Flue gas losses

Professor M M Sorour

Prof. Sorour

2008

Flue gas losses

This chapter is devoted to study the reasons and methods of reducing the heat losses that are carried by the flue gases for different reasons and those due to combustion and gas side factors in general.

Prof. Sorour

2008

Flue gas losses

These losses are: 1- Heat carried away in chimney gases a- High excess air b- High flue gas temperature 2- Loss due to incomplete combustion, insufficient air supply 3- Loss due to moisture in the air 4- Too high rate of combustion
Prof. Sorour 2008

Flue gas temperature

The two basic causes of high flue gas temperature: Insufficient heat transfer surfaces Fouling of heat transfer surfaces

Prof. Sorour

2008

Flue gas temperature

Good practice dictates that stack temperature be kept as low as possible without causing cold end corrosion. Temperature higher than those required by the boiler manufacture, are caused by:
Excessive draft dirty, carbon- covered heating surfaces Poor design of H.E. surfaces and lack of sufficient baffling. Undersized furnace. Incorrect or defective combustion. Over firing of boiler or furnace. Improper adjustment of draft regulator.
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Flue gas temperature

Solutions Repair the broken or corroded baffle that could be bypassing the hot gas to the stack. Adjust draft. Decrease soot deposits on heating surfaces by improving fuel combustion efficiency. Note: the net stack temperature is obtained by subtracting the ambient temperature from the flue-gas temperature.
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Smoke in flue gas

Causes: Improper air delivery. Insufficient draft. Improper fuel viscosity Oil-pump malfunction Defective or incorrect fuel nozzle Improper fuel-to-air ratio.

Prof. Sorour

2008

Smoke in flue gas

Causes: Excessive air leaks. Improper preheat Improper fuel atomization. Worn, clogged, or incorrect nozzle Improperly, adjusted oil pressure to nozzle Leaking cut-off valve, allowing afterdrip of fuel oil.
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Smoke in flue gas

Smoke Test: A total of 110.39 cubic inch of smoke- laden flue products are drawn through a 0.049 inch square area of a standard guide filter paper. The color of the resultant smoke stain on the filter paper is matched to the closest color spot on the standard graduated smoke scale. The results are interrupted according to 1 - 9 color scale the low number mean little or no smoke. Using this scale, the following smoke colors are acceptable for fuel oil No Fuel oil2: 3 or less Fuel oil No6: Prof. Sorour4 or less 2008

Smoke in flue gas

Solutions
Balancing the CO2 with more air, until the smoke is 4 or less. Controlling fuel-oil temperature so that the recommended viscosity will be reached. Treating fuel oil properly to keep the burner clean and improve atomization. Determining any mechanical problems through further testing.
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Firing Controls
Three major parameters that need to be controlled and monitored are:
1. Fuel gas/Fuel oil pressure 2. Excess air 3. Draft in the furnace
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Excess Air Control

Excess air control essentially involves answering three basic questions
1. How much excess air is provided? 2. How much excess air should be provided? 3. How efficient is the burning equipment?

Prof. Sorour

2008

Burner with correct excess air.

Correct Excess Air Good flame length Maximum flame temperature

Prof. Sorour

2008

Burner with correct excess air.

A visual on the flame is used to adjust the flame color and flame height based on the fuel pressure. Once the flame is set correctly, the damper is adjusted for the correct draft.
Prof. Sorour 2008

Burner with correct excess air.

Finally, the secondary air supply is adjusted to give the desired oxygen reading or O2 setpoint. When set correctly, and with good air-fuel mixing, the burner will produce the maximum flame temperature in a compact flame.
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Burner with correct excess air.

The less secondary air that is needed, the better the efficiency. At optimum efficiency, the flue gas will contain a minimum of oxygen together with levels of combustibles (CO and H2) in the 100 to 200 ppm range and a minimum of NOx.

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2008

Burner with too much excess air.

Short flame Cooler temperature Wasted heat Increased NOx

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NOx production increases with increasing excess air

Too much excess air reduces flame temperature and drops efficiency. In most companies this is the biggest source of heater inefficiency and NOx production.

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2008

Burner with insufficient excess air.

Long flame Cooler temperature No NOx Very inefficient

Prof. Sorour

2008

Burner with insufficient excess air.

