SMPS: A Switched-mode power supply (also Switching-mode power supply, SMPS, or simply Switcher) is an electronic Power Supply Unit

(PSU) that incorporates a switching regulator in order to provide the required output voltage. An SMPS is actually a power converter that transmits power from a source (e.g., a battery or the electrical power grid) to a load (e.g., a personal computer) with ideally no loss. The function of the converter is to provide a reliable output voltage often at a different level than the input voltage. ROW AND COLUMNS 1,048,576 rows and 16,384 columns

Register are used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that are being used immediately by the CPU, there are various types of Registers those are used for various purpose. Among of the some Mostly used Registers named as AC or Accumulator, Data Register or DR, the AR or Address Register, program counter (PC), Memory Data Register (MDR) ,Index register,Memory Buffer Register.

These Registers are used for performing the various Operations. While we are working on the System then these Registers are used by the CPU for Performing the Operations. When We Gives Some Input to the System then the Input will be Stored into the Registers and When the System will gives us the Results after Processing then the Result will also be from the Registers. So that they are used by the CPU for Processing the Data which is given by the User. Registers Perform:1) Fetch: The Fetch Operation is used for taking the instructions those are given by the user and the Instructions those are stored into the Main Memory will be fetch by using Registers.

2) Decode: The Decode Operation is used for interpreting the Instructions means the Instructions are decoded means the CPU will find out which Operation is to be performed on the Instructions.

3) Execute: The Execute Operation is performed by the CPU. And Results those are produced by the CPU are then Stored into the Memory and after that they are displayed on the user Screen.

Types of Registers are as Followings MAR stand for Memory Address Register

This register holds the memory addresses of data and instructions. This register is used to access data and instructions from memory during the execution phase of an instruction. Suppose CPU wants to store some data in the memory or to read the data from the memory. It places the address of the-required memory location in the MAR. Program Counter The program counter (PC), commonly called the instruction pointer (IP) in Intel x86 microprocessors, and sometimes called the instruction address register, or just part of the instruction sequencer in some computers, is a processor register

It is a 16 bit special function register in the 8085 microprocessor. It keeps track of the the next memory address of the instruction that is to be executed once the execution of the current instruction is completed. In other words, it holds the address of the memory location of the next instruction when the current instruction is executed by the microprocessor. Accumulator Register

This Register is used for storing the Results those are produced by the System. When the CPU will generate Some Results after the Processing then all the Results will be Stored into the AC Register. Memory Data Register (MDR) MDR is the register of a computer's control unit that contains the data to be stored in the computer storage (e.g. RAM), or the data after a fetch from the computer storage. It acts like a buffer and holds anything that is copied from the memory ready for the processor to use it. MDR hold the information before it goes to the decoder.

MDR which contains the data to be written into or readout of the addressed location. For example, to retrieve the contents of cell 123, we would load the value 123 (in binary, of course) into the MAR and perform a fetch operation. When the operation is done, a copy of the contents of cell 123 would be in the MDR. To store the value 98 into cell 4, we load a 4 into the MAR and a 98 into the MDR and perform a store. When the operation is completed the contents of cell 4 will have been set to 98, by discarding whatever was there previously. The MDR is a two-way register. When data is fetched from memory and placed into the MDR, it is written to in one direction. When there is a write instruction, the data to be written is placed into the MDR from another CPU register, which then puts the data into memory.

The Memory Data Register is half of a minimal interface between a micro program and computer storage, the other half is a memory address register. Index Register A hardware element which holds a number that can be added to (or, in some cases, subtracted from) the address portion of a computer instruction to form an effective address. Also known as base register. An index register in a computer's CPU is a processor register used for modifying operand addresses during the run of a program. Memory Buffer Register MBR stand for Memory Buffer Register. This register holds the contents of data or instruction read from, or written in memory. It means that this register is used to store data/instruction coming from the memory or going to the memory. Data Register A register used in microcomputers to temporarily store data being transmitted to or from a peripheral device.

Bubble memory is a type of non-volatile computer memory that uses a thin film of a magnetic material
to hold small magnetized areas, known as bubbles or domains, each storing one bit of data. Andrew Bobeck invented the Bubble Memory in 1970. His development of the magnetic core memory and the development of the twistor memory put him in a good position for the development of Bubble Memory. It is conceptually a stationary disk with spinning bits. The unit, only a couple of square inches in size, contains a thin film magnetic recording layer. Globular-shaped bubbles (bits) are electromagnetically generated in circular strings inside this layer. In order to read or write the bubbles, they are rotated past the equivalent of a read/write head. One of the limitations of bubble memory was the slow access. A lagre bubble memory would requure large loops, so accessing a bit require cycling through a huge number of other bits first. SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY: A device for storing digital information that is fabricated by using integrated circuit technology. Also known as integrated-circuit memory; large-scale integrated memory; memory chip; semiconductor storage; transistor memory. Semiconductor memory Semiconductor memory technology is an essential element of today's electronics. Normally based around semiconductor technology, memory is used in any equipment that uses a processor of one form or another.

