Umesh Adhikari

How to form the present simple tense in English. Structure of present simple positive I work in a bank. You work in a bank. We work in a bank. They work in a bank. He works in a bank. She works in a bank. The bank opens at 9 o'clock. negative I don't (do not) work. You don't (do not) work. We don't (do not) work. They don't (do not) work. He doesn't (does not) work. She doesn't (does not) work. It doesn't (does not) open at 9 o'clock. question Do I work in a bank? Do you work in a bank? Do we work in a bank? Do they work in a bank? Does he work? Does she work? Does it open at 9 o'clock?

Present simple - common mistakes Common mistakes I working in London. Correct version I work in London. Why? The gerund ing form is not used in the present simple. The third person he, she, itadds the letter s. He work in London? Does he work in London? Questions - third person: does + subject + infinitive. Work he in London? Does he work in London? All other persons: do + subject + infinitive. Negatives - third person: He not work in London. He doesn't work in London. subject + doesn't + infinitive. All other persons: subject + don't + infinitive.

He work in London.

He works in London.

1|Page

Umesh Adhikari

Present continuous tens

The present continuous tense is sometimes called the present progressive. Here is how to form the present continuous tense in English.

Structure of present continuous positive I'm (I am) reading a book. You're (you are) reading. We're (we are) reading. They're (they are) reading. negative I'm (I am) not reading. You're (you are) not reading. We're (we are) not reading. They're (they are) not reading. He's not / he isn't (he is not) reading. She's not / she isn't (she is not) reading. It's not / it isn't (it is not) raining. question Am I reading? Are you reading? Are we reading? Are they reading?

He's (he is) reading a book. She's (she is) reading a book. It's (it is) raining.

Is he reading? Is she reading? Is it raining?

Present continuous - common mistakes Common mistakes They still waiting for you. They are still waiting for you? Do they still waiting for you? Where they are waiting for you? Correct version They are still waiting for you. Are they still waiting for you? Are they still waiting for you? Where are they waiting for you? To form the negative we put notafter the verb be (am not, is not = isn't, are not = aren't). Some verbs are not used in continuous tenses - these are In questions the subject (they) and the auxiliary verb (be) change places. Why? to form a continuous tense we use be + -ing.

She doesn't watching TV.

She isn't watching TV.

I'm believing you.

2|Page

I believe you.

Umesh Adhikari
called stative verbs (e.g.believe, come from, cost, depend, exist, feel, hate, like).

Past simple tense

Here is how to form the past simple tense in English. Structure of past simple positive I arrived yesterday. You arrived yesterday. He/she/it arrived. We arrived. They arrived. negative I didn't (did not) arrive. You didn't (did not) arrive. He/she/it didn't arrive. We didn't arrive. They didn't arrive. question Did I arrive yesterday? Did you arrive? Did he/she/it arrive? Did we arrive? Did they arrive?

Past simple - common mistakes Common mistakes Correct version Why? In positive sentences, a I was work in London. I worked in London. helping verb such as 'was' or 'did' is not used. He worked in London? Did he work in London? The helping verb 'did' is used in past simple questions. The helping verb 'did' is used in past simple questions. The main verb is used in the Did he wrote a letter? Did he write a letter? infinitive form in questions and negatives. The main verb is used in the He didn't wrote a letter. He didn't write a letter. infinitive form in questions and negatives.

Worked he in London?

Did he work in London?

3|Page

Umesh Adhikari

Past continuous tense

The past continuous tense is also sometimes called the past progressive. Here is how to form the past continuous in English.

Structure of past continuous positive I was reading a book. He/she was talking. It was raining. You were reading a book. We were waiting. They were drinking. negative I wasn't (was not) reading. He/she wasn't talking. It wasn't raining. You weren't (were not) reading. We weren't talking. They weren't drinking. question Was I reading? Was he/she talking? Was it raining? Were you reading? Were we waiting? Were they drinking?

Past continuous - common mistakes Common mistakes Correct version Why?

I waiting for him almost two I was waiting for him hours. almost two hours. What did he doing when you saw him? We were playing tennis every morning. What was he doing when you saw him? We played tennis every morning.

To form the past continuous we use was/were + ing.

We use the past simple for repeated actions in the past. We use the past continuous when we want to say what was happening (what was in progress) at a particular time in the past.

They watched TV when I came.

They were watching TV when I came.

4|Page

Umesh Adhikari

Present perfect simple tense

Structure of present perfect simple positive I've (I have) seen him. You've done it. We've been there. They've eaten it. He's (he has) gone. She's (she has) gone. It's (it has) gone. negative I haven't (have not) seen him. You haven't done it. We haven't been there. They haven't eaten it. He hasn't (has not) gone. She hasn't gone. It hasn't gone. question Have I seen him? Have you seen her? Have we finished it? Have they been there? Has he been here? Has she finished? Has it gone?

Present perfect simple - common mistakes Common mistakes Steven has wrote a new book. Correct version Steven has written a new book. Why? The past participle of the verb must be used - wrote is past simple, written is the past participle. The helping verb 'have' is used in the present perfectit is inverted with the person (you have becomes have you). The helping verb 'have' is used in the present perfectto make it negative we simply add not(n't). The present perfect is used to show an action which continues to the present (an unfinished action).

Did you have seen him before?

Have you seen him before?

I didn't have seen him before.

I haven't seen him before.

I am here since last week.

I have been here since last week.

Verbs such I've been knowing him for 5 I've known him for 5 years. as know, want,like, etc. years. (stative verbs) suggest
5|Page

Umesh Adhikari
permanent states, not actions, so are used in the simple form, NOT the -ing form.

Present perfect continuous tense

Structure of present perfect continuous positive question negative I have not (haven't) been waiting for long. He has not (hasn't) been working.

I have (I've) been living here Have you been living here for two years. for a long time? He has (he's) been waiting What has she been doing? for you. Present perfect continuous - common mistakes Common mistakes It has been rain heavily all day. Correct version It has been raining heavily all day.

Why? The structure of the present perfect continuous is have/has been -ing. Verbs such as sit, wait, speak, etc. (nonstative verbs) suggest continuity and so are mostly used in the continuous (-ing) form. When BOTH the simple and continuous forms are possible, native speakers prefer to use the continuous.

I have sat here for two hours.

I have been sitting here for two hours.

Which? I have worked here for five years. I have been working here for five years.

6|Page

Umesh Adhikari

Past perfect simple tense

Structure of past perfect simple positive I'd (I had) seen him. You'd done it. We'd been there. They'd eaten it. He'd (he had) gone. She'd (she had) gone. It'd (it had) gone. negative I hadn't (had not) seen him. You hadn't done it. We hadn't been there. They hadn't eaten it. He hadn't (had not) gone. She hadn't gone. It hadn't gone. question Had I seen him? Had you seen her? Had we finished it? Had they been there? Had he been here? Had she finished? Had it gone?

Past perfect simple - common mistakes Common mistakes I didn't been to London. Correct version I hadn't been to London. Why? The helping verb had (negative -hadn't) is used in the past perfect. The action (haircut) which happened before another past action must be put into the past perfect to make the time order clear to the listener. His original words were: ''I have been to London.'' However, in reported speech we move the tense back the present perfect (have been) becomes past perfect (had been).

When I saw him, I noticed that he had a haircut.

When I saw him I noticed that he had had a haircut.

He told me has been to London.

He told me he had been to London.

7|Page

Umesh Adhikari

Past perfect continuous tense

Structure of past perfect continuous positive I had (I'd) been waiting. You had (you'd) been cooking. He/she/it had been eating. We had (we'd) been waiting. They had (they'd) been playing. question Had I been waiting? Had you been working? Had he/she/it been waiting? Had we been eating? Had they been talking? negative I hadn't (had not) been waiting. You hadn't been waiting He/she/it hadn't been waiting. We hadn't been working. They hadn't been working.

Past perfect continuous - common mistakes Common mistakes I had working hard, so I felt very tired. I had been worked hard, so I felt very tired. I had been hearing the song many times before. Correct version Why?

I had been working hard, so I felt very tired.

The form of the past perfect continuous is had + been + verb-ing.

I had heard the song many times before.

Some verbs are not normally used in the continuous form, e.g. stative verbs such asknow, like, understand, believe,hear, etc.

Structure of future simple statement I will (I'll) be there tomorrow. You will (you'll) be there. He/she/it will (he'll) be there. We will (we'll) be there. They will (they'll) be there. negative I won't (will not) be there. You won't be there. He/she/it won't be there. We won't be there. They won't be there. question Will I be there tomorrow? Will you be there? Will he/she/it be there? Will we be there? Will they be there?

8|Page

Umesh Adhikari

Future continuous tense

Structure of future continuous I will (I'll) be waiting there at five o'clock. You will (I'll) be waiting. He/she/it will (he'll) be waiting. We will (we'll) be waiting. They will (they'll) be waiting. I will not (won't) be waiting. You will not be waiting. He/she/it will not be waiting. We will not be waiting. They will not be waiting.

Will I be waiting there? Will you be waiting? Will he/she/it be waiting? Will we be waiting? Will they be waiting?

Going to future tense

Structure of 'going to' future positive I'm (I am) going to take my holidays in August. He's (he is) going to watch TV this evening. negative I'm (I am) not going to take a holiday this year. He isn't (is not) going to watch TV this evening. question Are you going to take a holiday? Is he going to watch TV this evening?

'going to' for future - common mistakes Common mistakes You know that I'll buy a new car, don't you? Look! You will drop your books. Correct version You know that I am going to buy a new car, don't you? Look! You are going to dropyour books. Why? We use going to for a future action that has been decided before the time of speaking. We use going to if we see (and are sure) that the action will happen.

9|Page

Umesh Adhikari

Present tenses used for the future

Present tenses used for the future We use the present simple when we talk about timetables and programmes. We use the present continuous when we talk about things we have already arranged to do. The train leaves at 12.00. What time does the film begin? I'm going to the cinema this evening. I'm not working tomorrow.

Future perfect simple tense

Structure of future perfect (simple) positive The film will have started by the time we get there. negative The film will not (won't) have started by the time we get there. question Will the film have started by the time we get there?

Future perfect simple - common mistakes Common mistakes The film will already has started by the time we get home. Will have you finished it by the time I come back? Correct version The film will already havestarted by the time we get home. Why? The form of the future perfect is will + have + past participle.