The large amount of CO and H2 formed as a result of the incomplete combustion makes the burner extremely inefficient This reduces the flame temperature and might encourage the operator to increase fuel flow thus making matters worse. This condition may not be noticed because leakage in the convection section can hide insufficient air getting to the burner.
Prof. Sorour 2008

WHAT IS THE CORRECT O2 SETPOINT? The Importance of Oxygen and Combustibles

Prof. Sorour

2008

WHAT IS THE CORRECT O2 SETPOINT? The Importance of Oxygen and Combustibles Reducing the excess air or oxygen to the minimum safe level is the most important step in reducing energy consumption. There is no single O2 level that is right for all burners. The optimum oxygen depends on the load, the burner design, the type of fuel, and the burner performance. Reducing oxygen while measuring the ppm combustibles allows the correct operating point to be determined.
Prof. Sorour 2008

WHAT IS THE CORRECT O2 SETPOINT?

The Importance of Oxygen and Combustibles

Without combustibles, it is not possible to find the optimum set point, since you cannot know when to stop. With the combustibles detector, the oxygen can be reduced safely until the combustibles starts to increase.
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WHAT IS THE CORRECT O2 SETPOINT? The Importance of Oxygen and Combustibles

Flue gas analysis provides the answer to the first question. The oxygen concentration in the flue gas provides an indication of the excess air supplied to the combustion process.

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How much excess air is provided?

Excess Air vs. Oxygen Content in Flue Gas

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Excess Air Control

Optimum excess air is the minimum excess air because
minimizes the heat loss to the flue gases, minimizes the cooling effect on the flame, improves the heat transfer

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Excess Air Control

With less than the minimum excess air, the unburned fuel will start appearing in the flue gas due to insufficient air. Minimum excess air should be specified by the burner vendor and should be verified during burner testing.

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BURNERS
The performance of a burner directly affects combustion efficiency because of the excess air required to obtain complete combustion at the burner. A poorly adjusted burner, or one incapable of efficiently mixing fuel and air at all load ranges, will increase excess air and waste fuel.
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BURNERS
Provided that the burners are clean and well maintained, the air to fuel ratio controls on modern combustion systems should be able to maintain the recommended excess air through much of the turndown ratio of the burner, although the excess air will increase at low turndown ratios.
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BURNERS
Experience, however, shows that many burners are incorrectly adjusted. Changes that take place due to wear on cams, linkages, pins, etc, often results in a change in air /fuel ratio and consequent loss in efficiency. It is also difficult to properly set the combustion air damper position for manually controlled burners in the absence of instruments for measuring flue gas composition.
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BURNERS
For example a scored or scratched burner tip on a pressure jet oil burner can lead to incorrect atomization of the fuel: some droplets may be small, some large. This results in inadequate mixing of fuel and air, and excessive formation of carbon monoxide. It is thus possible to have high oxygen levels in the flue gas (ie high excess air) at the same time as having high carbon monoxide. A similar effect can be caused by a burner tip which has been over-enthusiastic cleaning using abrasive tools of the small hole or jet nozzle in the centre, whose dimensions are critical for the proper atomization of a given fuel oil.
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BURNERS
It is therefore important to understand that attaining the optimum excess air rate may be prevented by the use of damaged or incorrectly adjusted burner parts. Whenever high oxygen levels are found in conjunction with high combustibles (ie carbon monoxide, or in extreme case smoke) the mechanical integrity of the burner and air distribution system is suspect and should be checked.
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BURNERS
An efficient natural gas burner requires only 2% to 3% excess oxygen, or 10% to 15% excess air in the flue gas, to burn fuel without forming excessive carbon monoxide. Recently most new good gas burners exhibit turndown ratios of 10:1 or 12:1 with little or no loss in combustion efficiency. A higher turndown ratio reduces burner starts, provides better load control, saves wear and tear on burner, reduce refractory wear, reduces purge air requirement, and provides fuel savings
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BURNERS
Dont confuse turndown to fully modulating burners. Having a fully modulating burner with only a typical turndown of 4 will not benefit and will cost much more.

