ENVIRONMENTAL HUMAN HEALTH Environmental health is the branch of public health that is concerned with all aspects of the

natural and built environment that may affect human health. Other terms that concern or refer to the discipline of environmental health include environmental public health and environmental health and protection. Environmental health is defined by the World Health Organization as: Those aspects of the human health and disease that are determined by factors in the environment. It also refers to the theory and practice of assessing and controlling factors in the environment that can potentially affect health. Environmental health as used by the WHO Regional Office for Europe, includes both the direct pathological effects of chemicals, radiation and some biological agents, and the effects (often indirect) on health and well being of the broad physical, psychological, social and cultural environment, which includes housing, urban development, land use and transport.[1]

Environmental health services are defined by the World Health Organization as: those services which implement environmental health policies through monitoring and control activities. They also carry out that role by promoting the improvement of environmental parameters and by encouraging the use of environmentally friendly and healthy technologies and behaviors. They also have a leading role in developing and suggesting new policy areas. Environmental health practitioners may be known as sanitarians, public health inspectors, environmental health specialists, environmental health officers or environmental health practitioners. In many European countries physicians and veterinarians are involved in environmental health. Many states in the United States require that individuals have professional licenses in order to practice environmental health. California state law defines the scope of practice of environmental health as follows:

"Scope of practice in environmental health" means the practice of environmental health by registered environmental health specialists in the public and private sector within the meaning of this article and includes, but is not limited to, organization, management, education, enforcement, consultation, and emergency response for the purpose of prevention of environmental health hazards and the promotion and protection of the public health and the environment in the following areas: food protection; housing; institutional environmental health; land use; community noise control; recreational swimming areas and waters; electromagnetic radiation control; solid, liquid, and hazardous materials management; underground storage tank control; on-site septic systems; vector control; drinking water quality; water sanitation; emergency preparedness; and milk and dairy sanitation.[2] The environmental health profession had its modern-day roots in the sanitary and public health movement of the United Kingdom. This was epitomized by Sir Edwin Chadwick, who was instrumental in the repeal of the poor laws and was the founding president of the Association of Public Sanitary Inspectors in 1884, which today is the Chartered Institute of Environmental Health. Environmental medicine may be seen as the medical branch of the broader field of environmental health. Terminology is not fully established, and in many European countries they are used interchangeably.

Disciplines of Environmental Health Three basic disciplines generally contribute to the field of environmental health: environmental epidemiology, toxicology, and exposure science. Each of these disciplines contributes different information to describe problems in environmental health, but there is some overlap among them.

Environmental epidemiology studies the relationship between environmental exposures (including exposure to chemicals, radiation, microbiological agents, etc.) and human health. Observational studies, which simply observe exposures that people have already experienced, are common in environmental epidemiology because humans cannot ethically be exposed to agents that are known or suspected to cause disease. While the inability to use experimental study designs is a limitation of environmental epidemiology, this discipline directly observes effects on human health rather than estimating effects from animal studies.

Toxicology studies how environmental exposures lead to specific health outcomes, generally in animals, as a means to understand possible health outcomes in humans. Toxicology has the advantage of being able to conduct randomized controlled trials and other experimental studies because they can use animal subjects. However there are many differences in animal and human biology, and there can be a lot of uncertainty when interpreting the results of animal studies for their implications for human health.

Exposure science studies human exposure to environmental contaminants by both identifying and quantifying exposures. Exposure science can be used to support environmental epidemiology by better describing environmental exposures that may lead to a particular health outcome, identify common exposures whose health outcomes may be better understood through a toxicology study, or can be used in a risk assessment to determine whether current levels of exposure might exceed recommended levels. Exposure science has the advantage of being able to very

accurately quantify exposures to specific chemicals, but it does not generate any information about health outcomes like environmental epidemiology or toxicology. Information from these three disciplines can be combined to conduct a risk assessment for specific chemicals or mixtures of chemicals to determine whether an exposure poses significant risk to human health. This can in turn be used to develop and implement environmental health policy that, for example, regulates chemical emissions, or imposes standards for proper sanitation.[3]

List of Environmental Problems The earth's environment has become a pervasive and global problem. There is growing awareness about the need to conserve our environment. Read on to know the different environmental problems. Today the Earth's environment is in a sorry state. Wherever one looks, one encounters pollution. Forests are disappearing. The green patches in the city are being replaced by concrete buildings. Waste products are being dumped indiscriminately. Water is too toxic to drink. The air is unfit to breathe. Global warming has become a menacing issue. There is a question mark over the survival of life on the Earth. The human race is at the brink of a self-created disaster. Truly there is a surfeit of environmental problems today.

This article aims to acquaint you with as many environmental problems and issues as possible. For ease of understanding, the different problems have been divided into four main categories. You may jump to the category of your interest.

List of environmental problems 1. Air-related Environmental Problems 2. Water-related Environmental Problems

3. Land-related Environmental Problems 4. Other Environmental Problems

Air-related Environmental Problems

Greenhouse Effect Any gas in the atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiations in the thermal infrared range is called a greenhouse gas. The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. This process repeats over and over again, trapping the radiations in the atmosphere. This is one of the major causes of global warming (discussed elsewhere in the article). Consequence: Global warming is causing the Earth to lose its snow cover; glaciers are melting, the sea-level is rising, and a lot of arctic floral and faunal species are on the verge of extinction.

