Semiconductor Memory Technologies

There is a large variety of types of ROM and RAM that are available. These arise from the variety of applications and also the number of technologies available. This means that there is a large number of abbreviations or acronyms and categories for memories ranging from Flash to MRAM, PROM to EEPROM, and many more:

PROM: This stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. It is a semiconductor memory which can only have data written to it once - the data written to it is permanent. These memories are bought in a blank format and they are programmed using a special PROM programmer. Typically a PROM will consist of an array of fuseable links some of which are "blown" during the programming process to provide the required data pattern.

The PROM stores its data as a charge on a capacitor. There is a charge storage capacitor for each cell and this can be read repeatedly as required. However it is found that after many years the charge may leak away and the data may be lost. Nevertheless, this type of semiconductor memory used to be widely used in applications where a form of ROM was required, but where the data needed to be changed periodically, as in a development environment, or where quantities were low.

EPROM: This is an Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. This form of semiconductor memory can be programmed and then erased at a later time. This is normally achieved by exposing the silicon to ultraviolet light. To enable this to happen there is a circular window in the package of the EPROM to enable the light to reach the silicon of the chip. When the PROM is in use, this window is normally covered by a label, especially when the data may need to be preserved for an extended period.

EEPROM: This is an Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. Data can be written to it and it can be erased using an electrical voltage. This is typically applied to an erase pin on the chip. Like other types of PROM, EEPROM retains the contents of the memory even when the power is turned off. Also like other types of ROM, EEPROM is not as fast as RAM.

EEPROM memory cells are made from floating-gate MOSFETS (known as FGMOS)

Flash memory: Flash memory may be considered as a development of EEPROM technology. Data can be written to it and it can be erased, although only in blocks, but data can be read on an individual cell basis. To erase and re-programme areas of the chip, programming voltages at levels that are available within electronic equipment are used. It is also non-volatile, and this makes it particularly useful. As a result Flash memory is widely used in many applications including memory cards for digital cameras, mobile phones, computer memory sticks and many other applications.

Flash memory stores data in an array of memory cells. The memory cells are made from floating-gate MOSFETS (known as FGMOS). These FG MOSFETs (or FGMOS in short) have the ability to store an electrical charge for extended periods of time (2 to 10 years) even without a connecting to a power supply.

DRAM: Dynamic RAM is a form of random access memory. DRAM uses a capacitor to store each bit of data, and the level of charge on each capacitor determines whether that bit is a logical 1 or 0. However these capacitors do not hold their charge indefinitely, and therefore the data needs to be refreshed periodically. As a result of this dynamic refreshing it gains its name of being a dynamic RAM. DRAM is the form of semiconductor memory that is often used in equipment including personal computers and workstations where it forms the main RAM for the computer.

Disadvantage: Need to refresh the capacitor charge every once in two milliseconds

SRAM: Static Random Access Memory. This form of semiconductor memory gains its name from the fact that, unlike DRAM, the data does not need to be refreshed dynamically. It is able to support faster read and write times than DRAM (typically 10 ns against 60 ns for DRAM), and in addition its cycle time is much shorter because it does not need to pause between accesses. However it consumes more power, is less dense and more expensive than DRAM. As a result of this it is normally used for caches, while DRAM is used as the main semiconductor memory technology.

SDRAM: Synchronous DRAM. This form of semiconductor memory can run at faster speeds than conventional DRAM. It is synchronised to the clock of the processor and is capable of keeping two sets of memory addresses open simultaneously. By transferring data alternately from one set of addresses, and then the other, SDRAM cuts down on the delays associated with non-synchronous RAM, which must close one address bank before opening the next.

MRAM: This is Magneto-resistive RAM, or Magnetic RAM. It is a non-volatile RAM memory technology that uses magnetic charges to store data instead of electric charges. Unlike technologies

including DRAM, which require a constant flow of electricity to maintain the integrity of the data, MRAM retains data even when the power is removed. An additional advantage is that it only requires low power for active operation. As a result this technology could become a major player in the electronics industry now that production processes have been developed to enable it to be produced.

