Module 5 Digital Technics Basic T-arrangement: 4 key indicators:airspeed, altimeter, pitch and roll altitude, horizontal situation indicator(HSI).

. One of the positions flanking the HIS is generally occupied by a vertical speed indicator (VSI), the other may contain a radio magnetic indicator (RMI), turn and bank indicator or a turn co-ordinator. In aircraft fitted with a flight director system, the turn and bank indicator is no longer used. EADI(Electronic Altitude Director Indicator) : it displays: (a) Pitch and Roll info (b)Slip (c)Grd speed (d) Flight director info (e) glide slope and localizer deviation (f) warnings, status messages, nav aid selected, radio altitude, altitude alert, decision height. Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator, (EHSI), presents a selectable, dynamic colour display of the aircrafts position and heading in relation to the navigation aids around it. Items displayed include: Magnetic heading Radio steering commands for VOR / INS Way points, airports and navigation aids Distance to go ILS steering information. Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System (EICAS) . As the name implies this system displays engine parameters, and warnings in the event of a fault condition. The system comprises two CRT displays, one above the other. During normal flight the lower screen is generally blank and the upper displays the primary engine parameters. When a fault occurs a message is displayed on the top display and the faulty system parameters are shown on the lower screen. Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor (ECAM). This system was based on a decision that engine parameters needed to be displayed continuously, therefore conventional engine instruments were retained on earlier Airbus aircraft. The system comprised two CRT displays mounted side by side. The left display shows system status messages, warnings and corrective actions in the form of a list. The right display shows pictorial diagrams of systems. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE LOGIC: A logic gate is a device with a number of input terminals and one output terminal. The output will depend on the input voltages or currents Positive Logic A low voltage is used to represent 0 A high voltage is used to represent 1 Negative Logic A high voltage is used to represent 0 A low voltage is used to represent 1 Positive logic is more common, with +5 volts representing a logic 1 and 0 vo lts a logic 0 respectively, measured with respect to the common, 0v or ground signal in an electronic circuit. OR GATE The operation of the gate is expressed as: X = A + B + C. The + sign is read as OR, which easily causes confusion. If A or B or C are 1, the output X equals logic 1. AND GATE: The operation of the gate is expressed as : X = A.B the . sign is read as AND. If A AND B are logic 1, then X is logic 1. NOT GATE: A NOT gate has only 1 input, and its output is always the opposite of the input. It is often referred to as an inverter. The symbol used to represent a NOT gate is: Operation of the gate is expressed as: X = X = NOT A the bar above the A indicates the inverse (or NOT) of A.

 NAND: The small circle (or NOT bubble) at the output basically inverts the output of the AND gate, making it a NAND gate. Operation of the gate is expressed as X = .B , NOT A and B. The outputs are the inverse of the AND gate. NOR: Operation of the gate is expressed as X = A + B The outputs are the inverse of the OR gate EXCLUSIVE OR GATE: Operation of the gate is expressed as: X = A .B + A .B or A B The sign is called the exclusive or (EXOR) sign The successive approximation type A to D converter is similar to the tracking type described previously; the counter however is replaced by a programmer. Operation: The programmer sets the MSB to 1, with all the other bits set to 0. The comparator compares the output of the D to A converter with the analogue input. If the converter output is greater than the analogue input, the 1 is removed from the MSB and the next lower digit is set to logic 1. The comparator again compares the output of the D to A converter with the analogue input. If the analogue input is larger the 1 remains set, and a 1 is applied to the next smaller bit. If the output of the D to A converter is greater than the analogue input, the 1 is removed and the next lower digit is now set to logic 1. This process is repeated until the binary output of the programmer is equivalent to the analogue input signal. For an N bit system, the conversion time is N clock periods. Assume that the voltage steps are 8 / 4 / 2 / 1V and that Vin = 5V. Digital to analogue converter, converts digital signals to analogue signals, one would be used to convert the digital data stored on a CD ROM to audio signals to drive the speakers. In cases where it is necessary for the system to change a quantity from a digital value to an analogue representation, then a digital-to-analogue converter (D/A converter or DAC) is required. Definition