History

Impacts of British colonial rule in Singapore

ESSAY STRUCTURE*
Social impacts
Health
Improvement in health was greatest contribution 1887; Public health department was set up to ensure public health in town. Healthcare infrastructures such as a leper camp, a lunatic asylum and a General Hospital were put in place. Malaria Committee was formed to supervise the infilling of mosquito infested swamps Pail system replaced with modern water-carriage sewage system; dirty streets and drain were cleared Healthcare services were made more easily accessible to the people of Singapore. The standard of healthcare improved with the proper infrastructure in place. Increase in the standard of living of the people.

Education
Established grants such as the Queens Scholarship for top secondary school students to further their studies. Also acted as an incentive for students to study harder. Increase in literacy rate among the people --> People had the ability or skill to find higher-paying jobs --> Earned much more income Could afford better housing and healthcare services Higher standard of living for the people of Singapore.

Law and Order

Chinese Protectorate: o Set up in 1877 to maintain law and order among the Chinese and to weaken the control the secret societies had over the Chinese population. o William Pickering, the first Protector of Chinese, persuaded the Chinese community to settle their quarrels and issues at the Chinese Protectorate instead of going to the secret societies. o Many listened, and this weakened the powers and influence of the secret society leaders and it also built trust between the Chinese community and the British. o Reduced the need for these Chinese to seek help in the secret societies. o Threat of the secret societies reduced, o Higher social order in Singapore.

Political impacts (Not impt)

Natives of the Malay States impacted via establishment of the Residential System.

o British officials sent to advise rulers of those states on how to rule. o These officers were to reside in the states and to be permanent advisers. (Eg. Hugh Low) o Cleared a Perak debt of $800,000 and ensured that the practice of debt slavery was abolished within 10 years. o Advice given was good since they were experienced back in Britain, and hence country prospered o Thus, the RS benefitted all states under it as the resources of the states were used for the large benefit of many, rather than the few influential ones, indicating greater political equality amongst the masses.

Economic impact
Tin-mining
Built the first railways in Malaya between Taiping and Port Weid (1885), which were to connect the mines with the ports for efficient transportation. During the same period, most revenue in Selangor was spent on roads --> improved accessibility from tin mines to ports --> less transportation costs --> more profits for natives and British Lower cost and higher profit allowed the industry itself to flourish. Improvement in Malayas economy due to the economic infrastructure

Currency reform Established a link between the Straits Settlement dollar and the British Sterling pound in 1904. Provided for a stable currency exchange. Encouraged more trading Therefore, this shows how the British colonial rule had benefitted the locals in Malaya economically.

Role of the immigrants

Contributions of Chinese
Trade

Traders and merchants contributed to the growth of trade E.g. Tan Tock Seng: large tracts of prime land, including 50 acres at the railway station and another plot from Padang up to High Street and Tank Road. A block of shophouses, an orchard and a nutmeg plantation Building of ice factory by Whampoa. Whampoa also owned a bakery which supplied ships which docked at Singapore with foodstuffs Seah Eu Chin set up a shop which sold things that are needed by sailing boats, such as ropes, canvas, nails, wood, etc.

Infrastructure
Development of factories and godowns (warehouse), especially in the Geylang area Tan Tock Seng a founder of the Thian Hock Keng temple at Telok Ayer

Law and Order

Tan Tock Seng appointed as Justice of Peace in 1844. Skillful at settling feuds among the Chinese Seah Eu Chin appointed a British subject for helping to keep order and peace. Also made Justice of Peace. Helped British to settle the quarrelling among the secret societies. Got the secret societies to sign a treaty of peace

Job Opportunities
Seah Eu Chins large gambier plantations provided job opportunities for coolies

Contributions of Indians
Money lenders
Money lenders took the place of the bankers (chettiers). Lent money to business men who did not have enough money for business. Facilitated the development of trade and the economy.

Law and order

Many Sikhs became policemen Sepoys (Indian soldiers in service of European Army)

Education
Narayana Pillai built a Hindu institute Govindasamy Pillai built the Ramakrishna Mission Boys Home to educate Indian boys and shelter orphans

Education
Singapore Free School provided formal Tamil Education in 1834 Two Anglo-Tamil schools established in 1873 and 1876. Labour Ordinance of 1923 passed. Required employers of Indian labourers to build and maintain a school for employees children

Contributions of Europeans
Education
Christian missionaries started the early schools

Trade
Growth of trade, agency houses Guthrie: Founder of oldest European company in Singapore, Guthrie & Company. Developed Boat Quay by building shop and godown. DAlmeida: Trading of Straits Produce. Established trading firm that was one of the largest and most important.

Infrastructure/Town planning
Improvement in infrastructure, public works Many architects were European and responsible for the impressive architecture in Singapore (e.g. J. T. Thomas and George Coleman). Armenian Church

Government

Government officials were European 1869: Suppression of dangerous society ordinance (the government hoped that by registering themselves, they could find out more about the secret societies aims, their leaders and members, and their activities. 1877: Chinese protectorateWilliam Pickering helped to win the trust and support of the Chinese, in the hope that they would rely on the government rather than secret societies but he was only to minimize rather than prevent the growth in memberships of the triads. 1890: Law which disallowed all secret society activities. However, a written law could not suppress the secret societies. Provision of jobs through trading companies for local immigrants

SECRET SOCIETIES
Why the Chinese joined
Newcomers who arrived from China were poor and uneducated. Lonely and helpless; secret societies helped them to find work or lodging. Also offered them protection or a proper burial (for those who died). Power of the Secret Societies Numbers increased with rapid growth of Chinese population Leaders acted as judges to deal with arguments or with those who broke rules Collection of protection money from shopkeepers, opium-smoking dens, gambling dens, brothels and street hawkers Gang robberies, riots, gang fights were rampant Ghee Hin and Ghee Hok had 10000 members by the 1840s (60% of the Chinese in society) Such activities alarmed the European and Chinese merchants. They called on the government to take stronger action.

Solution
1869: Suppression of dangerous society ordinance (the government hoped that by registering themselves, they could find out more about the secret societies aims, their leaders and members, and their activities.) 1877: Chinese protectorateWilliam Pickering helped to win the trust and support of the Chinese, in the hope that they would rely on the government rather than secret societies but he was only to minimize rather than prevent the growth in memberships of the triads. 1890: Law which disallowed all secret society activities. However, a written law could not suppress the secret societies. Provision of jobs through trading companies for local immigrants

POLICE FORCE
Problems

Weakness of the police force o The police force was small and the policemen were poorly paid. o No proper training, poorly equipped o Corruption o The majority of the police were Indians and Malays, and they could not communicate with the majority of the Chinese population, who were also mainly the law-breakers and those who could provide info o Too many immigrants to control o Communication problems because immigrants could not understand English or the British laws o Resulted in growth of secret societies, increase crime rate such as fights, riots and robberies

Solutions
Appointment of Thomas Duncan as Chief of Police Force in 1843 o He provided training for the policemen and increased their pay o He employed officers who could speak the language of the immigrants (Chinese) Detective branch set up o Look into the activities of the SS o Chinese ones were recruited to help o Modern methods like finger-printing introduced By mid-1920s, Law and Order had been improved

PIRACY (Largely Irrelevant)

Piracy
Shallow reefs and narrow inlets made ships easy tracking targets for pirates. Highly disciplined, well-armed, pirate armadas contained up to 100 boats. Pirates threatened the lives of traders and also disrupted trade by damaging ships and robbing them of their goods.

Solution
1832: Chinese merchants paid for 4 armed ships 1835: Wolf dispatched by British government 1836: Captain in charge of 3 warships and 3 gunboats 1837: Fleet of 2 warships and 5 gunboats guarded trade 1837: Diana and other steamships dispatched Native Malay pirates only driven out in the 1870s when European control was established over the Malay peninsula.

World War II
Japanese Invasion of Malaya & Singapore
Reasons for Invasion;
Malaya important to Japanese, with raw materials like rubber and tin benefitting them during & after the war Would also deprive the Allies, the Japanese enemies, of resources Singapore was the impregnable fortress, and its capture was essential for conquest of SEA Japanese Campaign Malaya was defeated with embarrassing ease The Japanese had several tactics that they had thought about, and had not brazenly attacked
o Japanese had bombed Pearl Harbour, to set the Americans in a state of chaos, so as to prevent them from providing aid to the British in Malaya o Japanese had also formed an alliance with Thailand, whom they respected for not being a colony, which said that the Thai would allow the Japanese to use Thailand as a springboard to Malaya

The Japanese also knew that Singapores seaward defence was good, with the cannons there. Sg were well prepared to the south, but not to the north via Malaysia. First attack on Kota Bharu, Singora & Patani at East Coast on 8th December, 1941. From there on, the army moved south, on bicycles, through West Coast. Soon, Penang, Kuala Lampur and Johor were captured, as the Japanese edged towards Singapore In the process, the two reinforcements sent by the British, The Prince of Wales & Repulse were sunk by the Japanese air force. British had expected thick vegetation of Malaya to serve as enough deterrence against enemy, and hence had not placed any tanks or proper defence there, choosing instead to focus their strength on a seaward defence The Japanese were however experts at Jungle Warfare, and the poorly equipped British army was defeated with ease After the Japanese cut off Singapores water supply, the British were forced to surrender. With the surrender of 80K troops, it was their worst defeat yet.

Reasons for British Defeat by Japanese

Japanese Military Skill
o Masters of Jungle Warfare, with experience fighting in China. They were highly trained in methods to avoid problems of fighting in jungles, like sunstroke and malaria o Also equipped with modern weapons, such as the Zero Fighters o Decision to use bicycles highly successful o Only shortage of ammunitions and equipment as compared to British was overcome by capturing supplies from retreating enemy forces

Japanese Preparedness
o Carried out a thorough review of British forces and strongholds in Malaya before attack o Hence were aware that Singapore of impenetrable from sea, but easily pregnable from north o Also found out local troops in Malaya were poorly trained, and inexperienced in war o Hence came up with the strategy to sweep through Malaya and invade Singapore

Japanese Morale
o Japanese soldiers most dedicated and bravest of all in WWII. Believed fighting was for the glory and honour of their emperor, and defeat was shameful and a disgrace. o 25th Army sent to Malaya had only half of British and Commonwealth troops, but with great willpower, pushed forward, and eventually won

Japanese Propaganda
o Claimed to be fighting to drive Europeans out, and create an Asian Asia

Britains other commitments

o During the invasion, Britain was fighting for survival against Hitler in Europe. During that time, England was the only obstacle against Hitlers complete control of Europe o Britain was preoccupied with repelling expected invasion of its shores by Germany. o Also, they were fighting Italy and Germany in North Africa o While defending Malaya was important, at that point of time, there was a strain on Britains resources

 Malayas military weakness

o Unprepared and inexperienced in fighting, as compared to the Japanese soldiers. o Also, the attack took them by surprise. o Fortifications to protect Singapore from the North at Malaya were weak and hastily prepared, with more concentrated from the south seaward side of Singapore o Japan also had complete control of the air and seas around Malaya. o Repulse and Prince of Wales were sunk in the first week of war. o With British reinforcements defeated, the Japanese send fighter planes from Indo-China to bombard the air fields and take over aerial control

British Underestimation of Japanese Strength

o British felt the Japanese soldiers were ill-prepared, short-sighted and they could not match Western Superiority o They were proven wrong, as Japanese were ruthless in their invasion o On the other hand, it was the British who recruited young men who had never participate in war to fight the Japanese o The local volunteers were not only recruited at the last minute but were also hastily trained and poorly equipped

Syonan; Singapore under the Japanese, 1942-1945

Life in Japanese Occupied Singapore
Economy
With the invasion, there was a dip in the economy, as it had affected the lucrative trade in Singapore, with many traders opting not to come to Singapore due to fear In order to get it back on track, the Japanese started getting people back to work There were, however, many people who refused to work, either out of fear of the Japanese, or in protest Most civil servants returning got a pay cut, due to the Japanese trying to save money Jobs found through word of mouth, connections, corruption (i.e bribes) and even newspaper advertisements The Japanese took over many businesses, including Dutch, British, American & Chinese

Rationing
Became something common, with every basic thing being rationed Every person was given one card With rice stocks shrinking later, they were replaced with tapioca or sweet potatoes Also, the people were made to grow some of their own vegetables, in order to make sure there was no shortage

Black Market
Flourished due to rationing Essentials were sold at high prices here

Inflation
Price of good increased both due to black market as well as because of inflation Banana notes were made of low quality paper, and had no serial numbers. As a result, they could be forged easily With shortage of money, the Japanese merely printed more, which led to hyperinflation

Health & Social Services

Due to fighting taking place after inflation, the death rate during Occupation was at an all time high Shortage of supplies led to many doctors smuggling medicines to treat patients There were few private clinics too, that were unfortunately running low on supplies too Many diseases were left unattended, due to lack of money and medical supplies

Go Nippon Go
In order for complete control of the Civilians, the Japanese started an intense 'Speak Japanese Campaign' Incentives given to those who mastered the language

Education
Secondary school were never reopened, with people that age made to study at technical schools All schools opened during Syonan were FOC Through education, local people made to understand and adopt Japanese culture, so they could look to Japanese as their colonial master

Sook Ching; Purge Through Cleansing

Aimed to identify & eliminate suspected anti-Japanese elements amongst the Chinese community All Chinese men between 18 & 50 were told to report to designated centres Informers would point out, completely randomly, certain people that were antiJapanese The lucky ones were stamped and allowed to go back Those selected would then be executed at beaches, or sent to the Death Railway

Treatment of Other Races

Europeans were treated harshly since they were considered a threat to the Japanese The Indians & Malays were not seen as a threat to the Japanese. They tried to win them over instead

Impact of The Japanese Empire

Lessons learnt
Quick victory of Japanese showed that the Asians were not inferior to the Europeans, and could take care of themselves Japanese idea of Asian Asia had stirred nationalistic feeling amongst Singaporeans and Malayans The locals saw the need to get rid of their foreign masters and rule their own nation Military Preparedness
o To maintain peace, one must always be prepared for war o The country should always be well prepared to defend their nation agains enemies

Rise of Communism
o MCP helped in war against Japanese, winning respect of the Singaporeans o They became a legal party and gained supporters

Path of Self-Government and Independence

Return of the British - Postwar Problems
Political Problems:
Growing communist threat with more and more people starteingto develop hatred and disgust for the British government, especially the Chinese educated students

Economic Problems:
GREAT shortage of food like rice Prices of many things were much higher than before the war High rates of unemployment Even if people could get jobs, the pay was VERY low Lack of necessities, like soap and milk o People had to make their own soap, with a mixture of coconut milk and some other ingredients o Had to be resourceful. When they bought fresh milk, would cook it for hours until they had condensed milk, which can be kept, if not milk would go bad

Social Problems:
Appalling number of slums Attap dwellers were evicted and their homes were just simply pulled down Lack of schools (The government claimed that the lack of schools was due to the high

costs of materials, but many private buildings were constructed one after another)
Chinese schools were built and sponsored by the Chinese business community Discontentment amongst Chinese students o Chinese educated could not get good jobs with good pay after completing their education o Chinese educated students could not go for higher studies unlike English educated students o Thus, there was resentment amongst the Chinese educated students o Which was another reason why the communists were able to make of use of the students easily, other than bring our of British control Social stability was very low, due to the numerous strikes and riots held by the communists leaders, as well as the Chinese students o People were afraid to go out to the streets

Return of the British Rise of Nationalism

People understood that it would be impossible for them to go back to their homeland and they will have no choice but to start a new family here in Singapore and settle down here. This led to a rising sense of nationalism as more people felt like they belonged to Singapore This led to an increase in the participation of the public in areas such as political concerns o More and more people started to vote for the desired political party they want to see be in charge of ruling Singapore British were unwilling to give Singapore independence (Political and Social) o Influential communist threat among the Chinese, the largest racial group in Singapore o Chinese-educated students in Chinese middle schools were attracted to the communist idea of equal distribution of wealth. o Further encouraged by the rise of Communist China in 1949. o Civil disorder strikes and riots They were also unwilling because of their own interests (Political and Economy) o Naval base important to British. o Presence of British warships ensured British power in the region and protected British interests such as trade They were also unwilling because of genuine care and concern for Singapore (Economy) o British doubted Singapores ability to survive economically after independence. o Singapore had no large-scale industries or agriculture to support its economy Formation of Political Parties o Progessives o Malayan Democratic Party o Labour Front o PAP (1954) Malayan Democratic Party o First political party & formed by English-educated intellectuals. o Aim: Achieve full independence for Singapore and establish a fully elected democratic government o A radical party, anti-colonial and had strong communist support. o Dissolved on 24 June 1948 because of the Emergency.