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Effect of Turndown on fuel cost

This figure show how the turndown ratio impacts the fuel cost for a small 100Hp boiler. When you combine the effect of low excess air and high turndown, the operating cost savings range from 10% to 15%
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Example
Consider a 50,000 PPH (22.7ton/hr) process boiler with a combustion efficiency of 79% (E1). The boiler annually consumes 500,000 million Btu (MMBtu) of natural gas. At a price of $8.00/MMBtu, the annual fuel cost is $4 million. What are the savings from an energy efficient burner that improves combustion efficiency by 1%, 2%, 3%? Cost savings = Fuel consumption x Fuel Price x (1- E1/E2)

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Energy Savings due to the installation of an energy Efficient burner

Burner combustion efficiency improvement %

Annual Energy savings, MMBtu/hr

Annual Dollar savings $

1 2 3

6,250 12,345 18,290

Prof. Sorour

50,000 89,760 146,320

2008

Energy Savings due to the installation of an energy Efficient burner If the installed cost is $ 75,000 for a new burner that provides an efficiency improvement of 2%, Simple payback= $ 75,000 / $98,760 = 0.76 year

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2008

Suggested action:
Perform burner maintenance and tune your burner. Conduct combustion efficiency test in full and in part load. If excess oxygen exceed 3% or combustion efficiencies values are low, consider modernizing the fuel/ air control to include solid state sensors and controls without linkage. Also consider installing improved process controls, an oxygen trim system, or a new energy- efficient burner
Prof. Sorour 2008

Suggested action:
A new energy efficient burner should be considered if repair costs become excessive, reliability becomes an issue, and energy savings are guaranteed. Install a smaller burner on a boiler that is oversized relative to its steam load

Prof. Sorour

2008

Oxygen Control O2 Trim

When boiler burners are manually tuned on a periodic basis, they are typically adjusted to about 3% excess oxygen which is about 15% excess air. This is because there are many ambient and atmospheric conditions that can affect oxygen/air supply.
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Oxygen Control O2 Trim

For example, colder air is denser and contains more oxygen than warm air; wind speed affects every chimney/flue/stack differently; and barometric pressure further affects draft. Therefore, an excess oxygen/air setting at the time of tuning assumes there will still be enough oxygen available for complete combustion when conditions worsen
Prof. Sorour 2008

Oxygen Control O2 Trim

Prof. Sorour

2008

Oxygen Control O2 Trim

From an efficiency standpoint, the excess O2 means there is more air in the combustion stream than there needs to be. That air also contains moisture and it all is heated and then lost up the stack. The amount of excess O2 is about directly proportional to the efficiency lost; that is, 3% excess O2 means 3% efficiency drop.
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Oxygen Control O2 Trim

Although it may be possible to monitor and adjust the burner on a daily basis, it is not practical. Automatic O2 systems continuously monitor the flue gases and adjust the burner air supply, they are generically called O2 Trim Systems. An electronic sensor is inserted into the boiler flue, ahead of any dampers or other sources of air leakage into the boiler or flue. The sensor is connected to a control panel that measures oxygen and sends a signal to a control damper on the burner air supply.
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Oxygen Control O2 Trim

There are other advantages of the installation of an O2 Trim package in addition to fuel savings.
Combustion efficiency computation per fuel to alert the owner when service is required on the burner. Flue gas temperature monitoring and alarms, alerts the owner when the boiler tubes are fouled (A 22C temperature rise above design results in a 1% fuel increase.) and shut down due to high flue gas temperature. O2 monitoring and alarm due to low excess air or combustibles.
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Oxygen Control O2 Trim

There are two types of approaches for O2 trim. 1- Single point (jackshaft) positioning with a trim actuator. 2- Parallel positioning (metering), separate actuators for the fuel valve(s) and FD damper.