of Digital - A method of storing, processing and transmitting information through the use of distinct electronic or optical pulses that represent the binary digits 0 and 1. Definition of Analogue - Analogue is a transmission standard that uses electrical impulses to emulate the audio waveform of sound. When you use a phone, the variations in your voice are transformed by a microphone into similar variations in an electrical signal and carried down the line to the exchange. ANALOGUE VERSUS DIGITAL Unlike analogue signals, with digital signals it is possible to: Store values in computers or on disks. Manipulate signals on a computer. Compute new signals from digital values using a microprocessor. Remove or reduce noise from signals. Advantages of Digital 1) Less expensive 2)More reliable 3)Easy to manipulate 4)Flexible 5)Compatibility with other digital systems 6)Only digitalized information can be transported through a noisy channel without degradation 7)Integrated networks Disadvantages of Digital 1)Sampling Error 2)Digital communications require greater bandwidth than analogue to transmit the same information. 3)The detection of digital signals requires the communications system to be synchronized, whereas generally speaking this is not the case with analogue systems. Advantages of Analogue 1)Uses less bandwidth 2)More accurate Disadvantages of Analogue: 1)The effects of random noise can make signal loss and distortion impossible to recover Analogue to Digital: To measure this analogue quantity on a digital device, a circuit called an analogue-to-digital converter is required. This device will change the analogue quantity into an

equivalent digital code or representation. The analogue-to-digital converter is usually abbreviated to A/D converter or ADC. MULTIVIBRATORS: two stage transistor switching circuits in which the output of each stage is fed back to the input of the other by coupling resistors or capacitors. As a result the transistors are driven alternatively into saturation and cut-off and whilst the output from one is high, the other is low. W e say their outputs are complementary. Those are: Astable, Monostable, Bistable(FlipFlop). Multivibrators have memory as long as they have DC supply. The Astable or free running multivibrator. This has no stable states. It switches from one state to the other automatically at a rate determined by the circuit components. Consequently it generates a continuous stream of almost square wave pulses. It is a square wave oscillator and belongs to the family of relaxation oscillators. One of the most important of its many uses is to produce timing pulses for keeping the different parts of a digital system, such as a computer, in step - it is then known as a clock. The Monostable. This has one stable state and one unstable state. Normally it rests in its stable state but can be switched to the other state by applying an external rigger pulse. It stays in the unstable state for a certain time before returning to its stable state. It converts a pulse of unpredictable length (time) from a switch into a square pulse of predictable length and amplitude (voltage) which may be used to cause a delay in a circuit or to act as a gate for another circuit, allowing a number of timing pulses to pass for a certain time. The Bistable or Flip Flop. This has two stable states. In one state the output of the first transistor is high and the second low. In the other state, the opposite is the case. It will remain in either state until a suitable external trigger or clock pulse makes it switch. Bistables are memory-type circuits that are used to store binary digits. A simple circuit representation will be examined in this section, they will be studied in more detail in the next section of this module. Bistable Counters which can count up or down starting from any number in any sequence and according to any standard code e.g. the Binary Code or Binary Coded Decimal etc., or Modulo-N counters dividing by any number N. Bistable Registers which can store or latch data present on a set of digital lines at a particular instant in time. SERIAL DATA TRANSMISSION This enables us to transmit large amounts of data on a single channel usually consisting of a wire twisted pair driven by a line driver chip. A typical application for a serial data link is the remote controller for your N set - although the link is done by infra red light pulsing 'on and off rather than 'logic 0 and 1 levels' being transmitted on wires. However serial data is transmitted when each button is pressed to send numbers/modes/commands etc. to your TV. Parallel Data Transmission: Parallel data is sent on '1 line per bit'. parallel interface is much faster than the serial link to transfer data but more logic circuits and wire are needed. A typical example of this parallel interface is the data communication between a PC and its printer. This is generally a parallel transfer of data for speed of operation. Basic Computer structure: basic digital