Ozone Depletion The ozone envelope around the Earth is depleting in volume consistently since 1980s. This is largely due to the effect of halocarbon refrigerants (such as CFC, halons, freons, etc.). Halocarbons (being lighter than other gases in the atmosphere) rise much higher in the atmosphere. They then photodissociate to give atomic halogens. These atoms catalyze the destruction of the ozone gas.

Consequence: Depletion of the ozone can practically threaten human life, and life of other animals as well. The ozone layer protects us from UV rays of the sun; without the ozone layer,

everyone would be susceptible to a number of skin diseases, including skin cancer.

Air Quality The quality of air we breathe is worsening day-by-day. This includes the quality of air outside the house (outdoor air quality) as well as indoor air quality. In fact, indoor air quality has been designated as one of the worst environmental issues, especially in the urban areas. Government agencies usually set the values of different gases and components in the air at certain levels which are fit for life; these values are called Air Quality Indices (AQI). They help monitor air quality. Primary reason for the worsening of air quality is air pollution (discussed below). Stagnant air (due to lack of winds, due to temperature inversion, etc.) is another important cause. Consequence: Poor air quality can hamper children and old people from performing daily activities, or even stepping out of the house. Poor air quality also leaves you feeling tired and fatigued all day long, irrespective of the diet you follow or the amount of sleep you have.

Air Pollution Air pollution is probably one of the most dangerous anthropogenic effect on the environment; since we cannot control the air we breathe (though we may be able to control the quality of drinking water, food, etc.). Vehicular traffic, smog created by the smoke emitted by vehicles and factories, aerosols arising SPM (suspended particulate matter), VOCs (volatile organic compounds) present primarily in paints and varnishes and refrigerants, all contribute to air pollution. Consequence: Air pollution affects everything; it affects plants, animals and humans. According to WHO, poor indoor air quality can lead to respiratory infections, coronary diseases, and even lung cancer. If all this is happening indoors, imagine what is happening outside.

Water-related Environmental Problems

Acid Rain Gases like carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide can react with water to produce corresponding acids. When this happens in the atmosphere, we get rain that is of acidic (or low) pH. The gases mentioned above are released into the atmosphere by certain natural processes like lightning, volcanoes, etc. However, the amount of these gases released due to factories, vehicles and different industries surpasses that produced naturally. It goes beyond a level that can be tolerated by nature.

Consequence: Acid rains cause stone, rocks, steel, metal to erode and paint to peel off. This means monuments, statues, bridges, buildings, all are at a risk. Going at the current rate, there may come a time when children won't be able to play in the rain because it scars their skin!

Wastewater One cannot really control or stop wastewater from being generated. However, due to anthropogenic effects of human development, the components of wastewater are changing every year, so that more materials that cannot be gotten rid of are being added to wastewater and, ultimately, to water in general. If the amount of these substances goes on increasing, they will accumulate in the food chain. Consequence: Wastewater management, if not managed effectively, is going to eventually affect all kinds of life form. Eutrophication (discussed below) is a grave consequence of inefficient and / or inadequate treatment of wastewater.

Urban Run-off Urban run-off refers to the rainwater running off land and into water bodies. This is a natural process. However, with ever-increasing urbanization, this process affects water bodies adversely, because the run-off now carries all sorts of compounds, chemicals and particulate matter. In the

presence of trees and sufficient vegetation, only about 10% of the total amount of rain runs off into water bodies. However, this amount has been increased almost 5 times!

Consequence: Urban run-off causes deposition of oil, gasoline, garbage, heavy metals (nickel, copper, lead, zinc etc.), fertilizers and pesticides (from gardens and lawns), synthetic organic compounds, etc.; all of which ultimately enters the food chain and causes number of health complications. Urban run-off also partially contributes to eutrophication.

Eutrophication Eutrophication, in layman's terms, means excessive growth of phytoplankton in a water body. Almost all natural water bodies (unless intentionally protected), are subject to water pollution; this adds a number of 'substrates' such as phosphates, nitrates, sewage, etc. to the water. All these substances boost the growth of plants (especially fast-growing plants) to such an extent that it completely depletes the water body of oxygen and other nutrients.

Consequence: Algal bloom is one of the effects of eutrophication. Depletion of oxygen (or hypoxia) can lead to death of many fish species and other forms of aquatic life. On the other hand, it may lead to increase in number of undesirable aquatic species, thus completely throwing the balance of nature off. Water Crisis When the amount of water present in a region is unable to meet the demand of all life present in that region, the situation is called a water crisis. Scarcity of usable water is the main reason for water crisis. This scarcity has arisen due to a number of things, including wastage of water, deforestation, urbanization, etc.

Consequence: Water-borne diseases are the leading cause for deaths worldwide. More than 9 million people all over the world do not have access to potable water. Sudan and Venezuela top the list of regions with the most number of people facing a water crisis. Water is life. No water, no life.

Marine Pollution and Acidification Marine pollution is a more of a consequence than an issue in itself; the different contributing factors being inefficient and / or inadequate wastewater treatment, urban run-off, eutrophication, etc. Apart from this, solid materials, especially plastic, create a huge nuisance. Marine acidification, on the other hand, refers to the effect of anthropogenic carbon dioxide on the pH of the oceans. Consequence: The last thing we want is for the oceans to be polluted. Ponds, lakes, wells, rivers, can still be controlled; however oceans, once irreversibly polluted, will spell doom for all life on Earth.