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2008

Oxygen Control
The most common method today is parallel positioning. The components include:
1-Controller:

2- Pressure or temperature sensor, 3 - O2 analyzer 4- Fuel valve actuator(s) (servomotors). 5- Air damper actuator (servomotor).
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Oxygen Control
The Controller accepts inputs from the fuel and air actuators, O2 analyzer, flue gas temperature sensor and a header pressure or temperature sensor. The controller will interface with the burner management system for purge, low fire, fuel select and other functions.
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Excess Air Effect on Efficiency

Excess Oxygen %
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
Prof. Sorour

Natural Gas 83.08% 82.37% 81.68% 80.71% 79.72% 78.60% 77.31% 75.32% 74.03% 72.01%

2008

Estimating Savings from O2 Trim

Fuel Savings = 1.0 - (Starting Efficiency / Ending Efficiency) Example: 4.5% Excess Oxygen reduced to 2.0% Fuel saving =1.0 - (0.7972 / 0.8308) = 0.04044 = 4.04%

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2008

Estimating Savings from O2 Trim

NOTE

Because some boilers operate with a very high percentage of excess oxygen, it is common for the first year savings to be substantially higher than this. Much of that savings can be attributed to a more reasonable manual tuning of the boiler, and not necessarily from the installation of an automatic O2 control system.

Well-tuned boilers can expect savings of 2 4%

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Estimating Payback from the Installation of O2 Trim

The equipment costs for O2 Trim varies only a little with boiler size. Investment Costs will vary mainly due to the torque requirements for the servomotors and types of O2 analyzers. Installation costs are highly variable.
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Estimating Payback from the Installation of O2 Trim

For O2 trim systems, 100 to 600 HP boilers, the investment costs are: Equipment: Controller in cabinet, pressure sensor, O2 analyzer, flue gas temperature sensor, servomotors (actuators) for fuel valves (2) and FD damper. Equipment cost range is $ 10,000 to $ 11,000. Installation: $ 5,000 to 7,000. Start-up & Training Services: $ 2,500 to $ 4,000.
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Estimating Payback from the Installation of O2 Trim

For O2 Trim Systems, 600 HP to 100,000 lbs per hour boilers (45 ton/hr), the investment costs are: Equipment: Controller in cabinet, pressure transmitter, O2 analyzer, flue gas temperature sensor, actuators for fuel valves (2) and FD damper. Equipment cost range is $ 11,000 to $ 17,000. Installation costs of $ 7,000 to $ 12,000. Start-up & Training Services: $ 2,500 to $ 4,000.
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Example
Assume a 500 hp boiler with an input of 20,000,000 BTUs, operating 8,000 hours per year with a 50% load factor could save a very conservative 2% with the installation of an O2 Trim system: 20 MMBTUs x 8,000 hrs x 50% x 2% = 2,560 MMBTUs or 2,560 MCF Natural Gas per Year.
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Example:
If Natural Gas cost is $7.00 per MCF, 2,560 x $7 = $17,920 per Year Savings. Payback would be in the 1 - 2 Year Range, depending on Installation Costs. Note that if savings were 4%, the payback could drop to less than a one year payback.
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Hays Cleveland O2 Trim System.

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2008

Air Temp and Pressure

Boiler air/fuel adjustment is critical to efficient boiler operations. Many boilers are manually adjusted per year and then left to operate through a wide variation in temperature and barometric weather conditions.
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Air Temp and Pressure

The amount of oxygen in the air is directly related to air density and temperature. Conventional boiler controls are set according to air volume. New boiler controls that adjust air volume according to a continuous oxygen monitoring of the flue gas is one way to maintain correct air/fuel ratios for peak combustion efficiency.
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Effects of Air Properties on Oxygen Content

Air Temperature Barometric Pressure Excess Air Percentage 20.2% 15.0% - Initial Setting 9.6% 1.1%

60 F -15.5 C 80 F -26.5 C 100 F- 37.5 C 120 F- 49 C

27 in. 28 in. 29 in. 30 in. 31 in.

7.0% 11% 15% - Initial Setting 19.% 34.5%

Flue Gas Analysis

Flue Gas Analysis

Flue gas analysis is used both for efficiency and emissions purposes. Due to tightening environmental regulations, monitoring may be mandatory. The instruments used for analysis can be inexpensive small hand-held devices that produce reasonable accuracy, to larger permanently installed units that are capable of producing lab quality results on a continuous basis.
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Flue Gas Analysis

The type of flue gas analysis performed and the equipment required will be determined by: Is the primary need for efficiency, environmental regulation or both Will analysis be spot-checked on a periodic basis or is continuous monitoring required What gases/emissions must be monitored What accuracy is required
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Flue Gas Analysis