History of Computer Memory

* In 1932 Gustav Tauschek invents drum memory in Austria. * 1936 Konrad Zuse applies for a patent for his mechanical memory to be used in his computer. This computer memory is based on sliding metal parts. * 1939 Helmut Schreyer invents a prototype memory using neon lamps. * 1942 The Atanasoff-Berry Computer has 60 50-bit words of memory in the form of capacitors mounted on two revolving drums. For secondary memory it uses punch cards. * 1947 Frederick Viehe of Los Angeles, applies for a patent for an invention that uses magnetic core memory. Magnetic drum memory is independently invented by several people. * 1949 Jay Forrester conceives the idea of magnetic core memory as it is to become commonly used, with a grid of wires used to address the cores. The first practical form manifests in 1952-53 and renders obsolete previous types of computer memory. * 1950 Ferranti Ltd. completes the first commercial computer with 256 40-bit words of main memory and 16K words of drum memory. Only eight were sold. * 1951 Jay Forrester files a patent for matrix core memory. * 1952 The EDVAC computer is completed with 1024 44-bit words of ultrasonic memory. A core memory module is added to the ENIAC computer. * 1955 An Wang was issued U.S. patent #2,708,722 with 34 claims for magnetic memory core. * 1966 Hewlett-Packard releases their HP2116A real-time computer with 8K of memory. The newly formed Intel starts sell a semiconductor chip with 2,000 bits of memory. * 1968 USPTO grants patent 3,387,286 to IBM's Robert Dennard for a one-transistor DRAM cell. DRAM stands for Dynamic RAM (Random Access Memory) or Dynamic Random Access Memory. DRAM will become the standard memory chip for personal computers replacing magnetic core memory. * 1969 Intel begin as chip designers and produce a 1 KB RAM chip, the largest memory chip todate. Intel soon switch to being notable designers of computer microprocessors. * 1970 Intel releases the 1103 chip, the first generally available DRAM memory chip. * 1971 Intel releases the 1101 chip, a 256-bit programmable memory, and the 1701 chip, a 256-byte erasable read-only memory (EROM).

* 1974 Intel receives a U.S. patent for a "memory system for a multichip digital computer". * 1975 Personal consumer computer Altair released, it uses Intel's 8-bit 8080 processor and includes 1 KB of memory. Later in the same year, Bob Marsh manufacturers the first Processor Technology's 4 kB memory boards for the Altair. * 1984 Apple Computers releases the Macintosh personal compututer. It is the first computer that came with 128KB of memory. The one-megabyte memory chip is developed.

Difference between Application Software and System Software Category: Operating System
Operating System is the System Software that makes the Computer work. We can say that an Operating System (OS) is Software that acts as an interface between you and the hardware. It not only contains drivers used to speak the hardware's language, but also offers you a very specific graphical user interface (GUI) to control the computer. An OS can also act as an interface (from the hardware) to the other software. A complex OS like Windows or Linux or Mac OS offers the services of an OS, but also has applications built in. Solitaire, Paint, Messenger, etc. are all applications. Application software is the software that you install onto your Operating System. It consists of the programs that actually let you do things with your computer. These Applications are written to run under the various Operating Systems. These include things like your word processing programs, spread sheets, email clients, web browser, games, etc. Many programs, such as most of the Microsoft Office suite of programs, are written in both Mac and Windows versions, but you still have to have the right version for your OS. For example - Tally for Accounting, MS-Word for Word Processing etc. So, the Operating system of a Computer is the Software that allows the Computer work. It provides the framework under which the Applications run. An operating system is the type of Computer system you have such as Window XP or Window 95, 98, Mac, etc. The Applications are the Software that actually allows the user to do something with the Computer. Without the applications, all you can do is change settings and navigate among the folders. You can purchase its CD from a software company or download from a software companys web site. Examples of System Software are - Operating Systems, Language Translators etc.

