SECTION 1. AERODYNAMICS OF LIFTING SURFACES THEME 7.

AERODYNAMICS OF THE WING HIGH-LIFT DEVICES

Swept wings of rather small area with an airfoil of rather small camber and relative thickness are applied in modern aircraft with the purpose of flight speed increasing. Such wings can not provide large lift on landing modes because of early flow stall. The problem of increasing lifting properties for modern wings at high angles of attack for shortening of take-off and landing distance is very actual now. For this purpose wings are equipped with special design elements which allow to increase the value of C ya max in the area of critical angles of attack st . These elements working on modes of takeoff, landing and maneuver are called wing high-lift devices. The set of effective high-lift devices applied in aircraft is wide enough (table 7.1). There distinguish rigid, jet, combination high-lift devices and high-lift devices based on the boundary layer control (BLC). The high-lift devices are installed on the leading and trailing wing edges. The high-lift devices of the wing trailing edge are realized by flaps of various types (Fig. 7.1): simple flap, one-slotted flap, Fowler extension flap, double-slotted flap, plane flap etc. Flaps are applied to increase the lift of an airplane at keeping of its position (keeping the angle of attack). They are extended while taking off and landing. The lift grows due to increase of wing camber. Extension flaps consisting of several sections are used on modern airplanes. Multi-section configuration allows bending the wing smoothly, and air jets streaming on the upper surfaces of sections through slots, providing smooth continuous flow at high angles of sections deflection. The theoretical substantiation of multi-slotted flaps was given by S. A. Chaplygin. Such flaps additionally increase lift due to the growth of wing area.

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Fig. 7.1. High-lift devices of the wing trailing edge: a) - flap C y h l .dev . = 0 .7
flap

= 30 o ; b) - one-slotted flap;

c) - one-slotted extended flap C y h l .dev . = 1.1 ; d) - double-slotted flap C y h l .dev . = 1.4 ; e) - Fowler flap; f) - plane flap C y h l .dev . = 0 .8 0 .9
flap

= 60 o .

An angle between chords of main flap section in deflected and non-deflected positions is called flap setting rotation;
flap flap .

It is measured in a plane, perpendicular to axis of

> 0 if flap is deflected downwards.

The flap are used not only for improvement of take-off and landing characteristics, but also for direct control of lift, rational redistribution of loading which effects a wing, and also for drag reduction. The high-lift devices of the wing leading edge are usually made as the deflected slats (Fig. 7.2): movable slat, Krueger slat, deflecting nose etc. The slats are intended for prevention of premature flow stalling from wing. It is reached due to wing camber at the leading edge and jet blowing onto the upper wing surface through a slot. An angle characterizing turn of coordinate system related with the slat at its deflection is called slat setting
slat .

The slat is the wing-shaped and locates along the wing leading edge. At increasing of angle under the influence of sucking force the slat is put forward into operative location.

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Fig. 7.2. High-lift devices of the wing leading edge: a) - sliding slat; b) - extended slat C y h l .dev . = 0 .6 0 .9 ; c) - deflected nose C y h l .dev . = 0 .55 0 .75 = 60 o . Choice of high-lift devices in each particular case is determined by such criteria, as increment of the lift coefficient C y h l .dev . provided with it (Fig. 7.3, 7.4) and inevitable drag increment. The high-lift devices type allowing to receive the required take-off and landing characteristics of the airplane should be got out right at the beginning of the designing process.

Fig. 7.3. Influence of deflection of split flap, flap and slotted wing onto C ya = f ( )

Fig. 7.4. Influence of slat deflection onto C ya = f ( )

The major factor causing an increasing of a wing C ya factor at deflection of highlift devices is the growing of its cross-sections concavity. The growth of C ya is also promoted by increase of the wing area at using movable flaps.

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Let's consider the influence of high-lift devices deflection of the trailing edge onto structure of flow about the wing. Comparison of pressure factor C p distributions chordwise at non-deflected and extended flaps (fig. 7.5) shows, that the flap deflection causes an essential growth of rarefaction along total upper wing surface, and not just on its deflected part. The appreciable increase of overpressure is observed along the total lower Fig. 7.5. Pressure factor distribution along airfoil outline with flap and without it surface. As a result the lift coefficient increases. For effective realization of factor C ya increasing it is necessary to provide attached flow about wing with the extended high-lift devices. As it's known, this is promoted by boundary layer control (BLC) by increasing of kinetic energy of decelerated air layer (blown off) or its removal from the flow (suction) (Fig. 7.6). The change of dependence of lift coefficient is similar to slat application (Fig. 7.4). The control system of circulation C y h l .dev . = 0 .6 0 .8 at C = 0 .3 , systems with flow blowing-off from slot on a wing tail part (Fig. 7.7) and system of blower of wing surface by jets from the engine (Fig. 7.8) are also examples of jet high-lift devices. The intensity of blower (blowing-off) is characterized by a factor of momentum:

C =

msV j q S j

kg m s s , 2 N 2 m m

(7.1)

where m s is the air consumption per second, V j is the jet speed, S j is the wing area maintained by high-lift devices, q is the dynamic pressure.