The components that are of interest because they affect efficiency are primarily oxygen (O) and carbon (C). The components that are of interest from an environmental perspective are nitrousoxides (NOx), carbon-dioxide (CO2), carbon-monoxide (CO) and sulphur-dioxide (SO2)
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Flue Gas Analysis

Flue Gas Analysis is performed by inserting a probe into the flue of boiler between the last heat exchanger and draft diverter. This is known as 'in-situ' testing. It is also necessary to take a combustion air temperature measurement or ambient temperature if that is the source of combustion air. Depending on the gas being measured, most probes today are either infrared or some sort of electrochemical.
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Flue Gas Analysis

Not all analyzers use 'in-situ' probes. Some units pump flue gases through a tube to the instrument. This is more typical of continuous monitoring equipment and for very large systems where it is not easy to reach a spot in the flue to insert a probe or locate a portable meter.
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Flue Gas Analysis

The tube may need to be heated in order to keep the product to be measured from condensing out, such as NO2, SO2, and HCL. In other cases, the flue gases must be cooled and dried to prevent moisture damage to the probe. Instruments use a device called a 'Peltier Cooler' which is an electrochemical device that produces a cool surface that condenses any moisture out of the flue gas before it reaches the measuring sensor. Prof. Sorour 2008

Flue Gas Analysis

Measurement values are either provided in part per million (ppm) or percentage (%) depending on the size of the reading. Larger numbers, such as oxygen and carbon-dioxide are generally provided in percentage and small numbers, such as NOx and carbon-monoxide are provided in ppm.
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Impact on Efficiency

Prof. Sorour

2008

Impact on Efficiency
The most common measurement for the purposes of efficiency is oxygen (O) or carbon-dioxide (CO2) and temperature. For a given fuel type, it is possible to calculate the percent O if CO2 is measured, or to calculate CO2 if O is measured.
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Impact on Efficiency
Another common indicator is CO; if O is high, there won't be any significant CO. Measurable CO means the unit is starved for O or there is something very wrong with the flame. The O and/or CO2 measurement along with the temperature of the flue gas and the combustion air temperature are the needed variables to determine combustion efficiency.
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Impact on Efficiency
Electronic instruments are programmed to calculate and display efficiency directly.

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Impact on Efficiency

Prof. Sorour

2008

Impact on Efficiency
The increase in excess air ratio will increase the convective heat transfer but the reduced flame temperature will reduce the radiant heat transfer.

For the convective heat transfer:

(where t1, is the temperature of the gases leaving the radiant section and entering the tubes). The thermal resistances of the metal tube wall and the water film on the outside surface of the tube are negligible and hence we can assume that the inside surface of the tube is approximately equal to the saturation temperature of the steam, ts,.
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Impact on Efficiency
(Therefore the LMTD is given by (t1 tG )/ln {(t 1 - tg)/( t G - tg) , and then substituting in the equation above we have:

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Impact on Efficiency
The heat transfer by convection is controlled by the heat transfer coefficient for the inside of the tube which varies with the mass flow rate to the power 0.8. Hence for the case where only the mass flow rate changes (i.e. neglecting changes in properties due to the change in the temperatures ) we have

(where k is a constant).
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Impact on Efficiency

For the case of an increase in excess air the temperature t1 will be reduced. However it can be seen that as the mass flow of gases increases k/mGo.2 which offsets the decrease in t1 and the resultant is an increase in flue gas temperature.
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Impact on Efficiency
As the mass flow is increased through the outlet is increased. The mass amounts is analogous to the amount of excess air used by the gas burner.

Prof. Sorour

2008

Emission's Impact on the Environment

The emission of primary concern from the combustion of natural gas is NOx. Typical uncontrolled NOx from natural gas boilers are 70 to well over 100 ppm. Regulations in the world have tightened substantially over recent years, requiring some boilers to operate at less than 9 ppm. Several other have requirements for under 50 ppm for larger boilers.
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Methane Detection During Start-up

As an additional precaution during the purgedown and light-off cycle, the methane detector will detect any natural gas or other fuels which have leaked into the firebox and could cause an explosion. If the boiler is started up only rarely, the methane detector would have limited use. When the boiler is started-up frequently, then the methane measurement gives additional peace of mind. The methane part is used only during the purge-down/light-off cycle with natural gasfired boilers. Prof. Sorour 2008

Methane Detection During Start-up

Close-coupled O2 / combustibles analyzer.