With the rapid growth in the requirement for semiconductor memories there have been a number of technologies and types of memory that have emerged. Names such as ROM, RAM, EPROM, EEPROM, Flash memory, DRAM, SRAM, SDRAM, and the very new MRAM can now be seen in the electronics literature. Each one has its own advantages and area in which it may be used. Types of semiconductor memory

Electronic semiconductor memory technology can be split into two main types or categories, according to the way in which the memory operates: RAM - Random Access Memory:

Random Access Memory (RAM)is the best known form of computer memory. The Read and write (R/W) memory of a computer is called RAM. The User can write information to it and read information from it.

The RAM is a volatile memory, it means information written to it can be accessed as long as power is on. As soon as the power is off, it can not be accessed. so this mean RAM computer memory essentially empty.RAM holds data and processing instructions temporarily until the CPU needs it. Scratchpad storage in memory space is used for the temporary storage of data. ROM - Read Only Memory:

Read only memory (ROM) is an example of nonvolatile memory. ROM is a class of storage medium used in computers and other electronic devices. Read Only Memory (ROM), also known as firmware, is an integrated circuit programmed with specific data when it is manufactured. The instructions for starting the computer are housed on Read only memory chip.

Semiconductor Memory Technologies

There is a large variety of types of ROM and RAM that are available. These arise from the variety of applications and also the number of technologies available. This means that there is a large number of abbreviations or acronyms and categories for memories ranging from Flash to MRAM, PROM to EEPROM, and many more:

PROM: This stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. It is a semiconductor memory which can only have data written to it once - the data written to it is permanent. These memories are bought in a blank format and they are programmed using a special PROM programmer. Typically a PROM will consist of an array of fuseable links some of which are "blown" during the programming process to provide the required data pattern.

The PROM stores its data as a charge on a capacitor. There is a charge storage capacitor for each cell and this can be read repeatedly as required. However it is found that after many years the charge may leak away and the data may be lost. Nevertheless, this type of semiconductor memory used to be widely used in applications where a form of ROM was required, but where the data needed to be changed periodically, as in a development environment, or where quantities were low.

EPROM: This is an Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. This form of semiconductor memory can be programmed and then erased at a later time. This is normally achieved by exposing the silicon to ultraviolet light. To enable this to happen there is a circular window in the package of the EPROM to enable the light to reach the silicon of the chip. When the PROM is in use, this window is normally covered by a label, especially when the data may need to be preserved for an extended period.

EEPROM: This is an Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. Data can be written to it and it can be erased using an electrical voltage. This is typically applied to an erase pin on the chip. Like other types of PROM, EEPROM retains the contents of the memory even when the power is turned off. Also like other types of ROM, EEPROM is not as fast as RAM.

EEPROM memory cells are made from floating-gate MOSFETS (known as FGMOS)

Flash memory: Flash memory may be considered as a development of EEPROM technology. Data can be written to it and it can be erased, although only in blocks, but data can be read on an individual cell basis. To erase and re-programme areas of the chip, programming voltages at levels that are available within electronic equipment are used. It is also non-volatile, and this makes it particularly useful. As a result Flash memory is widely used in many applications including memory cards for digital cameras, mobile phones, computer memory sticks and many other applications.

Flash memory stores data in an array of memory cells. The memory cells are made from floating-gate MOSFETS (known as FGMOS). These FG MOSFETs (or FGMOS in short) have the ability to store an electrical charge for extended periods of time (2 to 10 years) even without a connecting to a power supply.

DRAM: Dynamic RAM is a form of random access memory. DRAM uses a capacitor to store each bit of data, and the level of charge on each capacitor determines whether that bit is a logical 1 or 0. However these capacitors do not hold their charge indefinitely, and therefore the data needs to be refreshed periodically. As a result of this dynamic refreshing it gains its name of being a dynamic RAM. DRAM is the form of semiconductor memory that is often used in equipment including personal computers and workstations where it forms the main RAM for the computer.

Disadvantage: Need to refresh the capacitor charge every once in two milliseconds

SRAM: Static Random Access Memory. This form of semiconductor memory gains its name from the fact that, unlike DRAM, the data does not need to be refreshed dynamically. It is able to support faster read and write times than DRAM (typically 10 ns against 60 ns for DRAM), and in addition its cycle time is much shorter because it does not need to pause between accesses. However it consumes more power, is less dense and more expensive than DRAM. As a result of this it is normally used for caches, while DRAM is used as the main semiconductor memory technology.

SDRAM: Synchronous DRAM. This form of semiconductor memory can run at faster speeds than conventional DRAM. It is synchronised to the clock of the processor and is capable of keeping two sets of memory addresses open simultaneously. By transferring data alternately from one set of addresses, and then the other, SDRAM cuts down on the delays associated with non-synchronous RAM, which must close one address bank before opening the next.