Labour Front o Founded by English-educated Chinese & Indians who had trade union connections. o Aim: Achieve self-government for Singapore by 1954 and eventual independence through merger with the Federation of Malaya. The party was not united, unfortunately. o 2 factions The Indian faction which was radical Non-Indian faction (led by Lim Yew Hock) which was moderate. o In 1955 David Marshall reorganized the party Progressive Party o Aim: Achieving self-government on a basis of co-operation with the British government o Did not appeal to Chinese-educated for it supported the government in promoting English education Peoples Action Party, 1954 o Aim: to fight for an independent, democratic, socialist Malaya. o It wanted a merger with the Federation of Malaya o It also worked out a single Malayan nationality based on the principle of jus soli ( that is all persons born after the Malayan Union would automatically become citizens of Malaya) with equal citizenship rights for all races who swore allegiance to the country '48 Elections o Total electorate of 22,385. o Only 6 members of the new Legislative Council were elected & out of these 3 were from the Singapore Progressive Party. o 1st small step towards democracy o 6 non-official members of Legislative Council elected '51 Second Election o Further step towards democracy o Number of elected non-official members in Legislative Council increased to 9 Rendel Constitution o More parties started forming o STILL provided for very limited self-govt. o British still had control over the important departments of finance, defence & judicial system '55 Elections o Better working conditions, o Better pay for workers, pay increase for civil servants o Demand for immediate self government. Results of '55 Elections o Labour Front won 10 seats o PAP 3 seats o SPP 4 seats o Democratic Party 2 seats o Alliance 3 seats

o Independents 3 seats. Partial Self-Government 1955 (Not really impt) o Labour Front formed coalition with Alliance o David Marshall became Chief Minister o Singapore leaders could decide on matters concerning the governance of Singapore Hock Lee Bus Riots (1955) [one of the most famous riots] o Objective : fight for higher pay and better working conditions o Exploited by communists stirred up emotions of workers to have a confrontation with British government o Declared official strike; urged all bus companies to stage strikes o Hock Lee Bus Company dismissed 229 workers o Strikers went on hunger strikes & picketed bus stations o Police called in, 15 injured o Negotiations failed o All bus services came to a standstill o 20 lorry loads of Chinese school students o Violence bricks and stones hurled o During the Hock Lee Bus Riots of 1955, Detective Corporal Yuen Yan Peng was

fatally injured.
o 4 people died o 31 injured o Involvement of Chinese school students st 1 Merdeka Talk 1956 o Marshall demanded full self government by 1957 o Local ministers to have a say in defence and external affairs (foreign policy) o Failed because: British felt Marshall was too soft towards the communists feared a communist takeover Labour Party failed to obtain a large majority of votes in the 1955 elections - coalition government Labour Front losing support, split in Party British feared Labour Front government could keep law and order. David Marshall RESIGNED. nd 2 Chief Minister - Lim Yew Hock o Tough measures against communists o Closed Chinese schools o Imprisoned top communist leaders o Crackdown on communist activities nd 2 Merdeka Talks (1958) o March 1957 Lim Yew Hock led another all-party delegation to London for further talks o Results of 2nd Merdeka Talks Finance and Law came under the local control Local and British representatives shared responsibility for internal security.

Singapore was to cease to be a colony. It became a state with its own flag and national anthem and has a Head of State. 1959 Singapores First Fully Democratic Election o 525,000 people voted. o Voting was made compulsory for the first time o Increased number of voters was brought about because of a law called the Citizenship Ordinance which made it easier for people not born in Singapore to become citizens o 13 parties and 194 candidates took part. o Used different means to reach out to the people like the radio, newspapers,

pamphlets, door-to-door visits, rallies and using vehicles with loudspeakers.

o Results PAP landslide victory won 43 out of 51 seats & formed the new government Lee Kuan Yew, Secretary of the PAP, became the first Prime Minister of the State of Singapore. The PAP became the first fully democratic government of Singapore. The first President was Encik Yusof bin Ishak Ironically the Labour Front lost as Lim Yew Hock's harsh techniques had alienated large portions of the electorate. Why did the PAP win? o Large pool of volunteers from trade unions and Chinese schools. o Pro-communists in PAP appealed to the uneducated and poor, and Chineseeducated o Pool of very capable and talented, intelligent men o Election promises - solving unemployment and housing problem, education, equality for all, non-communist stand, multi-racialism and democracy appealed to the people o Industrialization o PAP promised independence within 4 years Areas of Government under Local and British Control in 1959 o Under British Control: External Affairs and External Defence o Under Shared Control: Internal Security (Local and British representatives sat on the Internal Security Council and shared responsibility for Singapores security) o Under Local Control: Trade and Industry, Housing, Law and Labour, Finance, Education and Health Problems o Independence promised to gain independence within 4 years o Unemployment PAP needed to create jobs needed to build industries. But there is a need for markets to sell the manufactured goods as Singapores population was too small to form a viable market; needed to sell the goods to a nearby area with a large market

Merger!
Reasons for merger Singapore; o Independence from British colonial rule PM Lee had promised to achieve independence in 4 years after PAP had been elected in 1959 However British were reluctant to grant Singapore independence PAP were instable, as they were separated into two sections; a moderate one led by PM Lee, and a pro-communist one led by Lim Chin Siong. Hence, this reduced confidence in the British since they feared Sg would be taken over by pro-communists Sg were indefensible, with no proper armed forces and facing threat British were only willing to grant Sg independence if they merged with Malaya, so that they would be stronger o Needed common market: trade and economic gains [hinterland-raw materials for industries & market for manufactured goods] Economic growth The common market was one of the chief attractions of Merger as Singapore was heavily reliant on trade with Malaysia. Singapore also could not survive economically on her own, as she did not have the necessary resources for industrialization High rates of unemployment in Sg Search for markets Malaya; o Security Feared a communist Sg, as they might take over Malaya Lees near loss of power in 61 to the communists made Malaya realise how easily Sg could have become communist Merger would allow KL to take direct charge of internal security of Sg and weed out communist elements o Economy Ready access to Sgs ports for the export of primary products Extra source of taxation

Malaya: Why Oppose? o Racial composition : fear of loss of Malay political power and position o Communist threat : Singapore as a base for spread of communist influence & activities for the overthrow of Malaya Evidence of increasing communist influence in Singapore and PAP (For PAP, the pro-communist members later formed Barisan Socialis) Communist influence extended to engineering this Peoples Association strike and in 1961, following the dismissal of 17 workers branded as trouble makers. o Displays of violence in 1961 when students vandalised a Ministry of Education signboard to protest a restructuring of Chinese education. o The fear of losing control of the party to leftists was a real one. In 1957, they actually took control. o Lim Chin Siong was leader of the pro-communist wing of the PAP, Communists used him to exploit his charismatic appeal to gain supporters o HOWEVER, even when there are so many disadvantages, at the Adelphi Hotel on 27 May 1961, Tunku Abdul Rahman proposed a political entity that the press was to dub Mighty Malaysia. Tunkus Proposal o Federation of Malaysia : Malaya, Singapore, Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei o Fear of Malays out-numbered by Chinese put to rest with inclusion of Sabah and Sarawak British Response o SUPPORT : End colonial rule without fear of former colonies falling under control of communists or other foreign powers Singapores Response o Welcome Tunkus proposal o Series of talks and campaigns to explain benefits of merger o As part of the campaign for Merger, an exhibition, We the Peoples of Malaysia, was held in 1962. o Lee Kwan Yew gave a series of radio talks in 1961 known as The Battle for Merger Talks. o The Straits Times cartoon of 1963 illustrating Singapores negotiation for the terms of the merger. Sabotage by Indonesia o Against formation of Malaysia o Saw it as British attempt to maintain power in SEA o Saw Malaysia as threat to Indonesia as leader of SEA Opposition by Philippines o Claimed Sabah as its territory o Broke off diplomatic ties UN recognition o UN Commission sent in o Report stated that majority of the peoples of Sabah and Sarawak wish to join with the peoples of the Federation of Malaya and Singapore, in an enlarged Federation of Malaysia

Separation
Reasons
Economic o Common Market Malaya did not give SG, did not appear serious about it o Closing of Bank of China, as Malayans were fearful of Chinese in Sg sending money back to Communist China o Sgs hopes of promoting industries in Malaya in order to ease unemployment problems were screwed with KL refusing to promote new industries in Sg, which impeded creation of jobs o Special privileges given only to those companies in Malaya o Sg unfairly taxed more without increased say in govt o Sg had joined Malaya mainly for economic reasons, but they were all being thwarted by Malaya Political o Singapore Alliance [branch of Alliance] took part in 1963 General Elections o LOST to PAP even in 3 predominantly Malay constituencies o Lee Kuan Yew touring the Southern islands, one of three Malay-dominated constituencies where the PAP defeated UMNO in the 1963 polls. o What did it mean? Singapore Malays do not support communal politics PAPs non-communal stand, its social and economic programmes to improve life of all Singaporeans attracted Malays Both the Tunku and the Syed Jaafer Albar were present at this UMNO post-election rally in September 1963 where an effigy of Lee Kuan Yew was burnt. The decision to campaign in Malaysia for the 1964 elections did further damage to already precarious relations. Singapore in the Federal Elections, 1964 o Fielded 17 candidates STAND: end corruption 1. narrow gap between rich and poor 2. non-communalism o Lee Kuan Yew addressed large crowds in Kuala Lumpur, campaigning for votes in 1964 Federal Elections o PAP supporters during the 1964 elections, painting a backdrop portraying the MCA as exploitative Social : Communal Problems o Alliance played on Singapore Malays feelings : portrayed PAPs resettlement as anti-Malay by displacing Malays from their traditional homes o Focused on poverty of Malays o Syed Jaafar Albars inflammatory remarks about Lee at the UMNO meeting at the New Star Cinema were reported in Utusan Melayu. The violence that later occurred during a procession to mark the Prophets birthday was in part due to the fanning of emotions at this meeting. Race Riots

o Clash between a Chinese policeman and a group of Malays during the celebrations sparked off the 1964 race riots o Police faced a group of rioters near Kallang Gas Works in July 1964. o Following the riots, a curfew was imposed island wide. This was lifted for a few hours daily to allow people to buy food, but tension is still evident in these soldiers and shoppers, mingling in the marketplace. o Lee toured the villages, addressing both Malays and Chinese and appealing for calm after the riots o The PAPs response to the Singapore Alliances re-organisation was to form a united opposition front, the Malaysian Solidarity Convention, on 9 May 1965. The symbol of the four hands was an idea of Toh Chin Chyes. The noncommunal platform ultimately created a non-Malay communal grouping that accentuated tensions between Malays and non-Malays, prompting the Tunku to act. EQUALITY. o The PAP seated in the opposition benches of the Dewan Raayat on 27 May 1965, the day Lee made his forceful speech in Malay attacking the Alliance. o STRAINED RELATIONS o Returning to Malaysia on 5 August 1965. the Tunku is greeted at Paya Lebar airport by supporters bearing placards denouncing Lee Kuan Yew. o Lee Kuan Yew in Mali in Feb 1964 on a tour of 17 African countries promoting Malaysia. Another sore point with UMNO extremists was his high profile in international cities. o A Malaysian Malaysia means that the nation and state is not identified with the supremacy, well-being and the interests of any one particular community or race. A Malaysian Malaysia is the antithesis of a Malay Malaysia, a Chinese Malaysia, a Dyak Malaysia, an Indian Malaysia or Kdazan Malaysia. This definition of a Malaysian was certain to arouse the Malays. o To persuade Toh Chin Chye to sign the separation agreement, the Tunku wrote him a letter explaining his fears for the peace and security of Malaysia if Singapore were to remain to it.

o Singapore goes it alone on 9 August 1965

Science

Science Notes 2012: Biology

Reproduction in Humans
Involves fusion of male & female gametes, or reproductive cells. The Gametes are produced in reproductive organs or gonads Male Gonads are known as testes, and male gametes are sperms, Female gonads are ovaries, and female gametes are ova

Male Reproductive System

Organ
Seminal Vesicle

Function
Secretes seminal fluids which mix with the sperms to form a fluid semen Secretes seminal fluid that provides nutrients to the sperms

Prostate Gland

Vas Deferens (Sperm Duct)

Transports sperms from testes to urethra A narrow coiled tube that temporarily stores inactive sperms

Epididymis(Storage Duct)

Testis

Produce sperms and secretes male sex hormones called testosterone, which is responsible for development of male characters during puberty An erectile organ which contains erectile tissue with numerous blood spaces. The penis becomes erect when these spaces are filled with blood A tube which leads to the outside of the body through a penis. It carries both urine and semen at different times. During sexual intercourse, the opening between the urethra and the bladder is closed so that urnie and semen never mix A sac where the testes are located, It's suspended outside the main body so as to jeep the temperature lower than the body to allow healthy sperms to survive

Penis

Urethra

Scrotum

Sperm
Sperm Cell consists of a head 5 micrometer by 3 micrometers and a tail 5 micrometres long The head consists of a nucleus where 23 chromosomes from the male parent are found Mitochondrion in the middle for energy A crosume at the tip of the sperm drill through the outer layer of the egg cells using enzymes

Female Reproductive Organs

Organ
Cervix

Function
A circular ring of muscle at the lower narrow end at the uterus. Helps to keep foetus in the uterus during development. Enlarges during birth to allow the foetus to pass through Muscular tube which receives semen from the penis during sexual intercourse. Joins cervix to the outside of the body. Serves as a birth canal Pear Shaped organ with thick muscular walls. Inner surface covered by soft smooth layer called uterine lining. Lining breaks down and shed with some blood every month from puberty onwards Spherical in shape, length of 3 to 5cm. Produces an ovum every month. Secretes female sex hormones (Oestrogen and Progesterone) 2 Narrow and muscular fallopian tubes. Lining of oviducts bear short hairs (cilia) that move ovum down to uterus. It's the site where fertilisation occurs

Vagina

Uterus

Ovary

Oviduct (Fallopian Tubes)

Egg Cell

Also known as the ovum Largest human cell, spherical in shape. About 0.15-0.2 mm in size Nucleus contains haploid number of chromosomes. Only one ovum is released per month Cannot move by itself, can only move via contraction and cillium in the fallopian tube

Menstrual Cycle
Start of a cycle of events which involves the monthly discharge of blood & tissues out of the body through the vagina Occurs in the female reproductive organs, for about 5-7 days However, length and amount of blood lost varies Entire cycle lasts about 28 days, from the first day of one menstrual period to the day before the next one begins Ranges from 21-33 days Main function: Prepare the uterus to receive a fertilised egg Co-ordinated by hormones, oestrogen, progesterone from ovaries

Stage 1- Menstrual Flow Stage (Day 1-5) First day of menstruation is the first day of menstrual cycle Uterine lining breaks down and flows from the uterus out of the body
through the vagina

Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH) is released by the anterior pituitary

gland.

Stage 2- Follicle Stage (Day 6-13)

Effects of FSH from Menstrual Phase: o FSH stimulates the development of follicles (Each primary follicle consists of a potential egg cell surrounded by a layer of smaller cells known as follicle cells. It's the follicles that develop into ovaries) in the ovary. One of the follicles develop into a mature follicle, or in other words, a Graafian follicle. o FSH also stimulates the follicles in the ovary to produce oestrogen, a hormone Oestrogen causes the repair and growth of the uterine lining, after the menstrual phase. The uterine lining hence becomes thick and spongy with blood vessels High concentration of oestrogen in the blood also prevents the over-production of FSH, which may result in the growth of more follicles It also stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete luteinising hormone (LH) LH causes ovulation Also causes the formation of the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone and also some oestrogen.

Stage 3- Ovulation (Day 14)

Graafian follicle ruptures, releasing the egg inside into the oviduct Ovulation is a result of LH LH also causes the formation of corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone and some oestrogen Oestrogen levels at their peak during this period of time.

Stage 4- Corpus Luteum Stage

Effects of Progesterone Progesterone causes uterine lining to continue to thicken and be supplied with blood capillaries, preparing it for implantation of the embryo Progesterone also prevents further ovulation from occuring Also inhibits FSH production

If Fertilisation does not occur ( i.e the sperm doesn't meet the egg):
The egg will break down

LH production ceases due to high concentration of progesterone in the blood. The drop in LH level then causes the corpus luteum to break down too

When Corpus Luteum is broken down, progesterone is not produced either

Without progesterone, the thickened uterine lining cannot be maintained, and hence breaks down too

The lining flows from the uterus together with some blood from the vagina, and once again the cycle is repeated

If Fertilisation occurs (i.e the sperm meets the egg)

The fertilised egg becomes a zygote, which then develops into an embryo

The embryo embeds itself in the uterine lining

The embryo secretes a hormone that prevents the corpus luteum from breaking down till a placenta is formed. The corpus luteum hence continues to secrete progesterone and oestrogen until the placenta is able to take over the production of these two hormones

Fertile and infertile periods of the Menstrual Cycle

After its release from the ovary, the egg can only survive for about one or two days which means that it can only survive up to approximately day 16, considering that ovulation takes place on day 14 Sperms can survive for 2-3 days in the female reproductive system, which means that if released on Day 11, it can fertilise the egg Hence the fertile period is from Day 11 to Day 16 o The Rest of the days make up the infertile days. During this time, sperms that are released into the female reproductive system

Development of Embryo
Implantation
After fertilisation, the cilia in the oviduct sweep the zygote along the oviduct. The zygote divides by mitosis to form a hollow ball of cells called the embryo Takes about 5 days to reach the uterus. Eventually, the embryo is embedded in the uterine lining. This is known as implantation. Implantation occurs around 7 days after fertilisation.