computer is comprised of a memory which is primarily used to hold or store the program, a microprocessor (often referred to as the central processor unit or CPU) which executes the individual machine instructions which make up the program, and some input and output (I/O) ports. These ports form the interface between the computer and the source of the input data and the subsequent output data. In order to remember which program instruction is to be executed next, the microprocessor contains a register (or temporary information storage location) called the program counter (PC), the contents of which points to the next sequential instruction to be fetched and executed. Thus, during a typical instruction cycle, the next instruction to be executed is read from the memory location indicated by the contents of the program counter. While this instruction is being executed, the contents of

the program counter are incremented to point to the next instruction. Microprocessor instructions often require more than one byte of information, usually 1, 2 or 3 bytes are required. Thus an instruction fetch cycle may consist of up to 3 memory read operations performed on successive memory locations. During the execution phase of this instruction however, the program counter still points to the address of the first byte of the instruction that would normally be fetched next. THE MICROPROCESSOR The microprocessor can execute a number of basic machine instructions. Examples are individual data byte manipulation instructions (add, subtract, etc.) and memory transfer instructions (read data byte from memory, write data byte to memory, etc.). Information is transferred between external devices and the computer system via the input and output ports, and consequently the microprocessor has machine instructions to both read (input) data from a specified port and to write (output) data to a port. Microprocessor is comprised of: (a)The register section contains a number of registers or temporary storage elements which can each hold or store a single byte or word. (b)The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) performs the actual data manipulation operations (c)The timing and control section co-ordinates the internal operation of the microprocessor and controls operation of the ALU and registers so that the desired action specified by an instruction is performed. (d) The microprocessor communicates with the memory, both to obtain the individual instructions which make up the program and to access and store data, and to transfer to and from input and output ports using a highway or bus. MEMORY: consists of a large number of locations in each of which a small quantity of data can be stored, and these locations make it possible to write information into the memory or read information out of it. Each location has a unique address so that it can be accessed from outside the memory. The time that is needed to write one word into a memory or to read one out is referred to as the access time of the memory and is measured in nanoseconds (1ns = 10-9s). A volatile memory is one that will lose its stored data when the power supply is switched off, while in a non-volatile memory data is retained even through power is off. Random-Access Memory In a random-access memory (RAM) stored data at any location can be changed by writing in new data at that location. It can therefore also be called a read / write memory. RAMs are either dynamic or static. In a dynamic RAM, data are represented by the presence or absence of electric charges that have to be refreshed many times a second to prevent them (and the data) from leaking away. A static RAM has storage elements which act like bistable switches (e.g. flip flops, diodes) so the data stored in them does not have to be refreshed; all that is required to keep the switches on or off is a constant flow of current. Information is stored in cells that are arranged in an array or matrix of rows and columns, the number of which is governed by the storage capacity or organisation of the memory. Read-Only Memory: The main feature of a read-only memory (ROM) is that the binary information it contains is permanently stored in it. The data, which can be accessed in random fashion, are written in at the time of manufacturer, and so the specific program contents cannot usually be charged afterwards. Although a ROM has only one decoder the general organisation is basically the same as a RAM and in the organisation of digital systems the two types of memory are used together. The contents of a ROM cannot usually be changed after manufacturer, and this is due to the special masking technique adopted in programming the chip. However, to meet the needs of a user who may wish to do his own full programming, or alter an existing program, other techniques are adopted to produce programmable ROMs or PROMs for short. In one version of a PROM, the chip is supplied ready-made, but with every one of its memory elements linked to read logic 1.