Land-related Environmental Problems

The main culprit for many environmental issues is the fact that we do not realize how little things add up to create one huge problem. We always think - "We have so much water, we have so much land, we couldn't possibly run out of it, the Earth is HUGE!" But there is a difference between ocean water and usable water; between any land and usable land. The amount of usable land we have at our disposal is decreasing day by day. There are a number of purposes for which we use land, and a number of places we err in.

Problems arising from Inefficient Land Use Too much of a thing, and you are bound to waste some of it. Inefficient land use is the leading land-related environmental issue. Three major issues come under inefficient land use: urban sprawl, habitat fragmentation and habitat destruction.

1. Urban sprawl is the tendency of cities and suburbs to spread outward and encroach the outskirts. The biggest cause of this is the fact that we do not use the land we have efficiently. On the other hand, the most serious consequence of urban sprawl is rise in auto-dependent development, which makes car-dependency mandatory, leading to more fuel consumption, more air pollution and a number of other things. Another consequence is on the overall health of the human population - longer daily commuting distances means more traveling time, less productivity at work, duller social life, less social interaction (because everybody is just busy going back and forth!), strained relationships, even psychological effects maybe seen. 2. Habitat fragmentation is when anthropogenic actions cause land to be divided into areas such that it fragments the habitat of an organism. To put it in simple terms, when urbanization encroaches upon forests, wild animals experience habitat fragmentation. We have other places to go to if we fall short of land. However, in our bid to create more space for ourselves, we are taking away from the habitat of wild animals, and they have nowhere else to go. Habitat fragmentation has caused many species to pose on the brink of extinction. Native vegetation is done away with to make space for agriculture and dwelling. In the process, however, many plant species are facing extinction. Not to mention, clearing of forests (or deforestation) has its own multitude consequences.

3. Habitat destruction goes more or less hand-in-hand with habitat fragmentation; it could be called the ultimate effect of excessive habitat fragmentation. The greatest causes of habitat destruction is clearing land for agriculture. Land conversion is a heinous moral crime that many of us are not even aware of! Biodiversity once lost can never be replaced. This might sound too mellow, but one species lost means the food chain becomes a little more unstable. Simple example: if we lost snakes, rats and mice would create a havoc! Take it further, and rats and mice may become the next invasive species!

Problems arising from Land Pollution and Degradation Though mammoth tasks will have to be undertaken, inefficient land use is still something we can correct. However, spoil a piece of land beyond which it can be restored, and we have lost a prospective school, hospital, or church, forever.

1. Desertification is when an ordinary piece of land is converted into a desert. To me, it is one of the most scariest prospects of human development; to convert a beautiful garden, a park, a forest into a desert! Did you know that more than 2 billion people actually live in dryland regions? To add to this is the fact that dryland occupy more than 40% of the Earth; AND that we are adding to it through our actions. One of the most intense examples of desertification is that of Lake Chad, Nigeria - the lake has shrunk so much that more than 95% of it is lost! 2. Land pollution is primarily caused due to inefficient and / or inadequate waste disposal, increased mechanization and excessive use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides etc. in gardens and farms. All of these causes have their own set of unique effects; put them all together, and we are practically scourging our own land with our own hands! Land fill and litter is like shoving bad food down your gullet because you cannot find a dustbin to get rid of it. Did that make you squirm? Well, that is what we are doing to our Earth.

3. Soil pollution is a part of land pollution, but with even more serious consequences, in the form of poor quality land for agriculture. Rainwater collects and deposits all land pollutants to water bodies, so there is a two-fold entry of pollutants into our food. To add to this, not only do these chemicals harm us, they show adverse effects on all living forms, in fact more so on wild animals and plants. We can still find a way to make spoiled water potable; what about animals?

Other Environmental Problems

Almost all the problems mentioned in this section are a consequence of more than one of the problems mentioned in the previous sections of the article. I will hence only elaborate the causes of each of the problems in this section, and throw light on any important or peculiar aspect of the particular problem. Inefficient Use of Resources and Energy Crisis Resource depletion is when inefficient use of resources leads to a shortage of the resources in question. Few of the principal causes of resource depletion are over population, land conversion, pollution (air, water, land, soil, etc.), wastage and over consumption. Factors like human development and activities (mining, logging, factories and industries, intensive farming,

deforestation, etc.) as well as consumerism, are in turn cause and effect of inefficient resource management.

Conservation Due to the anthropogenic effect of almost all our actions, conservation is conspicuously absent. This in turn is pushing more and more species of animals, birds, plants etc. into the 'endangered' section, soon going on to be extinct. One aspect of species extinction that remains at times neglected is the creation of invasive species. Without its predator, a prey may increase in number to such an extent that it throws off the balance of nature and disrupts the normal ecology of the niche it exists in. Both the scenarios are not something that can be positively dealt with.

Non-Recyclable Waste

Two words - plastic, and electronic waste. These are two kinds of environmental problems that we can tackle completely. The two best ways to avoid plastic from accumulating is to NOT buy packaged water, and to NOT use plastic bags. I for one, follow this strictly. As for electronic waste, think twice before you burn a DVD, discard your old phone and buy a new one, buy a new camera or iPod, a new PlayStation; in fact, think more than just twice.

Genetic Engineering Anyone who has been reading the newspaper (or at least listening to people who read the newspaper) must be aware of genetically modified foods and the controversies they have given rise to. Everybody applauded the success of the Dolly (the first animal, a sheep, to be successfully cloned). However, you would have been petrified if you had been able to see all the clones of Dolly that went wrong. There is no way to 'discard' or 'throw' wrong or undesired genetic manipulations. The most scary prospect is that of disease-causing microorganisms

developing drug resistance as a consequence of overuse of drugs. Changes at the genetic level are permanent; and though we try our best to eliminate the bad ones, the good ones are also bound to have some adverse effects as well.