Will you have finished it by See word order and the form the time I come back? of the question above.

10 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Future perfect continuous tense

Structure of future perfect continuous positive Next year I'll (I will) have been working in the company for 10 years. negative I won't (will not) have been working in the company for 10 years. question Will you have been working in the company for 10 years?

Future perfect continuous - common mistakes Common mistakes I will have working in the company for five years next month. I will haven't been working in the company for five years next month. Correct version Why?

The form of the future I will have been working in perfect continuous is the company for five years will + have + been + past next month. participle. I will not (won't) have been working in the company for five years next month. The form of the negative is will not + have + been + past participle. The form of the question is will + subject + have + been + past participle. We use the simple form when we talk about an amount or number.

Will have you been working Will you have been in the company for five workingin the company for years next month? five years next month? I'll have been working in three different positions at the company by the end of the year. I'll have worked in three different positions at the company by the end of the year.

11 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Conditional sentences
Learners of English often have problems with conditional sentences. One problem is knowing which conditional to use. A learner might then have difficulties with the construction of the conditional sentence. Here are all four of the conditionals forms in English, with examples and explanations of when and how to use them. Structure and usage of the zero conditional Structure and usage of the first conditional Structure and usage of the second conditional Structure and usage of the third conditional

Structure of zero conditional

Structure of the zero conditional positive If/when you heat water to 100 degrees, it boils. negative question

If/when you don't heat water What happens if/when you to 100 degrees, it doesn't heat water to 100 degrees? boil.

The zero conditional - common mistakes Common mistakes Correct version Why? We use the present simple in both clauses of the zero conditional. We are saying that the condition can be true at any time (it is a fact). If means the same as when in a zero conditional sentence. We can also use whenever.

If/when people eat too much, they will get fat. Water boils when it will reach 100C.

If/when people eat too much, they get fat. Water boils when it reaches100C.

12 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Structure of first conditional

Structure of the first conditional positive If I see him, I'll (I will) tell him. negative If you don't hurry, you'll miss the bus. question What will you do if there is a problem?

The first conditional - common mistakes Common mistakes If you will go to England, you will improve your English. If I find his address, I send him the letter. I'll tell him if I will see him. Correct version If you go to England, you will improve your English. If I find his address, I will send him the letter. I'll tell him if I see him. Why? We use the present simple in the if-clause. We use will in the main clause, to express certainty in the future. We use the present simple in the if-clause.

Structure of second conditional

This is how we form second conditional sentences. The second table shows some mistakes which are commonly made by learners when using second conditionals:

Structure of the second conditional positive If I had more time, I'd (I would) travel more. If I were you, I'd leave the job. negative I wouldn't (would not) refuse if you offered me $10,000. question What would you say if you met Queen Elizabeth?

I wouldn't (would not) leave Would you leave the job if the job if I were you. you were me?

The second conditional - common mistakes

13 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
Common mistakes Correct version Why? We use the past simple (here I had) in the if-clause. It shows we are talking about something which is unlikely to happen or is an imaginary situation. The main clause has would + infinitive.

If I would have enough money, I would buy a new computer.

If I had enough money, I would buy a new computer.

If you didn't hurry so much, you will feel more relaxed.

If you didn't hurry so much, youwould feel more relaxed.

Structure of third conditional

Structure of the third conditional positive If I'd (I had) known you were coming, I would have waited for you. negative If she hadn't (had not) been ill, she would have gone to the cinema. question Would you have done it if you'd (you had) known earlier?

The third conditional - common mistakes Common mistakes If I would have asked him, he would have helped me. If you had spoken to my mother, she would tell you where I was. Correct version If I had asked him, he would have helped me. If you had spoken to my mother, she would have toldyou where I was. Why? In the if-clause we use the past perfect (had + pastparticiple). We don't use 'would' or 'would have' in the if-clause. The main clause has would + have + past participle.

14 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Verb structures in English

Verb forms can be confusing in English. For instance, when do we use the infinitive form go and when should we use the gerund / ing form going? This is a list of the different structures that are used when we have two verbs together in a sentence. Click to see a more detailed explanation: Verb + bare infinitive - I can go there. Verb + -ing (gerund) - I love going there. Verb + to + infinitive - I want to go there. Verb + object + to + infinitive - He wants me to go there.

Verb and bare infinitive

When we have two verbs together in a sentence, the form of the second verb is influenced by the first verb. This table shows which verbs require the second verb to take the form of the bare infinitive (infinitive without to). Verb + bare infinitive The bare infinitive (an infinitive without 'to') is used after certain verbs which are followed by an object: let, make, see, hear, feel. The bare infinitive is used after modal verbs:can, should, could, might, may, etc. My parents didn't let me watch TV at night. Did you see anyone enter the building? He made me laugh. He can't sing. It might be a good idea.

Verb and ing form (gerund)

When we have two verbs together in a sentence, the form of the second verb is influenced by the first verb. This table shows which verbs require the second verb to take the gerund (ing) form.

Verb + -ing The gerund form (-ing) is used after

15 | P a g e

I enjoy going to the cinema.

Umesh Adhikari
certain verbs: avoid, admit, can't stand, deny, dislike, enjoy, hate, like, love, mind, practise. The gerund form (-ing) is used after a verb + preposition: insist on, look forward to, etc. I don't like living in a city.

I'm looking forward to seeing you. He insisted on seeing the shop manager.

Verb and to infinitive

When we have two verbs together in a sentence, the form of the second verb is influenced by the first verb. This table shows which verbs require the second verb to take the to + infinitive (sometimes called the full infinitive) form. Verb + to + infinitive We use to + infinitive after certain verbs: agree, arrange, decide, offer, seem, plan, want, need, promise, hope, refuse, start, stop. We also use to + infinitive after certain verbs and their object: ask, tell, want, need. I have decided to lend him the car. He offered to help me. He promised not to say anything. He asked me to go there with him. She told me to help her.

Verb and object and full infinitive

Sometimes verbs are followed by an object and then by another verb in the to + infinitive form. The to + infinitive is sometimes called the full infinitive. Examples are: to go, to be, to have, to speak.

Verb + object + to + infinitive After some verbs we use the object, followed byto + infinitive. Verbs which can be followed by this form include: advise, ask, allow, expect, encourage, force, help, invite, order, persuade, teach, tell.
16 | P a g e

They helped their neighbour to repair his car. She asked me to give her some advice. I told my assistant to send the letter. I advised my friend not to sell his house.

Umesh Adhikari

Modal verbs
Modal verbs, sometimes just called modals, are auxiliary verbs (helping verbs). They can express such things as possibility, probability, permission and obligation. We use a modal verb before a second verb. A modal verb can sometimes have more than one meaning.

Examples of modal verbs

Modal verbs and their negatives Modal verbs in the past

Expressing obligation
Must / have to Should to express obligation Should have to express unfulfilled obligation in the past

Expressing probability and deduction

Present probability with modal verbs: must, cant, may, might, could Past probability with modal verbs: must have, cant have, couldnt have

Modal verbs and their negatives

Modal verbs and their negatives positive must (used for a personal opinion) He must be crazy. must / have to / has to (used for obligation) You must be there at 8 o'clock. You have to be there at 8 o'clock. can (used for ability) I can play the guitar. negative can't He can't be crazy. don't have to / needn't = something is not necessary You don't have to be there at 8 o'clock. You needn't be there at 8 o'clock. can't / cannot I can't play the guitar.

17 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
can (used for possibility) You can smoke here. can't / cannot / mustn't You can't smoke here. You mustn't smoke here.

Modal verbs in the past

Modal verbs in the past present should be could be will be may be might be would be should have been could have been would be may have been might have been would have been past

Must and have to

This table shows us the past tense of must and have to. We also see how the past tense of must depends on whether we are expressing obligation or our personal opinion about probability.

Must / have to present When expressing obligation: I must go. / I have to go. When expressing a personal opinion about probability (deduction), we use 'must' to
18 | P a g e

past When expressing obligation, the past of 'must' and 'have to' is always 'had to': I had to go. They had to be there at 2 o'clock. When expressing a personal opinion in the past, we use 'must have', not 'had to':

Umesh Adhikari
express that we feel something is true: He must be here. It must be great. He must have been here. It must have been great.

Should weak obligation and advice

The modal verb should expresses weaker obligation than must and have to.

Should - to express obligation Structure: should + infinitive We use should for the present and the future. We use should to give advice to someone and to say that something is a good idea. Should is weaker than have to or must.

You should tell them the truth. You shouldn't smoke, it's bad for you. I don't think you should do it.

Should have for unfulfilled past obligation

Should have - to express unfulfilled past obligation Structure: should + have + past participle We use should have for the past. We use should have to say that someone didn't do something, but it would have been better to do it. You should have told them the truth. You shouldn't have gone there - it was a mistake. I don't think you should have done it.

19 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Modal verbs for present probability

Some modal verbs can be used to express probability in the present and past.

Must / can't - to express probability Structure: modal + infinitive without to must be, must have, can't go, etc. We use must to express that we feel sure that something is true. We use can't to say we are sure that something is impossible. They are really good, they must win. They must be very rich. Look at the house. She can't be ill. I've just seen her in the shop and she looked fine. It can't be true. I don't believe it.

May / might / could - to express probability Structure: modal + infinitive without to may be, might do, could go, etc. We use may or could or might to say that it is possible that something will happen or is happening. The negative of may is may not. The negative of might is might not. He might not be offered the job. They both mean that it is possible that something will not happen or is not happening. We DO NOT use could not to express probability. I may not pass the exam. I might not go to the match tomorrow. They may be arriving tomorrow. He might be away on holiday. He could be away on holiday. He might be offered the job.

20 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Modal verbs for past probability

Must / can't / couldn't have - to express probability in the past Structure: modal + have + past participle must have been, can't have gone, etc. We use must have to express that we feel sure that something was true. We use can't have / couldn't have to say that we believe something was impossible. They must have left early. He must have already gone. He can't have escaped through this window. It is too small. She can't have said that. She couldn't have said that.

May / might / could have - to express probability in the past Structure: modal + have + past participle may have been, could have gone, might have lost, etc. We use may / could / might have to say that it was possible that something happened in the past (but we are not 100% sure). He may have missed the bus. The road might have been blocked.

