficiency. This is a common problem with surface water and shallow groundwater pumping. Providing water is coming out of the pump, then everyone assumes it is satisfactorily working. Little thought is given to the significant drop in efficiency that occurs when the suction lift is greater than 3 m. Remember that however well a scheme is designed, it is only as good as its operator. Technology cannot compensate for a poorly trained operator and a poorly managed scheme.
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6.4
EFFECT OF INEFFICIENCY
FIGURE 39 System efficiency value ranges
Just what effect does poor efficiency have on performance and cost? Its main effect is on the operating cost of the scheme and in particular on the cost of the additional energy or fuel needed, as was demonstrated by the case studies of Chapters 4 and 5. The range of typical values of efficiency in different parts of a scheme are summarized in Figure 39. The overall efficiency of a scheme can be found by multiplying together the efficiency of each component. It is often surprising to see that when the efficiencies of water application, distribution and pumping plant are taken into account, the overall efficiency of energy use can be a low as 0.4% (i.e., 99.6% of the energy input is wasted!) and at best only 45%. Figure 40 demonstrates the effect of overall efficiency on the operating cost of a small scheme. In general, low efficiencies can result in significant increases in energy and hence operating costs. Conversely, at low overall efficiencies, which includes most small irrigation schemes, significant savings in operating cost can be made by making small improvements. 6.5 EVALUATING A SCHEME
This can be done for an individual farm or for a scheme involving several farms. The approach is the same and involves an assessment of the efficiency. If the efficiency is below what is expected then a more detailed examination of the farm or scheme can be made to determine where water is being wasted. The simplest and quickest assessment to make is the efficiency of water use for an entire farm or scheme. This means measuring the amount of water going into a scheme , water supply , and assessing the water used by crops , water demand. An overall measure of the farm or scheme efficiency can be made as follows:
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Farm (or scheme) efficiency (%) =
water demand (m3) x 100 water supply (m3)
This value is a combination of the distribution and the water application efficiency. Only if the overall assessment is not satisfactory will it be necessary to go further to assess the two components separately, using the relationships:
Water supply reaching the farm (fields) (m3) x 100 Water distribution efficiency (%) = Water supply from the source to the scheme (m3)
Field application efficiency (%) =
Water required by the crop (m3) x 100 water supply reaching the farm (field) (m3)
Typical values for efficiencies in good, well managed scheme are given in Tables 4 and 5, and a graph showing how seasonal operating costs are reduced as efficiency improves is shown as Figure 40.
FIGURE 40 The relationship between efficiency and seasonal operating costs
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6.6
OBTAINING DATA
One of the main difficulties in making evaluations of this kind is having sufficient information collected over a long enough time period to make meaningful assessments. The approaches described below are ways around this problem because to set up extensive data collection on most schemes may well place impossible burdens on farmers and local extension staff. 6.6.1 Observing and questioning A very effective evaluation can be made by just walking through a farm (or scheme) observing what is happening and asking questions. This is the way good detectives set about solving problems.
Observe the pumping unit in operation and check for problems such as vibration, noise or
smoky exhaust.
Ask the farmers if they think they are getting enough water. Those who share a supply and
are short of water will no doubt complain. There may be enough water supplied for everyone, but it maybe shared out inequitably. Look out for the top-ender , tail-ender problem.
Ask about the schedule used for each crop and the hours of pumping needed to irrigate. Check the drainage system at the lowest part of the farm to see if water is flowing out. This
may be wastage. If the supply is shared then look to see from which farm the wastage is coming.
Walk along the canals to look for signs of seepage or leakage at structures; weeds or debris
obstructing flow; or siltation. For underground pipe systems, look for signs of leakage, such as wet patches on the soil surface above the pipes; or for water still flowing in the pipes when all the outlets are supposedly closed.
On paddy rice schemes check the depth of water in the fields to see if it conforms with good
practice for that stage of the crop s growth.
On sprinkler and trickle systems, look to see if the operating pressure is as recommended by
the manufacturer. Also look for leakage from the pipes and for blockages in the sprinkler nozzles and trickle emitters.
Particularly on shared schemes, check to see that gates are not left open when a farmer is not
irrigating and that farmers arrive and leave their farm in time with the water being supplied to them. 6.6.2 Some basic data If some basic measurements can be made, then a more detailed assessment can be carried out. These may be measurements made on a brief visit to a farm (or scheme) or measurements made over a much longer period of time. Clearly the longer the period of data collection the more accurate the assessment will be. The evaluator would determine:
Pump discharge. For a small pump this can be measured by catching the water in a large
bucket (Section 2.3). For a larger pump, a weir can be temporarily installed in the channel just downstream of the pump or a flow meter installed in a pipe system.
77
Sprinkler or trickle discharge. For schemes of this type, the discharge can be measured at
the sprinkler or trickle emitter by catching water in a large bucket (Section 2.3). Amount of fuel or electricity used in a season. This will help to determine whether the inefficiency is in water distribution or in the pump. Number of irrigation days in a season and the average number of hours of pumping each day. These would be estimates obtained from the farmer in the absence of records. A check on this would be to see how much fuel had been used during the season and to calculate the number of running hours, based on fuel consumption, for comparison with the farmers estimates. Seasonal crop water requirements. A rough guide can be obtained from Table 8, but more useful and accurate data may be available from local research stations. The following example shows how both the water use efficiency and the pumping plant can be evaluated.
EXAMPLE 16 A small irrigation scheme is growing vegetable crops in the dry season. Water is being pumped from a river nearby and is distributed in an unlined open channel system, and surface irrigation is used for field application. Evaluate the water use and pumping plant efficiencies of the scheme using the following data: Scheme design: Irrigated area = 2 ha, with full cropping on entire area. Seasonal crop water requirement = 500 mm. Distribution system efficiency = 85%. Field application efficiency = 60%. Irrigation efficiency = 0.85 x 0.60 = 0.51 [=51%]. It uses a petrol-driven centrifugal pump, with a plant efficiency of 10% and fuel consumption of 0.11 l/kWh. Data collected from site: Pump discharge = 13 l/s. Number of irrigation days = 100 d. Hours of daily pumping (average) = 6 h. Pump suction lift = 4 m. Seasonal cost of fuel = $ 285, at a cost of $ 0.35/l. What can be expected? If the scheme was performing as designed: Crop water requirement (m3/ha) = 10 x crop water requirement (mm) = 10 x 500 = 5 000 m3/ha. Seasonal scheme water demand (m3) = crop water requirement (m3/ha) x cropped area (ha) Irrigation efficiency = (5 000 x 2) / 0.51 = 19 608 m3. Seasonal energy demand = volume of water (m3) x head (m) 367 x pumping plant efficiency
= (19 608 4) / (367 0.1) = 2 137 kWh. Overall energy cost = overall energy demand (kWh) x fuel consumption (l/kWh) x cost of fuel ($/l) = 2 137 x 0.11 x 0.35 = $ 82.
78
EXAMPLE 16 (continued) What actually happens? Check the amount of water supplied to the scheme: Seasonal scheme water supplied (m3) = pump discharge (m3/s) x daily operating hours (h) x days of irrigation (d) x 3 600 = 0.013 x 6 x 100 x 3 600 = 28 080 m3. The amount of water delivered is in excess of the requirement of 19 608 m3. Therefore the actual irrigation efficiency, which is (5 000 x 2) / 28 080 = 0.36 [=36%], is much lower than expected. A detailed visual inspection of the scheme can now be made to locate where water is being wasted. To investigate how efficient the pump is, first calculate the amount of energy actually expended in pumping 28 080 m3. The actual energy supplied = overall energy cost ($) fuel consumption (l/kWh) x cost of fuel ($/l) = 285 / (0.35 x 0.11) = 7 402 kWh
To calculate the efficiency of the pumping plant: Seasonal energy demand = volume of water (m3) x head (m) 367 x pumping plant efficiency Thus, pumping plant efficiency = volume of water (m3) x head (m) 367 x seasonal energy demand (28 080 x 4) / (367 x 7 402) = 0.04 [=4%]
This figure confirms that the pump is operating below its expected efficiency of 10%. The same calculation can be done by comparing the fuel cost actually spent with the fuel cost expected. If we assume 10% pumping plant efficiency: Expected seasonal energy requirement = (28 080 x 4) / (367 x 0.1) = 3 060 kWh. Fuel cost expected = 3 060 x 0.11 x 0.35 = $ 118. The expected cost of fuel is much less than the $ 285 actually spent on fuel. This means that the pumping plant is also operating at a lower efficiency (calculated as (118 x 0.10) / 285 = 0.04 [=4%]) than expected. This may be due to any , or many , of the reasons discussed in Section 3.3.5. One point to consider, though, is the suction lift of the pump. This is looking critical at 4 m and may be lowering the efficiency. If the pump was located within 3 m of the water surface then the pump efficiency might improve.
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Annex Cost Comparison of Different System Options A Lotus 1-2-31 application