Nuclear Development and Nanotechnology

Nuclear Development - another topic that has been in debate and discussion for quite some time now. Personally, I think the most alarming aspect of nuclear development are the prospective nuclear accidents that can take place. We do not need another Chernobyl disaster; we do not want another city facing the same fate as Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Nuclear radiations are probably the deadliest of all. They do not just affect you, they can affect your children and their children as well. As for nanotechnology, the most serious challenge, or the crying need of the hour is to be able to monitor and assess the impact of nanoparticles precisely. This is especially difficult since at 'nano' dimensions, materials change their properties, behavior etc. and hence should be looked at from a totally different, fresh point of view; more so in medical applications. The toxicity of nanoparticles needs to be assessed and worked down to a science. Nanotoxicology and nanopollution should be looked into with more vigilance and scrutiny.

Population Explosion The root cause of all evil. I saved the best (or should I say the 'worst'?) part for the end. The problem with dealing with and talking about population explosion is that we fail to look at it objectively. At some point of time in the discussion, emotions and sentiments get mixed up with practicalities; and that's where we lose all sense of perception. However, one should look at population explosion like any other problem, and should deal with it as strictly and with as severe measures as those used to deal with any other problem.

Simple Ways to Save the Environment Thinking of ways to save Mother Earth? It's high time we do, as the planet we live on is suffering. We are extracting all it has - oil, ores, water and more. We are cutting down trees, we

are killing animals, we are exploiting nature. Earth's resources are depleting, posing a threat to human existence on the planet. It's time we do something to save the planet. Let's resort to simple ways to save the environment. Here they are. We talk about saving our environment and how important it is to conserve natural resources. We read about the importance of a healthy environment to survive. Environmental education has made us realize the need to preserve natural wealth. But just knowing and talking doesn't help. When was the last time you did something towards saving the environment? Forget doing, when was the last time you even felt like doing something to save nature? Now don't say you always knew there's a need to save the environment. Everyone knows and says. Sadly no one does. Do something that can help save the environment - even a small step counts. When we think about doing something to save the environment, we think of depleting natural resources, we think of environmental pollution, we think of deforestation, endangered plant and animal species and we wonder how to contribute to saving nature. We think of these as very big problems and solving them, we think, is beyond human capacity. Big problems - yes, they are. They are grave problems in fact. But thinking it's impossible to solve them is where we go wrong. We hardly bother to do anything in that regard. There are so many simple ways to save the environment. We just don't pay attention to them. We just don't think we can do anything or that we should.

Easy Ways to Save the Environment

Plant more trees. This is easy, you know? Choose an open area/ground near your residence or workplace. Unless there's any law restricting you from growing trees in that area, go ahead, grow trees. Plant a tree every month, encourage your friends and colleagues to join you. Have more and more trees planted and there will come a day when you have a green stretch of land thanks to your effort. Walk more, drive less. Now that's not very difficult, is it? Choose to walk short distances instead of taking your car every time. Go walking to the gym, to work (if it's not very far), go walking to run errands. Or use a bicycle. Both cycling and walking are good exercises. And each time you avoid using your car, you are contributing to reducing air pollution. You are saving

fuel, saving money and getting a good workout too. Now isn't that beneficial for both you and the environment? Maintain your vehicles in good condition. It may not be possible to go cycling or walking everywhere. To some distances, there's no other option but your car. But how about at least maintaining it in good condition? Give your car a regular servicing. Clean the exhaust pipes. Check for pollutants emitted. Check air pressure in tires as under-inflated tires lead to greater fuel consumption. Maintain the air filter and fuel injection pump in good condition. Check engine oil levels regularly. Consider getting a catalytic converter fitted in your vehicle. This way you are curbing air pollution.

Change the way you drive. Do not drive in low gear. It consumes more fuel that way. Do not accelerate and brake very often. More fuel is exhausted this way. When you stop at a signal, turn the ignition off. Take the shortest route to the venue, you are saving fuel and thereby reducing air pollution this way. Share a car whenever possible. Four people going to the same place at the same time, in four different cars - doesn't make sense. Pool a car whenever you can. Don't honk when it's not necessary to. You are adding to noise pollution that way.

Use CFC-free products. CFCs are released from aerosol sprays, air conditioning systems and refrigerators. Some cosmetic products too, contain CFCs. Some countries have already banned the use of CFC products. CFCs contribute to ozone depletion and greenhouse effect. Using CFCfree products is the simplest way to prevent the harm they cause to the environment.

Save energy. There are so many electrical gadgets you must be using daily - the air conditioner, heater, refrigerator and oven among many more. Then, there are lights and fans. Do you maintain the appliances in good condition? Do you keep a check on their power consumption? Replace the air filters for your air conditioning unit once a month. Turn off the AC when not in use. Refrigerators and water heaters consume a lot of power. So use them scrupulously. Switch off the lights and fans in your room before leaving it. Make sure the electrical appliances are not left on (unless necessary), when leaving the house. Make it a point to switch off the television set or music system after use. Don't keep them on when there's no one using them. Your computer is

one of the most used gadgets in the house. Do not keep it switched on when no one's using it. Now weren't these very simple ways of saving the environment?