He may not have left yet. The negatives are may not have and might The assistant might not have received his not have. message.

Prepositions
A preposition can show us place or express time. It can also follow a verb or adjective. Here are some examples. Prepositions of place (in, on, at) Prepositions of time (in, on, at, during, for, over, or, by, until) Prepositional verbs Prepositions after adjectives (1) (afraid of, angry about, etc.) Prepositions after adjectives (2) (aware of, depend on, etc.)

21 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Prepositions of place
Prepositions of place in inside an area or space: in the city, in the sky, in bed forms of transport: in a car, in a taxi, in a helicopter on in contact with a surface: on the wall, on the table forms of transport: on a bike, on a bus, on a train, on the metro, on a plane, on a ship before nouns referring to a place or position: at the top, at the bottom, at the front, at the back, at the beginning, at the end BUT in the middle arrive in a city: arrive in London, arrive in Amsterdam arrive at a small place: arrive at the station, at the meeting when expressing 'towards': point at something, smile at someone at close to: at the table, at the bus stop

Prepositions of time
Prepositions of time in years in 1998, in 2012 months
22 | P a g e

on days of the week on Thursday, on Friday dates

at hours of the clock at 7.30, at 8 o'clock religious festivals

Umesh Adhikari
in January, in February parts of the day in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening BUT at night) seasons in spring, in summer, in autumn, in winter Prepositions of time (during, for, over, by, until) We use during to talk about something that happens within a particular period of time, to say when something takes place. We use during to talk about something that happens within the same time as another event. We use over or in to talk about something that has been happening continuously up until the present, or will happen continuously in the future. We use for to say how long something continues. We use by to say that something will happen or be achieved before a particular time. We use until to say that something will continue up to a particular time. We use in to express a time (in the future) from now. During my time in London I visited a lot of interesting places. He came to work during the morning meeting. We've had a lot of problems over / in the last few months. We expect a rise in sales over / in the next few months. I can only come for a few minutes. I was waiting for him for two hours. It has to be finished by two o'clock. He should return by the end of March. We have to stay here until he comes. The concert went on until eleven o'clock. I'm going on holiday in a week. (one week from now) I'll be back in five minutes. (five minutes from now) on 28 June, on 25 October on Monday morning on Thursday evening on Friday night at Easter, at Christmas points in time at the beginning, at end of the week

23 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Prepositional verbs
Prepositional verbs are a verb + preposition. The preposition must be followed by an object.

Prepositional verbs to agree to something to accept I don't think he will ever agree to such a plan. to say you are sorry for something I apologize for not replying to your letter sooner. to formally ask someone for something such as a job or permission to do something Why didn't you apply for a bank loan? to say you are annoyed about something If the service is not satisfactory, you should complain to the customer service about it. to be in accordance with something This signal system doesn't conform to the official safety standards. to mention all of the things that something contains The delegation consists of over 200 people, including interpreters and journalists. when someone, especially someone you know well, writes to you or telephones you When was the last time you heard from him? to say that something must happen or somebody must do something I insist on speaking to the head of the office. to talk about somebody or something in a conversation, speech or a piece of writing Everyone knows who she was referring to in her speech.

to apologise for something

to apply for something

to complain to somebody about something/somebody

to conform to something

to consist of something

to hear from somebody

to insist on something

to refer to something

24 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Prepositions after adjectives (1)

Here are some examples of adjectives and the correct prepositions which follow them.

Prepositions after adjectives afraid of something afraid of doing something angry about something angry with somebody concerned about something pleased with someone / something sorry about something sorry for doing something good at something She is afraid of driving on motorways. Are you afraid of the dark? I am really angry about what she did. Why did she do it? I am really angry with her. I'm concerned about his exam results. I was very pleased with his performance. Was she sorry about the mistake? I'm sorry for being late. He is good at languages.

Prepositions after adjectives (2)

Here are some more examples of adjectives and the correct prepositions which follow them.

Prepositions after adjectives (un)aware of something dependent on something famous for something impressed by/with something similar to something upset about something Is he aware of the problem? She is still dependent on her parents. He is famous for his sporting achievements. I was very impressed by his performance. His interests are similar to those of his brother. I was really upset about it.

25 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Adjectives and adverbs

When and how do we use an adverb? What is the difference between an adverb and an adjective? Use of adjectives Use of adverbs Adverbs of frequency word order Comparative and superlative of adjectives Irregular adverbs

Use of adjectives
Adjectives We use an adjective to describe the qualities of people, things, places, etc. We use an adjective (not an adverb) after 'linking' verbs such as be, become, feel, seem, smell, sound, look, etc. We can use an adjective to describe the object of a sentence. Adjectives - common mistakes Common mistakes She was too frighten to say a word. I am very interesting in this problem. It was a bored film. The camera works perfect. Correct version She was too frightened to say a word. I am very interested in this problem. It was a boring film. The camera works perfectly. Why? Many adjectives are participle forms of verbs. The -ed form describes how someone feels (bored). The -ing form describes the person or thing that causes the feeling (boring). We use adverbs to say how we do something. Can you see the young woman at the end of the street? He's a great singer. It looks interesting. It tastes delicious. His ideas are interesting. His answer made his boss angry.

26 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
Adjectives normally go in the following sequence: size-age-shapecolour-origin-materialpurpose.

She married a German, young, tall lawyer.

She married a tall, young, German lawyer.

Use of adverbs
Adverbs We use an adverb to say how an action is performed. We use an adverb to add information about the time/place/manner. He speaks English fluently. She answered correctly. How long have you lived here?

We can use an adverb to add information to She was extremely happy to see him again. an adjective. I really hate travelling by train. Forms of adverbs Most adverbs are formed by adding ly to an adjective. nicely, quickly, beautifully, happily, There are some exceptions - irregular economically adverbs. If the adjective ends in ic we add ally. Some adverbs are irregular: they have the same form as the adjective. The adjective good is irregular: its adverb form iswell. Adverbs - common mistakes Common mistakes The camera works perfect. Correct version The camera works perfectly. Why? We use an adverb (perfectly - adverb, perfect adjective) when we want to basic - basically, dramatic - dramatically fast, daily, late, early, hard good - well

27 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
say how we do something. Some adverbs have the same form as the adjective: hard - hard, fast fast, late - late. Adjectives ending in -ly have the same spelling in the adverb form (friendly friendly, early - early, likely - likely, lonely - lonely, ugly - ugly, silly - silly). After 'linking' verbs (look, sound, taste, smell, feel, seem) we use adjectives not adverbs.

Did you work hardly today?

Did you work hard today?

She behaved rather sillily.

She behaved rather silly.

His answer sounded correctly. He looks happily.

His answer sounded correct. He looks happy.

Adverbs of frequency word order

Adverbs of frequency: always, never, usually, sometimes, rarely, seldom, often, occasionally, ever. Here are the rules for the position of these adverbs in a sentence.

Word order - adverbs of frequency An adverb of frequency can go: before the main verb after the verb be after modal verbs, should, can, could, etc. Sometimes and occasionally can go in the front, middle or end position in the sentence. He always goes to work by bus. They never go on holiday in winter. John is often absent from lessons. They were usually on time. You should always turn the electricity off. My boss can never remember my name. Sometimes she is late. She is sometimes late. She is late sometimes.

28 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Comparative and superlative of adjectives

Comparative and superlative adjectives Adjective One-syllable adjectives old long Comparative older longer bigger hotter uglier noisier more expensive more beautiful Superlative the oldest the longest the biggest the hottest the ugliest the noisiest the most expensive the most beautiful

Adjectives ending in big one vowel and one hot consonant Adjectives ending in ugly -y noisy Adjectives with two or more syllables Exceptions good bad far better worse expensive beautiful

the best the worst the furthest / the farthest

further / farther

Irregular adverbs
A guide to irregular adverbs in English. Irregular adverbs Most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective (e.g. slow - slowly). However, there are some irregular adverbs. adjective good fast adverb well fast

29 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

hard late early daily

hard late early daily

Reported speech
Reported speech (also known as indirect speech) is when we report what somebody has said. Native speakers use reported speech very often. Structures of reported speech Structures of reported questions

Structures of reported speech

Structures of reported speech direct speech reported speech direct speech reported speech Reported speech - common mistakes Common mistakes She said me that she wasn't able to do it. She told me that she is looking for her handbag.
30 | P a g e

She said, "It is better to wait." She said (that) it was better to wait. He said, "I have never been to Spain." He said (that) he had never been to Spain.

Correct version She told me that she wasn't able to do it. She told me that she was looking for her handbag.

Why? After tell we mention the listener. After say we don't mention the listener. If the reporting verb (in this casetell) is in the past tense,

Umesh Adhikari
He told me he hasn't seen her before. He told me he hadn't seen her before. the tenses used in the original sentence normally have to be changed: I am becomes I was I can becomes I could have been becomes had been was becomes had been will becomes would can becomes could When we report a command or warning, we use: (not) + to + infinitive.

She told me she will see him She told me she would see later. him later.

I told him don't go there.

I told him not to go there

Structures of reported questions

Structures of reported questions direct speech reported question direct speech reported question Reported questions - common mistakes Common mistakes She asked me why did I work so much. Correct version She asked me why I workedso much. Why? The word order in reported questions is: SUBJECT + VERB. Yes/no questions (closed questions) begin with if when they become reported questions. She asked, "Is it better to wait?" She asked if it was better to wait. He asked, "Have you been to Spain?" He asked if I had been to Spain.

She asked me if it was She asked me it was raining. raining. She asked me if I have been to Bristol? She asked me what I do for a living.
31 | P a g e

If the reporting verb (in this caseask) is in the past tense, She asked me what I did for the tenses used in the original sentence have to a living.

She asked me if I had been to Bristol.

Umesh Adhikari
change: I am becomes I was I can becomes I could I have been becomes I had been.

Forming questions
Structures of questions If there is an auxiliary (helping) verb (be, have, can, will, etc.) we put it before the subject (he, she, I, etc.) If there is no auxiliary (helping) verb, we put do, does or did before the subject. Is anybody in the office? Have you ever visited London? What time Will they be here? Do you know my older brother? Did he come in time?

How long have you been waiting for me? We put wh- words (when, where, why, who, Where is their office? how,etc.) at the beginning of the question. Which colour do you like best? We don't use do, does or did when we use what, which, who or whose as the subject. Questions - common mistakes Common mistakes What meant you by saying that? You like this film? Where you are going this afternoon? You did read the letter? Who did give you the information?
32 | P a g e

What happened to you? Who told you about it?