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Convection loop of WDG-IVCM O2, combustibles and methane analyzer.

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Using Thermox Oxygen And ppm Combustibles Analyzers For Efficiency And Nox Reduction: Portable Versus Fixed (Dry Versus Wet O2)

Do not try to use the oxygen value determined from a portable analyzer as the set point for the fixed oxygen analyzer. The portable, typically fuel cell or paramagnetic based, measures on a dry basis since the water must be removed before it hits the cell.
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Using Thermox Oxygen And ppm Combustibles Analyzers For Efficiency And Nox Reduction: Portable Versus Fixed (Dry Versus Wet O2)

The fixed analyzer, normally zirconium oxide based, measures the flue gas as is, including the water and thus measures on a wet basis. The dry is always higher than the wet and it can be a significant difference.

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2008

Using Thermox Oxygen And ppm Combustibles Analyzers For Efficiency And Nox Reduction: Portable Versus Fixed (Dry Versus Wet O2)

For example if you have 20% moisture in the flue gas and 3% O2 , the fixed analyzer will read 3%, whereas the portable will read 3.75%. Neither is right or wrong. They are just different ways of looking at the same thing and in fact this principle is used to measure flue gas moisture.
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Using Thermox Oxygen And ppm Combustibles Analyzers For Efficiency And Nox Reduction: Portable Versus Fixed (Dry Versus Wet O2)

If you use a portable to determine the optimum O2 setpoint, and then set the O2 control at this level, the boiler will run at too high an O2 level. Thermox oxygen analyzers are designed for direct installation at the high temperature radiant section, typically 1500 - 2000 F (815 1093 C)
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Flue Gas Analysis Table

Using a Flue Gas Analyzer or any meter designed to measure oxygen or carbonmonoxide, and taking the flue gas temperature and the temperature of the combustion air, the following Table can be used to determine combustion efficiency when operating on natural gas. The Temperature Column is the NET Difference between Flue Gas and Combustion Air Temperatures.
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Excess Air % 0.0 4.5 9.5 15.0 21.1 28.1 35.9 44.9 55.3 67.3 81.6 98.7 119.7 145.8 179.5 224.3

Excess O2 % 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0

Excess CO2 % 11.8 11.2 10.7 10.1 9.6 9.0 8.4 7.9 7.3 6.7 6.2 5.6 5.1 4.5 3.9 3.4

Combustion Efficiency at Net Temperature Difference 170F 86.3 86.2 86.1 85.9 85.7 85.5 85.3 85.0 84.7 84.3 83.9 83.4 82.7 82.0 81.0 79.6 220F 85.3 85.1 84.9 84.7 84.5 84.2 83.9 83.5 83.1 82.7 82.1 81.5 80.6 79.6 78.3 76.6 270F 84.2 84.0 83.8 83.5 83.2 82.9 82.5 82.1 81.6 81.0 80.3 79.5 78.5 77.3 75.7 73.5 330F 83.0 82.7 82.4 82.1 81.7 81.3 80.9 80.3 79.7 79.0 78.2 77.2 75.9 74.4 72.4 69.8 380F 81.9 81.6 81.2 80.9 80.5 80.0 79.5 78.8 78.1 77.3 76.4 75.2 73.8 72.0 69.7 66.7 430F 80.8 80.5 80.1 79.7 79.2 78.6 78.0 77.3 76.6 75.6 74.5 73.2 71.6 69.6 67.0 63.5 480F 79.7 79.3 78.9 78.4 77.9 77.3 76.6 75.8 74.9 73.9 72.7 71.2 69.4 67.1 64.2 60.4 530F 78.6 78.2 77.7 77.2 76.6 75.9 75.2 74.3 73.3 72.2 70.8 69.2 67.2 64.7 61.5 57.2 580F 77.5 77.0 76.5 75.9 75.3 74.5 73.7 72.8 71.7 70.4 68.9 67.1 64.9 62.2 58.7 54.0

Note that each fuel has its own characteristics. Therefore, these numbers are valid ONLY for natural gas.

Flue Gas Analysis

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2008

Burner Performance
PPM of combustibles in flue gas
Loss due to excess air

Loss due to combustibles

Prof. Sorour

2008