Development of Foetus
Embryonic membrane (amnion) develops to enclose the foetus o Amniotic Fluid Supports & cushions embryo before birth Shock absorber It's incompressible It protects the embryo against mechanical injury Lubricates the vagina & reduces friction during birth Buoys up the foetus, enabling it to move freely during growth Foetus is connected to placenta by an umbilical cord o Placenta An organ that connects to the developing foetus to the uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and gas exchange via the mother's blood supply The villi and the uterine lining in which the villi is embedded in is what makes up the placenta The villi contains blood capillaries of the embryo Umbilical Cord o Two umbilical arteries that transport deoxygenated blood and metabolic waste products such as urea from the foetus to the placenta o One umbilical vein that transports oxygenated blood and food substances such as glucose and amino acids from the placenta to the foetus

Fetal Blood System

The fetal blood system is separated from the mother's blood system. The fetal blood capillaries are surrounded by maternal blood spaces. In the placenta, blood capillaries of the fetus are separated from the mother's blood system by only a thin layer of tissue Why mustn't they be continuous? Because: o The blood pressure of the mother is much higher, which would result in the death of the foetus if they were to be continuous o The blood group may not be the same. If they have different blood groups, the blood will mix, which would be dangerous to both mother and foetus.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

Infections transmitted via sexual intercourse STDs like Gonorrhoea & Syphilis that are caused by bacteria and can be cured if treated on time However, those like Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) caused by a virus cannot be cured Why is it dangerous? o Infected people are unaware that they've "caught" it o Once symptoms are observable, the disease may already have spread o People unaware may spread it more

Gonorrhoea
Caused by a bacterium that is spherical Can be passed from infected mother during birth Some babies blind as it affects eyes Signs & Symptoms Yellow pus discharged from end of urethra Burning sensation during piss Urinating becomes difficult, as urethra narrows. Testes may become fibrous and person may become sterile (MALE) Pus from vagina may spread to uterus and oviducts. Sterility may occur if parts are damaged or blocked (FEMALE)

Syphilis
Caused by spiral bacterium Prevention & Control o Treat with penicillin o Wearing a condom, keeping to one sex partner

AIDS
Caused by Human Immunodeficiency (HIV) an RNA virus Incurable & fatal, cause white blood cells usually produces antibodies when a virus enters the body to destroy the virus & HIV attacks the white blood cells, making them unable to protect the body against infection The defence mechanism is hence affected Signs & Symptoms o Initial Stage: Appear only after a few months or even years HIV infected guy will fall sick more easily Loss of weight, diarrhoea more often o Final Stage Immune system completely destroyed Symptoms like weight loss, lung infections, brain infection appear Spread of HIV o Sex with an infected partner o Blood transfusion from an infected partner o Sharing injection needles with infected person o From infected mother to child Prevention o No casual sex o Avoid sharing of needles, use sterilised ones o Use condom during sex

Birth Control
Process that prevents occurence of; ovulation, fertilisation or implantation Methods: Natural, Chemical, Intra-uterine, Hormonal, Sterilisation Temporary Methods: Allowing couples to have children when they stop using these methods o Natural Not having sexual intercourse at all Withdrawal of penis before ejaculation Not having sex during fertile period, also known as rhythm method o Artificial o Also Known as contraception o Chemicals like spermicides, contraceptive pills o Mechanical devices like condoms or diaphragms or intra-uterine device (IUD)

Condom
Thin rubber tube covering penis before sex A small teat at the end collects the semen Not permeable to sperms; barrier that prevents them from entering the vagina Impermeable to viruses and germs too, protecting user from STDs Most have coating of spermicide

Diaphragm
Dome shaped rubber cap with an elastic ring Inserted into the vagina and placed over cervix Impermeable

Intra-Uterine Device (IUD)

Coil of plastic or metal Inserted by a doctor into the uterus Provides protection for a long period, hence very effective

Contraceptive Pills
Chemicals that function like oestrogen and progesterone Inhibit FSH & LH production

 Prevent development of follicles

Spermicide
Inactivate, kill or block sperms from entering the uterus Gel, Aerosol or foaming tablets Not really reliable

Permanent Methods
Vasectomy
Minor surgery; involves tying & cutting part of sperm ducts Sperms won't be ejaculated The male is unable to make his wife pregnant

Tubal Ligation
Involves tying & cutting of oviducts Prevents egg from meeting the sperm

Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ARTs)

Infertility
Inability to conceive after a year of unprotected sex Factors affecting: heavy workloads, stress, environmental pollution, unhealthy lifestyles etc

ARTs
Methods used to achieve pregnancy via artificial or partial means Term also involves the use of a third party sometimes (sperm donor) Used for women who have irreversible damage to oviducts, or cervical problems

In-vitro Fertilisation (IVF)

Occurs outside the woman's body For blocked, damaged or absent oviducts For Endometriosis Male Factors (Low sperm count, low sperm motility etc) Unexplained fertility

Steps o Ovarian Stimulation Drugs used to stimulate the ovaries to release multiple ova FSH given over 8-14 days to stimulate this Multiple ova needed as some will not develop normally after
retrieval and to increase chances of pregnancy After 34-36 hours, just before ovulation, ova are retrieved o Ova retrieval Ultrasound probe inserted into vagina to identify Graafian follicles Needle guided into them Ova are aspirated from follicles through the needle connected to a suction device

o Insemination, Fertilisation & Embryo Culture Sperm obtained by ejaculation are separated from semen

 Motile sperm placed together with the ova in the process of

artificial insemination Culture placed in incubator Fertilisation takes place within hours of insemination o Embryo transfer Embryos may be transferred to the uterus on either day 3 or day 5 of development One or more embryos suspended in a drop of culture medium are drawn in to a transfer catheter Tip of transfer catheter passed through the cervix Fluid with embryo placed into the uterus cavity Implantation will take 2-5 days

Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT)

Male gametes transferred to the fallopian tubes rather than the uterus Fertilisation in vivo

Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer (ZIFT)

Fertilisation takes place outside Zygote is then transferred to the fallopian tubes

Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI)

Involves micro-manipulation techniques When rates of fertilisation in IVF are poor A single sperm is injected directly into the ovum Zygote is then placed in the fallopian tube or uterus Recommended when the male has low sperm count/motility or other fertilization methods not suitable for the couple

Artificial Insemination (AI)

Sperm is artificially placed in the uterus with the help of a catheter Helps to ensure that more sperm are available and able to access a woman's ovum Occurs in 4 locations o Vagina (Intravaginal insemination or IVI) o Cervix (Intracervical insemination or ICI) o Uterus (Intrauterine insemination or IUI) (Most Commonly used) Offered if there is reduced sperm quality or low sperm count, or the cervical mucus is hostile to the sperm Selected sperms are placed directly into the uterus Insemination takes place during most fertile period Can be used concurrently with super ovulation o Fallopian Tubes (Intratubal insemination or ITI) Used when o Woman's cervical mucous is hostile to sperm o Man has low sperm count, but healthy sperm o Man has infertility due to antibodies in sperm o Ejaculation issue due to vaginal muscle contractions or psychological problems o Retrograde ejaculation- a condition where the semen goes back to the bladder rather than be expelled from the body o Couples who cannot have intercourse due to disability, injury or premature ejaculation

Sperm Donor, Sperm Bank

Sperm donors undergo extensive medical and genetic screening, including testing for AIDS Healthy viable sperms will be frozen and quarantined for 6 months Sperm will be released for use only if all tests are negative

Surrogacy
Pregnancy is carried by the surrogate mother who also donates her ova Surrogate mother must have biological relations

Gestational Carrier
Pregnancy carried by another woman. The ova from the infertile woman is fertilised with her partner's sperm, after which it is transferred to the gestational carrier's uterus

Heredity
Important Terms Diploid- Containing two sets of chromosomes in each cell, onr set inherited
from each parent; 2n cell, It has 46 chromosomes

Haploid- A cell that has one set of chromosomes. This is the case in male and
female gametes

Mitosis
Type of nuclear division by which two diploid daughter cells are formed from one diploid parent cell Copying division of a single nucleus into two genetically identical daughter nuclei; occurs in all cells except sex organs

Meiosis
Four haploid cells are produced from a single diploid cell Occurs in gametes The two sets of chromosomes in the single diploid cell multiply to form four sets The four sets then move towards the poles of the cell causing the cell to split into two diploid cells The chromosomes then again push towards the poles, forming four haploid cells

Variation
Arises from sexual intercourse, where meiosis shuffles the genes Mutation Environmental factors

Continuous Variation
No distinct categories All possible intermediates Greatly influenced by the environment

Discontinuous Variation Under the control of a single pair of alleles or a small number of genes Distinct alternative phenotypes with no intermediates
Usually not influenced by environment

Genetic Terms
Chromosomes Structures containing DNA Visible during prophase of the cell Gene Unit of inheritance which occupies a small segment of DNA within the chromosome Each has a specific function Gene locus; the region on the chromosome where the gene is located Allele Different forms of a same gene o For eg, the gene for height has a tall allele and a short allele. The gene for flower colour may have the purple allele and a white allele Usually given small and capital letters to indicate the dominant and the recessive alleles Homologous Chromosomes A pair of chromosomes, that have a similar shape and size, with the exception of sex chromosomes Have the same sequence of loci, though the alleles in those gene loci may not be the same Phenotype A trait that can be seen, a visible trait (eg. height)

Genotype Genetic make-up of an organism, or the combination of genes o An organism is homozygous if the two alleles controlling the trait are the same eg. TT or tt o Also known as true breeding o An organism is heterozygous if the two alleles controlling the trait are different eg Tt Dominant Allele which shows it's effect in the phenotype in both homozygous (TT) and heterozygous (Tt) Recessive Allele which has no effect on the phenotype unless it is homozygous in the genotype Multiple Alleles (Not very important) Some organisms have more than two alleles (eg, Domestic Rabbits' coat colours) Co-Dominance When both traits/alleles are both equally dominant and expressed (e.g. blood group AB, flower w/ red and white splotches) A and B are dominant, O is recessive Incomplete Dominance The two traits do not express themselves equally Result in blending of the two traits (e.g. pink flower)

Genetic Diagrams
Cross Method: Show the offspring that would result from a cross between a heterozygous black fur mouse with a white fur mouse. White fur is the recessive trait.

Parental Phenotype : Parental Genotype:

Black Fur Bb

x x

White Fur bb

Gametes :

B
B

b
B

F1 Genotype: F1 Phenotype:

Bb Black Fur 1 Black Fur

Bb

bb White Fur : 1 White Fur

bb

F1 Phenotypic Ratio:

Punnett Square F1 Phenotypic Ratio: 1 Black Fur: 1 White Fur

B b

Bb

bb

Bb

bb

Monohybrid Inheritance
Sex Determination in Humans In humans, males have an X chromosome and a much shorter Y chromosome in each normal body cell. This means that the X chromosome has more genes than the Y chromosome Females have two X chromosomes. The sex of the child is determined by the Y chromosome of the guy o If the child is a girl, than she will have an X chromosome from her mother and an X chromosome from her father o If the child is a boy, he will have an X chromosome from her mother and a Y chromosome from his father Haemophilia Women tend to be carriers of a disease but not the sufferers This is because females have two X chromosomes, so during the event that there is a mutation, they still have another X chromosome to back up On the other hand, in men, if one X chromosome were to be mutated, then the man has no other X chromosome, hence is doomed E.g. Inheritance of colour blindness

Mutation
An accidental change in the genetic make-up of a gene Causes o Radioactive emission o Certain chemicals o Cosmic Rays o Uneven distribution of chromosomes Types of Mutation o Gene Mutation Alteration of a minute part of DNA Produces altered proteins in the cell (eg. sickle cell anaemia) o Chromosomal Mutation Through accidents at the separation of chromosomes during meiosis Result: Extra chromosomes in gametes

Pedigree Chart
Chart of genetic history of family over several generations Scientists & genetic counsellors use them to find family history Can determine if the pedigree chart shows an autosomal (from birth, caused by mutation) or X-linked o X-linked if most males are affected o Autosomal if 50/50 for males and females Also used to find out probability of your child having a disorder To begin, determine if the disease is autosomal or X-linked, then whether it is dominant or recessive o If dominant, one of the parents should have the disorder, if recessive, neither of the parents should have it

Molecular Genetics
DNA
Basic unit of a DNA is a nucleotide Each nucleotide is made of o A pentose sugar called deoxyribose o A phosphate group o A nitrogen-containing base, containing Adenine (A) Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) Nucleotides are joined together to form long chains called poly-nucleotides Each gene is made up of a sequence of nucleotides. The sequences can vary with the gene Since there are 4 different bases, for a gene made out of n nucleotides, there are 4n different combinations of nucleotides The DNA has a double helix, as there are 2 strands that run in different directions (Rule of Base Pairing) o Adenine (A) always bonds with Thymine (T). Cytosine (C) always pairs with Guanine (G) o ATCG (At The Centre of Gravity) Two strands held together by hydrogen bases Base pairing is very specific

RNA
Ribonucleic Acid Single Stranded Made up of nucleotides to form a polynucelotide It contains ribose sugar in its nucleotide Has four bases: Adenine, Uracil, Guanine and Cytosine Uracil will form the base pair with Adenine DNA
Sugar unit is deoxyribose Nitrogen-containing bases are Adenine, Thymine, Guanine and Cytosine Ratio of A:T & C:G is 1:1 Large insoluble molecule Permanent molecule in the nucleus

RNA
Sugar Unit is ribose Nitrogen-containing bases are Adenine, Uracil, Guanine & Cytosine No fixed ratio Small soluble molecule Temporary molecule made only when needed

DNA Replication
Basis of biological inheritance, a biological process that occurs in all living organisms that copies their DNA Starts when one double-stranded DNA molecule produces two identical copies of the molecule Begins at specific locations in the Genome called the 'origin' o Unwinding of DNA at the origin by DNA helicase o Synthesis of new strands, forming a replication fork o DNA polymerase, the enzyme that synthesizes all the new DNA by adding nucleotides matched to the template strands o Each strand of the original double-stranded DNA molecule serves as a template for the production of the complementary strand, a process called semi-conservative replication o In short, the new strand will have 1 strand from the original DNA, and one strand that was replicated during the synthesis by the DNA polymerase

Translation & Transcription

In order for protein synthesis, translation & transcription must take place Can be explained in EASY steps

o One of the 2 strands in the gene is used as the template to make mRNA (Messenger RNA). This is transcription. The mRNA copies the genetic code from the DNA template. The mRNA does not contain Thymine o The mRNA then leaves the nucleus and attaches to a ribosome in the cytoplasm o There are amino acids in the cytoplasm as well as tRNA (Transfer RNA), which is another molecule needed for protein synthesis. tRNA molecules have amino acids attached to one end of their structure. Each tRNA is specific and only attaches to its own amino acid. (E.g. tRNA with anticodon UAC only attaches to amino acid M) Each tRNA also has three bases at one end, which is an anticodon that is complementary to the codons on mRNA o The first two tRNAs together with their amino acids fit into the ribosome with the mRNA. They attach to the corresponding codons on the mRNA to the rule of base pairing o A peptide bond is formed between the two amino acids o Once the peptide bond is formed between the first two amino acids, the ribosome moves along one codon to the right of the mRNA. As the ribosome moves, the first tRNA is released, with the second tRNA moving left, allowing space for a third tRNA and its amino acids to slot into the ribosome, causing another amino acid to be formed o The process continues as the ribosome moves along. Eventually, at the end of the mRNA there is a stop codon such as UGA UAA or UAG, which do not have any tRNA with complementary codons. Hence the whole chain of polypeptide is produced, and the ribosome leaves the mRNA

Genetic Code
Set of rules by which info is encoded in genetic material (DNA or mRNA sequence) is translated into proteins (amino acid sequence) by living cells Defines how sequence of 3 nucleotides called codons, specify which amino acid will be added during the next protein synthesis Universal;

o Almost all organisms in nature (from bacteria to humans), use exactly the same genetic code o The same mRNA codons will specify the same amino acids Non-overlapping & continuous o Each nucleotide part of one triplet codon Each amino acid can be specified by more than one codon. Recombinant DNA DNA taken from 2 diff sources and fused into a single DNA molecule Special DNA cutting enzymes called restriction enzymes are what cut the DNA at specific points o DNA that is cut with restriction enzymes will have single-stranded ends, called sticky ends o Two molecules of DNA cut with the same restriction enzyme will have the same exposed nucleotides and will undergo complementary base pairing o Each reaction enzyme recognises different nucleotides o Named after bacteria from which they are isolated o Possible because all organisms have the same genetic code Ligase joins the DNA fragments together by repairing the sugar-phosphate backbone Plasmids are what's found in the bacteria and are used to carry inserted genes into the bacteria

Genetic Engineering Insertion of human insulin gene into bacterial DNA Cut out insulin genes join to the plasmid DNA with ligase Procedure o Isolate plasmids from bacteria o Extract human insulin genes with restriction enzymes o Cut plasmids with same restriction enzymes o Spice insulin genes into plasmids using DNA ligase recombinant DNA o Recombinant plasmids inserted into bacteria- transformation o Plasmids serve as vector to carry human gene into bacteria and are cultured Mass culture of insulin can be produced in vitro with genetically engineered bacteria as it is able to replicate at a very fast rate, resulting in a higher yield of insulin. Also, the bacteria is small and easy to manipulate The insulin is than extracted and purified, after which it is used to treat diabetes

Science Notes 2012; Physics

Reflection
Characteristics of Light
Form of energy. Travels at a speed of 3.0 x 108 m/s in a vacuum. Travels in straight lines and can be reflected. Luminous objects are object that give off their own light Non-luminous object do not give off light. They are seen when they reflect light from a light source When a ray of light hits the surface of a flat mirror, it is reflected.
o The incident ray is the ray of light that hits the surface of the mirror. o The reflected ray is the ray of light that is reflected from the mirror o At the point of incidence where the ray strikes the mirror, a perpendicular line can be drawn to the surface of the mirror. This line is known as the normal.
The angle of incidence, i , is the angle between the incident ray and the normal. The angle of reflection, r , is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal.