A.1 INTRODUCTION This annex is to help those who have access to a computer with Lotus 1-2-3 software, and that have some knowledge of spread-sheet operation. The spread-sheet (see next page), when entered as a 1-2-3 program, can provide quick calculation of total cost for 4 different options, in the same way as discussed in Chapters 4 and 5. The calculation used for this spread-sheet example is the case study in Chapter 4 (Table 17). A.2 PROCEDURE FOR PROGRAM INPUT To input the spread-sheet, just input all the text in the appropriate cells, except for equations in shaded areas (columns C, D, E and F at rows 20, 21, 27, 32, 33, 46, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 57 and 61). To input equations, type the formula as described in ( Equation in Lotus ), which is also shaded, in appropriate rows in column C. The equation can be copied to D, E and F columns by using the Copy command (/ Copy). A.3 CALCULATION Input appropriate values into cells where equation or text has not been entered. The calculation is automatically performed. To test What happens if ..... ?, just change the value you want to assess, e.g., interest rate can be changed to 10% or 15% by inserting 10 or 15 instead of 5. The result is calculated automatically. A.4 GRAPHIC PRESENTATION ( STACK-BAR ) The calculated result can also be viewed graphically. When the data input is finished, carry out the following steps, using the indicated Lotus 1-2-3 commands: Step 1: / Graph X (Select the range C, D, E and F-12 as X axis) Step 2: [/ Graph] A (Select the range C, D, E and F-21 as A) Step 3: [/ Graph] B (Select the range C, D, E and F-33 as B) Step 4: [/ Graph] C (Select the range C, D, E and F-47 as C) Step 5: [/ Graph] D (Select the range C, D, E and F-53 as D) Step 6: [/ Graph] Type Stack-Bar Step 7: [/ Graph] View If you want to add the labour component to the graph, do Step 8 and repeat Step 7. Step 8: [/Graph] E (Select the range C, D, E and F-59 as E)
Lotus and 1-2-3 are registered trademarks of Lotus Development Corporation. This program is based on Release 3.1.

