THEME 1.

INTRODUCTION
Aerodynamics of an aircraft is the science on the general laws of air motion and its specific features at flow around an aircraft and its parts, on forces and moments which are affecting the plane and its parts, about thermal effect of a flow aboard the plane. It is based on the laws of physics, mechanics and thermodynamics. The knowledge of aerodynamics of an aircraft is a necessary condition for consequent study of such course, as Flight dynamics, Aircraft structure and Designing of aircraft, Production technology of aircraft. The following example shows a role of aerodynamics in aircraft creation. The fivefold increase of the expenses on aerodynamic researches is profitable, if it results in increase of lift-to-drag ratio at 1 %. The large role in research of aerodynamics of an aircraft and its parts is played by experimental researches (wind-tunnel tests and flight experiment). The especially important role is played by experiment as a way of checking the theoretical data. 1.1. Sections of aerodynamics. The division of aerodynamics into sections is made on speeds and altitudes of flight. Such division is conditional, since the basic criteria are the limitations or assumptions introduced during the studies or research of the aerodynamic characteristics of an aircraft. The division of aerodynamics on speeds is conducted depending on a Mach number, which is a measure of the compressibility of air flow. The Mach number is non-dimensional value equal to ratio of body velocity to a local velocity of a sound:

M =

V , where V is the speed of motion of an aircraft; a is the speed of a sound. a

So, the first section of aerodynamics studies motion of bodies at Mach numbers lying in limits M 0 .4 . M 0 .4 - but again it is conditional number up to which liquid (air) is possible to be considered as the incompressible medium. Air behaves just 3

as a liquid, thus the compressibility of the environment does not influence the aerodynamic characteristics. The error at M = 0 .4 can be no more than 2% . This section is named Aerodynamics of the incompressible environments. The second section is named Subsonic aerodynamics. In this section the motion of an aircraft is studied at Mach numbers lying in limits 0 .4 M M (from
M 0 .4 up to M M* ). The number M (undisturbed subsonic flow), at which

somewhere on a surface of a streamlined body for the first time local velocity of a flow reaches speed of a sound (V = a ), is named critical and is marked as M* . The critical Mach number M* depends on the shape of a streamlined body. In an airfoil point where the gas flow speed is maximum, according to a Bernoulli's relation speed of a sound is determined as a = a min . Therefore, maximum value of a local Mach number
M = M max is reached there where stream cross-section is the least. To this point there

corresponds also minimum value of a coefficient of pressure C p = C p min . The Mach number M* is always less than or equal to one ( M* 1 ). The number M = M* is the highest limit of numbers M , at which the ratios obtained for completely subsonic flow are fair. The third section is named Transonic aerodynamics. At Mach numbers
M > M* on a streamlined surface both subsonic and supersonic zones of flow take

place. The zones with subsonic speeds do not fade away at once at reaching supersonic speed of flight. Depending on the shape of an airfoil it occurs at Mach numbers
M 1.1 1.2 . Such flow mode is also named transonic. Section Transonic

aerodynamics studies speed range M* M 1.1 1.2 . The upper Mach number
M 1.2 also is selected conditionally, and in some books it is possible to meet values M 1.25 .

The fourth section Supersonic aerodynamics is limited by range of Mach numbers 1.1 1.2 M 4 5 .

The fifth section is named Hypersonic aerodynamics. It corresponds to Mach numbers more than M 4 5 . For example, "Shuttle" or "Buran" enter into atmosphere with Mach numbers M 20 25 . Besides, aerodynamics is divided on altitudes of flight H . The main criterion of division is the Knudsen number. Knudsen number k n = size of liquid flow. In standard conditions 10 6 m , at t oC = 15 , P 760 mm . Hg . Depending on Knudsen number aerodynamics is divided onto the following sections: Aerodynamics of continuum. Values of number k n 0 .1 and altitude of flight H 80 Km correspond to this section. Aerodynamics of the strongly rarefied environment. Values of number
k n > 10 and altitude of flight H > 120 Km correspond to this section.

, where is free length of molecules run, l is reference

It is possible to consider air as continuum at k n 0 .01 in the given course. For modern aircraft which are flying at altitudes up to H < 40 Km , this condition is performed. 1.2. Aircraft and its main structural members Let's proceed to consideration of an aircraft and its parts. We will introduce general concepts and aerodynamic characteristics, we will show on examples a role of the aerodynamic characteristics in formation of flight properties of an aircraft. An airplane is an aircraft heavier than air having a power plant for obtaining thrust and wings for creating lift. Describing the shape of an aircraft, these concepts: are used a base plane of an aircraft and base system of coordinates.