Save water. Water is a very important natural resource. It's we who waste it, pollute it. The simplest ways to save water - turn off water taps after use. Use of flushes and showers can lead to wastage of water. Use only as much water as necessary. Do not dump garbage down a storm drain. When you visit a beach, see that you don't spill food or dump waste around. Do not pollute rivers by dumping garbage, sewage or other waste material in them. This pollutes water bodies. There are laws prohibiting you from doing this. But then it has to come from within - the awareness and the awakening. Water is so precious, we can't waste or pollute it.

Recycle and reuse - whatever and whenever you can. This is the best measure to save the environment. A simple way to do this is to reduce the use of rubber and plastic. Instead, use paper bags and cardboard containers. Even the practice of buying in bulk can help save a lot of packaging material, thus contributing to saving the environment. Buy products that you can reuse. You can reuse daily-use items like old wood, scrap paper to make wood and paper articles and old clothes (you can donate them to the needy or make other cloth items from them).

Use renewable sources of energy as much as possible. Resort to the use of renewable sources like solar, wind and hydro power. Start from your own house. Get a solar panel installed and start using solar power for water and room heaters. Small wind turbines are available for home use. Resort to their use for power generation. Even geothermal and ground source heat pumps are available for household use. The added benefit of harnessing alternative energy sources is that the Government offers you incentives for that.

Change habits. Some simple habits at the workplace can let you contribute towards saving the environment. When in office, print only when it is absolutely necessary to. Printing every soft copy leads to heavy wastage of paper. Use emails instead of paper for correspondence. Remember to switch your computer off when leaving for the day. Don't keep the computer monitor on when you are away from the desk. Do not keep the lights of your cabin/office on

when you are away. Avoid overuse of air conditioners. Do not use disposable plastic cups and plates when you have the option of using ceramic.

Save animals. Minimize the use of animal products. Animal fur and ivory are excessively used animal products. Animals are poached for their skin. They are used in scientific research. Animals are being killed in large numbers and are under the threat of extinction. Resolve not to hunt animals. Discourage those who do so for amusement. Discourage animal poaching. Make yourself and those around you, aware of the effects of animal extinction. Do your bit towards saving them. Donate to animal welfare schemes, work for animal shelters, adopt pets only if you are going to be able to take good care of them.

Go green when gardening or farming. Activities like composting can be of great help in recycling garbage into useful manures. Avoid excessive use of chemical fertilizers and synthetic nutrients. Natural manures are a better option for farms and gardens. Go for vermicomposting. Vermicompost makes a very good organic fertilizer. Instead of dumping rotten vegetables, leftover food, eggshells, teabags, vegetable stalks and fruit rinds in the garbage bin, use them to make organic manure for your garden. Replace lawns with bushes and trees. If you live in an area where there's scarcity of water, use drought-tolerant plants in the garden. This will help you save water. Using non-native plants disrupts the ecological balance. Don't use them just because they are exotic. Avoid using chemical pesticides for plants. Instead, turn to home remedies or other eco-friendsly ways of maintaining your garden. You can consider rainwater harvesting in your locality if you live in an area which receives decent rainfall.

Creat Awareness. This is one way in which anyone of us can help save the environment. Read up and encourage those around you to read about the importance of saving nature. Put up posters or banners in the neighborhood, in your school, college or place of work. Organize an environmental awareness campaign. Get t-shirts or caps made with environmental awareness slogans written. Have everyone in your locality, class, school or workplace wear them and spread the word. These things help create an awakening in the masses about how grave environmental problems are and what we can do to solve them. Organize small activities like

planting trees, cleaning an area in the locality, visiting an animal shelter or volunteer for an organization which works towards creating environmental awareness. Seek prior permission from concerned authorities for doing any of these things.

How do Humans Affect the Environment?

Climate change, extinction of species and pollution of life-supporting air and water has become a growing concern for nations all over the world. Knowing how do humans affect the environment will help us understand and address the problems better. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was formed in 1988 to study the risk of climate change due to human activity. In the Kyoto Protocol of 1997, industrialized nations agreed to cut down their emissions of greenhouse gases considerably by 2012. Even the G8 committee that began as a response to the 1937 oil crisis and was primarily concerned with the economic issues of the member nations, now unfailingly has something related to the environment in their summits.

Years of thoughtless exploitation of nature by man has resulted in the effects staring right in our face now. The truth, that in the bid to improve our lives, we have put our own survival to stake, has finally hit us hard. Now as more and more studies and researches are being carried out to understand how do humans affect the environment, an increasing number of people are awakening to the fact that the well-being of the environment and survival are intricately woven into each other. Effects of Human Activities on Environment Climate Change Just about a year back, I came across an article in which environmentalists expressed their concerns that if the Gangotri glacier (that feeds river Ganges) kept melting at its current rate, the river Ganges would soon dry up. River Ganges is the holy river of India, which has served as a lifeline for centuries for millions of people on its banks. Rivers have played an important role in the survival of mankind, and many of them are fed by glaciers. Global warming refers to the increase in the temperatures of the earth due to release of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane from industries and vehicles. This phenomenon is causing the glaciers to melt at an alarming rate. Not just the Gangotri, but even the polar ice caps are melting at a faster rate than they can form. The result is increase in the sea level, and it poses a danger of drowning the lowlying areas. Some of the areas that may go under the sea if the sea levels kept increasing include Bangladesh, parts of Africa and even major cities like London and New York!