Correct version What did you mean by saying that? Do you like this film? Where are you going this afternoon? Did you read the letter? Who gave you the information?

Why? If there is no auxiliary (helping) verb, we put do, does or didbefore the subject. We put an auxiliary verb before the subject. We don't use do, does or didwhen we

Umesh Adhikari
use what, which, whoor whose as the subject. Does he knows your sister? Where will she studies? Can you tell me where can I buy a good camera? Does he know your sister? Where will she study? Can you tell me where I canbuy a good camera? When there is an auxiliary verb, the main verb is in the infinitive form. Word order in indirect question is the same as in a normal sentence: SUBJECT + VERB + ...

Structures of indirect questions

Structure of indirect questions Word order in indirect question is the same as in a normal statement sentence: SUBJECT + VERB + ... Direct question Where can I buy ink for the printer? Why do you want to work for our company? What is the number of the last invoice? How much did it cost? How did it happen? Indirect question Can you tell me where I can buy ink for the printer? He asked me why I wanted to work for their company. I'm calling to ask you what the number of the last invoice is. Do you know how much it cost? Did she tell you how it happened?

33 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Various grammar
Here are some English grammar rules outside of our main categories. Choose a grammar point and see examples and explanations. All, the whole Always, still Already, yet Although, even though Although, though (see our article Confusing words: although, though) As long as, provided, providing Be used to, get used to, used to Be (the verb to be) Both (see Either, neither, both) Convince v persuade (see article Confusing words: convince v persuade) Despite, in spite of During (see article Confusing words: during, for, while) Either, neither, both Ever, never: usage and position in sentence Each, every Few, a few, little, a little Have / have got (see our article Using have and have got) In case, in case of Just: meaning of, position in sentence Little, a little (see Few, a few, little, a little) Make or do (see vocabulary section Make or do) Neither (see Either, neither, both) Past, present, future (see section List of all tenses) Persuade (see article Confusing words: convince v persuade) Phrasal verbs: structure of Plural nouns Prefer, would prefer, would rather Rather / would rather (see Prefer, would prefer, would rather) Relative clauses Say or tell Speak or talk Some, any Transitive / intransitive verbs (see our article Understanding transitive and intransitive verbs) Used to (see Be used to, get used to, used to) Question tags

34 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
Unless While (see article Confusing words: during, for, while) Who, which, that: relative pronouns Within

All, the whole

How to use the words all and the whole correctly. All We use all (of) to express the total number or amount of something. We usually use all (of) with uncountable nouns. We usually use all of with personal pronouns it, them, etc. All is usually placed after the personal pronounwe, they, them, us. all (of) my friends, all (of) the time All (of) my friends visited me in the hospital. all (of) the money, all (of) the oil She has spent all (of) the money on cosmetics. all of them, all of it Have you invited all of them? we all, they all We all enjoyed the concert.

The whole We usually use the whole (of) with singular countable nouns. The can be replaced by a possessive pronounour, my, etc. the whole meeting, my whole life She lived in the same house her whole life.

All or the whole all day / the whole day All or the whole can be used with time expressions. all morning / the whole morning I was there all day. I was there the whole day.

35 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Always, still
How to use always and still correctly.

Always, still We use always to say that something happens all the time (or very often). We use always to say that something happens all the time (in an annoying way). We use always to say that something exists for ever. Always is usually before the main verb; after an auxiliary or modal verb; after the verb 'to be'. I always go swimming on Monday evenings. She has always wanted to visit Finland. He is always forgetting things. He's always complaining. I'll always remember the first time I met her.

I always have... I can always... He is always... She is still living with her parents. Why are you still talking about it? They still haven't mended my car (They haven't mended my car yet). I still like her. Does he still live in Cambridge? He is still here. I can still run 100 metres in less than 12 seconds.

Still means 'continuing later than expected.' It expresses that someting started in the past and is the same now.

Still usually comes before the main verb. Still usually comes after the main verb if the main verb is 'be'.

36 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Already, yet
Already, yet We use already to say that something happened sooner than expected. Already usually comes before the main verb or between an auxiliary or modal verb and the main verb. We use yet in questions or negative statements to talk about things that we expected to happen before now. Yet usually comes at the end of the sentence. I am sorry, she has already gone home. The film has already started. She's only four years old and she is alreadyreading.

Have you finished the work yet? I haven't seen the film yet. A: Have you met him? B: Not yet.

We usually use the present perfect with already and yet.

Although, even though

Although, even though We use although or even though to express a contrast between two things. Although he is much older than the others, he won the race. Even though he's a millionaire, he lives in a very small flat. I enjoyed the holiday, even though it rained a lot. I enjoyed the holiday, despite the fact that it rained a lot.

Even though and although can be used in the the same way as despite the fact that and in spite of the fact that.

See also: Despite, in spite of

37 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Confusing words: although, though

Even native speakers of English sometimes have problems with although and though, but the words are really not that difficult to use. Is there a difference in meaning? No, there isnt. Although and though have the same meaning and are interchangeable in most cases. Here are some examples which show us how we can use either word: Although/though the sun was shining, it was very cold. He disagreed with us, although/though he didnt tell us. The house is lovely, although/though the garden is a bit small. When are although and though NOT interchangeable? There are three cases when you can use though but NOT although: 1. at the end of a sentence (used in spoken English): He disagreed with us. He didnt tell us, though. The house is lovely. The garden is a bit small, though. 2. with as as though (meaning as if): It sounds as though/as if you had a nice holiday. He acted as though/as if nothing was wrong. 3. with even even though: Even though Arsenal played well, they lost the game. I took my coat, even though it wasnt cold. ! Remember that although is a little more formal than though. We often use although in written English and though in spoken English. ! Even though is a stronger form of although. Got it? Now test yourself with this short exercise:

As long as, provided, providing

As long as We use as long as to express a condition, to say that something will happen only on condition that something else happens. I'll lend you the book as long as you promise to give me it back next week. = If you don't promise to give the book back next week I will not lend you it.

38 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
It expresses that one thing depends on another. You can go to the party as long as you come back before midnight. = You can go to the party but you must promise to be back before midnight. You can go to the party, providing / providedyou come back As long as has the same meaning asproviding or provided. before midnight. We're going skiing next week, providing /provided there's enough snow.

Be used to, get used to, used to

How to use be used to, get used to and used to correctly.

Be used to Be used to + noun phrase or verb-ing (in this pattern used is an adjective and to is a preposition). If you are used to something, you have often done or experienced it, so it's not strange, new or difficult for you. The opposite of be used to is be not used to. I am not used to the new system yet. I am used to getting up early in the morning. I don't mind it. He didn't complain about the noise nextdoor hewas used to it.

Get used to Get used to + noun phrase or verb-ing (in this pattern used is an adjective and to is a preposition). If you get used to something, you become accustomed to it. It is the process of becoming used to something. I got used to getting up early in the morning. After a while he didn't mind the noise in the office - he got used to it.

39 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
Used to Used to + verb refers to a habit or state in the past. It is used only in the past simple. Past habits If you used to do something, you did it for a period of time in the past, but you don't do it any more. Past states We also say used to to express a state that existed in the past but doesn't exist now. States are not actions. They are expressed using stative verbs such as have, believe, know andlike. The form of the question is did(n't) + subject + use to be. The form of the negative is subject + didn't + use to be.

We used to live there when I was a child. I used to walk to work everyday when I was younger.

I used to like The Beatles but now I never listen to them. He used to have long hair but nowadays his hair is very short.

Did(n't) he use to work in your office? We didn't use to be vegetarians.

Be, the verb to be

The verb 'to be' I am you are he/she/it is we are they are everybody is / nobody is I was you were he/she/it was we were they were everybody was / nobody was I will be I won't be (will not be)

The verb 'to be' in the present tense

The verb 'to be' in the past tense

The verb 'to be' in the future simple tense

40 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
you will be he/she/it will be we will be they will be you won't be he/she/it won't be we won't be they won't be

Either, neither, both

The table shows us the meaning of either, neither and both.

One of the tricky things about either, neither and both is knowing when they should followed by singular or plural nouns and verbs. The rules, with examples, are given below:

Either, neither, both We use either, neither and both when we are talking about two things. > Would you like tea or coffee? > Either. I don't mind. This means: 'You can give me tea OR coffee. I have no preference.' > Would you like ham or beef in your sandwich? > Neither. I am a vegetarian. I don't eat meat. This means: 'I don't want ham and I don't want beef.' I take both milk and sugar in my coffee. This means: 'I take sugar. I also take milk.' either car, either person either of the chairs, either of the people Either day is fine for me. Either of the days is fine for me. neither house, neither man neither of the houses, neither of the men Neither day was suitable. Neither of the days was suitable.

either = one OR the other

neither = not one and not the other

both = the first AND the second We use either with a singular noun. We use either of with a plural noun. We use either and either of with a singular verb. We use neither with a singular noun. We use neither of with a plural noun. We use neither and neither of with a singular verb.
41 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
We use both with a plural noun. both houses, both men both of the houses, both of the men Both (of) my brothers are tall. both of us, both of you, either of them, neither of them, etc. both of those houses, neither of my brothers, both of John's sisters, either of the cinemas

We use both with a plural verb. We need of before the pronouns us, you, them. Between of and a noun we need to use these, those or my, your, John's, etc., or the.

Confusing words: convince and persuade

The verbs convince and persuade are very similar in meaning, but there is a difference in how we use them. After persuade we use the structure to + infinitive: I persuaded them to stay for another drink. He persuaded her not to take the job. After convince we cannot use a verb infinitive. We say convince someone that: She convinced the police that she was telling the truth. He convinced her that it was the right thing to do. Both of the above sentence would also be correct without that:

She convinced the police she was telling the truth. He convinced her it was the right thing to do.

Meaning
There can also be a subtle difference in meaning between convince and persuade, as seen here: Although Robert finally persuaded his girlfriend to move abroad with him, she was not fully convinced that it was the best thing to do. In the example, Roberts girlfriend was persuaded (to move) but was not convinced (that it was the correct decision). So, we can see that when we persuade someone to do something it doesnt always mean that we have also convinced that person.