The aircraft base plane is the plane, concerning which the majority of structural members of an aircraft are located symmetrically on the left and on the right. This plane is often named as a plane of symmetry. Base system of coordinates is the right rectangular coordinate system
0 R x R y R z R , fixed concerning an aircraft. An origin 0 R is named as an aircraft base

point, Axis 0 R x R - aircraft base axis. The base point is in a base plane of an aircraft. Its position is determined from task to be solved. The axes 0 R x R and 0 R y R are also in an aircraft base plane. The first is directed forwards, the second - upwards. The axis
0 R z R is directed along the right half wing.

The main parts of an aircraft (fig. 1.1) are: a wing, fuselage (body), tail unit, landing gears and power plant. 1 - wing; 2 - fuselage; 3 - power plant; 4 - horizontal tail; 5 - elevator; 6 - stabilizer; 7 - vertical tail; 8 - rudder; 9 - fin; 10 - flaps; 11 - aileron. Fig. 1.1. Main parts of an aircraft Wing is the main lifting surface of an aircraft. The wing is designed to create lifting force necessary for aircraft gravity balance. The wing usually has a plane of symmetry. Fuselage is designed for accommodation of the crew, passengers, equipment, fuel, freights and power plant. Usually fuselage creates small lift and considerable drag. Power plant consists of engines with devices and systems providing their operation, air intakes, propellers and nozzles. The power plant is intended for thrust creation. 6

Tail unit of an aircraft consists of horizontal tails and vertical tails and is designed for maintenance of stability and controllability in longitudinal and lateral motion. Landing gears consist of a landing gear, high-lift devices, accelerating and braking devices. 1.3. Coordinate system While studing aircraft aerodynamics body 0 xyz and wind 0 xa ya za coordinate systems (Fig. 1.2) are more often used. Both coordinate systems are right rectangular. The body coordinate system is fixed relatively to an aircraft and moves together with it. Its origin 0 is usually placed in a center of mass. The axes 0x , 0 y , 0 z are named as longitudinal, normal and transverse axes. The axes 0x and 0 y are located in a base plane of an aircraft. The axis Fig. 1.2. Coordinate systems

0x is directed from an aircraft tail section to the

nose part, the axis 0 y is directed towards top part of an aircraft. The axis 0 z goes perpendicularly to an aircraft base plane and is directed to the right side of an aircraft. Beginning of wind coordinate system 0 xa ya za usually is also placed in the center of mass. There distinguish a wind axis 0 xa , lift axis 0 ya and lateral axis 0 za . The wind axis 0 xa is directed posigrade of an aircraft. The lift axis 0 ya lies in a base plane of an aircraft (or in a plane parallel it) and is directed to an aircraft top. The lateral axis 0 za passes so that it has supplemented axes 0 xa and 0 ya up to the right coordinate system. The wind system is not rigidly connected with an aircraft and can change the orientation in relation to it during the flight. The orientation of an aircraft relatively to the velocity vector is determined by angle of attack and angle of slip . An angle of attack is an angle between a projection of velocity vector to a vehicle plane of symmetry (base plane of an aircraft) 7

0 xy and centerline 0x . A slip angle is an angle between velocity vector and plane of
symmetry 0 xy . In some cases normal coordinate system

0 x g y g zg (Fig 1.3) is used. It is the mobile right

system. Its beginning 0 is combined with the beginning of body coordinate system. The axis

0 y g is directed upwards along a local vertical, and

directions of axes 0 x g and 0 z g are selected according to the task to be solved. The plane Fig. 1.3. Normal Coordinate system

0 x g zg is always located horizontally in this

coordinate system. The angle between the axis 0 x g and

projection of a centerline to a horizontal plane is named as yaw angle and designated as

. The angle between the aircraft centerline 0x and horizontal plane 0 x g zg is named
as the pitch angle and designated as . The angle between the transverse axis 0 z and axis 0 z g of normal coordinate system, displaced in the position at which yaw angle is equal to zero ( = 0 ), is named as the bank angle and designated as .

1.4. Aerodynamic forces and moments. Coefficients of aerodynamic forces and moments. The main vector of forces system which affect onto a flight vehicle at its motion from the air, is named as full aerodynamic force and is designated as R A . The concept of aerodynamic force is usable not only to an aircraft as a whole, but also to its parts: a wing, a fuselage and so on.