Depletion of Ozone Layer The stratosphere has a layer of ozone that protects us from the harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays of the sun. Exposure to these rays cause skin cancer and cataracts. However, the ozone layer filters out the dangerous UV rays from sunlight as it enters the earth's atmosphere. The cholofluorocarbons (CFCs) that are man-made chemicals are released in the atmosphere through CFC containing aerosols, refrigeration equipment, foam and as by products of certain industrial processes. As these chemicals are released, they rise into the atmosphere and break down the ozone molecules that form the ozone layer. There is an ozone hole in the Antarctic stratosphere that is causing great concern to environmentalists all over the world. Because of the ozone holes in the upper atmosphere, the Earth receives excessive ultraviolet radiation from the sun. This is

harmful for trees and plants (and for animals and human beings who depend on plants). The UV rays can destroy a certain type of bacteria known as Cyanobacteria that are important for a number of economically important crops. Researchers are even predicting that excess level of UV rays could lead to the death of the phytoplanktons, that are an important component of the food web of the oceans.

Pollution Industrialization has been the hallmark of human progress. However, with industries have come a host of toxic gases that are being released into the atmosphere even as I write this article and you read it. Industries release gallons of liquid waste into the seas and rivers. Some of the effluents percolate down and reach the ground water and pollute it to the extent that it can't be used by human beings for drinking or cooking. Intensive agriculture and excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides are destroying the natural land and driving animals away. Besides adding to air pollution, the innumerable vehicles running on the roads add to noise pollution that has led to an increase in stress, anxiety and problems related to hearing. Water pollution has led to a decrease in the number of various aquatic animals. Several aquatic life forms are on the verge of extinction. Migratory birds are known to change their course due to pollution or change in weather. Respiratory diseases in human beings is another price that we are paying for polluting the environment. Acid rains can kill trees, destroy crops and fish life in lakes and streams. Ingestion or inhalation of toxic substances increases the chances of having lifethreatening diseases like cancer.

Deforestation Increasing population, industrialization and need of land for development of expanding cities has led man to cut down forests selfishly. Not only are the forests home to a large number of animals, trees are also an important component of the water cycle. The roots of plants hold the soil together and prevent soil erosion. The global forest cover has shrunk to half its area in the last 11,000 years. During the period between 1990 and 2000 itself, the yearly loss of natural forests was 16 million hectares. Deforestation at such alarming rate has been a cause of constant

worry for environmentalists the world over. 'Biodiversity' plays an extremely important role when it comes to maintaining the life on Earth.

Extinction of Species The variety and interdependence of all living things has led to the evolution of world. Man has been killing animals right since the time he acquired the skill of hunting. Although in those times, hunting was the means for survival, human beings continued to kill animals even after they had learned to cultivate crops. The relentless hunting by human beings, sometimes for the hide of a cheetah or the tusks of the elephants, or simply to cook the tasty shark fin soup, has wiped out the existence of a large number of animals in just a century. Besides hunting, human activities like environmental pollution and deforestation has led to the extinction of a large number of animals and plants due to loss of habitat. Recent studies have shown that in North America, 37 animal species have become extinct in the last 50 years due to human activities. Loss of habitat led to the extinction of the Bali subspecies of tiger in 1937. According to the 2008 annual IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) report, there were 16,928 animal and plant species that are threatened of extinction and the list keeps increasing every year.

Despite the indiscriminate exploitation of nature by some people, there are a handful of those that are relentlessly working to reverse the detrimental effects of human activities on the environment. The World Wildlife Fund, European Environment Agency and the National Geographic are some organizations that run programs for the preservation of nature and educate and inspire people to conserve all life forms be it flora or fauna. Here is a small list of activities that can help reestablish the ecosystems.

How can Humans Improve Damaged Ecosystems

Passing and implementing strict laws for industries and colonies. Those who are responsible for polluting air and water should be severely punished.

Creating protected wildlife reserves. Certain species that are on the verge of extinction should be declared as 'protected species' by respective governments.

Breeding certain species, and releasing them afterwards so that they can live in their own habitat. Preserving and creating proper habitats.

Planting as many trees as possible. Reforestation or re-greening the damaged areas can help avoid desertification of land.

Creating awareness by celebrating 'Earth Day', 'Green Day', 'Tree Day', etc. Eliminating foreign species can help native species of plants to grow. Cleaning the rivers, ponds and lakes. Avoiding use of plastic bags. Separating dry and wet garbage, composting, using wet garbage as manure. Avoiding use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers. Using innovative and different energy forms like solar energy, wind energy, etc. Limiting the use of vehicles by following the rule of carpool, taking stairs, walking or taking a bike ride whenever possible.

Eating local products can help avoid wastage of gas and air pollution; as food products are transported by trucks, trains, ships or airplanes. They are processed with machines which require electricity to run.

Current Environmental Issues Look around. Does the summer seem hotter than it was last year? Does it seem like the monsoon has given up on a schedule and does just as it pleases? Does it seem weird that there are freak storms and floods? Do you see the green cover rapidly shrinking on Planet Earth and the pollution levels rising? You aren't the only one who's witnessing all this, you know? It's happening the world over. Alarming climatic changes, deforestation, destruction of habitat and extinction of species as well as rising pollution levels, are only some of the current environmental issues that we are faced with today. Ironically, humans have to combat several such 'man-made' effects that have harmed Mother Nature in many ways, over the years. 'What you sow is what you reap'. Ring a bell? Resisting the temptation to get all condescending, let's get an insight into some of the major environmental issues that we need to deal with currently. Current Environmental Issues

The following table will highlight some of the major environmental issues that pose a major threat today. These are the issues that need to be given importance.