42 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
One more thing is worth mentioning about persuade and convince. If we are absolutely sure about something, we say Im convinced: - Are you sure hes innocent? - Yes, Im convinced. NOT Im persuaded Some related words: convincing (adjective) It was a convincing argument. persuasive (adjective) Marta can be very persuasive when she wants. persuasion (noun) He used his powers of persuasion. If you have any questions about convince and persuade, please leave a comment below. I always read comments and try to reply to them all. Have you understood everything? Heres a quick exercise for you to test yourself:

Despite, in spite of
How to use despite and in spite of correctly.

Prepositions - despite, in spite of We use despite in one half of a sentence to express a contrast with the other half of the sentence. despite something (noun) despite + verb + -ing despite the fact that Despite the heavy traffic, we got there on time. Despite being much older than the others, he won the race.

In spite of has the same meaning as despite.

In spite of / despite the heavy traffic, we got there on time. In spite of / despite the traffic being heavy, we got in spite of something (noun) there on time. in spite of + verb + -ing In spite of / despite the fact in spite of the fact that that he is much older than the others, he won the race. In spite of / despite being much older than the others, he won the race.

We prefer despite to in spite of in written English.

43 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Confusing words: during, for and while

Confusing during, for and while is a common learner error. Lets look at the difference and then do a quick exercise.

During
During is a preposition. We use it to talk about a period of time. During is followed by a noun: during the night during our holiday during their marriage during the concert. Some examples: I woke up three times during the night. There was a massive thunderstorm during the concert. NOT while the concert I met a lot of interesting people during my time in New York.

For
We use for to say how long something happened, has been happening, or will be happening. For is a preposition. He was at work for ten hours yesterday. NOT during yesterday Ive lived here for five years. NOT during five years Im going to watch TV for an hour. NOT during an hour

While
While is a conjunction and means when or at the same time. We use while with a verb structure: while I was living while I lived while living NOT during living while I was. Some examples: The doorbell rang while we were having dinner. NOT during we were having dinner You shouldnt use a mobile phone while driving a car. NOT during driving a car I met a lot of interesting people while I was in New York. Heres a quick exercise for you to test yourself on during, for and while.

44 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Either, neither, both

The table shows us the meaning of either, neither and both. One of the tricky things about either, neither and both is knowing when they should followed by singular or plural nouns and verbs. The rules, with examples, are given below:

Either, neither, both We use either, neither and both when we are talking about two things. > Would you like tea or coffee? > Either. I don't mind. This means: 'You can give me tea OR coffee. I have no preference.' > Would you like ham or beef in your sandwich? > Neither. I am a vegetarian. I don't eat meat. This means: 'I don't want ham and I don't want beef.' I take both milk and sugar in my coffee. This means: 'I take sugar. I also take milk.' either car, either person either of the chairs, either of the people Either day is fine for me. Either of the days is fine for me. neither house, neither man neither of the houses, neither of the men Neither day was suitable. Neither of the days was suitable. both houses, both men both of the houses, both of the men Both (of) my brothers are tall. both of us, both of you, either of them, neither of them, etc. both of those houses, neither

either = one OR the other

neither = not one and not the other

both = the first AND the second We use either with a singular noun. We use either of with a plural noun. We use either and either of with a singular verb. We use neither with a singular noun. We use neither of with a plural noun. We use neither and neither of with a singular verb. We use both with a plural noun.

We use both with a plural verb. We need of before the pronouns us, you, them. Between of and a noun we need to
45 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
use these, those or my, your, John's, etc., or the. of my brothers, both of John's sisters, either of the cinemas

Ever, never: usage, position in sentence

How to us ever and never correctly. Ever, never Ever means 'at any time'. It is the opposite ofnever. We generally use ever in questions. Do you ever drink coffee? Have you ever been to Paris?

He has never visited me. Never means 'at no time'. I'll never forget how kind he has been. I never drink tea with milk.

I never eat meat. Never and ever go immediately before the main verb. Exceptions are the verb be and modal verbs. Do you ever go cycling? I am never late. I can never remember his name. You should never drink and drive. I have never been to America. Have you ever been to America? It was the best wine I have ever tasted.

When speaking about our past, we use the present perfect with ever and never.

Each, every
How to use each and every correctly.

Each, every Each is used if we mean an individual member of a group. Every can also be used. Each of is used if we mean all members of a group and we include a possessive pronoun likeour, my, their, etc. Every cannot be used in this case.
46 | P a g e

We have send the invitation to each / everybusiness partner.

We have sent the invitation to each of ourbusiness partners.

Umesh Adhikari
Every is used with a plural noun when it is followed by a number. Each cannot be used in this case. I visit my mother every two months / every other day / every second week.

Few, a few, little, a little

Few / a few, little / a little are determiners. Here is how to use them correctly:

Few / a few A few is more than few. We use a few and few + a plural countable few people, few books, few letters noun. a few people, a few books, a few letters A few is a positive idea. Fortunately, our financial situation is good: we still have a few good customers. I'm very sad: I have few good friends. I'm very sad: I have very few good friends. (Both these sentences mean I don't have many good friends - I would like to have more.) few - fewer - the fewest a few - more - the most

Few is a negative idea. It means 'almost none'. We can also use very few.

A few and few have irregular comparative and superlative forms. Little / a little A little is more than little. We use a little and little + an uncountable noun. A little is a positive idea. It means 'some but not much'.

a little time, a little food, a little money little time, little food, little money Compare: I can help you: I speak a little English. I'm sorry I can't help you: I speak very littleEnglish. I can't help you. I speak little English. I can't help you. I speak very little English. (Both these sentences mean My English is bad. I would like to speak English better.)

Little is a negative idea. It means 'nearly none, nearly nothing'. We can also use very little.
47 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
A little and little have irregular comparative and superlative forms. little - less - the least a little - more - the most

Which should we use: have or have got?

Learners often want to know if have and have got are the same. They want to know which of the two they should use and if they are interchangeable. Can we use either one of them anytime we want? they ask. The answer is that have and have got are the same in meaning when we want to express possession of something. And, yes, they are very often interchangeable. There are, however, some important differences in grammar and usage between have and have got. This is what you should remember if you decide to use have got:

1. Have got is for spoken English

Use have got in spoken English. Use have in your formal written English (business correspondence, etc.).

If you are writing an informal message to your friendson Facebook, for examplehave got is fine. Of course, there is nothing wrong with using have instead of have got in spoken English.

2. Use contractions with have got

If you want to use have got when you speak, remember that you must use contractions (short forms) where possible. Dont use the full forms. You should say:

Ive got I havent got hes got he hasnt got, etc.

Some more examples of contractions with have got are: weve got; we havent got; everyones got; its got; it hasnt got; theyve got, etc.
48 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari 3. Different question and negative forms

With have got we dont use helping verbs such as do and dont to form questions and negatives. For questions, we simply invert the subject and have or has, as follows: positive: youve got question: have you got? positive: hes got question: has he got? For negatives, we put not (nt) after have or has, as follows: positive: youve got negative: you havent got positive: shes got negative: she hasnt got.

4. Have got only in the present

Have got only exists in the present simple tense. We dont use it in the continuous, past or future tenses. present simple tense: Hes got a problem. past simple tense: He had a problem. future simple: Hell have a problem.

5. When we cannot use have got

When have is a substitute word for another verb, we cannot interchange it with have got. For example, instead of take a shower we sometimes say have a shower, or instead of eat lunch we say have lunch. In these cases, we cannot use have got:
I have lunch at 12 oclock. Ive got lunch at 12 oclock. I have a shower every day. Ive got a shower every day.

If we say Ive got a shower, we are saying that we own a shower or that there is a shower in the house
49 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

In case, in case of
How to use in case and in case of correctly. In case We use in case to express that we are doing Take an umbrella in case it rains! I'll buy two bottles of wine in case one is something in preparation for something not enough. which might happen.

In case of We use in case of to say what we should do In case of fire, leave the building as quickly if or when something happens. as possible.

Just
How to use just correctly in a sentence. Just Just means a short time ago. Just goes immediately before the main verb. I have just seen him in the corridor. I had just finished it when he came.

Few, a few, little, a little

Few / a few, little / a little are determiners. Here is how to use them correctly: Few / a few A few is more than few. We use a few and few + a plural countable few people, few books, few letters noun. a few people, a few books, a few letters A few is a positive idea. Few is a negative idea. It means 'almost none'.
50 | P a g e

Fortunately, our financial situation is good: we still have a few good customers. I'm very sad: I have few good friends. I'm very sad: I have very few good friends.

Umesh Adhikari
We can also use very few. (Both these sentences mean I don't have many good friends - I would like to have more.) few - fewer - the fewest a few - more - the most

A few and few have irregular comparative and superlative forms. Little / a little A little is more than little. We use a little and little + an uncountable noun. A little is a positive idea. It means 'some but not much'.

a little time, a little food, a little money little time, little food, little money Compare: I can help you: I speak a little English. I'm sorry I can't help you: I speak very little English. I can't help you. I speak little English. I can't help you. I speak very little English. (Both these sentences mean My English is bad. I would like to speak English better.) little - less - the least a little - more - the most

Little is a negative idea. It means 'nearly none, nearly nothing'. We can also use very little. A little and little have irregular comparative and superlative forms.

Intermediate vocabulary: make or do

Learners of English often confuse do and make. There is a rough guideline, but no hard and fast rule: We often use do when we speak about everyday jobs and tasks: do the shopping; do the dishes; do my homework. We use make when we want to speak about creating something, in particular something which didnt previously exist: make a cake; make a suggestion; make an offer. Here are some examples of when to use make or do:

When to use make

make an offer make a mistake 51 | P a g e He made me a good offer. I made a mistake. Im sorry.

Umesh Adhikari
make an appointment make an arrangement make a promise make a complaint make a decision make a telephone call make a suggestion make an excuse make a profit make a loss make a mess make a choice make progress make money He made an appointment at the dentist. Were just making our holiday arrangements. You made me a promise. Keep it! They made a complaint about the noise. Managers have to make hard decisions sometimes. I spent all day making telephone calls. I made a few suggestions but nobody agreed. Stop making excuses for your laziness. Our company made a big profit last year. Our company will make a loss this year. He dropped the milk and made a mess on the floor. I think he made the right choice. The students are all making good progress. A profit means you have made money.