Components of full aerodynamic force

X * , Y , Z along axes of body coordinate

system are determined by making projections of R A on these axes 0 xyz . The component
X * taken with a converse sign is named as

aerodynamic designated Fig. 1.4. Components of aerodynamic force in body coordinate components as

longitudinal

force

and force as

X. Z

Aerodynamic are named

Y,

aerodynamic normal and aerodynamic

transversal forces. Forces X , Y , Z can be both positive and negative depending on the shape of an aircraft and the mode of flight (Fig. 1.4). Let's project force R A onto axes of wind coordinate system
0 xa ya za . Let's

designate its projections as X* a , Ya , Z a . Taken with a converse sign the component

X* a is named as drag force and designated as

X a . The drag force is always positive.

Aerodynamic force components Ya , Z a are named as aerodynamic lifting force and aerodynamic lateral force. They can be both positive, and negative (Fig. 1.5). Fig. 1.5. Aerodynamic force In aerodynamics it is accepted to work components in wind coordinate system not with absolute forces values but with values of their coefficients. Having divided values of the aerodynamic forces on
2 V dynamic pressure q =

(where is the density of an undisturbed air flow,

V is undisturbed air flow velocity ran against the plane at versed motion) and on the

reference area S , we get coefficients of aerodynamic forces: 9

Cx = C xa =

X Y Z ; Cy = ; Cz = ; q S q S q S Xa Y Z ; C ya = a ; C za = a . q S q S q S

(1.1) (1.2)

The coefficients C x , C y , C z , C ya , C za are named as coefficients of aerodynamic longitudinal, normal, transversal, lifting and lateral force, and C xa is the drag coefficient. As the reference area S it can be adopted for definition of coefficients of aerodynamic forces: Gross wing area while aircraft considering; Area of wing formed by outer panels while considering a wing separately; Mid-section area in case of considering a fuselage, engines, nacelles etc. Let's proceed to consideration of the aerodynamic moments. Let's put an origin of a body system in the center of mass and we can assume this point as a point of reduction of aerodynamic forces. The moment M caused by these forces is named as the aerodynamic moment. The aerodynamic moment components along axes of body coordinate system are designated as M x ,

M y , M z and named as aerodynamic roll

moment, aerodynamic yaw moment and aerodynamic pitch moment (Fig. 1.6). Let's Fig. 1.6. Components of the aerodynamic moment introduce non-dimensional

coefficients of the moments:

mx =
(1.3)

My Mz Mx ; my = ; mz = , q S l q S b q S l

where l is the reference length, usually it is a wing span; b is the chord of a wing, usually it is the length of the mean aerodynamic chord. In case of the aircraft parts under consideration the reference area and reference linear dimensions of these parts are used as S , b , l in the reduced formulae. 10

The coefficients mx , m y , mz are named as coefficients of aerodynamic roll, yaw and pitch moments. While considering the aerodynamic forces both moments and their coefficients the word "aerodynamic" can be omitted if doesnt cause an error explanation of these terms. Till now we spoke only about summarized forces and moments. But in some cases it is necessary to know local forces which are affecting on unit area of an aircraft surface or on its separate parts in specified point. Aerodynamic forces caused by pressure distribution along an aircraft surface are usually determined by overpressures. An overpressure is usually expressed in shares of undisturbed flow drag, i.e. as nondimensional value which is named as coefficient of pressure:

Cp =

p p . q
Let's write down also

(1.4) formulae

determining proportions between forces coefficients in body and wind coordinate systems. Let's consider flow about the wing with infinite span by flat flow under some angle of attack (Fig. 1.7). Let's direct an axis
xa along undisturbed stream velocity, axis

Fig. 1.7. Aerodynamic forces in wind and body coordinate systems

ya - perpendicularly to axis xa to the airfoil

top outline. An axis x of body coordinate

system will be directed along chord, axis y - perpendicularly to axis x to the upper outline. We will place an origin of both systems in a center of pressure. Center of pressure of an airfoil is the crosspoint of action line of resultant aerodynamic force of the airfoil with a chord or its prolongation. As it follows from fig. 1.7:
Ya = Y cos X sin ; X a = X cos + Y sin

(1.5)

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Y = Ya cos + X a sin ; X = X a cos Ya sin

(1.6)

Having forces substituted by their expressions under the formulae (1.1), (1.2) and having reduced the identical coefficients, we will receive:
C y = C y cos C x sin ; a C x a = C x cos + C y sin C y = C ya cos + C xa sin ; C x = C xa cos C ya sin

(1.7)

(1.8)

At small angles of attack it is possible to assume cos 1 , sin . Besides it is possible to neglect C xa << C ya and addend C xa sin . Therefore it is possible to write down expressions (1.7) and (1.8) at small angles of attack as:
Cy Cy ;
a

Cxa

Cx + C y

(1.9)

C y C ya ;

C x C x a C ya

(1.10)

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