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Fig. 7.6. Systems for boundary layer control C y h l .dev . = 0 .6 0 .8 : a) - suction through a slot, b) - distributed suction through the porous or punched surface, c) - blow-off from a slot.

Fig. 7.7. Systems with flow blow-off from a slot on wing tail part: a) - flap with blowing of the upper surface C y h l .dev . = 7 8 , C 2 ; b) - jet flap C y h l .dev . = 4 5 ; c) - ejector flap C y h l .dev . = 6 7 , C 2 .

Fig. 7.8. A system of wing surface blowing by engine jets: ) - blowing of the flap upper surface flap = 3 , C 2 , C y h l .dev . 8 ; b) flap lower surface flap = 40 o 60 o , C y h l .dev . = 6 ...7 .

The spoilers are panels installed on the wing which can be deflected outside to spoil the flow over the wing. They are made as rotary or extended (fig. 7.9) and installed both on the upper and on the lower wing surfaces. Spoiler either turbulizes or stalls the flow depending on altitude of its moving out. The pressure redistributes both on the upper and on the lower surfaces.

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Fig. 7.9. Spoilers: a) - rotary; b) - extended. Spoilers are used for roll control (instead of ailerons). Spoilers are also applied for shortening of run at landing and aborted takeoff. In such case they are mounted on the wing upper surface directly ahead of flaps and deflected simultaneously on both wings. It causes flow stalling from the wing upper surface and high-lift devices. As a result, the lift coefficient C y abruptly decreases and the drag coefficient C x grows, loading onto wheels also grows, that allows to increase braking force considerably. Such spoilers are called ground spoilers. For landing angles of attack C y h l .dev . = 0 .7 ...0 .75 . Generally, a type and span of high-lift devices, wing plan form, panel flap chord

b flap , flap chord b flap , type of wing airfoil and its relative thickness , etc. influence C y h l .dev . value.
For swept wings the effectiveness of high-lift devices is abruptly reduced at angles close to st . Similar effect is caused by aspect ratio decreasing.

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The table 7.1. High-lift devices. Angle of Increase of maximum lift basic airfoil at max. lilt Basic airfoil 12 Increase camber. Much drag when fully lowered. Nose-down pitching moment. Increase camber. Even more drag than plain flap. Nose-down pitching moment. Increase camber and wing area. Much drag. Nose-down pitching moment. Control of boundary layer. Increase camber. Stalling delayed. Not so much drag. Same as single-slotted flap only more so. Treble slots sometimes used. Increase camber and wing area. Best flaps for lift. Complicated mechanism. Nose-down pitching moment. Same as Fowler flap only more so. Treble slots sometimes used. 15

High-lift devices

Remarks Effects of all high-lift devices depend on shape of basic airfoil.

Plain or camber flap

50 %

60 % Split flap 90 % Zap flap 65 % Slotted flap 70 % Double-slotted flap 90 % Fowler flap 100 %

14

13

16

18

15

Double-slotted Fowler flap

20

50 % Krueger slat

25

Nose-flap hinging about leading edge. Reduces lift at small deflections. Nose-up pitching moment. 87

Table 7.1. High-lift devices. Angle of Increase of maximum lift basic airfoil at max. lilt 40 % Slotted wing Controls boundary layer. Extra drag at high speeds. Nose-up pitching moment. Controls boundary layer. Increases camber and area. Greater angles of attack. Nose-up pitching moment. More control of boundary layer. Increased camber and area. Pitching moment can be neutralized. Complicated mechanisms. The best combination for lift; treble slots may be used. Pitching moment can be neutralized. Effect depends very much on details of arrangement. 20

High-lift devices

Remarks Controls boundary layer. Slight extra drag at high speeds.

50 % Fixed slat

20

60 % Movable slat

22

75 % Slat and slotted fl Slat and doubleslotted Fowler flap 120 %

25

28

80 % Blown flap 60 % Jet flap

16

Depends even more on angle and velocity of jet.