When to use do
do something do an exam do homework do housework do the shopping do an exercise What are you doing? Im not doing anything. I did five exams and passed all of them. School kids have to do a lot of homework. I always do the housework at weekends. I hate doing the shopping in supermarkets. I did all the exercises in my grammar book.

52 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
do a job do the dishes do the ironing do someone a favour do good do harm do your best do damage do business He does his job well. Whos going to do the dishes after dinner? Her husband never does the ironing. Do me a favour lend me some cash. Smoking wont do you any good. Violence on TV does a lot of harm, I think. Always try to do your best. I crashed and did a lot of damage to my car. Our company does a lot of business in Asia.

Either, neither, both

The table shows us the meaning of either, neither and both. One of the tricky things about either, neither and both is knowing when they should followed by singular or plural nouns and verbs. The rules, with examples, are given below:

Either, neither, both We use either, neither and both when we are talking about two things. > Would you like tea or coffee? > Either. I don't mind. This means: 'You can give me tea OR coffee. I have no preference.' > Would you like ham or beef in your sandwich? > Neither. I am a vegetarian. I don't eat meat. This means: 'I don't want ham and I don't want beef.' I take both milk and sugar in my coffee. This means: 'I take sugar. I also take milk.' either car, either person

either = one OR the other

neither = not one and not the other

both = the first AND the second We use either with a singular noun.
53 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
We use either of with a plural noun. We use either and either of with a singular verb. We use neither with a singular noun. We use neither of with a plural noun. We use neither and neither of with a singular verb. We use both with a plural noun. either of the chairs, either of the people Either day is fine for me. Either of the days is fine for me. neither house, neither man neither of the houses, neither of the men Neither day was suitable. Neither of the days was suitable. both houses, both men both of the houses, both of the men Both (of) my brothers are tall. both of us, both of you, either of them, neither of them, etc. both of those houses, neither of my brothers, both of John's sisters, either of the cinemas

We use both with a plural verb. We need of before the pronouns us, you, them. Between of and a noun we need to use these, those or my, your, John's, etc., or the.

Confusing words: convince and persuade

The verbs convince and persuade are very similar in meaning, but there is a difference in how we use them. After persuade we use the structure to + infinitive: I persuaded them to stay for another drink. He persuaded her not to take the job. After convince we cannot use a verb infinitive. We say convince someone that: She convinced the police that she was telling the truth. He convinced her that it was the right thing to do. Both of the above sentence would also be correct without that: She convinced the police she was telling the truth. He convinced her it was the right thing to do.

54 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
Meaning
There can also be a subtle difference in meaning between convince and persuade, as seen here: Although Robert finally persuaded his girlfriend to move abroad with him, she was not fully convinced that it was the best thing to do. In the example, Roberts girlfriend was persuaded (to move) but was not convinced (that it was the correct decision). So, we can see that when we persuade someone to do something it doesnt always mean that we have also convinced that person. One more thing is worth mentioning about persuade and convince. If we are absolutely sure about something, we say Im convinced: - Are you sure hes innocent? - Yes, Im convinced. NOT Im persuaded Some related words: convincing (adjective) It was a convincing argument. persuasive (adjective) Marta can be very persuasive when she wants. persuasion (noun) He used his powers of persuasion. If you have any questions about convince and persuade, please leave a comment below. I always read comments and try to reply to them all.

Phrasal verbs structure

A phrasal verb can be: a verb + a preposition a verb + an adverb a verb + an adverb + a preposition.

Structure of phrasal verbs a verb + adverb A phrasal verb can be made up a verb + preposition of: a verb + adverb + preposition throw away look into put up with

55 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
Intransitive phrasal verbs
Some phrasal verbs are transitive (they need to have an object), and some are intransitive (they never have an object). Some can be both. look up [intransitive]: After a horrible year last year things are starting to look up. (things are getting better now)

Transitive phrasal verbs

look up [intransitive]: I always look up the words I dont know. (I look in the dictionary for the words) In the example above, the words is the object of the transitive phrasal verb. If a phrasal verb is transitive it is important to know if you can put the object between the phrasal verb and its participle (up, in, off, etc.), or whether the object must go after the phrasal verb. With put down, the position of the object is flexible: Put down the pen. Put the pen down. With look after, the position of the object is not flexible: We looked after the children yesterday. We looked the children after yesterday.

Vocabulary: phrasal verbs with put

Here is a list of phrasal verbs that contain put. A word in brackets, such as something, means that we can use the phrasal with or without that word.

put something down

To stop carrying something. Put down those heavy bags youre carrying and take a seat. He stopped writing and put his pen down for a moment.

put money down

To pay a deposit on something. I put a 1000 deposit down on the car.

put money in
To make a financial contribution. The cost of driving to Paris and back is 400 so we all need to put in 100.

put something off

To postpone or delay something. She put off telling him the bad news until he was feeling happier. A procrastinator is someone who is always putting things off.

56 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
put off, be put off (something)
To get the feeling that something is bad and consequently to change your mind or plan. Id love to try oysters but the look of them always puts me off. It puts me off my writing if lots of people are talking around me. I was put off going to India when I read about how many tourists get ill when they go there.

be put off (by something)

To be distracted or disturbed by something else happening. The footballer missed the penalty because he was put off by the crowd whistling.

put on weight
To get fatter. He put on a lot of weight after he lost his job and had to stay at home. No dessert for me, thanks I dont want to put on weight.

put something on
To turn on something electrical. Ill put the television on theres a good film on tonight. Put the light on! I cant see.

put someone out

To be upset by something someone has done. I dont want to put you out but could you work late tonight?

put up the price of something

To increase the price of something. The government have put up VAT again. Weve put up our prices in order to cover our costs.

put something up
To fix something to a wall. Why dont you put a sign up to tell people where the party is. Im going to put some more pictures up on the wall.

put someone up
To accommodate someone; to let someone sleep at your house for a night or a few nights. Can you put me up for a few days while Im in London?

put up with something

To live with something you dont like; to tolerate something you dont like. I have to put up with my husbands snoring. How do you put up with all the noise that your neighbours make?

57 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Vocabulary: phrasal verbs with come

A list of phrasal verbs that contain come. A word in brackets, such as somewhere or something, means that we can use the phrasal with or without that word.

come across something

To find or discover something. She had never come across vinegar on chips before she visited Britain.

come across as
To seem or appear to be like something. He comes across as a nice man but he can be very unpleasant sometimes. Ive met the new boss and he comes across as being very nice.

come back (somewhere)

To return. I came back home because I had forgotten my mobile phone. Steve, come back immediately!

come down with something

To become ill. I think Im coming down with a cold. I feel terrible.

come out with something

To introduce something. Apple have come out with a new design for the iPad.

come out in something

To have a medical condition on the skin, such as a rash or spots. Ive come out in these horrible red spots.

come round
To visit someone. What time will you come round tonight?

come through (something)

To survive something. She came through the operation very well.

come up
Something unexpected happens. Something has come up. Sorry, I have to go home straight away.

58 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
come up with
To have an idea or a suggestion. During the meeting we came up with some good suggestions. John came up with a good idea.

Plural nouns
Some nouns have no singular form and only exist in a plural form. They are called plural nouns. Some plural nouns are things which have two parts joined together: trousers (trousers consist of two legs) scissors (scissors have two parts) sunglasses (two main parts, one for each eye). Some plural nouns refer to a group (of people or things): police cattle Plural nouns always take a plural form of the verb: The police were there. His trousers are black. My sunglasses are broken. We can use some with many plural nouns. In some cases we can say a pair of: some jeans a pair of jeans some glasses a pair of glasses some goods For more examples, see 10 plural nouns in our vocab section.

Vocabulary: 10 plural nouns

Plural nouns are always plural and have no singular form. They are often things which have two parts joined together, e.g. trousers (trousers have two legs), or scissors. Some plural nouns refer to a group (of people or things). An example of this is police. Plural nouns always take a plural form of the verb. So we say: My trousers are wet. The goods were stolen. The police are here.

59 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
Sometimes we use some with a plural noun. In other cases we can say a pair of. Here are 10 plural nouns and examples of how we use them.

10 plural nouns
scissors some scissors, a pair of scissors

trousers some trousers, a pair of trousers

clothes some clothes

headphones some headphones, a pair of headphones

refreshments some refreshments

sunglasses some sunglasses, a pair of sunglasses

goods some goods

60 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

outskirts on the outskirts

headquarters at headquarters at our headquarters

surroundings in nice surroundings

Would rather, would prefer, prefer

How to use would rather, would prefer and prefer correctly.

Would rather vs. would prefer - to express a specific preference When we speak about a specific preference,would rather and would prefer have the same meaning and are interchangeable. Would rather can be abbreviated to 'd rather. Would prefer can be abbreviated to 'd prefer. Would rather is followed by the bare infinitive. Would prefer is followed by to + infinitive. We use a past tense after would rather when we speak about the actions of other people, even though that action may
61 | P a g e

We went to the theatre yesterday. Today Iwould rather go to the cinema. We went to the theatre yesterday. Today Iwould prefer to go to the cinema.

I'd rather go to the cinema today. I'd prefer to go to the cinema today.

I'd rather have water. I'd prefer to have fruit juice. I'd rather you took a taxi than walk - it's not safe on the streets at night. The film is quite violent. I'd rather our

Umesh Adhikari
be in the present or future. When making a comparison we say: would rather ... than After would prefer we say: would prefer ... rather than children didn't watch it. It's such nice weather - I'd rather sit in the garden than watch TV. It's such nice weather - I'd prefer to sit in the garden rather than watch TV.

Prefer vs. would rather - to express a general preference When we talk about general preferences we can use prefer or would rather. The meaning is the same. After prefer we use the verb in its ing form. After would rather we use than.

I prefer walking to cycling. I'd rather walk than cycle.

I prefer using a keyboard to writing with a pen.I'd rather use a keyboard than write with a pen.

Would rather, would prefer, prefer

How to use would rather, would prefer and prefer correctly.

Would rather vs. would prefer - to express a specific preference When we speak about a specific preference,would rather and would prefer have the same meaning and are interchangeable. Would rather can be abbreviated to 'd rather. Would prefer can be abbreviated to 'd prefer. Would rather is followed by the bare infinitive. Would prefer is followed by to + infinitive. We use a past tense after would
62 | P a g e

We went to the theatre yesterday. Today Iwould rather go to the cinema. We went to the theatre yesterday. Today Iwould prefer to go to the cinema.