The law of reflection states that:

o The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie on the same plane. o The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

 All surfaces reflect light.

o At smooth surfaces, regular reflection occurs. All the rays have the same incident and reflected angles. For example, a mirror has a smooth surface. o At rough surfaces, diffuse reflection occurs. The incident and reflected angles of each ray are different from those of another ray. For example, a piece of clothing has a rough surface. o Regardless of whether it is a regular or irregular reflection, the reflection of light always follows the laws of reflection.

An object placed in front of a mirror has an image which is the same size, laterally inverted, upright, virtual and the same distance away from the mirror as the object.

Transparent and opaque materials:

o Are actually electromagnetic waves that emanates from vibrating electrons in atoms o When light is transmitted through a material, the atoms in the material absorb the vibrations given off by the waves of light and then re-emit the vibrations to neighboring atoms which then absorb and re-emit it. This chain of absorption and re-emission passes the light through the material and out the other side. These materials are transparent o Materials which are opaque absorb light without re-emitting it, as the vibrations given off by light to its particles are turned into kinetic energy

Pin-hole camera
Light rays reflected off an object travels through the pin hole and forms an image on the screen Image produced is real, and inverted. It shows that light travels in straight lines.

The image is inverted due to the property of light: Light travels in a straight line When enlarged, the image will become brighter but blurred Large pin-hole actually acts as many smaller pin-holes with each pin hole forming its own image at a slightly different position. Thus, when the entire screen is observed, a blurred patch of light is seen. Brighter as there are more light rays entering the pin-hole camera When the pin-hole is made larger:
o The image size does not change o The image becomes less sharp

When the distance between the objet and the pin-hole is increased:
o The image becomes smaller o The image sharpness does not change

Drawing reflected light rays:

Reflect the image behind the mirror Connect the image to the eye Connect the object to the point of intersection on the plane mirror All lines behind the mirror must be dotted Total Internal Reflection:
The critical angle, c, for the angle of incidence is exactly 90 n1 sinc = n2 sin (90 ) 2 conditions to be fulfilled Light passes from optically denser medium to a less dense medium. The angle of incidence in the optically denser medium is greater than the critical angle.

When TIR occurs, the light ray is reflected back into the denser medium, just like a mirror plane.

An optical fibre is made up of thin glass or plastic fibre designed to guide light along its length by total internal reflection. It has a core made of a material with a high refractive index and is coated with another material of a lower refractive index. Optical fibres are used by telecommunication companies to transmit internet data and cable television signals. Advantages: Light travel extremely fast in optical fibres as compared to the conduction of electricity in wires. Optical fibres are less expensive and weigh less than metal wires.

Refraction
When a ray of light travels from a transparent/translucent medium to another transparent/translucent medium at a certain angle, part of the light is reflected at the boundary while the rest bends into the other medium. The light is said to be refracted.

Laws of Refraction:
o o

The incident ray, the normal, and the refracted ray all lie in the same plane. For two particular media, the ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant (Refractive index). This is known as Snells Law.

The refractive index n is the ratio of speed of light in vacuum c to the speed of light into the medium v. The refractive index is a ratio, thus it has no unit. IT
CANNOT BE LOWER THAN 1 SINCE LIGHT MOVES FASTEST IN VACUUM (n = 1)
Therefore

NOTE: Numerator is always bigger than denominator, thus there may be a case where sin r is the numerator instead!

 As light travels from an optically less dense medium to an optically denser medium, it bends more towards the normal. Conversely, as light travels from an optically denser medium to an optically less dense medium, it bends more away from the normal.

Applications of refraction
Actual depth and apparent depth View from top, looking down

View from bottom, looking up

Apparent Actual

Nuclear Physics
Detecting Radioactivity
Geiger Muller Counter Diffusion cloud chamber works mainly due to the ionizing powers of alpha particles and beta particles.

Characteristics of , and radiation

particles
Nature

particles Electrons -1

particles Electromagnetic waves neutral

Helium (He) nuclei +2 (made of 2 protons and 2 neutrons) 0.10c

Charge

Speed (c refers to the speed of light in vacuum) Ionizing power Penetrating power

0.90c

Strongest Weakest 2 sheets of paper

2nd strongest 2nd strongest aluminum plate 5mm thick

Weakest Strongest several cm of lead

Ionizing power
When radiation passes through a gas, some of the gas molecules may lose electrons and this causes ions to be formed. The gas is ionized.

Radioactive decay
Alpha decay: nucleus emits an alpha particle (2 protons and 2 neutrons) and thereby transforms (or 'decays') into an atom with a mass number 4 less and atomic number 2 less.
Eg. Also known as particle

Beta decay: Nucleus converts a neutron into a proton and electron. The electron is then ejected from the nucleus at high speed. Obtain optimal ratio of protons and neutrons.

E.g

Gamma decay: After emitting or particle, the remaining nuclei may have surplus energy. Thus radiation may be emitted.

Eg. Asterix implies that it has surplus energy

Half-life

It is the time taken for half of the nuclei in a radioactive substance to undergo radioactive decay. Half-life of a particular substance is always constant, no matter the time that has already elapsed/amount of substances decayed.

Applications of Radioactivity

Tracing: Weak radioisotopes are injected to body as tracers. Iodinne-131, technetium-99. Sterilizing: Syringes and other hospital equipment are sterilized by exposing them to gamma () rays.

Thickness guage: Check thickness of metal sheets. Moving metal sheet has beta radiation source at one side and a detector on the other. If the detector picks up too much radiation = metal too thin Radiotherapy: gamma () rays are used to kill malignant cancer cells. source rotates around cancerous areas of patient, and will destroy the cancer cells.

Nuclear Fission

Nucleus of atom splits up resulting in a huge amount of energy being released. e = mc2 When U-235 is bombarded by neutrons, uranium nucleus split up into 2 smaller nuclei and more neutrons. Splitting of nucleus = nuclear fission. Eg. Chain reaction: For each of the U-235 nucleus that undergoes nuclear fission, more neutrons are released = newly released neutrons will continue splitting up other U-235 nuclei, causing a chain reaction to occur. Critical mass: To ensure a chain reaction is self-sustaining, the mass of U-235 must be above the critical mass. Top: A sphere of fissile material is too small to allow the chain reaction to become self-sustaining as neutrons generated by fissions can easily escape. Middle: By increasing the mass of the sphere to a critical mass, the reaction can become self-sustaining. Bottom: Surrounding the original sphere with a neutron reflector increases the efficiency of the reactions and also allows the reaction to become self-sustaining.

Nuclear Fusion

When 2 nuclei join together to form a heavy nucleus, a huge amount of energy will be released too. Hydrogen-2 nucleus and hydrogen-3 nucleus collide with each other at very high speed = form helium-4 nucleus + neutron i.e

Nuclear power plants

Nuclear reactors Fuel rod: releases neutrons Control rod: controls rate of fission by absorbing neutrons Pressurizing system: keeps water in primary loop in the liquid state throughout Fuel elements: uranium Disposal of nuclear waste Low-level waste is discharged 1-2km from the shore and solid waste is buried in the ground Intermediate-level waste are contained in steel drums and are cast in concrete, then buried under 8m of clay High-level waste is buried deep underground in geological formations/repositories (packed in steel canisters first).

Science Notes 2012; Chemistry

Atomic Structure
Atom
Smallest particle of an element that has the same chemical properties of that element An atom is made up of subatomic particles: o Protons Charge: +1, Relative mass: 1 o Electrons Charge: -1, Relative mass: 1/1836 or 0* o Neutrons Charge: 0, relative mass: 1 (Note: The neutron has no charge/The neutron is neutral. Cannot write neutral charge) Nucleus: Center, made up of densely packed neutrons and protons (collectively known as nucleons). Overall, the nucleus has a positive charge The electrons spin around the nucleus at nearly the speed of light In atoms, the overall charge of an atom is neutral (or has no charge) The atomic structure can be written as a symbol called the Nuclide Notation: o A = Mass no. (nucleon no.): No. of protons + No. of neutrons o Z = Atomic no. (proton no.) No. of protons=No. of Electrons o X = Symbol of the element

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons They have the same proton number but different mass number For example, most hydrogen atoms have 1 neutron and 1 proton, but it has 2 isotopes, containing 2 neutrons and 3 neutrons respectively Isotopes have different masses (refer to mass number of the isotope) as they have a different number of neutrons They have the same chemical properties but different physical properties (e.g. masses and boiling points) Naturally occurring or produced by nuclear reactions Electrons are arranged into orbits around the nucleus. These orbits are called shells:

Shells are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on and so forth The first shell can contain at most 2, the second 8, the third 8 For elements 1 to 20, the fourth shell contains a maximum of 2 The 1st shell must be filled before the second can be filled, and so on and so forth This is called electronic configuration

For elements beyond calcium (20), the third shell can hold up to 18 (e.g. krypton/Kr has an electronic configuration of 2.8.18.8) The valence electrons of an atom are the electrons in the outermost shell. This is called the valence shell Chemical properties depend on the number of valence electrons. Elements with the same number of valence electrons tend to have similar chemical properties because the valence electrons are responsible for forming the chemical bonds with other atoms in a chemical reaction

Periodic Table
The elements in the periodic table are arranged in atomic (proton) number The vertical columns are called groups and the horizontal rows are called periods Properties of different groups: o Group l: Alkali metals o Group Vll: Halogens o Group 0 (or group Vlll) : Noble gases o Transition Metals are those in between group ll and group lll Alkali Metals: o Reactive, silvery, soft metals (seen from reactions with water), Have low melting and boiling points o Melting and boiling points decrease down the group, while densities increase down the group o They react with water to give alkaline solutions o Reactivity increases down the group (Caesium has the most vigorous reaction while Lithium has the least vigorous reaction). This is because the valence electrons are found further away from the nucleus when the number of electron shells increases and thus held less strongly by the nucleus electrostatic forces of attraction, thus it is lost more easily. Halogens: o Reactive non-metals o Low melting and boiling points o Diatomic molecules o Melting and boiling points increase down the group Reactivity decreases down the group (This is because the force from the nucleus that attracts electrons is weaker as the number of electron shells increases, thus, it is harder to gain an electron when the number of electron shell increases o Colour darkens down the group: Noble Gases: o Unreactive non-metals due to its noble gas configuration (duplet/ octet configuration) o Have low melting and boiling points (gases at r.t.p) o Colourless, monoatomic The size of atoms increases down the group as the number of electron shells increases

The size of atoms decreases down the period. Across the period, the number of electron shells remains the same. However, the distance between the valence electrons and the nucleus is shorter down the period as the proton number of the atom increases down the period. This means that there are more protons in the nucleus and the electrostatic forces of attraction acting on the valence electrons are greater and therefore, the valence electrons are pulled more closely towards the nucleus.

Chemical Bonding and Structure Ionic bonds: o Formed between a metal and a non-metal (metal anion, non-metal cation) o Ions packed into a giant lattice structure (have straight sides) o When an atom loses an electron, it is called a cation o When an atom gains an electron, it is called an anion o The electron that is lost by a cation is not necessarily transferred to the anion that it bonds with o Are usually formed between ions from group l, ll, lll and group V, VI, VII o Group IV atoms usually do not form ions o Properties of ionic compounds: Hard & crystalline solids at r.t.p, with high melting and boiling points Cause ionic compounds are held together in fixed positions in a giant lattice structure by strong ionic bonds, thus a lot of energy is required to overcome these strong electrostatic forces of attraction Do not conduct electricity in the solid state, but can conduct electricity in molten or aqueous state Cause in the solid state, ionic compounds are held in fixed positions by strong ionic bonds, therefore, the ions are unable to move freely to conduct electricity as they cannot carry the electrical charges. However, in molten or aqueous state, the ions can move freely and therefore can conduct electricity by carrying the electrical charges. Ionic compounds are soluble in water but insoluble in organic compounds Explanation: The ions attract the water molecules, which disrupts the crystal structure, causing the ions to separate and go into the solution. They do not attract the molecules of organic compounds. Basic particle ion

Covalent bonds Formed by the sharing of electrons between 2 atoms of non-metal elements Can exist as simple covalent molecules or giant covalent structures Simple covalent molecules have a simple molecular structure Giant covalent structure have a large network of atoms held together by strong covalent bonds Properties of covalent bonds Liquids or gases at r.t.p, with low boiling and melting points Explanation: Molecules are held together by weak intermolecular forces of attraction, so very little energy is needed to overcome the weak intermolecular forces of attraction Note: The covalent bonds are not broken in state change, it is the force between the covalent molecules that are broken Do not conduct electricity in any states Explanation: There are no charged particles at all Insoluble in water (Mostly sugar, hydrogen chloride and alcohol are soluble in water), but soluble in organic solvents Basic particle molecule (A molecule is made up of 2 or more atoms held together by covalent bonds)

Acids and Bases, Chemical Formulae and Equations

Acid
Substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water Only shows its properties when dissolved in water because they dissociate in water for form hydrogen ions which are responsible for its acidic properties. They do not dissociate to form hydrogen ions when dissolved in organic solvents (alcohol, oil, etc.) Strong acids: o Ethanioc acid (vinegar), Citric acid (oranges, lemons, all citrus fruits), Lactic acids (yoghurt), Tartaric acid (grapes), Tannic acids (tea) Weak acids; o Hydrochloric acid - HCl, Sulfuric acid - H2SO4, Nitric acid - HNO3 Properties of acids: o Sour, hazardous cause skin problems o Change blue litmus paper red (Remember Acids are red on the Universal Indictor) o Reacts with metals --> Salt + hydrogen o Reacts with carbonates --> Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water o Reacts with Bases Salt + water

Base
Substance that reacts with an acid to form salt and water only (definition)/An alkali is a substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH) in water. It is any metal oxide or hydroxide Alkalis dissociate to produce hydroxide ions (OH) when dissolved in water Strong alkalis: o Sodium hydroxide NaOH, Potassium hydroxide KOH Weak alkalis: o Aqueous ammonia - NH3

Properties o Slippery and soapy & hazardous Burn skin when concentrated, irritate skins when dilute o Alkalis change red litmus paper blue o Alkalis react with acids to form a salt and water o Alkalis react with ammonium compounds to form a salt, ammonia gas and water (Not really needed)

pH scale: o >7 is alkaline, 7 is neutral (pure water), <7 is acidic Indicators: o Substances that change colour in solutions of different pH values but over a definite pH range Indicator solution Colour in acidic solution Methyl orange Red pH level when it changes colour 4 Colour in alkaline solution Yellow (from pH 5 onwards) Bromothymol blue Phenolphthalein Colourless 9 Yellow 7 Blue (from pH 7 onwards Pink (from pH 9 onwards)

Universal Indicator paper (Advantages) o Disposable, so risk of contamination reduced o Can be used on small sample size (1 drop is enough) while the sample solution has to cover the whole bulb of the pH meter o Measures the pH faster than the pH meter, as it has to adjust for a while

pH meter o measures accurate pH values (1 or more d.p.) o A probe is dipped into a solution until the whole bulb is covered to show the pH digitally o pH probe can be connected to a compute or data logger to collect pH readings.