Another version of a PROM, a whole program can be wiped clean and the memory used again for another program; this is called an erasable PROM or EPROM. Each of its array of memory elements is designed to accept and retain a charge of electrons, and hence assume either of the two logic states needed for programming. A third version of a PROM is one that can be electrically programmed and erased, known as an electrically alterable ROM or EAROM. In contrast to an EPROM it provides control over erasure. With an EPROM the contents of particular memory elements cannot be rewritten without first erasing the whole memory, but with an EAROM the contents of individual elements can be erased and changed without disturbing the data in the other elements. Hardware. The electronic and mechanical devices that make up the computer are referred to as hardware. Typical hardware elements are the microprocessor, RAM, ROM, motherboard, power supply unit and computer case. Software. This comprises the programs that enable a computer to function and carry out the operations we ask of it. The software produced to improve the usability of the computer, rather than to complete specific tasks is referred to as system software. System software is usually supplied ready made, a good example being an operating system such as windows or DOS. System software generally only works on the machine it was designed for. Software designed to perform specific tasks is called application software, typical examples being word processors, drawing packages etc. Software programs are supplied on portable storage devices such as floppy discs and CD ROMS. If the program is stored in ROM it is usually called firmware. Multiplexing is sending multiple signals or streams of information on a single carrier at the same time in the form of a single, complex signal and then recovering the separate signals at the receiving end. Analogue signals are commonly multiplexed using Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) in which the carrier bandwidth us divided in sub-channels of different frequency widths, each carrying a signal at the same time in parallel. Digital signals are commonly multiplexed using Time Division Multiplexing (TDM), in which the multiple signals are carried over the same channel in alternating time slots. In some optical fibre networks, multiple signals are carried together as separate wavelengths of light in a multiplexed signal using Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM). ARINC is the acronym for Aeronautical Radio Incorporated. The ARINC organisation is the techniqual, publishing and administrative support arm for the Airlines Electronic Engineering committee (AEEC) groups. The AEEC was formed in 1949 and is considered the leading international organisation in the standardisation of air transport avionics equipment and telecommunications system. ARINC 429 ARINC 429 defines the Air Transport Industries standard for the transfer of digital data between avionics systems. ARINC 429 is formally known as the mark 33 Digital Information Transfer System (DITS) specification. Unidirectional bus. A twisted shielded pair of wires carries the ARINC 429 signal and the sets of information are transmitted at periodic intervals. Each bus has only one transmitter and up to 20 receivers, however, one terminal may have many transmitters or receivers on different buses. A receiver is not allowed to ever respond on the same bus where a transmission has occurred. Each ARINC 429 word consists of 32 bits with the first 8 bits, called the Label, actually encoded to represent the type of information contained within the 32 bit word. A typical 32 bit word has 5 parts: 8 bit Label (Information Identifier) Data area Odd parity bit Source / destination identifier (SDI) Sign / status matrix (SSM) ARINC 629 An ARINC 629 data bus is a electronic data movement system that connects many line replaceable units (LRUs) in a single communication loop. Data from any ARINC 629 LRU is

available to all other LRUs on the bus. Communication on ARINC 629, unlike an ARINC 429 is bidirectional, data to and from LRUs moving on the same bus. The ARINC 629 bus permits greater volume and speed of data transfer than other data buses in current use. Is a bidirectional data bus. An ARINC 629 data bus is a twisted pair of wires with termination resistors at each end. As many as 120 LRUs can use a single ARINC 629 data bus. ARINC 573 is an avionics data bus standard developed by ARINC. It is mostly used with Flight Data Recorder that use 12bit words in continuous data stream. FIBRE OPTICS Fibre optics is one area of opto-electronics, which covers the production, utilization and evaluation of electromagnetic radiation in the optical wavelength range and its conversion into electrical signals. Components that emit, or are sensitive to radiation in the ultra-violet, infra-red and visible range are defined as opto-electronic components. ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTIC: Wide Bandwidth Smaller diameter, lighter-weight cables Cross talk negligible Immunity to inductive interference Greater security Greater safety Low cost Long life span 20 to 30 years for fibre optics compared to 12 to 15 years for conventional cables Greater reliability - also ease of maintenance. DISADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTIC: In fiber optic system major light losses can occur at three optical junctions: From source to fiber. From fiber to fiber. From fiber to photo detector. Splicing optical fibers, however, is a much more complicated task. Proper slicing is difficult for two main reasons: The hair like optical fibers are so fine they are hard to handle. The two fibers must be precisely aligned to keep losses at an acceptable level. To minimize these problems, special connectors and splicing devices are required. How do we send data to fiber optics? By modulating the beams frequency The OLAN uses two types of connectors simply referred to as type-A(butt-type) connectors and type-B(ball lens) connectors. The individual fibers are color coded for identification purposes. Both types of connector have: Alignment keys and grooves Guide pins and cavities Color bands Three start threads. What is optic fiber cables color? Metal jacket purple CATHODE RAY TUBE DISPLAYS: A cathode ray tube is a thermionic device consisting of an evacuated envelope inside which is positioned an electron gun and beam focusing system. Primary Colors of a CRT: Red Green Blue X-deflectors: they are aligned with vertical plane and they deflect electron beam in the horizontal axis Y-deflectors: aligned with horizontal plane and deflect in vertical axis. COLOUR PICTURES To produce a colour picture the screen is coated in three different phosphors - Red, Green and Blue each being made to luminess by its own electron gun. The colour picture consists basically of three separate pictures, one in each of the colours, displayed simultaneously on the same screen. To ensure the representation is correct each gun must only be allowed to strike its designated colour of phosphor, this is achieved by simple geometry. A metal screen with holes in, called a shadow mask is fitted approximately 12mm behind the screen, the beams from the three guns converge on a hole in the mask, pass through it and then diverge on the other side to strike their correct colour phosphor. It is impossible with a correctly set up system for the beams to pass through the mask and strike the wrong colour phosphor. The mask also shades the phosphor from the beams as they move across the screen. LCD displays utilise two sheets of polarising material with a liquid crystal solution between them. An electric current passed through the liquid causes the crystals to align so that light cannot pass through them. Each crystal, therefore, is like a shutter, either allowing light to pass through or blocking the light.

 Colour LCD displays use two basic techniques for producing colour, passive matrix and thin film technology (TFT) or active matrix. Passive matrix is less expensive, but until recently did not produce very clear images. Modern CSTN and DSTN technologies are much improved. TFT devices produce images that are as sharp as traditional CRT displays, but the technology is expensive. Many electronic Line Replaceable Units (LRUs) on aircraft contain printed circuit boards containing components that are susceptible to damage from electrostatic discharges. Such components are referred to as electrostatic discharge sensitive (ESDS) devices wrist strap with a minimum grounding lead resistance of 250 kilohms and a maximum of 1 5 megohms Modifications to software will be subject to the same approval procedures as are applied to hardware modifications (see BCAR Section A, Chapters A2-5, A4-8 or A4-10 as appropriate). Modified software will need to be identified and controlled in accordance with the procedures stated in the Software Configuration Management Plan. The guidance material given in document DO-178/ED-121 (or an agreed equivalent standard) may be used as a basis for the approval of software modifications. NOTE: The term maintenance is often used by software specialists when referring to modifications to software. Post-Certification Modifications In respect of equipment and systems with software in the Major, Hazardous or Catastrophic Criticality Categories, a modification which affects software shall not be embodied unless it has been approved by the responsible Design Organization. Electromagnetic Interference may come from inside or from outside the aircraft. The internal sources include computers, headsets, radios and navigation aids as well as the electrical power distribution system of the aircraft. Although they may only radiate tiny fields, these are very close to the aircrafts aerials and possibly sensitive equipments. External sources include ground transmitters such as radio, radar, television and telephone. Some of these have very high power levels and even though the signals travel large distances, they can still have serious effects on the aircraft. Ground and airborne