DBMS:
DBMS A database management system is the software system that allows users to define, create and maintain a database and provides controlled access to the data. A Database Management System (DBMS) is basically a collection of programs that enables users to store, modify, and extract information from a database as per the requirements. DBMS is an

intermediate layer between programs and the data. Programs access the DBMS, which then accesses the data. There are different types of DBMS ranging from small systems that run on personal computers to huge systems that run on mainframes. The following are main examples of database applications: Computerized library systems Automated teller machines Flight reservation systems Computerized parts inventory systems A database management system is a piece of software that provides services for accessing a database, while maintaining all the required features of the data. Commercially available Database management systems in the market are dbase, FoxPro, IMS and Oracle, MySQL, SQL Servers and DB2 etc. These systems allow users to create update, and extract information from their databases. Compared to a manual filing system, the biggest advantages to a computerized database system are speed, accuracy, and' accessibility.

BOOTING:
Booting: When we start our Computer then there is an operation which is performed automatically by the Computer which is also called as Booting. In the Booting, System will check all the hardwares and Softwares those are installed or Attached with the System and this will also load all the Files those are needed for running a system. In the Booting Process all the Files those are Stored into the ROM Chip will also be Loaded for Running the System. In the Booting Process the System will read all the information from the Files those are Stored into the ROM Chip and the ROM chip will read all the instructions those are Stored into these Files. After the Booting of the System this will automatically display all the information on the System. The Instructions those are necessary to Start the System will be read at the Time of Booting. There are two Types of Booting 1) Warm Booting: when the System Starts from the Starting or from initial State Means when we Starts our System this is called as warm Booting. In the Warm Booting the System will be Started from its beginning State means first of all, the user will press the Power Button , then this will read all the instructions from the ROM and the Operating System will b Automatically gets loaded into the System. 2) Cold Booting : The Cold Booting is that in which System Automatically Starts when we are Running the System, For Example due to Light Fluctuation the system will Automatically Restarts So that in this Chances Damaging of system are More. and the System will no be start from its initial State So May Some Files will b Damaged because they are not Properly Stored into the System.

Disk Scheduling: As we know that on a single Computer we can Perform Many

Operations at a Time so that Management is also necessary on all the Running Processes those are running on the System at a Time. With the help or Advent of the Multi-programming we can Execute Many Programs at a Time. So fir Controlling and providing the Memory to all the Processes Operating System uses the Concept of Disk Scheduling. In this the Time of CPU is divided into the various Processes and also determines that all the processes will Work Properly. So that Disk Scheduling Will Specifies that at which time which Process will be executed by the CPU. So that the Scheduling means to Execute all the Processes those are given to a CPU at a Time. The Scheduling is used for Divide the Total Time of the CPU between the Number or Processes So that the Processes can execute Concurrently at a Single Time. For Sharing the Time or For Dividing the Total Time of the CPU, the CPU uses the following the Scheduling Techniques.

Cache Memory : The Cache Memory is the Memory which is very nearest to the CPU , all
the Recent Instructions are Stored into the Cache Memory. The Cache Memory is attached for storing the input which is given by the user and which is necessary for the CPU to Perform a Task. But the Capacity of the Cache Memory is too low in compare to Memory and Hard Disk. Importance of Cache memory The cache memory lies in the path between the processor and the memory. The cache memory therefore, has lesser access time than memory and is faster than the main memory. A cache memory have an access time of 100ns, while the main memory may have an access time of 700ns. The cache memory is very expensive and hence is limited in capacity. Earlier cache memories were available separately but the microprocessors contain the cache memory on the chip itself. The need for the cache memory is due to the mismatch between the speeds of the main memory and the CPU. The CPU clock as discussed earlier is very fast, whereas the main memory access time is comparatively slower. Hence, no matter how fast the processor is, the processing speed depends more on the speed of the main memory (the strength of a chain is the strength of its weakest link). It is because of this reason that a cache memory having access time closer to the processor speed is introduced. The cache memory stores the program (or its part) currently being executed or which may be executed within a short period of time. The cache memory also stores temporary data that the CPU may frequently require for manipulation. The cache memory works according to various algorithms, which decide what information it has to store. These algorithms work out the probability to decide which data would be most frequently needed. This probability is worked out on the basis of past observations. It acts as a high speed buffer between CPU and main memory and is used to temporary store very active data and action during processing since the cache memory is faster then main memory, the processing speed is increased by making the data and instructions needed in current processing available in cache. The cache memory is very expensive and hence is limited in capacity.

A BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) Short for ROM BIOS, or System BIOS is an
electronic set of instructions that a computer uses to successfully start operating. The BIOS is located on a chip inside of the computer and is designed in a way that protects it from disk failure. The main function of the BIOS is to give instructions for the Power-On Self Test (POST). This self test ensures that the computer has all of the necessary parts and functionality needed to successfully start itself, such as use of memory, a keyboard and other parts. If errors are detected during the test, the BIOS instructs the computer to give a code that reveals the problem. Error codes are typically a series of beeps heard shortly after startup. The BIOS also works to give the computer basic information about how to interact with some critical components, such as drives and memory that it will need to load the operating system. Once the basic instructions have been loaded and the self-test has been passed, the computer can proceed with loading the operating system from one of the attached drives. Computer users can often make certain adjustments to the BIOS through a configuration screen on the computer. The setup screen is typically accessed with a special key sequence during the first moments of startup. This setup screen often allows users to change the order in which drives are accessed during startup and control the functionality of a number of critical devices. Features vary among individual BIOS versions. We can also use flash-memory cards to hold BIOS information. This allows users to update the BIOS version on computers after a vendor releases an update. This system was designed to solve problems with the original BIOS or to add new functionality. Users can periodically check for updated BIOS versions, as some vendors release a dozen or more updates over the course of a product's lifetime. Mother board (System) BIOS, Video adapter firmware (BIOS), Drive controller firmware (BIOS), Modem Card firmware (BIOS),Network adapter board. BIOS, SCSI adapter BIOS. The mother board BIOS provides routines to support motherboard features. BIOS ROM chips for major sub systems of computer such as video and drive control must also be included. Actually BIOS can be placed in between the computer and external devices as its name tells it is used for reading the keystroke, displaying values on screen, Reading and writing to and from floppy and hard disks etc. The keyboard is assigned the port number 60, which is known to BIOS. BIOS reads this port and data from keyboard goes to computer.

Semiconductors are widely used in electronics to make components such as diodes,

transistors, thyristors, integrated circuits as well as semiconductor lasers. A semiconductor is usually a solid chemical element or compound that can conduct electricity under some conditions, making it a good medium for the control of electrical current. Its conductance varies depending on the current or voltage applied to a control electrode. Semiconductor is use for manufacturing chips. A semiconductor device can perform the function of a vacuum tube having hundreds of times its volume. A single integrated circuit (IC), such as a microprocessor chip, can do the work of a set of vacuum tubes that would fill a large building and require its own electric generating plant. MODEM

Modem is abbreviation for Modulator Demodulator. Modems are used for data transfer from one computer network to another computer network through telephone lines. The computer network works in digital mode, while analog technology is used for carrying massages across phone lines. Modulator converts information from digital mode to analog mode at the transmitting end and demodulator converts the same from analog to digital at receiving end. The process of converting analog signals of one computer network into digital signals of another computer network so they can be processed by a receiving computer is referred to as digitizing. When an analog facility is used for data communication between two digital devices called Data Terminal Equipment (DTE), modems are used at each end. DTE can be a terminal or a computer.

The modem at the transmitting end converts the digital signal generated by DTE into an analog signal by modulating a carrier. This modem at the receiving end demodulates the carrier and hand over the demodulated digital signal to the DTE.

The transmission medium between the two modems can be dedicated circuit or a switched telephone circuit. If a switched telephone circuit is used, then the modems are connected to the local telephone exchanges. Whenever data transmission is required connection between the modems is established through telephone exchanges. Types of Modems

 Modems can be of several types and they can be categorized in a number of ways. Categorization is usually based on the following basic modem features: 1. Directional capacity: half duplex modem and full duplex modem. 2. Connection to the line: 2-wire modem and 4-wire modem. 3. Transmission mode: asynchronous modem and synchronous modem. Half duplex and full duplex Modems Half duplex

1. A half duplex modem permits transmission in one direction at a time. 2. If a carrier is detected on the line by the modem, I gives an indication of the incoming carrier to the DTE through a control signal of its digital interface. 3. As long as they camel' IS being received; the modem does not give permission to the DTE to transmit data.