Tests for gases: o Hydrogen Gas extinguishes a lighted splint with a pop sound o Carbon Dioxide White precipitate forms in the solution when bubbled through limewater (calcium hydroxide) o Ammonia gas: Turns red litmus paper blue and has a pungent smell

Salts o The hydrogen ion in acids is replaced by a metal o When naming salts, the name of the metal is placed in front, followed by the other part of the acid o Hydrochloric Acid - _________ Chloride o Sulfuric Acid - _________ Sulfate o Nitric Acid - _________ Nitrate o Salts are usually in aqueous state

Neutralisation o Controls pH of soil Calcium oxide/hydroxide if too acidic, Compost if too alkaline (Compost is made of rotting plant material which gives off carbon dioxide which is acidic when dissolved in water) o Treats indigestion due to the excess of hydrochloric acid in stomach due to too much consumption Magnesium oxide is used o Treats insect stings Add a base as it is acidic o Toothpaste to neutralize the acids produced by bacteria which may corrode the teeth Magnesium hydroxide is used o Treatment of wastewater

Charge

Name Hydrogen

Chemical Formula H+ Li+ Na+ K+ Ag+ NH4+ Mg2+ Ca2+ Ba2+ Zn2+ Pb2+ Cu2+ Fe2+ Al3+ Fe3+

+1

Lithium Sodium Potassium Silver Ammonium (Not Ammonia) Magnesium Calcium

+2

Barium Zinc Lead (ll) Copper (ll) Iron (ll)

+3

Aluminum Iron (lll)

Charge

Name Fluoride Chloride

Chemical Formula FlClBrIOHNO3O2S2So42CO32PO43-

-1

Bromide Iodide Hydroxide Nitrate Oxide

-2

Sulfide Sulfate Carbonate

-3

Phosphate

Precautions When there is more than 1 of the same polyatomic ion in a compound, it must be
bracketed (E.g. Mg(NO3)2 or (NH4)2 So4 ) When writing chemical equations o Write down the unbalanced equation with state symbols

o Leave spacing between the compounds to accommodate the coefficients o Balance it by adding suitable coefficients o Try to find the LCM (Least Common Multiple)

Science 2012; General Science

Why a Global Issue?
Historically, waste produced by people mostly biodegradable in nature Increasing demand of plastic, electronic and other in-disposable waste by the growing population --> Increase in amount of municipal solid waste (MSW) increases Inappropriate management of MSW will lead to increased public health and environmental risks Currently, worlds cities produce 1.3 billion tones of MSW and it is expected to rise to 2.2 billion by 2025

Types of Wastes:
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) o Generated from household, offices, hotels, shops, schools and other institutions o Major components are food waste, paper, plastic, rags, metal and glass o Also includes demolition and construction debris and other chemical wastes Industrial Solid Waste o Paper, Packaging materials, Waste from food processing, Oils, Solvents, Resins, Paints Agriculture Wastes and residues o Production or rice, corn, wheat, palm oil, rubber, coconut o Forest products o Waste from Animal farms Hazardous Waste o Chemical wastes & Nuclear wastes

Environmental and Health Problems caused by Wastes

Indiscriminate dumping has led to the contamination of surface and ground water supplies Open burning of waste contributes significantly to urban air pollution Uncontrolled release of methane (a by-product of the decomposition of organic wastes) has a significant contribution to the greenhouse effect Lack of proper facilities to manage the increase in potentially hazardous industrial, biomedical and nuclear wastes Uncontrolled dumping of biomedical waste has the potential for transporting pathogens Indiscriminate disposal of oils, used batteries, discarded paints, spent chemicals and carcinogens can cause significant adverse impacts on human health and the environment

Waste Disposal Methods for MSW

Open Dumping (most widespread method) o Involves the uncontrolled disposal waste without measures to control leachate, dust, odor, landfill gas o Open burning of waste is also carried at dumpsites o Problem: The built-up of landfill gas (predominantly methane), which has led to outbreaks of fire and to adverse health effects on workers and adjacent residents Landfilling (or sanitary landfilling) o Easiest and cheapest option for most industrialized countries o A designed structure built into or on top of the ground for them to dump loads of waste o Rubbish is compacted and covered with a layer of soil to reduce odors and vermin o Landfill gas facility can be built to collect biogas o Problem: Takes up space Cause environmental pollution due to methane gas and carbon dioxide Produce Leachate Composting o A natural biological process, carried out under controlled aerobic conditions (requires oxygen) o Various microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi, break down organic matter into simpler substances o Approximately 45-55% of the waste stream is organic matter. Composting plays an important role in conserving landfill space and reducing the production of leachate and methane gas Incineration o An expensive and technically inappropriate waste disposal solution o Different types of waste such as tires, chemicals and plastics can be burned o Heat generated from incinerator can be recovered to produce hot water and electricity o Problem: Can cause health and environmental problems as toxic ash and gases are produced and released into the atmosphere

Disposal Methods for;

Industrial Wastes o Landfilling (both semi-engineered and sanitary landfilling) o Incineration o Open Dumping Agriculture Wastes and Residues o Composting Hazardous Wastes o Open Dumping

o Sanitary landfilling o Incineration Biomedical Wastes o Standard procedure of collecting, storage and disposal of wastes prior incineration must be done Radioactive Wastes o Low level waste Compacted and incinerated Stored in metal container o Intermediate level waste Stored in steel like concrete container Buried underground o High level Waste Cooled for ten years Stored in reinforced concrete (20 inch thick) and steel container (0.5 inch thick, both inside and outside of contained) Transport to permanent burial ground Eg. Used Nuclear Fuel Reactor

Waste Management A Global Challenge!

Stakeholders, Institutions and Legislation o Play an important o Provide the key to effective national waste management policies and strategies that integrate the responsibility of all stakeholders in making waste management a successful venture Problems faced: o Lack of funds & community involvement and responsibility Waste Minimization and Recycling via: o Source reduction, material recovery and reuse and recycling, is increasingly being realized as the central basis of an integrated approach to waste management How? Through: o The regulation of Industry, economic instruments o The modification and redesigning of the plant facilities o The education consumers in the benefits of environmentally-friendly products o Industrial waste exchange (Philippines) Project is based on the concept that wastes generated by one company can be still useful to another Shrimp heads used as raw materials by another animal feed milling company Economic and financial strategies (some examples) o Pollution taxes as fine o Tax reduction as a reward o Encourage clean production practices o User or waste-end fees Encouraging users to bring their own bags for shopping o Waste Disposal fees Certain fees are payable for disposal of wastes o Deposit Refund System Consumer has to pay a deposit of purchase and is given a refund if the waste products (such as empty bottles and aluminum cans) is returned to the seller to an authorized recycling/ reuse center

English

English Merchant of Venice Notes Essay; Characterisation

Prince of Morocco
1. Wishes to be treated equally, and not be discriminated against for his skin colour "Mislike me not for my complexion" is said to ensure that Portia wouldn't be biased against him just because of his darker skin tone

2. Egomaniac; Thinks highly of himself "he does in birth deserve her, and in fortunes, in graces, and in quality of breeding" "A golden mind stoops not to shows of dross;/ I'll then nor give nor hazard aught for lead"

3. Materialistic; Bases things on outward appearances. "it were too gross/ To rib her cerecloth in the obscure grave."

4. Smooth-tongued, effusive I would not change this hue, / Except to steal your thoughts, my gentle queen.

Prince of Arragon 1. Self-Obsessed & Superiority Mind-set: The Prince of Arragon is shown to be a self-obsessed
man, thinking of his I will not choose what many men desire/ Because I will not jump with common spirits/ And rank me with the barbarous multitudes And well said too, for who shall go about/ To cozen Fortune, and be honourable/ Without the stamp of merit?

2. Foolish- The Prince of Arragon is a fool, and the item he gets out of the casket, the jokers head, symbolises that. Did I deserve no more than a fools head?" No, he doesn't

3. Arrogant- The Prince of Arragon said things that suggested that he was arrogant and thought highly of himself. Who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves/ I will assume desert. Give me the key for this Did I deserve no more than a fools head?/ Is that my prize? Are my deserts no better? Shows that he thinks that he deserves more

Jessica
1. Romantic and blinded by love- Jessica is romantic and she does not hide her feelings for Lorenzo Lorenzo certain, and my love indeed/ For who I love so much? And now who knows/ But you, Lorenzo, whether I am yours But love is blind, and lovers cannot see/ The pretty follies that themselves commit In such a night/ Did young Lorenzo swear he loved her well/ Stealing her soul with many vows of faith

2. Spendthrift- It is obvious that Jessica loves to spend a lot of money, as shown by the speed with which she spent the money she had stolen from Shylock. Your daughter spent in Genoa, as I heard, one / night, fourscore ducats. One of them showed me a ring that he had of/ your daughter for a monkey.

3. Backstabber/ Betrayer- She betrayed her father by leaving him, taking his money, and converting to a Christian. Before Shylock leaves, she says Farewell; and if my fortune be not crossed/ I have a father, you a daughter, lost.

4. Keeps on trying to fit in, somewhat conformity- After her elopement with Lorenzo, she takes sides with the Christians. When I was with him, I have heard him swear/ To Tubal and to Chus, his countrymen/ That he would rather have Antonios flesh/ Than twenty times the value of the sum/ That he did owe him; and I know not, my Lord/ If law, authority, and power deny not/ It will go hard on poor Antonio

5. Not filial; She feels that she is not truly, in nature and character, Shylock's daughter "But though I am a daughter to his blood/ I am not to his manners"

6. Slightly guiltily conscious; She does express some guilt before she leaves Shylock, though this is immediately forgone in the next lines (Refer to Number 6) "Alack, what heinous sin is it in me/ To be ashamed to be my father's daughter"

Gratiano
1. Happy-go-lucky- Gratiano is generally carefree and takes things lightly Let me play the fool!/ With mirth and laughter let old wrinkles come Nay, but I bar tonight, you shall not judge me/ By what we do tonight

2. Witty & Talkative and Wild: Throughout the play, instances where Gratianos wit has been displayed have been common. Hes also described as a wild character by Bassanio, with But here thee, Gratiano/ Thou art too wild, too rude, and bold of voice. O upright judge! Mark, Jew: O learned judge! A second Daniel, a Daniel, Jew! When Portia (in disguise), allows Shylock his bond, Shylock says A Daniel come to judgment! yea, a Daniel! Gratiano uses this, and says A second Daniel, a Daniel, Jew!. He is very witty and uses the word Daniel to say that even the wise judge that Shylock said the person was, he is still denied of his bond

3. Crude: While his wit is enjoyed by many, he insults badly too, as shown during the trial scene, where he has an ugly spat with Shylock Not on thy sole, but on thy soul, harsh Jew Uses pun to further insult and condemn Shylock as a person who does not show mercy/blinded by hatred. O be thou damned, inexcecrable dog/ And for thy life let justice be accused

Antonio
1. Gullible- He thinks that Shylock is truly kind when he offers the flesh bond say there is much kindness in the Jew The Hebrew turns Christian, he grows kind

2. Melancholic & Pessimistic- Throughout the play Antonio is a sad character, being upset for a variety of reasons. In sooth I know not why I am so sad I shall follow him no more with bootless prayers Showing he has given up hope, though this can be argued against, saying that he isn't showing that he's pessimistic, but rather, that Shylock cannot be persuaded by any means

3. Generous- Despite Bassanio being unable to repay his debts, he does, throughout the play, lend him money, showing his generosity. My purse, my person, my extremest means/ lie all unlocked to your occasions. Try what my credit can in Venice do: that shall be rack'd, even to the uttermost, to furnish thee to Belmont, to fair Portia.

4. Racist- While being generous, his ugly side is shown when he loses his patience with Shylock when he goes to borrow money, and he allows his impersonal distaste turn into open prejudice. His unpleasant side is further enforced by Shylocks recounts of the insults thrown at him by Antonio. The devil (Shylock) can cite Scripture for his purpose/ An evil soul producing holy witness/ Is like a villain with a smiling cheek/ A goodly apple rotten at the heart/ O what a goodly outside falsehood hath You call me misbeliever, cut throat dog/ And spit upon my Jewish gabardine Shall I bend low, and in a bondmans key/ With bated breath and whispering humbleness/ Say this:/ Fair Sir, you spat on me on Wednesday last;/ You called me dog- and for these courtesies/ Ill lend you money thus I am as like to call thee so again/ To spit on thee again, to spurn thee too.

5. Dignified- The manner in which he resigns to his fate during the trial scene was very dignified, as he accepts what he has brought upon himself. Therefore, I do beseech you/ Make no offers, use no farther means/ But with all brief and plain conveniency/ Let me have my judgement, and the Jew his will I do oppose/ My patience to his fury, and am armed/ To suffer with quietness of spirit/ The very tyranny and rage of his

6. Selfless- He chooses to risk his life for the sake of Bassanio by agreeing to the flesh bond, and also chooses to uphold the Venetian law rather than try and save his own life The Duke cannot deny the course of the law/ For the commodity that strangers have/ With us in Venice, if it be denied/ Will much impeach the justice of the state

7. Merciful; Despite Shylock's intention's to kill him just a while back, he tells the court to be merciful to him "So please my lord the Duke and all the court/ To quit the fine for one half of the goods"

8. Naive, believes there is no risk in sacrificing his flesh, and in other words his own life Content, in faith! Ill seal to such a bond, / And say there is much kindness in the Jew.

9. Self-deprecating I am a tainted wether of the flock, / Meetest for death; the weakest kind of fruit / Drops earliest to the ground, and so let me.

Bassanio
1. Perpetually in debt, Spendthrift Despite being broke, he still holds a dinner before he leaves for Belmont. "How much I have disabled mine estate/ By something showing more a swelling port/ Than my faint means would grant continuance"

2. Loyal towards Antonio "To you, Antonio/ I owe the most in money and love" "You shall not seal to such a bond for me!/ I'd rather dwell in my necessity" "The dearest friend to me, the kindest man" He rushes straight to Venice right after his marriage simply to be by Antonio's side. "But my life itself, my wife, and all the world/ Are not with me esteemed above thy life/ I would lose all, ay sacrifice them all/ Here to this devil, to deliver you" "The Jew shall have my flesh, blood, bones, and all/ Ere thou shalt lose for me one drop of blood"

3. Opportunist He does admit to Antonio that part of the reason why he's trying to woo Portia is because of her rich inheritance "In Belmont is a lady richly left" The first words she uses to describe Portia

4. Disloyal; Days after promising never to part with the ring, he lets it go "But when this ring/ Parts from this finger, then parts of life from hence/ O then be bold to say Bassanio's dead" And then parts with it very soon

5. Dependent When I told you / My state was nothing, I should then have told you / That I was worse than nothing; for indeed / I have engaged myself to a dear friend, / Engaged my friend to his mere enemy, / To feed my means.

6. Thoughtful So may the outward shows be least themselves; / The world is still deceived with ornament.

7. Short-sighted I beseech you / Wrest once the law to your authority; / To do a great right, do a little wrong, / And curb this cruel devil of his will.