installations are sometimes referred to as fixed and intermittent transmitters. Because a ground transmitter is fixed, its location is marked on most aviation maps and can be avoided. EFFECTS OF HIRF Electromagnetic interface can jam equipment, burn out electrical circuits, cause false readings on instruments, cause a false command in a flight control system (especially fly-by-wire), detonate a squib, or even cause an explosion of fuel vapour. Airframe bonding must be 50mOhms ENGINE INDICATING & CREW ALERTING SYSTEM (EICAS) The basic system comprises two display units, a control panel and two computers supplied with analog and digital signals from the engine and system sensors. ELECTRONIC CENTRALIZED AIRCRAFT MONITORING (ECAM) ECAM differs from EICAS in that the data displayed relate essentially to the primary systems of the aircraft and are displayed in checklist and pictorial or synoptic format. ATC-secondary radar:The secondary radar system uses what is called an ATC Transponder in the aircraft. The transponder is a transmitter/receiver, which transmits in response to an interrogation from the ground station secondary surveillance radar system. The primary and secondary radar antennas are mounted on the same rotating mounting, and therefore both always look in the same direction at the same time. Mode S ATC interrogators and transponders are called ATCRBS/mode S because they are capable of working with the old ATCRBS equipment or with new mode S equipment. One of the most important aspects of mode S is the ability to discretely address one aircraft so that only the specific aircraft being interrogated responds. TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM (TCAS)

TCAS I provides proximity warning only to assist the pilot in the visual acquisition of intruder aircraft. It is intended for use by smaller commuter and general aviation aircraft. TCAS II provides traffic advisories and resolution advisories (recommended escape maneuvers) in a vertical direction to avoid conflicting traffic. Airline, larger commuter and business aircraft will use TCAS II equipment. TCAS III which is still under development, will provide traffic advisories and resolution advisories in the horizontal as well as the vertical direction to avoid conflicting traffic. INS is device which is able to detect minute changes in acceleration and velocity, ability necessary in the development of inertial systems. Velocity and distance are computed from sensed acceleration by the application of basic calculus. IRS: supplies data to FMS. It consists of: (a)gyroscopes (b)linear accelerometers (c) nav computer (d)a clock Differences of INS/IRS: INS is dependent on the precise alignment of the inertial platform to a known reference (True North), with respect to the latitude and longitude of the ground starting position at the time of Starting Up the system. The inertial system computer carries out a selfalignment calibration procedure over a given period of time before the system is ready to navigate the aircraft. IRS is aligned to true north a variation angle is used to calculate the direction to magnetic north. Each location on earth has its own variation angle. All variation angles between the 73 North and 60 South latitude are stored in the IRS. The present position is updated mainly with accelerations sensed by the accelerometers. The accelerations are corrected for the pitch and roll attitude and calculated with respect STRAPDOWN INERTIAL NAVIGATION:a strapdown system the accelerometers and gyros are mounted solidly to the aircraft s axis. there are no gimbals to keep the sensors level with the earth s surface, so that one sensor is always on the aircrafts longitudinal axis, one on the lateral axis and one on the vertical axis. likewise the gyros are mounted such that one will detect the aircraft s pitch, another the roll and the third the aircraft s heading. Laser Gyro: Laser Ring Gyros (LRGs) in the strapdown system make measurements necessary to describe this relationship in terms of pitch, roll and heading angles. These angles are calculated from angular rates measured by the gyros through integration e.g. Gyro measures an angular rate of 3 /sec for 30 seconds in the yaw axes. Through integration, the microprocessor calculates that the heading has changed by 90 after 30 seconds How many satellites are needed to have an ACs 3D position? 4 FMS data is updated every 28 days How is FMS database is updated? With a data loader What does FMS controls? Automatic Flight Control. Performance Management. Navigation and Guidance. Status and Warning Displays How many FMS databases we always have uploaded? 2-One of them is the current one and the second is the future/past database. ACARS is a solution to an ever increasing. problem of overcrowded VHF communication band. an addressable digital data link system which permits exchange of data and messages between an aircraft and a ground based operations centre using the VHF communications band Fly-by-wire(FBW): electrically controls flight controls but hydraulically operates them