I'd rather go to the cinema today. I'd prefer to go to the cinema today.

I'd rather have water. I'd prefer to have fruit juice. I'd rather you took a taxi than walk - it's

Umesh Adhikari
rather when we speak about the actions of other people, even though that action may be in the present or future. When making a comparison we say: would rather ... than After would prefer we say: would prefer ... rather than not safe on the streets at night. The film is quite violent. I'd rather our children didn't watch it. It's such nice weather - I'd rather sit in the garden than watch TV. It's such nice weather - I'd prefer to sit in the garden rather than watch TV.

Prefer vs. would rather - to express a general preference When we talk about general preferences we can use prefer or would rather. The meaning is the same. After prefer we use the verb in its ing form. After would rather we use than.

I prefer walking to cycling. I'd rather walk than cycle.

I prefer using a keyboard to writing with a pen.I'd rather use a keyboard than write with a pen.

Relative clauses
What is a relative clause? Here are some examples and explanations.

Relative clauses Defining relative clauses are used to specify which person or thing we mean. We don't put commas between the noun and a defining relative clause. Who or that are used for people. Which or that are used for things. Non-defining relative clauses (extra information clauses) are used to add extra information to a sentence. We put commas between the noun and a non-defining relative clause. Who is used for people. Which is used for things.
63 | P a g e

I have a friend who speaks five languages. I have a friend that speaks five languages. She showed me the coat which she had bought. She showed me the coat that she had bought. Mr Fry, who speaks five languages, works as a translator for the EU. Mr Fry, that speaks five languages, works as a translator for the EU. The area, which has very high unemployment, is in the north of the country.

Umesh Adhikari
That cannot be used. The area, that has very high unemployment, is in the north of the country.

Relative clauses - common mistakes Common mistakes The man who was sitting next to me he had a brown jacket. Correct version The man who was sitting next to me had a brown jacket. Why? After a relative clause we do not repeat the subject. Only that or which are possible, not what. A relative clause can have only one direct object. That cannot be used in a non-defining (extra information) clause. A relative clause follows the noun to which it refers.

The book what I bought was The book that I bought was by Edward Lear. by Edward Lear. He lent me the book, which I found it very useful. The winner, that was 25, will receive $12,000. Our office is about two kilometres from the centre, which I share with my two colleagues. He lent me the book, which I found very useful. The winner, who was 25, will receive $12,000. Our office, which I share with my two colleagues, is about two kilometres from the city centre.

Say, tell differences

When do we use say and when do we use tell?

Say / tell

We use: tell + somebody.

I told David about it. Did you tell him? He told me that he was ill.

We use: say + clause. We use: tell + clause when we include a pronoun such as me, him, us, etc.
64 | P a g e

She said she was ill. She told him she was ill.

Umesh Adhikari
We use: say + something + to somebody. We use tell when we are giving facts or information: tell somebody (that) ... tell somebody something tell somebody about something tell somebody who/when/where. She said hello to me. She told me (that) she was ill. She told me the news. Tell me about your new job. He told me where it was.

For a further explanation of say/tell differences, see Stuarts article Confusing words: say, tell

Confusing words: say, tell

Say and tell both mean communicate with someone verbally. However, we use the two words differently. This is the basic difference. We: say something BUT tell somebody something. Some examples: Michael said he was tired. OR Michael told me he was tired. Sara says shes moving house. OR Sara tells me shes moving house. Pete said: Im hungry, Elizabeth. OR Pete told Elizabeth he was hungry. We can also use this construction: say [something] to somebody. She said something to me but I didnt understand. She didnt say anything to us. My neighbour always says good morning to me.

When only tell is possible

We use tell when we are giving facts or information: tell somebody (that) tell somebody something tell somebody about something tell somebody who/when/where, etc. There are also some set phrases with tell: tell (someone) a lie tell (someone) the truth tell (someone) a story.

65 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
When only say is possible
We use say when we our words do NOT contain facts or information, for example when we greet people: She said hello to me. She said: Hello. She said me hello. She told me hello. She said no. She said: No! She told no. She said me: No!. Now try this quick quiz to see how well you can use say and tell. Instructions: fill in each gap using say or tell in its correct form (be careful!):

Speak, talk differences

When do we use speak and when do we use talk? Here are the differences:

Speak / talk Speak and talk have similar meanings. They suggest that a person is using his/her voice, or that two or more people are having a discussion. We can say: speak to somebody talk to somebody speak to somebody about something talk to somebody about something But we say: speak a language NOT talk a language talk nonsense NOT speak nonsense. Speak to and talk to are used more often thanspeak with and talk with. Speak is a little more formal than talk, and is often used in polite requests.
66 | P a g e

How old were you when you learned to speak? What are you talking about? Who were you speaking to on the phone? Who were you talking to on the phone? I was speaking to Mark about cricket.

He speaks four languages. Stop talking nonsense! I was talking to Tom yesterday.

Hello, could I speak to Mr Jones, please?

Umesh Adhikari

Confusing words: speak, talk

Speak and talk have similar meanings but there are differences in the way we use the two words. Both speak and talk suggest that a person is using his voice, or that two or more people are having a conversation. We can say: speak to someone talk to someone speak to someone about something talk to someone about something.

Speak is more formal

One of the main differences is formality. Speak is a little more formal than talk, and is often used in polite requests: Hello, could I speak to David Thompson, please? [formal, on the telephone] Ive got a complaint: I want to speak to the manager. [formal, in a restaurant or shop] Talk is a little less formal and is more common in spoken English: What on earth are you talking about? = you are not making sense or you are not being truthful. I was talking to* Tom yesterday. He told me about his new house and job. * Speak to and talk to are used more often than speak with / talk with (mainly in British English).

When to use speak

In some idioms and fixed phrases: Speak your mind = to say exactly what you are thinking, in a direct way Come on, speak your mind! We want to know what youre thinking. Speak up [often on the telephone] Could you speak up please? I cant hear you. Generally speaking [when generalising] Generally speaking, better quality food costs more. Speak about / Speak in public [to address an audience, to make a speech] The professor spoke about fair trade in Asia. If a noun comes after speak, it must be a language. We say: speak English NOT talk English speak Russian NOT talk Russian speak a language NOT talk a language.

When to use talk

In the following examples, only talk is correct: talk sense I always listen to him: he talks a lot of sense.

67 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
talk nonsense I agreed with you earlier but now youre talking nonsense. talk rubbish Hes talking rubbish again. Dont listen to him! talk business [to discuss business things, to negotiate] Lets have some lunch, then well talk business. ! Be careful sometimes talk and speak are both wrong: tell the truth NOT speak the truth or talk the truth tell a lie NOT speak a lie or talk a lie tell a story NOT speak a story or talk a story.

Some, any differences

When do we use some and when do we use any?

Some Some: is used with the plural form of countable nouns, and with uncountable nouns a pen, some pens (countable noun) some water (uncountable noun) There is some milk in the fridge. (uncountable noun) I did some exercises. (countable noun, plural) Would you like some tea? (uncountable noun) Could you give me some advice, please?(uncountable noun)

is used in positive sentences

is used in offers is used in requests

Any Any: is used with the plural form of countable nouns, and with uncountable nouns is used in questions is used in negative sentences
68 | P a g e

a pen, any pens (countable noun) any water (uncountable noun) Is there any milk in the fridge? (uncountable noun) There isn't any milk in the

Umesh Adhikari
fridge. (uncountable noun)

Understanding transitive and intransitive verbs

Knowing if a verb is transitive or intransitive helps learners to use words correctly and improves grammar accuracy. To understand what transitive and intransitive verbs are, its first necessary to understand what theobject of a verb is. Take a look at these two simple sentences: My mother likes tea. My mother laughed. My mother is the subject in both sentences. In the first sentence like is the verb and tea is its object. Like is therefore a transitive verb, because it has an object. In the second sentence, the verb is laugh. It has no object and is therefore an intransitive verb. So, we have the following definitions: a transitive verb has an object an intransitive verb has NO object. Now lets go into more detail about transitive and intransitive verbs by looking at what can follow them in a sentence.

Transitive verbs (and what follows them)

When a verb is transitive it always has an object. It is incorrect to use a transitive verb without an object. The object of a transitive verb can be: 1. a noun Tom sold his house. / They drank the beer. 2. a pronoun He sold it. / He kissed her. 3. a clause He asked his friend to help him. / She knows where I live.

Transitive verbs with two objects

Some transitive verbs, such as lend, give and buy can have two objects. In the sentence I brought her some wine both her and wine are objects. Here are three more examples: He gave his wife a birthday present. (his wife and a birthday present are the objects) They cooked their friends a meal. (their friends and a meal are the objects) Mary poured him a glass of wine. (him and a glass of wine are the objects)

69 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
Intransitive verbs (and what sometimes follows them)
When a verb is intransitive it never has an object: The man appeared. (intransitive verb = appear) I sneezed. (intransitive verb = sneeze) My uncle has just died. (intransitive verb = die) The bomb exploded. (intransitive verb = explode) The match ended. (intransitive verb = end) However, some intransitive verbs can be followed by a prepositional phrase or an adverb: I fell off my bike. (prepositional phrase = off my bike) The ball rolled away. (adverb = away) A few intransitive verbs must be followed by something (either a prepositional phrase or an adverb). These are often verbs for describing movement: The plane spiralled out of control. NOT only The plane spiralled. The rocket hurtled towards the planet. NOT only The rocket hurtled. (Although intransitive, the verbs spiral and hurtle need to be followed by something. They cannot be used alone.) ! Tip: You can recognise an intransitive verb because it never has a passive form. For example, youll see that bite, which is transitive, can be used passively. The intransitive verb fall, however, cannot: The dog bit me. (active) I was bitten by the dog. (passive) I fell off my bike. (active) The bike was fallen off. (passive) There are some transitive verbs which cannot be made passive the verb afford, for examplebut there are very few of these.

Both transitive AND intransitive

Some verbs have multiple meanings and can be transitive or intransitive, depending on the sense in which they are used. Here are some examples: grow (transitive, to produce food) He grows his own fruit and vegetables. grow (intransitive, to increase in size) My son is growing. ring (transitive, to call someone) I rang her yesterday. ring (intransitive, to sound, make a noise) The doorbell rang.