Portia
1. Elegant & Beautiful "And she is fair and, fairer than that word/ Of wondrous virtues" "Why that's the lady! All the world desires her"

2. Extremely Intelligent Her plan in the trial scene was one of extreme intelligence, finding the loophole in the bond Upon asking Shylock, "Have by some surgeon, Shylock on your charge/ To stop his wounds, lest he do bleed to death?" Upon saying "tis not in the bond", Shylock confirms his murderous intentions. On the other hand, if he had some surgeon, then he could have easily have said he did not mean to kill Antonio. Later on, Portia uses this to charge him of attempted murder of a Venecian. She gives hints to Bassanio so that he would choose the right casket "Tell me where is fancy bred/ In the heart or in the head"

3. Racist "If he have the condition of a saint/ and the complexion of a devil, I had rather he should. shrive me than wive me" "And may all of his complexion choose me so"

4. Brave Shylock was a strong person, and Antonio, Bassanio and even the Duke couldn't convince him to relent, yet Portia had the mental courage to convince him to give in

5. Not one to give in to someone else's will While she was forced to choose the winner of the casket lottery as her husband, she still tried to manipulate the odds to her favour, such as making the drunk Duke of Saxony's nephew choose the wrong casket by tempting him with Rhenish wine

6. Filial "If I live to be as old as Sybilla, I will die as chaste as Diana unless I be obtained by the manner of my father's will"

7. Modest This comes too near the praising of myself, / Therefore no more of it"

Shylock

1. Very Religious; follows his religion very extensively "Yes, to smell pork, to eat of the habitation/ which you prophet the Nazarite conjured the devil/ into!" "An oath, an oath! I have an oath in heaven/ Shall I lay perjury upon my soul?/ No, not for Venice" "I pray you leave me to go from/ hence/ I am not well- send the deed after me" He does not feel well after being told that he has to convert to Christianity

2. Vicious "I will have the heart of him if he forfeit" As Jessica says, When I was with him, I have heard him swear/ To Tubal and to Chus, his countrymen/ That he would rather have Antonios flesh/ Than twenty times the value of the sum/ That he did owe him; and I know not, my Lord/ If law, authority, and power deny not/ It will go hard on poor Antonio "I crave the law, the penalty and forfeit of my bond"

3. Grudge-bearing & Vengeful "I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him" "It will feed my revenge, if it will not feed anything else" "The villainy you teach me I will execute, and it shall be as hard but I will better the instruction'

4. Duplicitous While claiming the bond was a "merry-sport", it was in fact a plot to get Antonio's flesh.

5. Money-minded "Two thousand ducats in that, and other/ precious, precious jewels"

6. Crude for his money "I would my daughter were/ dead at my foot, and the jewels in her ear! Would she/ were hearsed at my foot, and the ducats in her coffin" "He has denied me half a million" and hence he wants to kill Antonio so that "I can make what merchandise I will"

7. Merciless "On what compulsion must I?"

8. Control-freak Hear you me, Jessica, / Lock up my doors, and when you hear the drum / And the vile squealing of the wry-necked fife, / Clamber not you up to the casements then / Nor thrust your head into the public street / To gaze on Christian fools with varnished faces

Essay; Theme
Deceptiveness of Appearance
Bassanio

Says " So may outward shows be least themselves/ The world is still deceived with ornament". Yet he tells Gratiano to "take pain/ To allay with some cold drops of modesty/ Thy skipping spirit, lest through thy wild behaviour/ I be misconstered in the place I go to/ And lose my hopes" Shows that he believes in putting on an appearance to hide what's underneath. Also swears and confesses his love for Portia, yet in Venice, in her absence says he would sacrifice her Hence his character shows we can trust outward appearances

Portia, Nerissa & Jessica's cross-dessing

Jessica cross-dresses in order to escape the hellish life with her father Portia & Nerissa does so to save Antonio. Portia also seems to experience freedom by doing so Suggests that sometimes it is necessary to be deceptive to achieve aims that cannot be done so otherwise

Gender Relations
Portia & Jessica
Both imprisoned by father's wishes, as they don't allow freedom. Shylock shows over-protectiveness by telling her not to "gaze on Christian fools with varnished faces" Portia imprisoned by father's will, and must marry whoever chooses the correct casket, regardless of whether or not she likes him Both escape, though both only by marrying another man. Their cross-dressing also shows that only men can achieve what they want; freedom However, the fact that they can both get what they want ultimately shows that even in a patriarchal society women can find a way to manipulate their position to get what they want Portia also dresses up during the trial as she want not be gotten seriously by those in the court as woman, despite being able to out-think those in the court.

Portia & Nerissa's rings

Shows that men are closer friends with other men and women with other women then they're relationships. Highlights the genders in Renaissance society.

Geography

Geography Notes Semester 2

Under-population
Found when there is a low rate of population growth. As a result, resources in the land are not fully utilised, and hence the quality of life suffers. Commonly found in mature, industrialised nations. However, underpopulation in developing countries is becoming more common too, with a falling Birth Rate (BR) and a stabilised low Death Rate(DR) Eg. Singapore, Italy & Japan.

Population Pyramid of Singapore

Population Pyramid of country with Under-population

Rocket-shaped Broad Top -> Shows that there is a relatively low death rate due to long life expectancy. Also shows a higher percentage of older dependants and that the population Is greying Relatively broad base -> Shows large percentage of working population Narrow Base -> Indicates low birth and fertility rates.

Effects of Low Population Growth

Decline in economic growth
o Fewer people in the work force due to smaller population size -> Lower productivity, which means the nation produces less or slow outcomes o Operations in business & industries are affected -> Not attractive to investors and Multi-National Companies and hence cannot stay competitive with other neighbouring countries o Hence economic growth(GDO & GNP) are slowed

Ageing Population
o Faster growth in the percentage of aged as compared to that of young o More elderly people to care for due to low death rate o Requires more healthcare and social services -> Money needed for these services strain the governments resources o Smaller workforce to pay taxes to support provision of these services -> Greater burden on the working class o Proportion of elderly grows, while the proportion of young does not due to low birth rate o Hence, theres a higher proportion of elderly.

Case Study 1: Singapore

The History
1950s & 1960s
Period of post-war baby boom because peace had returned to the country and families were united. Not uncommon to see families with up to six children Reached 2 million by 1970 Estimated that the population would reach 5 million if population growth was not curbed- leading to a serious shortage in resources, schools, homes, jobs etc. Hence family planning had to be introduced.

Stop at two. Boy or Girl, Two is Enough

Established in 1966 by Singapore Family Planning & Population Board, to reduce Singapores rapid population growth and high birth rate Approaches: o Liberalisation of abortion, it was made legal in all governmental clinics o Sterilisation encouraged for parents with more than 2 or 3 children o Progressively higher hospital accouchement rates for higher birth orders. o Female civil servants who underwent sterilisation after the birth of 3rd or more child were given paid maternity leave o Restriction of normal child relief in income tax returns to the first 3 children born on or after 1st August 1973 o Priority for Primary School children for three or less for mother who has undergone sterilisation Family planning largely successful because o Family planning services readily available o Easy to promote family planning via mass media o High literacy rate allowed them to accept benefits of smaller families

1970s & 1980s

Largely successful family planning led to fertility rate declining. Rapidly Fertility Rate became very low due to o Growing number of single women among population. Idea of singlehood being common amongst well educated o People married at later ages. In 1975, 5.8% of brides were above 30. Rose to 15% in 1991. Later marriages meant shorter child-bearing years o People need not depend on their children to support them during their old age due to CPF savings which can be withdrawn at 55 Effects of declining birth rate and population not replacing itself are plentiful o Under-utilisation of facilities built for larger population o Shortage of manpower for defence o Tight labour market with fewer people entering the job market. Labour shortage results in higher labour costs (Creates unattractive investment environment for MNCs), country cannot be competitive o Ageing population, with bad effects (Mentioned Above)

Have three or More, if you can afford it

Established in 1987 by Family Life Education. Approcahes o Compulsory pre-sterilisation counselling for those with less than three children o Pre and post abortion counselling for those with three children o Families of children below the age of six years qualified for monthly $100 subsidy to offset the fees of approved childcare centres used o Special Tax Rebate: Tax rebate of upto $20,000 per couple for parents of a new third children o Husband or Wife may claim up to $3000 for delivery and hospitalisation expenses for the 4th child born in the previous year o Priority for housing choice given to families wanting to move to bigger flats after the birth of their third child; permission for bigger families to sell their HDB flat in the open market before 5 years of occupancy o Priority given to children from three-child families. Success rate: not very high. Singapores population is still low, and there is an ageing population

Ageing Population in Singapore

Life expectancy was 75 years for men and 79.2 years for women in 1997. Attributed to improved nutrition, hygiene and medical care and a healthy lifestyle Many people now more health-conscious. More careful about their food and they exercise more regularly. Also have easy access to well-equipped hospitals and other medical services Govt. actively seeking to solve the problems faced by the aged Solutions:
o Encourage aged to maintain healthy lifestyle, and are also encouraged to go for regular talks on healthcare. Senior Citizens Clubs organise stay-fit activities for them. Leading a healthy life-style will reduce the need for health-care services, as the elders are less likely to fall ill o People encouraged to live with their aged dependants. A Singaporean can claim up to $9000 for tax reduction if his/her aged parents, grandparents or great grandparents live with him/her. Married Singaporeans with aged dependants living with them are also given housing priority o Day Care centres for the aged built for those who do not require residential care o Studio apartments built to accommodate the elders. These apartments have facilities that can help the elderly and keep them safe.

MIGRATION
Definition
Migration is the movement of people (individual or group), across a specified boundary, internal or international, to establish a new permanent place of residence. UN defines permanent as a change of residence lasting MORE THAN A YEAR.

Common terms
Immigrant = A person who is entering a country from another to take up new residence. Emigrant = A person who is leaving a country to reside in another. Net migration = difference of immigrants and emigrants of an area in a period of time Internal migration = Moving to a new home within a state, country, or continent. International/external migration = Moving to a new home in a different state, country, or continent. Permanent / non-permanent Voluntary / non-voluntary

Types of migration
Internal migration
o Seasonal migration = The process of moving for a period of time in response to labor or climate conditions (e.g., farm workers following crop harvests or working in cities off-season; "snowbirds" moving to the southern and southwestern United States during winter). o Rural urban / Urban rural o Planned (Transmigration)

REASONS for migration

Push
Economic:
o Lack of economic opportunities, unemployment o Low wages e.g migration of Mexicans and people from other Central American countries, where they often work low-wage, long-hour jobs in farming, construction and domestic labour, into the United States of America where wages are better. o Agricultural decline = means a person cannot grow as much food on the same amount of land as they once could. Over time land becomes less fertile and people have to move due to less yield and less income

Social:
o Low standard of living
e.g poor healthcare services, education opportunities.

o Limits on freedom - Communist countries often limit personal freedom. People cannot listen to certain music, watch certain television shows, or even say things bad about the government.

Political:

o Political persecution = means that people are punished when they disagree with the government. This happens most in dictatorships or communist countries. People have migrated from China and Cuba because of political persecution. o Political instability o Wars & conflicts. People who flee from wars are called refugees.

Environmental:
o Natural disasters; when there are frequent natural disasters, the people of a certain country may migrate to another in order for their lives not to be affected regularly by the natural disaster.

Pull
Economic:
o More job opportunities, high employment rates o Higher wages

Social:
o High standards of living
e.g Better healthcare, education opportunities

o More entertainment and lifestyle options

Political:
o Political freedom o Political stability e.g stable government, peace & stability

Environmental:
o No natural disasters

Rural urban migration (internal)

Note that for this, limited employment would mean: - farm fragmentation, -crop failure/drought, -overgazing, -mechanization.

Statistics in China
In 1995, 70,000,000 people left townships (rural) in search of jobs (temp./long-term) in country towns or bigger urban areas. 71% of Chinas total population live in rural areas There is a surplus of rural labour which needs to be transferred to nonagricultral occupations e.g industrial

Consequences of Rural urban migration

Overpopulation in the urban cities (host) would lead to:
o Unemployment o Inadequate housing o Increase in crime rates o Environmental pollution

Population decline in rural areas (home) would lead to:

o Low farm productivity low yield low income for those working in agricultural sector o Decline in standards of living due to lower income

Weather and Climate

Weather = Conditions of the atmosphere at a specific place over a relatively short time e.g a few hours Climate = Conditions of the atmosphere of a specific place over a considerable period of time e.g. 30-40 years. o Atmosphere -> the layer of air surrounding the Earth -> gases, water vapour and dust particles o Made up of 5 layers o But we only focus on the lowest layer Troposphere Highest concentration of gases, water vapour and dust particles is Conditions in troposphere results in changes in weather Lowest layer

Daily Temperature Range

Daily temperature range is the numerical difference between the minimum and maximum values of temperature observed in a system.
o For e.g. the hottest temperature in a day is 32oC while the coldest is 24oC, then the daily temperature range will be 8oC

Basic Weather Elements

Temperature Humidity Precipitation Pressure Wind

Highlighted words mean important.

7 Factors Affecting the Temperature

1) Latitude

The distance to the north and south of the equator The suns energy gets spread out more than at a location of higher latitude than at the equator. At the equator, the suns energy is very concentrated as it only spreads out on a small area. Therefore, the temperature at the equator is higher, as there is an equal amount of heat at the a smaller area, resulting in the heat being more intense, while at 40 degrees North, the sunlight strikes at an angle, causing the light to be spread over a larger are, which in turn results in the temperature being less intense and lower

2) Altitude

 Height of a point from sea level Generally decreases with increasing altitude (refer to air pressure) BUT, once heat gets introduced (@ micro level), higher altitude = lower pressure.

Taking into account that heat does not get introduced here,
At low attitude
Pull of gravity is higher near surface of the Earth Thus more air molecules concentrated near the Earth -> therefore, more weight will be exerted on the Earths surface Leading to higher air pressure

At high altitude
Pull of gravity gets lower as one gets further away from the Earth surface Less air molecules in the higher altitude Less overlying atmosphere ass Less weight of air Leading to lower air pressure

3) Distance from sea

Land and water surfaces differ in their ability to absorb, transfer and radiate heat. Sea is transparent and has depth -> heat is transferred to greater depth GREATER specific heat capacity -> water requires 2 times as much energy as soil and 5 times more than sand to raise equivalent mass to the same temperature. More transparent than land and able to transfer heat to a greater depth by waves and currents, so sea has higher specific heat capacity. In short, land cools down and heats up faster than sea. This difference has an effect on temperatures in coastal are

Maritime Climate Effect that large ocean bodies have on climate of coastal areas, causing
them to have smaller annual temperature range

Annual temperature range = difference between the mean monthly temperature of the warmest month and that of the coolest month in a year -> affected by distance from sea -> further inland = range higher.

At coastal areas o In temperate (beyond 23 - tropic of Cancer/Capricorn) latitudes, onshore

winds blowing from the sea tend to lower summer temperatures and raise winter temperatures.

Continental Climate
At inland regions Onshore winds warmed by hot land -> air temperature is higher
o Hotter summer and colder winters o Annual temperature range is higher.

4) Slope/Aspect
Slope orientation/direction relative to the sun Applies to temperate areas more South/North facing
If you are in the Northern Hemisphere, South-facing slope will be hotter than the North-facing slope as the South-facing slope is facing the equator where the sun is shining. o The reverse applies when youre in the Southern Hemisphere

5) Ocean Currents
Warm Currents
Temperature in the coastal lands in temperate regions (especially 40o to 66o, North and South) are moderated by warming effects of warm ocean currents.

Cold Currents
Cool ocean currents exert cooling influence on summer temperature in coastal area in mid-latitude on western margins of continents Wind blows.. (missed this part)

6) Cloud Cover
Higher humidity = more clouds formed Clouds reduce the amount of solar radiation that reaches the Earths surface Tropical Equatorial Areas
Day -> denser cloud cover -> reduces solar heating of the land in the day time -> lower day temperature Night -> cloud cover prevents rapid loss of heat from the Earths surface -> therefore, night temperature do not fall too much -> low diurnal temperature range

30 o and 30 o belt of High Pressure Area

Absence of cloud cover -> more solar heating of land in day time -> day temperature to increase more than 38oC No cloud cover at night -> rapid loss of heat from the Earths surface by radiation from the heated land surface -> night temperature to fall to 21oC or below. Result in large diurnal range of temperature

Air cools and sinks, then gets warm, takes moisture when expands at the High Pressure Belts.

7) Types of Land Surfaces

Different surfaces absorb and reflect different amount of solar energy Concrete surfaces, roofs and buildings -> absorb heat rapidly in the day and release heat slowly at night A larger amount of dust particles to trap heat UHT Reflect little heat, higher albedo rate Vegetated surfaces -> presence of trees and plants Evapotranspiration -> needs heat to evaporate Vegetated areas -> lower temperatures Vegetated areas do not really reflect much solar energy (this is what is written down in my notes, but shouldnt it be reflect a lot of heat instead? ><)-> lower albedo rate

Air Pressure
Factors affecting Air Pressure
Temperature. Air pressure is inversely proportionate to temp.
At high temperatures
Air gets warm Air molecules move apart -> volume expands Air becomes lighter -> it rises Less air molecules in a same amount of space Less weight exerted Lower pressure

At low temperatures
Air molecules move close together Volume contracts Greater number of air molecules to be packed in a same amount of space Air is heavier More weight exerted Higher air pressure

Wind
Wind always blows from a place of higher pressure to a place of low pressure Winds form due to changes in air pressure The greater the pressure gradient (difference between pressure of 2 areas), the stronger the winds

Micro Factors of Wind

Sea Breeze

Land Breeze

Macro Factors of Wind (and air pressure)

 Rotation of Earth is from West to East Coriolis Effect

o Northern Hemisphere Deflect to right o Southern hemisphere Deflect to left o Coriolis Effect can cause hurricanes and typhoons

o Global Wind System

Due to the belts and the Coriolis effect, we have the GLOBAL WIND SYSTEM.