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Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost

Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost

Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost

Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost

Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost

FIGURE 1 Making choices - the design process

Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost

Chapter 2 Some basic concepts

Thus pressure is force per unit area (Figure 2).

Some basic concepts

Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost

Some basic concepts

FIGURE 5 Measuring discharge

Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost

Some basic concepts

Fuel or food Maize Wood Diesel Petrol Wind Solar

Indicative efficiency (1) 10% 10% 20% 10% 20% 5%

1 kWh/kg 4 kWh/kg 11 kWh/l 9 kWh/l 0.01-41 kWh/m2 1 kWh/m2

Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost

Water energy (kWh) =

FIGURE 7 Illustration of the problem considered in Example 3

Some basic concepts

Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost

FIGURE 9 Graph relating flow, static head and power

Water energy (kWh) = water power (kW) x operating time (h)

Some basic concepts

Energy use efficiency

Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost

Chapter 3 Choosing a new irrigation system

Choosing a new irrigation system

FIGURE 11 Components of a typical irrigation scheme

Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost

Pump open channel Pump pipe supply Pump pipe supply

surface irrigation. surface irrigation. sprinkler or trickle irrigation.

Choosing a new irrigation system

Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost

FIGURE 12 Typical axial flow pump

Choosing a new irrigation system

FIGURE 13 Radial flow (centrifugal) pump

Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost

Choosing a new irrigation system

FIGURE 15-A Pump characteristics: discharge - head

FIGURE 15-B Pump characteristics: discharge - power

FIGURE 15-C Pump characteristics: discharge - efficiency

Head and discharge; Power requirements; and Efficiency of operation.

Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost

axial1 or mixed axial1 or mixed mixed or centrifugal centrifugal centrifugal

Choosing a new irrigation system

FIGURE 16 Pump selection based on head and discharge parameters

Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost

FIGURE 17 Manufacturer s data for a centrifugal pump

Choosing a new irrigation system

FIGURE 18 Efficiency of components of pumping plant

Power unit efficiency

Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost

Developing the formula from Section 2.5:

Choosing a new irrigation system

FIGURE 19 Suction lift limitations

Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost

Choosing a new irrigation system

Small-scale pumped irrigation - energy and cost

Choosing a new irrigation system

FIGURE 22 Pipe system and its energy demand

energy needed to pressurize sprinklers