Transitive/intransitive verbs in dictionaries

A good Advanced Learners English-English dictionary will always tell you whether a verb is transitive or intransitive. You may see them marked [T] and [I]. By understanding what transitive and intransitive verbs are, you will get the most out of your dictionary and become a more versatile speaker with a wider range of vocabulary and improved grammar accuracy. If you found this article helpful, please share it with friends and colleagues. Thanks!

70 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Be used to, get used to, used to

How to use be used to, get used to and used to correctly.

Be used to Be used to + noun phrase or verb-ing (in this pattern used is an adjective and to is a preposition). If you are used to something, you have often done or experienced it, so it's not strange, new or difficult for you. The opposite of be used to is be not used to. I am not used to the new system yet. I am used to getting up early in the morning. I don't mind it. He didn't complain about the noise nextdoor hewas used to it.

Get used to Get used to + noun phrase or verb-ing (in this pattern used is an adjective and to is a preposition). If you get used to something, you become accustomed to it. It is the process of becoming used to something. I got used to getting up early in the morning. After a while he didn't mind the noise in the office - he got used to it.

Used to Used to + verb refers to a habit or state in the past. It is used only in the past simple. Past habits If you used to do something, you did it for a period of time in the past, but you don't do it any more. Past states We also say used to to express a state that existed in the past but doesn't exist now. States

We used to live there when I was a child. I used to walk to work everyday when I was younger. I used to like The Beatles but now I never listen to them. He used to have long hair but nowadays his

71 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
are not actions. They are expressed using stative verbs such as have, believe, know andlike. The form of the question is did(n't) + subject + use to be. The form of the negative is subject + didn't + use to be. hair is very short.

Did(n't) he use to work in your office? We didn't use to be vegetarians.

Question tags
What are question tags and when do we use them?

Question tags

A question tag is a question which we add to the end of a statement because we would like to get an answer to our statement. The tag contains a subject pronoun (it, he, she, etc.) which matches the subject of the statement, and a verb which matches the verb in the statement.

If the statement is positive the tag is negative. If the statement is negative the tag is positive. It's very nice weather today, isn't it? She can speak English, can't she? You have finished the work, haven't you? He will arrive on time, won't he? You know him, don't you? He earned a lot of money, didn't he? There is enough time, isn't there? Less common question tags Imperative Be careful, won't you? It isn't very nice weather today, is it? She can't speak English, can she? You haven't finished the work, have you? He won't arrive on time, will he? You don't know him, do you? He didn't earned much money, did he? There isn't enough time, is there?

72 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
Don't be late, will you? After let's Let's go to the cinema, shall we?

Unless
How to use unless correctly.

Unless You won't get the job unless you prepare for the interview. = You will only get the job if you prepare well for the interview. Don't do it unless he tells you to. = Only do it if he tells you to do it.

We use unless to say that something will happen if something else doesn't stop it happening.

Confusing words: during, for and while

Confusing during, for and while is a common learner error. Lets look at the difference and then do a quick exercise.

During
During is a preposition. We use it to talk about a period of time. During is followed by a noun: during the night during our holiday during their marriage during the concert. Some examples: I woke up three times during the night. There was a massive thunderstorm during the concert. NOT while the concert I met a lot of interesting people during my time in New York.

73 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
For
We use for to say how long something happened, has been happening, or will be happening. For is a preposition. He was at work for ten hours yesterday. NOT during yesterday Ive lived here for five years. NOT during five years Im going to watch TV for an hour. NOT during an hour

While
While is a conjunction and means when or at the same time. We use while with a verb structure: while I was living while I lived while living NOT during living while I was. Some examples: The doorbell rang while we were having dinner. NOT during we were having dinner You shouldnt use a mobile phone while driving a car. NOT during driving a car I met a lot of interesting people while I was in New York.

Who, which, that: relative pronouns

How to use who, which, that relative pronouns.

Relative pronouns We use who or that when we talk about people.Who is more formal than that. This is the man who helped us. (more formal) This is the man that helped us. (less formal) It's the watch which my husband bought me for my birthday. (more formal) It's the watch that my husband bought me for my birthday. (less formal) It's the watch my husband bought me for my birthday. In this sentence, 'the watch' is the object of the verb 'bought' and so we don't need to use that orwhich.

We use which or that when we talk about things (not people). Which is more formal thanthat.

Which and that can be left out of a defining relative clause when the pronoun refers to theobject of the sentence.

74 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
Which and that cannot be left out of a defining relative clause when the pronoun refers to thesubject of the sentence. We use whose to show possession. We use where when we talk about place. It was the man that sold me the car. In this sentence, 'the man' is the subject of the verb 'sold' and so we need to use a relative pronoun that or who. John, whose brother was also a musician, plays over 100 concerts every year. My wife and I went back to the bar where we first met.

Relative clauses
What is a relative clause? Here are some examples and explanations.

Relative clauses Defining relative clauses are used to specify which person or thing we mean. We don't put commas between the noun and a defining relative clause. Who or that are used for people. Which or that are used for things. Non-defining relative clauses (extra information clauses) are used to add extra information to a sentence. We put commas between the noun and a non-defining relative clause. Who is used for people. Which is used for things. That cannot be used. I have a friend who speaks five languages. I have a friend that speaks five languages. She showed me the coat which she had bought. She showed me the coat that she had bought. Mr Fry, who speaks five languages, works as a translator for the EU. Mr Fry, that speaks five languages, works as a translator for the EU. The area, which has very high unemployment, is in the north of the country. The area, that has very high unemployment, is in the north of the country.

Relative clauses - common mistakes Common mistakes The man who was sitting next to me he had a brown jacket.
75 | P a g e

Correct version The man who was sitting next to me had a brown jacket.

Why? After a relative clause we do not repeat the subject.

Umesh Adhikari
The book what I bought was The book that I bought was by Edward Lear. by Edward Lear. He lent me the book, which I found it very useful. The winner, that was 25, will receive $12,000. Our office is about two kilometres from the centre, which I share with my two colleagues. He lent me the book, which I found very useful. The winner, who was 25, will receive $12,000. Our office, which I share with my two colleagues, is about two kilometres from the city centre. Only that or which are possible, not what. A relative clause can have only one direct object. That cannot be used in a non-defining (extra information) clause. A relative clause follows the noun to which it refers.

Within
How to use within correctly.

Within When used with a time expression, withinmeans: 'inside' or 'inside the limit'. Within 24 hours means 'in 24 hours or maybe sooner'. Within a week everything will be finished. This means that everything will be finished in seven days or earlier. I'll be back within an hour. The speaker is saying that he'll be back in sixty minutes at the latest.

Reported speech
Reported speech (also known as indirect speech) is when we report what somebody has said. Native speakers use reported speech very often. Structures of reported speech

76 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari
Structures of reported questions

Structures of reported speech

Structures of reported speech direct speech reported speech direct speech reported speech Reported speech - common mistakes Common mistakes She said me that she wasn't able to do it. She told me that she is looking for her handbag. He told me he hasn't seen her before. Correct version She told me that she wasn't able to do it. She told me that she was looking for her handbag. He told me he hadn't seen her before. Why? After tell we mention the listener. After say we don't mention the listener. If the reporting verb (in this casetell) is in the past tense, the tenses used in the original sentence normally have to be changed: I am becomes I was I can becomes I could have been becomes had been was becomes had been will becomes would can becomes could When we report a command or warning, we use: (not) + to + infinitive. She said, "It is better to wait." She said (that) it was better to wait. He said, "I have never been to Spain." He said (that) he had never been to Spain.

She told me she will see him She told me she would see later. him later.

I told him don't go there.

I told him not to go there

77 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Structures of reported questions

Structures of reported questions direct speech reported question direct speech reported question Reported questions - common mistakes Common mistakes She asked me why did I work so much. Correct version She asked me why I workedso much. Why? The word order in reported questions is: SUBJECT + VERB. Yes/no questions (closed questions) begin with if when they become reported questions. She asked, "Is it better to wait?" She asked if it was better to wait. He asked, "Have you been to Spain?" He asked if I had been to Spain.

She asked me if it was She asked me it was raining. raining. She asked me if I have been to Bristol? She asked me if I had been to Bristol.

She asked me what I do for a living.

If the reporting verb (in this caseask) is in the past tense, the tenses used in the original sentence have to change: She asked me what I did for I am becomes I was a living. I can becomes I could I have been becomes I had been.

78 | P a g e

Umesh Adhikari

Forming questions
Structures of questions If there is an auxiliary (helping) verb (be, have, can, will, etc.) we put it before the subject (he, she, I, etc.) If there is no auxiliary (helping) verb, we put do, does or did before the subject. Is anybody in the office? Have you ever visited London? What time Will they be here? Do you know my older brother? Did he come in time?

How long have you been waiting for me? We put wh- words (when, where, why, who, Where is their office? how,etc.) at the beginning of the question. Which colour do you like best? We don't use do, does or did when we use what, which, who or whose as the subject. Questions - common mistakes Common mistakes What meant you by saying that? You like this film? Where you are going this afternoon? You did read the letter? Who did give you the information? Does he knows your sister? Where will she studies? Can you tell me where can I buy a good camera?
79 | P a g e

What happened to you? Who told you about it?

Correct version What did you mean by saying that? Do you like this film? Where are you going this afternoon? Did you read the letter? Who gave you the information? Does he know your sister? Where will she study? Can you tell me where I canbuy a good camera?

Why? If there is no auxiliary (helping) verb, we put do, does or didbefore the subject. We put an auxiliary verb before the subject. We don't use do, does or didwhen we use what, which, whoor whose as the subject. When there is an auxiliary verb, the main verb is in the infinitive form. Word order in indirect question is the same as in a

Umesh Adhikari
normal sentence: SUBJECT + VERB + ...

Structures of indirect questions

Structure of indirect questions Word order in indirect question is the same as in a normal statement sentence: SUBJECT + VERB + ... Direct question Where can I buy ink for the printer? Why do you want to work for our company? What is the number of the last invoice? How much did it cost? How did it happen? Indirect question Can you tell me where I can buy ink for the printer? He asked me why I wanted to work for their company. I'm calling to ask you what the number of the last invoice is. Do you know how much it cost? Did she tell you how it happened?

80 | P a g e