Meso Factor of Wind

Monsoon

Meso scale. Seasonal winds -> seasonal reversal of wind direction Caused by the extreme heating and cooling of large land masses in relation to the smaller heat changes over adjacent sea areas -> unequal heating of land and sea -> affects pressure and thus winds. A very complex system which affects the lives and of the worlds population

North-east Monsoon

Happens during December/January, when the overhead sun is near the Tropic of Capricorn During this time, the northern hemisphere experiences winter, causing temperatures to be low and lose heat rapidly The cold air contracts, sinking to form a high pressure area. On the other hand the S.Hemisphere experiences summer, causing temperatures to be high, and the air to gain heat The hot air expands and rises, causing a low pressure area As wind travels from a high pressure area to a low pressure area, the monsoon happens occurs when the winds travel form the north hemisphere to the south hemisphere Firstly, we need to look at it from the perspective of the Northern Hemisphere (Imagine you are on a country in the N.hemisphere looking towards the S.Hemisphere) Due to the Coriolis effect, the winds in the N.hemisphere will deflect towards the right (from the N.Hemisphere's point of view) When crossing into the S.Hemisphere, it deflects towards the left (Again, from N.Hemisphere's Point of View) As a result, the monsoon reaches Australia It's called the North East monsoon, because it occurs in the North East, around China

South West Monsoon

The South West Monsoon is easier, as the right and left is taken from the viewer's point of view while looking at the diagram above. This occurs in the middle of the year, when the S. Hemisphere is experiencing winter, while the N. Hemisphere is experiencing summer Due to the reasons mentioned above, Australia in the S. Hemisphere has a higher air pressure than the N. Hemisphere Wind hence travels from the South to the North As the winds are deflected towards the left in the S. Hemisphere, the winds travel towards the left while nearing the equator. On crossing the equator and entering the N. Hemisphere, the winds are deflected towards the right, and moves into India and Bangladesh. As a result, its known as the South West monsoon, as it starts in the South, and is at the west before coming into the N. Hemisphere.

Humidity
Amount of water vapour present in the air Places near the equator have high humidity Relative Humidity is the proportion of water vapour present in the air, in relation to the maximum amount of water vapour the air can hold at a particular temperature. The air is able to hold different amounts of water vapour at different temperatures Saturation is when the air is holding the maximum amount of water vapour at that temperature. When the air is saturated, the relative humidity is 100%, while at 0%, the air is dry. Humidity, however, hardly falls below 30%

Precipitation
Water falling from the atmosphere into onto the earth's surface Form of precipitation, depends on temperature of location
o In cold places, it may be snow, while in warm climates, it's usually rain.

Rain (Related to Wind)

Two types
o Convectional Rain In Tropical & Temperate areas Ground surface area has to be overheated before this can happen Adjacent air heated by conduction --> Surrounding air expands due to heating and then becomes lighter Light air rises rapidly due to convection When this warm and light air rises to higher altitudes, where temperatures are lower, the air cools and condenses to form cumulonimbus clouds. Usually falls with thunder and lightening There are two types of convectional rain; light drizzle with sun shining or a thunderstorm Either long or short-lived

o Relief(or graphic) Rain Moisture laden air blows off the sea Forced to rise rapidly as it is confronted by a mountain barrier Air cools at the higher altitudes, and condenses, forming water dropplets It drops as rain mostly on the windward side. On the leeward side, the air descends and becomes more compressed as well as warmed, which makes it able to hold more moisture Little or no rain falls there

Climate Graphs
Reading Climate Graphs
Step 1:
Determine patterns for the temperatures in the year
o o o o Is the temperature more or less the same throughout the year? Which are the winter or summer months (If applicable) What were the highest and lowest temperature What was the average annual temperature

Step 2:
Determine patterns for rainfall
o o o o Was it evenly distributed throughout the year? Does it have a dry and wet season? What was the wettest and driest months? How much rain was collected

Step 3:
Describe the changes throughout the year
o What was the temperature range o How many dry and how many wet months are there?

Step 4:
Give reasons (Though I don't think she's taught us this yet)

Some Facts
Tropic of Cancer ---> 23 degrees North latitude Tropic of Capricorn ---> 23 degrees South Latitude For every kilometre you go above sea level, the temperature falls by about 6.5 degrees Celsius

Types of Climate
Different climates are experienced at different parts of the world. Type of climate affects the way people live

Tropical Equatorial Climate

Distribution
Experienced by places within latitudes of 10 degree north & south of the Equator o Amazon basin of S.America, Congo Basin of Africa & Countries in SEA

Temperature
High annual mean temp, around 27 degrees celcius Due to latitude, causing sun's rays to strike near the equator at about 90 degrees, making the concentration of heat higher and the temperature higher too Also uniform throughout the year, with small annual temperature range of about 2 degrees celcius Hence places near the equator receive about the same amount of sunlight throughout the year

Rainfall
In such areas, relative humidity is very high, usually above 80%, due to the fact that high temperatures cause quicker evaporations Hence, convectional rain occurs frequently, leading to high rainfall More than 1500 mm per year up to 3000 mm per year Rain generally falls throughout the year and hence there is no distinct wet and dry season

Singapore's Weather & Climate

Located close to the equator Experiences high mean annual temp of 26.8 degrees celsius Range from 25.7 degrees celcius to 27.5 degrees celcius; annual temp range about 1.8 degrees celcius Annual rainfall; high, at around 2400 mm Relative humidity around 80%, though during prolonged heavy rains, it may reach 100%

Tropical Monsoon Climate

Distribution
Experienced by places between 10 degree and 25 degree north and south of the equator o Vietnam, Myanmar, India, Sri Lanka, Western Africa, North-Eastern & SouthEastern Brazil

Temperature
High temperatures throughout the year, whit mean annual temperature around 26 degrees celsius, similar to the of TEC. Annual temp range however is larger, around 6 degree celsius Also greater variation in mean monthly temperatures

Climographs of Mangalore(TMC) & Iquitos (TEC) Rainfall

High, at above 1500 mm Monthly rainfall range high, between 0 mm and 3000mm Main diff is that TMC has distinct wet and dry seasons Countries lying in the area of the TMC are affected by monsoon winds (No shit?) NE monsoon that blows over Indian sub-continent from October to January are dry and bring hardly any rain SW monsoon, however, that blows from June to September, brings heavy rain as it picks up moisture as they blow over Indian ocean and Bay of Bengal

Cool Temperate Climate

Distribution
Experienced by places that lie between latitudes 35 degree and 70 degree North and South of the equator o Canada, US, New Zealand, Northwest Europe, Korea, China Wide range in annual temp and precipitation

Temperature
Temperatures that are very high in the summer and low in the winter Annual temp range is around 15 to 30 degrees celsius

Climograph of Montreal, which is located at the eastern coast of Canada. Annual Temp Range is large varying from -10 oC celsius in Winter to 21 degrees celsius in the summer However, inland regions, like in Verkhoyansk, Russia, experience colder winters, where the temperature can go well below freezing point for many months of the year, dropping to even -68 oC (Due to factor of Distance from the Sea)

Precipitation
Falls as rain in the summer and snow in the winter Annual precipitation may be low or moderate, ranging from 300mm to 2000mm Not uniform amongst the different places that experience cool temperate climate o In Verkhoyansk, Russia, precipitation is low because low temperatures do not hold much moisture. Most of the precipitation falls as convectional rain in the summer o In Shenyang China, dry winds coming from inland Asia carry little precipitation during the winter. During summer, winds bring along high rainfall as they blow inward from the sea. Hence winters are dry and summer moist, similar to India's Monsoon climate, as China also is influenced by monsoon winds o In Sitka, USA, rainfall is higher than ^, though it's still moderate because of moisture brought onshore by winds, which blow towards highlands, giving rise to relief rain

Climate Changes in the Last 200 years

Not a new phenomenon, has occurred many times in the course of Earth's history A shift in the average weather conditions a region has experienced over a long period of time It occurs slowly over thousands to tens of thousands of years In last 200 years, however, the speed of temp range has alarmingly increased Marked increase of temp of about 0.7oC has coincided with increase in Carbon Dioxide levels!

Causes of Climate Change

Enhanced Greenhouse Effect (Global Warming) o Start of industrialisation @ beginning of 20th century for most countries o Factories, power plants, vehicles (due to increased affluence) release CO2 and nitrous oxide o Usage of CFCs with increased consumerism (Air-con, fridge, aerosol can) o Causes: Large scale deforestation (chopping large patches of trees most impt one is Amazon forest) Forests cleared to create more land (rapid population growth) to cope with needs of a rapid increasing world population (esp. since 1950) Many uses -> agricultural, industries, housing Less trees around -> levels of CO2 increases in the atmosphere -> more heat trapped Agricultural Activities Intensified to cater to feeding the increasing world population Wet rice cultivation -> decomposition of organic materials in flooded fields -> released methane and nitrous oxides -> account for 85% of rice cultivation area. Cattle ranching -> during their digestion process -> bacteria helps them digest food better but also releases methane in the process.

4oC impact on food production in India

Ganges o Plains (source for crops) Need an optimum moisture Floods Increase of rate of melting Huge amounts of uncontrolled water running from Himalayas Affects Agra, Allabad, Karpur (farming areas) Crops destroyed Less output o Drought No source of water anymore (in 2035) Source of input for the poor farmers without modern irrgigation systems No water that irrigates crops Dry out; no output of crops (food production goes down)

India is 70% agricultural Billions depend on Ganges No Ganges = No crops = no income = famine Economy affected by food production

IPCC assessment report (statistics)

Findings of the IPCC 4th Assessment Report of Working Group-1 released in Feb 2007 o Global average temperature could rise between 1.8 4oC o The sea level is likely to rise by 28 43 cm o There is likely to be an increase in the number of heat waves o The intensity of tropic storms such as hurricanes and typhoons is likely to rise

How does Climate Change affect SG?

Trends in our local weather records are consistent with global observations of climate change Since 1970s, SG has experienced an average alarming rate of 0.25oC per decade. Tide gauge data shows that the mean sea level has increased by about 3mm (or cm?) per year

Effects of Global Warming

Melting of ice caps, ice sheets and glaciers and rising sea levels

o West Antarctica and Greenland, arctic sea ice, mountain glaciers and ice caps melt o Thermal expansion of seawater when it is warmer Both leads to rising sea level o E.g. of melting ice caps Melting of these frozen stores of water has hastened the rise of sea levels Sea level rise became faster over the last century Average rate of 1.3 to 2.3mm per year since 1961 Threatens the survival/security/development of low-lying coastal areas

Impacts as a result of Melting Ice Caps

Social Impact (Negative) Flooding of some coastal cities -> social stability is threatened -> may have to migrate to other places -> climate refugees -> But neighbouring areas/countries may not welcome them -> strain on political relationships If government fails to address problem -> social unrest Projected effect: sea levels are expected to rise between 18 and 59 cm by the end of century

Arctic trade routes open up (Positive) New route takes a shorter time to travel from South Korea to Norway -> 30 days usually to travel by ship -> usual route down through the South China Sea, past SG, round the bottom of India, through the Suez Canal (pay toll here), across the Mediterranean and up the west coast of Europe -> but now, new route may cut travelling time by half -> economic impact -> economic exchanges will be brisk -> more trading and job opportunities However only possible in Summer months

Higher agricultural output for some countries (Positive) UK warmer summers over recent years due to global warming has encouraged major growth in vineyards o Economic opportunities in wine industry for UK -> creates more jobs for the British -> job opportunities for people -> people earn income/country earn revenue

 Extreme weather conditions

o Wet areas get wetter -> increased evaporation rates due to higher global temperature -> carrying capacity of rivers/canals exceeded -> flooding of settlements/destruction to property (social) o Dry areas may suffer from prolonged droughts -> affects agricultural or other economic activities (economic) E.g. Livelihood of farmers threatened by extreme weather conditions like drought -> unable to grow crops o Hurricanes more frequent and greater in magnitude -> can destroy homes and property -> people homeless and subjected to water-borne diseases -> o Frequent heat waves -> more people die from soaring temperatures -> social impact E.g. between September and October 2005, southeastern region of USA experienced 3 hurricanes instead of 1.5 normally.

Impacts as a result of Extreme Weather Conditions

Environmental Impact(Negative) Ice caps/sheets melt and sea levels rises Animals lose their homes, e.g. polar bears Migration of insects, animals, natural vegetation, etc Those who do not migrate fast enough/unable to survive with increased warming -> may face extinction

Impacts on plants and animals (Negative) Species that depend on one another may become out of sync -> food chain, ecosystems, life cycles, chain of life affected o E.g. some plants could bloom earlier than their pollinating insects can become active -> affects the survival of insects The decline of the Adelie penguins on Antarctica -> due to melting ice sheets -> from 32,000 breeding pairs to 11,000 in 30 years Spruce bark beetles have boomed in Alaska thanks to 20 years of warm summers -> they have chewed up 4 million acres of spruce trees Coral reefs in Australia suffer from bleaching from warmer water of more than 2oC

Projected environmental impact (possible in future) Some diseases may spread -> e.g. malaria carried by mosquitoes ans places get warmer Ecosystems may change some species will move farther north and flourish; those who are unable to move could be extinct

In short, impacts are plentiful. Scale is huge. It is easy to digress as the impacts are inter-related. Categorise them! Have specific examples to support (place-specific). Which one is the most serious, impact on most number of people? Requires immediate attention? Short/long term? Underlying impact environment? GM technology drought/flood resistant? Technological impacts? How do we cope on a warmer earth? To mitigate, adapt, individual/national/global scale. Long/Short term.

Solution to reduce Global Warming

Should be done on a global, national and international scale Kyoto Protocol o Agreement linked to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change o Entered into force on 16 Feb 05 o Sets emissions targets 38 industrialised countries and the European Community to reduce greenhouses gas (GHG) emissions by at least 5% below 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012 o Developing Countries including SG, have no emission targets o Recognises that DCs are responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere, due to longer years of industrial activity o Hence places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of common but differentiated o Kyoto Mechanisms Emissions trading Targets are expressed as levels of allowed emissions over the 08-12 commitment period Emissions trading allows countries that have emissions units to spare, emissions permitted them but not used- to sell this excess capacity to countries that are over their targets Clean Devt Mechanism Involves investment in sustainable devt projects that reduce emissions in LDCs Joint Implementation Industrialised countries to carry out joint implementation projects with other developed countries.
1. Mitigation

2. Alternative Energy (Other sources than fossil fuels) Depends on two conditions o Whether the region has favourable meteorological and geological conditions E.g. High winds in the open sea are motivating the devt of offshore wind farms rather than on-land capacity o Whether there is sufficient area available for the harvesting of these resources E.g. Desert -> not suitable for settlement -> could be used as farms

SGs Approach to Alternative Energy o Hydroelectric power cannot be harnessed Sg lacks a major river system o Wind speeds are too low for commercial wind turbines o Our prospects for the geothermal energy are low and the uncertainties are high o Our calm seas- make a good port but yield low potential for tidal energy o Our small physical size (710 sq km2), with a high population density a disadvantage o Solar energy is currently a clean energy source which offers at least some potential for Sg o Other limitations Small physical size restricts installation of solar panels on a large scale limit the extent to which it can meet SGs energy needs Significant cloud cover accentuates the intermittency of solar energy compromise reliably to our supply 3. Adaptation Adaptive capacity is intimately connected to social and economic development but is unevenly distributed across and within societies IPCC, 07 Increased Energy Efficiency o Simple and relatively painless changes in daily energy Fuel consumption habits can change o Can help to save money and help mitigate the effects of Global Warming Set air-conditioner timer to automatically switch off half hour before getting-up time Annual savings (est.) -> $30 < 0.8kW (single air-con) x 0.5hr x 365 days x $0.21/kW -> annual CO2 savings (est.) -> 0.03 tonnes Increase AC temp by 1 degree can help to reduce energy bills by at least 10% -> save $47 Switch off appliances rather than putting them on stand-by Reducing speed from 120km/h to 100km/h will reduce fuel consumption by about 15% -> save $23 By anticipating traffic and applying slow, steady acceleration and braking -> save $33 (assuming driving at such speeds for 10% of the year) Tire pressure checks- a single tire under inflated by 2 PSI (~6%) increases fuel consumption by 7%

Reality for SG
Export oriented economy(international trade makes up a large % if total economy) Low potential for renewable energy An island State heavily reliant on Fossil Fuels Main Mitigation Strategies o Energy Efficiency 2 Pillars of sustainable o Clean, less carbon-intensive energy sources energy policy

4. Adaptation prepare for sea level rise

Move people from coastal regions or low-lying islands away Requires sustainable plans to shift infrastructure

Natural Vegetation
Adaptations
Special characteristics Enable plants to be successful in their environment Helps ensure plants get enough sunlight, water, air and nutrients Helps ensure survival of species Allows plants to stay put and reproduce