Global Warming Global warming is one of the major issues that we are being faced with today. The term signifies an increase in the atmospheric temperature near the earth's surface, which is caused due to various reasons. Scientists are of the opinion that a rise in the carbon dioxide levels will further aggravate the situation.

The greenhouse effect causes the earth's heat to be trapped in the atmosphere, which results in the increase in temperatures. Global warming has thus caused a change in the climate of the earth, causing temperatures to rise. This in turn has an effect on various species dependent on the basic laws of nature. A change in the same makes survival a difficult issue. A warmer earth also causes changes in the rainfall patterns and thus affects humans, plants and animals as well. Ozone Depletion

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are considered to be the main cause of ozone depletion. The term ozone depletion implies a decline in the quantity of ozone in the Earth's stratosphere. The loss of ozone in the lower stratosphere was first recorded in Antarctica in the 1970s. As we all know, the earth's atmosphere is composed of many layers; ozone forms one such layer in the stratosphere. CFCs are used in aerosol sprays as well as air conditioners. These, when released into the atmosphere add to the ozone depletion. The ozone hole in the Antarctic is caused primarily due to these CFCs. Due to ozone depletion, humans are faced with various other problems such as dealing with the harmful effects of UV rays. These not only affect humans, but in turn affect plants and various other species of animals as well. Pollution Pollution is something that we face on an everyday basis. It is probably a problem that we may have become immune to, given our fast-paced lives and the fact that it is being treated as a hackneyed issue, where a lot is spoken about but nothing concrete is ever done.

Air pollution and noise pollution are increasing at an alarming rate today.

Air pollution occurs with the addition of harmful chemicals into the earth's atmosphere. The main pollutants that cause the same are carbon monoxide, CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons), nitrogen oxides and sulfur

dioxide.

Water pollution is caused when wastes are released into the water that contaminates the same.

Soil pollution takes place when the soil is contaminated due to various industrial activities.

Noise pollution occurs when the noise levels (honking, loud speakers) crosses the normal decibel levels of sound. This can have a harmful effect on one's hearing and lead to more severe, forms of after-effects, both physical and psychological (fatigue, irritation, stress). Loss of Natural Resources With the alarming rate of increase in population, the loss of natural resources has become one of the major concerns. Issues like deforestation, animal extinction, shortage of water, lack of space and food are only some of the concerns brought on by the lack of resources. There are many reasons that lead to the loss of natural resources (increasing demands brought on by population explosion, disregard for nature, human greed). This in turn affects the varied ecosystems.

Activities such as overfishing and hunting have even led many species of fish and animals respectively to the brink of extinction. Forests are being cleared to meet the rising demands for the need of paper, wood or even for land. Mining and the burning of fossil fuels have led to further

depletion of resources. Then again, this is merely scratching the surface.

Nuclear Problems Nuclear energy is generated from the splitting of uranium atoms. This energy is used to create steam, which in turn is used to produce electricity. While there are definite advantages of generating nuclear power, what stands equally true is the fact that the process of producing the same harms the environment in many ways. The process of converting uranium into usable energy produces radioactive waste (2000 metric tons of radioactive waste is generated in a year in the USA alone) which is extremely harmful for human, animal and plant health at many levels.

Along with that, the storage of nuclear power at a plant, as well as the fact that most other equipment in the plant will also convert into radioactive material over time and remain radioactive for several years is a major threat. While decaying, radioactive material releases certain

particles which lead to damaging effects on health like cancer. Along with these health concerns, production of nuclear energy also leads to several other harmful effects like emission of carbon dioxide (during mining, transport, waste management and other processes of producing nuclear energy), usage of excessive water and water discharge. Which will, in turn, affect the environment at many levels.

Loss of Biodiversity Biodiversity refers to the combination of a diverse range of species on earth. The varied plants, animals and microorganisms, the different ecosystems (coral reefs, deserts, rain forests) etc all have a unique role to play in the cycle of earth. These diverse species lead to the boost of varied ecosystems, which thus enables them to prevent, as well as recover from several disasters. However, due to varied human activities like deforestation, and hunting, the natural habitats as well as the survival of several species is being threatened.

Several plant and animal species have been led to the brink of extinction while others have already become extinct. The extinction of animals and plants can lead to varied effects, some of which are - increase in sea levels (leading to floods), droughts, wildfires, forest destruction

and more. Energy Crisis The impact of energy on human life is probably only second to agriculture and forestry. That having been said, the negative impact that energy as a source has on the environment is quite far-reaching. Energy of any kind, may it be thermal, hydro, nuclear or electric has led to several environmental concerns.

Where earlier the concerns were restricted to the local arena, the issues have now become global. Energy and the activities related to energy production lead to

environmental hazards of some form or the other. Extraction of raw material for production (emission of carbon dioxide), transportation and the conversion to usable forms of resources have a harmful effect on the environment. Along with that, it has also led to concerns like acid rain production, greenhouse effect as well as global warming. Waste Management Wastes can be of several kinds (industrial, nuclear, chemical, domestic) and each can lead to environmental degradation. From the excessive plastic produced at home to the radioactive waste produced by nuclear plants, the impact of the same on the environment can be disastrous. Not only are these wastes harmful on their own, but the techniques (or the lack) of proper waste management and disposal adds to this problem manifold. Emissions from

industries as well as toxic by-products like mercury, crude oil, plastic and lead are not properly disposed off. They are dumped into the oceans and soil, thus leading to disastrous impacts on all life forms.