Full duplex

A full duplex modem allows simultaneous transmission in both directions. Therefore, there are two carriers on the line, one outgoing and the other incoming. Wire and 4-wire Modems The line interface of the modem can have a 2-wire or a 4-wire connection to transmission medium. 4-wire Modem

 In a 4-wire connection, one pair of wires is used for the outgoing carrier and the other pair is used for incoming carrier. Full duplex and half duplex modes of data transmission are possible on a 4 - wire connection. As the physical transmission path for each direction is separate, the same carrier frequency can be used for both the directions.

2-wire Modem 2-wire modems use the same pair of wires for outgoing and incoming carriers. A leased 2-wireconrlection is usually cheaper than a 4-wire connection as only one pair of wires is extended to the subscriber's premises. The data connection established through telephone exchange is also a 2 -wire connection. In 2-wire modems, half duplex mode of transmission that uses the same frequency for the incoming and outgoing carriers can be easily implemented. For full duplex mode of operation, it is necessary to have two transmission channels, one for transmit direction and the other for receive direction. This is achieved by frequency division multiplexing of two different carrier frequencies. These carriers are placed within the bandwidth of the speech channel.

Asynchronous & Synchronous Modems Asynchronous Modem Asynchronous modems can handle data bytes with start and stop bits. There is no separate timing signal or clock between the modem and the DTE. The internal timing pulses are synchronized repeatedly to the leading edge of the start pulse .

Synchronous Modem Synchronous modems can handle a continuous stream of data bits but requires a clock signal. The data bits are always synchronized to the clock signal.

 There are separate clocks for the data bits being transmitted and received. For synchronous transmission of data bits, the DTE can use its internal clock and supply the same to the modem.

WHAT IS INTERRUPT
When a Process is executed by the CPU and when a user Request for another Process then this will create disturbance for the Running Process. This is also called as the Interrupt. Interrupts can be generated by User, Some Error Conditions and also by Softwares and the hardwares. But CPU will handle all the Interrupts very carefully because when Interrupts are generated then the CPU must handle all the Interrupts Very carefully means the CPU will also Provides Response to the Various Interrupts those are generated. So that When an interrupt has Occurred then the CPU will handle by using the Fetch, decode and Execute Operations. Types of Interrupts Generally there are three types o Interrupts those are Occurred For Example 1) Internal Interrupt 2) Software Interrupt. 3) External Interrupt. The External Interrupt occurs when any Input and Output Device request for any Operation and the CPU will Execute that instructions first For Example When a Program is executed and when we move the Mouse on the Screen then the CPU will handle this External interrupt first and after that he will resume with his Operation. The Internal Interrupts are those which are occurred due to Some Problem in the Execution For Example When a user performing any Operation which contains any Error and which contains any type of Error. So that Internal Interrupts are those which are occurred by the Some Operations or by Some Instructions and the Operations those are not Possible but a user is trying for that Operation. And The Software Interrupts are those which are made some call to the System for Example while we are Processing Some Instructions and when we wants to Execute one more Application Programs.

Router: Routers are devices (computers) containing software that help in determining the best
path out of the available paths, for a particular transmission. They consist of a combination of hardware and software. The hardware includes the physical interfaces to the various networks in the internet work. The two main pieces of software in a router are the operating system and the routing protocol.

Routers use logical and physical addressing to connect two or more logically separate networks. They accomplish this connection by organizing the large network into logical network segments or sub-networks. Each of these sub networks is given a logical address. This allows the networks to be separate but still access each other and exchange data when necessary. Data is grouped into packets, or blocks of data. Each packet, in addition to having a physical device address, has a logical network address.

Routers are frequently used to interconnect identical networks as well as to interconnect networks with different types of hardware. Compared to one giant LAN, a series of smaller LANs connected through routers has some highly desirable benefits. How Routers Works Routers are interconnectivity devices that is used to transfer the datum packets along networks by visualizing the networks path. Routers visualizing the networks path to many networks such as Electronic networks, Transport networks and phone networks. Two ways are exist for routers operation using either control plane or forwarding plane. In control plane the router sends the precise data packets to their specific location. On the other hand in forwarding plane router does not remember the sending or receiving information about the packets.