Tropical Equatorial
Located in tropical areas e.g. Brazil, Congo Basin and South-East Asia Climate characteristics: o High average temperature of around 27 deg C o No seasonal changes o Small fluctuations in annual temp. (~2-3 deg. C) o High rainfall of ~2000mm all year round o Fairly even distribution

Adaptations:
Evergreen forest Trees grow tall (~30-50m) Waxy leaves with or without drip tips Large leaves at lower layers Shallow buttress roots Due to high temp. & high annual rainfall --- rapid continuous growth of many trees Trees do not shed leaves over same period of time --- forest appears evergreen Have to fight to survive Glow close to each other Grow tall to reach for sunlight Branches at top 1/3 portion of trunk umbrella shaped Lianas and climbers twine up trees -reach for sunlight Epiphytes --- grow on trees --- aerial roots absorb water very fast during rainfall Allow rainwater to flow away easily Absorb as much sunlight as possible Usually found at lower levels of forest where sunlight is not readily available Thick canopy blocks off up to 99% of sunlight Tall trees need buttress roots to support heavy weight and height --prevent trees from falling Wide spreading to take in water

 Thin & smooth bark Small leaves at top layers

which is easily available through forest ground --- high water table Shallow roots --- abundance of nutrients --- layer of dead litter --decomposition of organic material Makes it difficult for climbers to attach themselves to surface of trees Thin because need not protect from cold/dry conditions Minimize loss of water through transpiration

Tropical Monsoon
Located in areas such as India or Northern Australia Climate characteristics: o High annual mean of around 25 degrees C o Some temperature fluctuations between highest temperature during April to June and lowest during Dec to Jan (fluctuations of about 9 degrees C) o Moderate amount of total annual rainfall of 718mm. Usually 1000 to 1500 mm o RAINFALL HIGHLY SEASONAL with most rain falling during June and little rain from December to April.
Shorter trees (result) More trees grow during wet season Shed leaves over same period of time, usually just before onset of dry season To prevent loss of water through transpiration Wet season arrives --- leaves will grow fast Lack of water supply during dry season --- does not allow trees to grow high --- avg. 15 to 30m Trees more spread out --- less species grow during dry season --- less dense -- allow sunlight to pass through --branches found at lower or mid levels --- competition for sunlight is less due to more open forest Wet season more species grow More rainfall during wet season Leaves are waxy and/or have drip tips to remove excess water during rainy season --- prevent bacterial growth --- food making process not affected Bamboo has smaller leaves to minimize water loss Leathery texture --- withstand heat Protects trees against heat dryness and forest fires --- fires break out easily during the hot dry season Reflect sunlight so that loss of water through transpiration is minimized Tap for water during dry season Anchor trees firmly to dry ground

Distinct wet and dry seasons: Trees are deciduous

Wet season: Leaves are waxy/have drip tips Smaller leaves

High temperature: Leathery leaves Dry season and heat: Thick and rough bark Dry season: Hard and shiny bark Dry season: Deep tap roots

Comparison

Equatorial Predominantly evergreen Small leaves at top but large leaves at lower layers Nearly all year round (different species have different flowering times) Shallower roots More layers (up to 5) Greater density of plants and more species

Factor Type of trees Type of leaves Flowering Roots Layering Density & Variety

Monsoon Predominantly deciduous trees (e.g. Teak) Narrower leaves (e.g. Bamboo) More seasonal flowers and fruit Deeper Roots Fewer Layers Lower density of plants and fewer species

Essay Notes

Geography
Climate Change & Global Warming (The only thing they'll test)
"Large Scale Deforestation is the primary cause of Global Warming" To what extent do you agree with this answer? EYA. Definition of GW (Intro)
o Global Warming, otherwise known as Enhanced greenhouse effect, is a worldwide natural phenomenon that our Earth is experiencing now o While climate change is natural, rate is accelerating, because of human activities o Human activities cause increase in carbon dioxide levels around the world o This is due to many factors, such as; large scale deforestation, increase in burning of fossil fuels for the need of more energy supplies, increase in agricultural activities,

Large Scale Deforestation;

o Past years have been those if great industrialisation o LSD for timber, mining, urban devt. & agriculture has resulted in vegetation being greatly reduced o Trees and plants being cut down o The thing is, they absorb carbon dioxide and give out oxygen during the natural process of photosynthesis o Less trees --> less carbon dioxide taken in --> more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere o More Carbon dioxide --> more heat trapped and hence increased enhanced greenhouse effect o Thus, contribute to GW Increase in burning of Fossil Fuels (Power plants) o After the industrial revolution, to cater to the needs of the growing population, more energy needed o As a result, in order to produce this, more fossil fuels must be burned o However, with more fossil fuels being burned, more carbon dioxide is being released into the atmosphere o Global GHG emissions: 25.9% o More Carbon dioxide --> more heat trapped and hence increased enhanced greenhouse effect o Thus, contribute to GW

Increase in Agricultural Activities o To cater the needs of the growing pop, more food must be produced o Cultivation of rice and paddy fields & use of inorganic fertilisers has resulted in an increase in nitrous oxide and methane released into the atmosphere o Rearing of cattle and other livestocks results in methane being released into the atmosphere, as part of their digestive process (Do not write fart. we speak from experience), as well as carbon dioxide being produced during respiration o This results in Carbon dioxide, methane & nitrous oxide being produced ; 13.5% of all global greenhouse gas emissions o More Carbon dioxide --> more heat trapped and hence increased enhanced greenhouse effect o Contribution to GW Conclusions o While we can see that all three factors play an important role in causing GW, we can see that large scale deforestation is the underlying cause of them all o Why? Because it's the large scale deforestation that paves the way for the land for agricultural activities, as deforestation is needed to make space for them Fossil fuels are found in underground reservoirs, while coal is found from coal mines (Yep, I do say) In order to obtain these, we need to space for mining, and in order to obtain this space, we need deforestation o Therefore, we can conclude that deforestation is indeed the main cause of global warming

*Other factors include transportation and waste. If you're sexy enough, you can twist incineration of wastes as a factor in this essay. However, this requires high levels of sexiness which are extremely rare to come across. Those who dare to attempt it, often do not come back alive. Discretion is advised.

"Extreme weather conditions is the most harmful impact of global warming" To what extent do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer.
Intro o Global Warming, otherwise known as Enhanced greenhouse effect, is a worldwide natural phenomenon that our Earth is experiencing now. o Global warming is not to be taken lightly, as there are many harmful and severe impacts. o Some of the most severe effects of consequences include extreme weather conditions, melting of polar ice caps & changing ecosystems Extreme Weather Conditions o Warmer and more frequent hot days and nights Milan's max temperature in 2003 was 32.7 degrees celcius. From 1995 to 2002 it was only 28.3 degrees (Cause we went there in Jan, 03) Heat wave in France, 2003 that killed 14 802 Forest fires caused death and environmental problems, leading to breathing difficulties o Increased evaporation Higher humidity --> More rain --> More floods in Certain areas ( China, SEA, Western USA, as recently as July 2012) Increased evaporation also causes droughts in other places (Forest fire & droughts in South West USA) o Warmer Oceans Stronger and more frequent tropical cyclones Tropical storm form when the surface of the ocean is heated above 27 degrees --> Warm air above ocean rises rapidly --> Space left for surrounding air to spiral inwards quickly 3 major hurricanes from Sept to Oct 05, while the normal rate is a hurricane per 1.5 years Melting of Polar Ice Caps o Melting of polar ice caps cause sea levels to rise o flooding of coasts and river deltas--> a large scale displacement of human population--> climate refugees--> but neighbouring areas may not welcome them--> strain on political relationships --> may result in social unrest. 17million in Bangladesh affected o Loss of mangroves habitats --> increased vulnerability to storm surges 100 million people threatened due to water supply being affected o Increased coastal erosion o Arctic ice caps decrease 9% per decade, threatening survival security and development of low lying coastal areas. o Average rate of sea level rise of 1.3mm -2.3 mm per year since 1961

Changing Eco-systems o Shift in climate zone --> Loss of habitats --> Increased rate of species 16928 plants and animals at the risk of extinction o Increased ocean temperatures --> Increase of coral reefs Six major episodes of coral breeching have occurred since 1979 o Warmer temperatures --> increased spread of pests and diseases Rapid breeding of mosquitoes, malaria and dengue fever spread easier Temp cause bacterial virus and fungi to move to new areas and harm more animals and humans Conclusion o While all 3 factors are major consequences of global warming, I still feel that extreme weather conditions are the underlying factor o Why? Because extreme weather conditions causes the temp. to be warmer, which is why the polar ice caps melt and result in floods etc. Also, it is because of these warm conditions caused by the extreme weather conditions that resulted in the changes in ecosystems as the warmer temperatures cause the increased spread of pest and diseases as well as the increased ocean temperatures. o Therefore, we can conclude that the extreme weather conditions is the most major and influential consequences of all three as it is the root cause of the other two consequences.

*Need not remember ALL the examples but one

History
Format (This is according to what Ms Serene Teo has said, don't flame me for this)
Para 1; Intro
Define Key Terms Thesis Statement o The Japanese were able to defeat the Malaya and Singapore so quickly for the following reasons: (list the reasons), of which (Reason X0) was most important because...

Para 2 & 3; Reasons why you agree

Firstly, the statement is correct and I agree with it because (Insert reason, evidence, elaboration, link) Secondly, the statement is correct cause... (Insert the same things, no that's not what she said)

Para 4; Counter- Argument & Rebuttal

However, some may argue that (Insert GF) is not why the (Eg, why the Japanese defeated the British so swiftly) Talk about how another factor which was more impt Rebut, saying why the counter argument is not exactly valid, because.... Hence, we can still see blah blah blah

Para 5; Weigh and Conclude

Hence we can see that while (OFs) are still impt reasons as to why (Insert topic of question), I still feel that (GF) is the most important because (Insert reason) Therefore....

If you want an example, you can take a look at the atomic bomb justification. First 2 paragraphs should be about why you think it was justified, and then the third about why it might not have been, but then in the end it still was ( Or vice-versa) Once again, this was what our teacher said, and yeah if your teachers said something else, then too bad

"It was British unpreparedness and not Japanese superiority that ultimately led to the fall of the British" How far do you agree with this judgement? EYA
Intro; o Fall of the British, Britain's hugest and most humiliating, was a swift one that took place from December '41 & February '42 o British unpreparedness refers to British not being ready for the attack while Japanese superiority refers to dem Japanese being better o I agree with the statement, because it was British unpreparedness, with other commitments and Malayan weakness that let Japanese win the war, as opposed to Japanese superiority Britain's other commitments o Britain had other commitments throughout the war, and were fighting Italy and Germany, Japan's allies back in N. Africa as well as in Europe o As a result, strain on resources and could not send re-enforcements back to Sg o More can be found up there o Hence they were not prepared Malayan Unpreparedness o Malaya not fortified the same way that the seaward sides of Sg were protected. o This was because British were confident that Japanese would not attack from the North through Malaya o Easier for Japanese to infiltrate Sg o Hence, once again British unpreparedness for the far helped Japanese Japanese Strength (Counter) o Masters of jungle warfare o Zero fighters that were superior to British forces o Strong and prepared soldiers o Also helped win the war Rebuttal o However, once again, it was British unpreparedness that caused them to have pathetic air force, as well as a weak Malayan defence o Their soldiers were weak and simply sent out to increase numbers on the battlefield, and were not properly trained, hence another factor that helped the Japanese win Conclusion o Hence we can see that the British unpreparedness was the root cause of their defeat, and even the Japanese superiority can be attributed to the fact that British defence was crappy

This way, you can twist all the evidence you have to write any essay about British defeat.

"The economic needs of both Malaya and Singapore was the main reason for the merger" How far do you agree with this question? EYA
Intro o The merger, that occurred in '63, was one that both Singapore and Malaya felt were necessary o Both countries had their economic needs, and they were huge o However, they also had other needs, like for security purposes on Malaya's behalf o However, I still feel that the economic needs were the greatest, as they were of more importance and were also the primary reasons for merging Singapore's economic needs o Period of time before the merger was that of great economic instability for Sg, as it was after the JO. o Singapore had not gone through industrialisation yet, and was unable to go through it, since they did not have enough resources for it o Malaya, on the other hand, was full of natural resources such as tin and rubber, that were crucial for industrialisation o Sg hence could use Malaya as a hinterland, as well as a place for common markets, as there were stuff in Sg that lacked a market to sell in o Hence, we can see that Sg's main purpose in merging was her economic needs Malaya's economic needs o With Sg a part of Malaya, it would mean another source of taxation, since Sg's citizens and companies would have to pay tax to the office in KL o Malaya could also use Sg's perfect ports and harbours, which were world renowned since the days of British rule, for their own advantage, since Malaya also needed to trade their goods Other reasons for merger (Counter) o However, there were other reasons for merger too, such as Sg's need for independence o Malaya also looked to keep the communists at bay and from taking over the entire of Malaya, and merging with Sg would help Malaya to take direct control over them and enforce stricter laws o However, it can be said that these were only secondary reasons, as the main reasons were economic needs since one of the reasons Britain were unwilling to grant Singapore independence was because her economy was so unstable o Malaya also needed more money so as to curb the rising communist power Conclusion o Hence we can see that economic reasons were still the main reasons for merger, as they were necessary for the other needs such as achieving independence as well as keeping the communists at bay could be achieved

"The Japanese Occupation was one that mostly brought about suffering for the people of Singapore" How far do you agree with this statement? EYA
Intro o JO, which took place from 1942 to 1945 after the fall of the British, was one of dire consequences for the people of Singapore o Singaporeans still remember the days with terror, with the Sook Ching Massacres as well as the bad economy being reasons of suffering for the people then o However, the JO might not have been all bad, as they did teach Sg some lessons as well as free them for the rule of the British o Yet I still feel that the suffering caused by the Japanese was still more severe than the benefits obtained from it o Therefore, I agree with the statement that the JO was an experience that brought about mostly suffering for the people of Sg Social Problems o There were several social problems brought about by the JO o Sook Ching, which was the mass killing of Chinese in Sg, was one of them o Chinese men between the age of 18 and 50 were randomly selected to be killed, as they were suspected of breeding anti-Japanese feelings o On the other hand, the Malays and Indians were spared o As a result, there was racial instability, with only the Chinese being discriminated o Also, as a result of the JO, the Malays became more aware of the Chinese economic power, intensifying the Sino-Malay rivalry o Hence, we can see that as a result of the JO, there was great social instability, highlighting the negative impact of the JO Economic Problems o As a result of the invasion of the Japanese, there was a disruption to the economy. Also, after the JO, many people were unwilling to return to work o Detailed one can be found up there Benefits (Counter) o However, JO was not all bad o Taught Singaporeans that Asians were perfectly capable of taking care of themselves, and did not need the help of the White men o Also freed them from the British o However, in doing so, they caused plenty of suffering for the Singaporeans, and certainly taught it to them the hard way. o Hence, while it is true that they taught them they could be independent, in the process, they caused much harm to the Singaporeans which were more dire than the benefits that arised from the JO

Conclusion o Can hence be seen that the consequences of the JO were mostly that of suffering, and hence I agree with the statement (Weigh a little here)

"The social impact of British colonialism in Singapore was the most significant" How far do you agree with this statement? EYA
Intro o o o o British colonial rule was one that reaped many benefits I define significant as one that would affect Singapore the most Of these, there were social benefits, as well as political and economic However, I feel that social benefits were that of more importance, as it was those social benefits that affected Singapore most, as the other political and economic impacts were more relevant to Malaya o Hence I agree with the statement, as I feel that the social impact of the Healthcare (Social Impact 1, two examples should be enough) o The first social impact is that of healthcare o The British aided the healthcare facilities in Singapore greatly during the time of their rule, and was probably their greatest contribution o In 1887, they set up Public Health Department so as to ensure health standards in town o Healthcare services were made more available and accessible to the people of Singapore o Malaria committee set up to supervise the infilling of mosquito infested swamps o More can be found up there o With higher health standards Higher standards of living Education (Social Impact 2) o Queens scholarship given out to those top secondary school student sto further their studies o Also served as an incentive to the people o Higher literacy More sick skillz higher paying jobs higher income, more money able to have higher standards of living o Could also afford to have better healthcare Economic Impact (Counter) o Some may argue though, that the economic impacts were more significant o Train lines were created in Malaya to assist the transportation of tin from the mines o Helped to reduce transportation costs, as well as increase efficiency o More profit (But more for Malaya) o Also, the currency reform helped the SS, which provided a steadier and more stable currency o However, these impacted Malaya more than Sg, as compared to the social impacts, that directly impacted Sg well o Hence, we can still see that social impacts were more impt

Conclusion o Therefore, we can see that Sg was most significantly impacted by the social impacts (Elaborate a bit, sum up what you said In the two social impacts, and then write abit about the economic impact not directly affecting Sg again, and tada, youre done)