Of these, oil spills have become another major concern. These wastes lead to the destruction of natural habitats of both plants and animals and other species as well, in both land and water. They therefore make the environment toxic. Along with increasing the risk of extinction of several species, it also leads to other health concerns such as the development of fatal diseases like cancer and lead poisoning.

Concerns
File:Hyalella Aztecan.jpg The presence of some species, like this crustacean, may be used as an environmental health indicator. Environmental health addresses all human-health-related aspects of both the natural environment and the built environment. Environmental health concerns include:

Air quality, including both ambient outdoor air and indoor air quality, which also comprises concerns about environmental tobacco smoke.

Body art safety, including tattooing, body piercing and permanent cosmetics. Climate change and its effects on health. Disaster preparedness and response. Food safety, including in agriculture, transportation, food processing, wholesale and retail distribution and sale.

Hazardous materials management, including hazardous waste management, contaminated site remediation, the prevention of leaks from underground storage tanks and the

prevention of hazardous materials releases to the environment and responses to emergency situations resulting from such releases.

Housing, including substandard housing abatement and the inspection of jails and prisons.

Childhood lead poisoning prevention. Land use planning, including smart growth. Liquid waste disposal, including city waste water treatment plants and on-site waste water disposal systems, such as septic tank systems and chemical toilets.

Medical waste management and disposal. Noise pollution control. Occupational health and industrial hygiene. Radiological health, including exposure to ionizing radiation from X-rays or radioactive isotopes.

Recreational water illness prevention, including from swimming pools, spas and ocean and freshwater bathing places.

Safe drinking water. Solid waste management, including landfills, recycling facilities, composting and solid waste transfer stations.

Toxic chemical exposure whether in consumer products, housing, workplaces, air, water or soil.

Vector control, including the control of mosquitoes, rodents, flies, cockroaches and other animals that may transmit pathogens.

According to recent estimates, about 5 to 10 % of disability adjusted life years (DALYs) lost are due to environmental causes in Europe. By far the most important factor is fine particulate matter pollution in urban air.[4] Similarly, environmental exposures have been estimated to contribute to 4.9 million (8.7%) deaths and 86 million (5.7%) DALYs globally.[5] Information The Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program (TEHIP)[6] at the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM) maintains a comprehensive toxicology and environmental

health web site that includes access to resources produced by TEHIP and by other government agencies and organizations. This web site includes links to databases, bibliographies, tutorials, and other scientific and consumer-oriented resources. TEHIP also is responsible for the Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET),[7] an integrated system of toxicology and environmental health databases that are available free of charge on the web. Mapping There are many environmental health mapping tools. TOXMAP is a Geographic Information System (GIS) from the Division of Specialized Information Services[8] of the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM) that uses maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Toxics Release Inventory and Superfund Basic Research Programs. TOXMAP is a resource funded by the US Federal Government. TOXMAP's chemical and environmental health information is taken from NLM's Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET)[9] and PubMed, and from other authoritative sources.

Conclusion
As public health moves more toward examining how both ecologic and social processes affect disease transmission, and more specifically toward examining the fundamental role of environmental change in creating the landscape of human disease, a systems theory framework is needed from which to integrate and analyze data obtained from the disparate but relevant fields of study involved. As the review of contemporary frameworks suggests, the inherent multidimensionality of these problems precludes the use of standard analytic approaches. The EnvID framework builds on previous frameworks by a) articulating a broad but flexible and logical system specification; b) explicitly incorporating transmission groups that provide important links to public health intervention strategies; c) emphasizing the intersection of PECs and these transmission processes; d) incorporating a matrix formulation that specifies system components, identifies knowledge gaps in the literature, and facilitates the integration of an

existing body of research; and e) emphasizing dynamic processes and hypothesis generation. The EnvID framework attempts to facilitate the integration of a body of research, and in so doing, identifies the source of disputes and prioritizes avenues for resolution. As research advances, the EnvID framework can help integrate the various factors at play in determining environmentdisease relationships and the connections between them. Since the IOM's report on Nursing and the Environment was released, there have been many successful efforts to achieve this goal of full integration. The ANA has now adopted principles of environmental health nursing practice and multiple continuing nursing education modules on environmental health. Many state nurses associations and specialty organizations now house environmental health task forces. The National Association of Pediatric Nurse Practitioners has pledged its support of the National Environmental Education and Training Foundation's position statement on health professionals and environmental health education. These groups are affecting change in hospitals, communities, and in the legislature, and these changes improve the health and quality of life of children and their families. Individual nurses at the basic and advanced practice levels, nursing professional organizations, nursing academics, and researchers all have been pioneering ways in which to combine their passion about human health with their concern about environmental protection, thus caring for the earth while caring for their patients and learning that the two are inextricable.

References

www.eea.europa.eu/ www.ehhi.org health.usgs.gov www.oecd.org

 ^ Novice, Robert (editor) (1999-03-29). "Overview of the environment and health in Europe in the 1990s" (PDF). World Health Organization. ^ California Health and Safety Code, section 106615(e) ^ Environmental Health: from Global to Local. 2nd. edition. Edited by Howard Frumkin. John Wiley & Sons. San Fransisco. 2010. ^ National and regional story (Netherlands) - Environmental burden of disease in Europe: the Abode project. EEA.