Note. Since the effects of these devices depend upon the shape of the basic airfoil, and the exact design of the devices themselves, the values given can only be considered as approximations. To simplify the diagram the airfoils and the flaps have been set at small angles, and not at the angles giving maximum lift. 88

THEME 8. WING PROFILE DRAG

The profile drag is the sum of surface- friction drag and drag of pressure caused by pressure redistribution along the streamlined surface due to viscosity influence (sometimes latter item is called form drag). It is necessary to mean that surface-friction drag is the main part of profile drag of streamlined bodies (therefore it is often considered that C xp C x
fr ).

This circumstance

is taken into account in approximate methods of C xp calculation. It is possible to adopt, that C xp does not depend on angles of attack in modes of attached flow and then calculation of C xp is performed at = 0 (small change of C xp on angles of attack is taken into account at definition of induced drag, having put an effective aspect ratio

eff , or separate items at polar calculating). In range of Mach numbers less than 4 ...5
all drag components (wave, induced, profile) can be determined separately from each other. At that the wave and induced drag are well calculated without the account of viscosity. However at M 4 ...5 (zone of hypersonic speeds) there are effects of viscous interaction, which cause the necessity of the account of viscosity and pressure mutual influence, that makes wave and profile drag inter-related. Below we shall consider the method of calculation for streamlined bodies at
M 4 ...5 (without the account of viscous interaction).

The most widespread engineering method of C xp calculation is method CAGI. According to this method the profile drag is determined as surface-friction drag of a flat plate with introduction of correction multipliers which are taking into account an additional part of drag from pressure forces. According to CAGI method the wing profile drag is determined by the formula

C xp = 2 f c

(8.1)

where f is the drag coefficient of friction of one side of a flat plate in a flow of incompressible fluid at identical to wing: Reynolds number Re and position of a point of laminar boundary layer transition into turbulent x t ; the factor double value takes into 89

account flow about the upper and lower surfaces; is the multiplier which is taking into account a compressibility (Mach number M ); c is the factor taking into account contribution of pressure forces into profile drag. Generally f , c and are also the function of x t , Re , , M i.e.

f = f ( Re, x t ) ; c = f (c , x t ) ; = f ( M , x t ) . At that Re =

V l

, where length

of a mean aerodynamic chord bA is used as characteristic length l . It is convenient to write Reynolds number as a function dependent on Mach number and flight altitude
Re = Vb A = M b A f ( H ) ,

(8.2)

where f ( H ) = a , a is the speed of a sound and is the kinematic factor of viscosity are determined under the tables of standard atmosphere depending on flight altitude. Or
2 f ( H ) = 2 .33 1 H + H 107 , m 1 12 535

[ ]

(8.3)

The most complex and insufficiently investigated is the definition of position of transition point x T . From the standpoint of drag decreasing it is desirable to have the body (wing) streamlined completely by laminar flow (i.e. x t = 1 ). Only profile C xp and induced
C xi

drags exist in subsonic flow. Polar formula is written as

2 , where C x0 = C xp . The parameter K max is determined as C xa = C x 0 + AC ya

K max =

1 and at this mode C xa = 2C x 0 = 2C xp , i.e. the profile drag is a half of 2 AC x 0

full drag). However it practically can not be achieved. Any irregularities, rivets, welded seams etc. are a source of turbulence. As a rule, at a preliminary designing stage the precise value of x t is not known. Usually one assumes that the body (wing) is streamlined completely by turbulent flow ( x t = 0 ), that overestimates full drag and required thrust of the power plant. At actual value ( x t > 0 ) the excess of a thrust (power) is received which can go onto increasing of maneuverable properties of the 90

airplane. Nevertheless, it is necessary to note deep researches, which are being performed on decreasing of C xp . In case of x = 0 it is possible to assume the following computational formulae for C xp definition:
Cf = 0 ,087

( lg Re 1,6 ) 2

; c = 1 + 2c + 9 c ; =

1 + 5c 2 M 1 + 0 .2 M
2

(8.4)

If the value x t 0 is known, then it is necessary to address to the diagrams. It is also possible to use approximate formulae (at x t 0 .5 ):

Cf =

0 ,087

( lg Re 1,6 )

1,33 1 xt ) + ( 2 Re

xt ;

c = 1 + 2ce 2 ,4 x t + 9 c 2 e 4 x t ;
1 2 = + 0 ,055 x t M 1 + 5 c 2 M . 1 + 0 ,2 M 2

(8.5)

If there are various sources of turbulence on a streamlined surface (design superstructures, joints of skin sheets, riveted and welded seams, slot of high-lift devices of the wing leading edge etc.), then it is necessary to locate the point of transition in a place of source presence.

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