MRAM: This is Magneto-resistive RAM, or Magnetic RAM. It is a non-volatile RAM memory technology that uses magnetic charges to store data instead of electric charges. Unlike technologies including DRAM, which require a constant flow of electricity to maintain the integrity of the data, MRAM retains data even when the power is removed. An additional advantage is that it only requires low power for active operation. As a result this technology could become a major player in the electronics industry now that production processes have been developed to enable it to be produced.

History of Computer Memory

* In 1932 Gustav Tauschek invents drum memory in Austria. * 1936 Konrad Zuse applies for a patent for his mechanical memory to be used in his computer. This computer memory is based on sliding metal parts.

* 1939 Helmut Schreyer invents a prototype memory using neon lamps. * 1942 The Atanasoff-Berry Computer has 60 50-bit words of memory in the form of capacitors mounted on two revolving drums. For secondary memory it uses punch cards. * 1947 Frederick Viehe of Los Angeles, applies for a patent for an invention that uses magnetic core memory. Magnetic drum memory is independently invented by several people. * 1949 Jay Forrester conceives the idea of magnetic core memory as it is to become commonly used, with a grid of wires used to address the cores. The first practical form manifests in 1952-53 and renders obsolete previous types of computer memory. * 1950 Ferranti Ltd. completes the first commercial computer with 256 40-bit words of main memory and 16K words of drum memory. Only eight were sold. * 1951 Jay Forrester files a patent for matrix core memory. * 1952 The EDVAC computer is completed with 1024 44-bit words of ultrasonic memory. A core memory module is added to the ENIAC computer. * 1955 An Wang was issued U.S. patent #2,708,722 with 34 claims for magnetic memory core. * 1966 Hewlett-Packard releases their HP2116A real-time computer with 8K of memory. The newly formed Intel starts sell a semiconductor chip with 2,000 bits of memory. * 1968 USPTO grants patent 3,387,286 to IBM's Robert Dennard for a one-transistor DRAM cell. DRAM stands for Dynamic RAM (Random Access Memory) or Dynamic Random Access Memory. DRAM will become the standard memory chip for personal computers replacing magnetic core memory. * 1969 Intel begin as chip designers and produce a 1 KB RAM chip, the largest memory chip todate. Intel soon switch to being notable designers of computer microprocessors. * 1970 Intel releases the 1103 chip, the first generally available DRAM memory chip. * 1971 Intel releases the 1101 chip, a 256-bit programmable memory, and the 1701 chip, a 256-byte erasable read-only memory (EROM). * 1974 Intel receives a U.S. patent for a "memory system for a multichip digital computer". * 1975 Personal consumer computer Altair released, it uses Intel's 8-bit 8080 processor and includes 1 KB of memory. Later in the same year, Bob Marsh manufacturers the first Processor Technology's 4 kB memory boards for the Altair. * 1984 Apple Computers releases the Macintosh personal compututer. It is the first computer that came with 128KB of memory. The one-megabyte memory chip is developed.

Difference between Application Software and System Software Category: Operating System
Operating System is the System Software that makes the Computer work. We can say that an Operating System (OS) is Software that acts as an interface between you and the hardware. It not only

contains drivers used to speak the hardware's language, but also offers you a very specific graphical user interface (GUI) to control the computer. An OS can also act as an interface (from the hardware) to the other software. A complex OS like Windows or Linux or Mac OS offers the services of an OS, but also has applications built in. Solitaire, Paint, Messenger, etc. are all applications. Application software is the software that you install onto your Operating System. It consists of the programs that actually let you do things with your computer. These Applications are written to run under the various Operating Systems. These include things like your word processing programs, spread sheets, email clients, web browser, games, etc. Many programs, such as most of the Microsoft Office suite of programs, are written in both Mac and Windows versions, but you still have to have the right version for your OS. For example - Tally for Accounting, MS-Word for Word Processing etc. So, the Operating system of a Computer is the Software that allows the Computer work. It provides the framework under which the Applications run. An operating system is the type of Computer system you have such as Window XP or Window 95, 98, Mac, etc. The Applications are the Software that actually allows the user to do something with the Computer. Without the applications, all you can do is change settings and navigate among the folders. You can purchase its CD from a software company or download from a software companys web site. Examples of System Software are - Operating Systems, Language Translators etc.

DBMS:
DBMS A database management system is the software system that allows users to define, create and maintain a database and provides controlled access to the data. A Database Management System (DBMS) is basically a collection of programs that enables users to store, modify, and extract information from a database as per the requirements. DBMS is an intermediate layer between programs and the data. Programs access the DBMS, which then accesses the data. There are different types of DBMS ranging from small systems that run on personal computers to huge systems that run on mainframes. The following are main examples of database applications: Computerized library systems Automated teller machines Flight reservation systems Computerized parts inventory systems A database management system is a piece of software that provides services for accessing a database, while maintaining all the required features of the data. Commercially available Database management systems in the market are dbase, FoxPro, IMS and Oracle, MySQL, SQL Servers and DB2 etc.

These systems allow users to create update, and extract information from their databases. Compared to a manual filing system, the biggest advantages to a computerized database system are speed, accuracy, and' accessibility.