1.

STEEL STRUCTURES

Chapter 1 STEEL STRUCTURES

1.1. TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION WORKS WITH STEEL STRUCTURES Construction works is the general term including both buildings (apartment houses, offices, schools, etc.) and civil engineering works (TV towers, tanks, etc.). Structure (Structural system) is an assemblage of load carrying structural members joined to provide the required strength, stiffness and ductility of a construction work. Cladding is the exterior covering of the structure. By cladding (roof + side wall) a certain volume is separated from the atmosphere. This separation is made to create in the interior all the conditions required by a human activity that can not be developed in open air. Construction works with steel structures can be classified in three types, depending on the presence or role of cladding: 1. Type S.C. (Construction work = Structure + Cladding) This is the most general type (Fig. 1.1). Side wall Roof Structure Cladding

Fig. 1.1. Type S.C. construction work This type (S.C.) of construction works is largely represented by all kind of buildings: one storey industrial buildings (Fig. 1.2a); apartment houses, offices, hotels, schools, colleges etc. (Fig. 1.2b); sport halls, theatres etc. 11

1. STEEL STRUCTURES

Cladding Cladding Structure Structure

(a) Fig. 1.2. Examples of type S.C. construction works 2. Type S. (Construction work = Structure only)

(b)

This type (Fig. 1.3) is represented by all kind of civil engineering works when cladding is not necessary, like: transmission towers (Fig. 1.3a); pipe-lines (Fig. 1.3b) etc.

(a) Fig. 1.3. Examples of type S. construction works 12

(b)

1. STEEL STRUCTURES 3. Type C. (Construction work = Structural cladding) This type (Fig. 1.4) is represented by all kind of civil engineering works when cladding is structural, like: tanks (Fig. 1.4a); spherical vessels (Fig. 1.4b); chimneys (Fig. 1.4c); silos etc.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 1.4. Examples of type C. construction works

1.2. DESIGN. FABRICATION. ERECTION A steel structure results by assembling on site a number of various structural members, like beams, columns etc. (Fig. 1.5) prefabricated in fabrication shops. p p p H Truss Beam-column Beam Column H M Q Fig. 1.5. Examples of structural members M Q Q N N N M M

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES The main steps to realise a steel structure are: design of the structure; fabrication of structural members in fabrication shops (using plates and profiles which are produced in steel works); transport of structural members on site; erection of the structure by assembling structural members on site.

All the technical activities involved, meaning design, production of shapes and plates, fabrication of the structural members and erection must comply with requirements contained in principles and application rules provided by the codes.

1.3. BASIS OF DESIGN A structure shall satisfy the following requirements during its intended lifetime: 1. It must sustain with appropriate degrees of reliability all actions to occur during its construction and intended use. 2. It must remain fit for its required use. This usually leads to two types of requirements to be checked: strength requirement in order to resist all actions to occur during its intended lifetime; stiffness requirement in order to remain fit for its required use (allowable displacements). Actual configuration L p H Actions y z Calculation scheme IB h IC IC

L Effects of actions M+ Q+ + N

z x y

Fig. 1.6. Main steps to create and analyse the model of a structure 14

1. STEEL STRUCTURES The strength requirement is expressed by Ed Cd In eq. (1.1) and in figure 1.6: Ed is the design value of that effect of actions: N axial force (+ tension; - compression); shear force; M bending moment; Q Mt torsion moment. N, M, Q, Mt are efforts and they are effects of external forces. Cd is the design capacity of the structural member, for the considered effort N, M, Q or Mt. The stiffness requirement is expressed by: a where: the calculated deformation; a the allowable deformation. ( 1.2 ) ( 1.1 )

Example

p L

MSd Fig. 1.7. Example

Strength requirement Ed = MSd = p L2 (calculated) 8

Cd = MRd = W R (calculated)

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES p L2 W R 8

Ed Cd MSd MRd Stiffness requirement =f =

5 p L4 (calculated) 384 EI

a = fa =

L (allowable) 300 5 p L4 L 384 EI 300

a f fa In the above relations:

W section modulus of the cross-section; R

design strength of the steel grade that is used;

EI stiffness of the cross-section of the member.

The strength requirements and the stiffness ones can be found in codes of practice as principles and application rules.
Principles comprise:

general statements and definitions for which there is no alternative; requirements and analytical models for which no alternative is permitted.

Application rules, usually called recommendations in the codes, are recognised

rules that follow the principles and satisfy their requirements. It is allowed to use alternative rules, different from the recommendations (application rules) given in the codes, provided that it is proved that the alternative rules comply with the principles and provide at least the same reliability.

1.4. STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

Structural members are prefabricated in fabrication shops using a large range of products for steel construction produced in steel works: standard profiles (shapes) angle I shape (W shape) channel steel pipe etc.

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES

rolled plates. Some built-up elements like plate girders or box sections are fabricated in

fabrication shops, usually by welding. The main structural members can be classified with respect to the dominant efforts N (axial force), M (bending moment), Q (shear force), as follows:
1. Beam is a structural member whose primary function is to carry loads transverse

to its longitudinal axis (Fig. 1.8). The dominant effort is M (bending moment). p

L M

Fig. 1.8. Beam

Equilibrium relations

z MSd0 QSd0 NSd=0 C x y y T z z Fig. 1.9. Typical stress distribution for a beam NSd = 0 T C = 0 T = C MSd 0 MSd = T z MRd where:
MSd action (bending moment produced by external forces); MRd capacity (resistant bending moment); C T

( 1.3 ) ( 1.4 )

resultant of compression normal stresses on the cross-section; resultant of tension normal stresses on the cross-section.

17

1. STEEL STRUCTURES Remark: The cross-section must be developed (Fig. 1.10) in the plane of the acting

bending moment M in order to increase the resistant bending moment MRd, i.e. in the plane of the acting forces (greater h greater z greater MRd = T z).

Fig. 1.10. Typical development of the cross-section Typical problem: The risk of lateral instability (lateral buckling) (Fig. 1.11a) or local

instability (local buckling) (Fig. 1.11b) is typical for metal (steel or aluminium alloy) members subjected to bending moment.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1.11. Typical instability problems for metal members in bending

Depending on the practical solution adopted for a beam, the following ones are the most commonly used cross-sections:
1.a. Rolled beam is a structural beam produced by rolling (hot rolling). The most

commonly used shapes (Fig. 1.12) for beams are the following ones: IPE, HE, HL, HD, HP, W, UB, UC IPN UAP UPN

Fig. 1.12. The most commonly used hot rolled shapes for beams

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES 1.b. Plate girder (Fig. 1.13) is a built-up structural beam, usually made of welded

rolled plates (sometimes they may be bolted or riveted, especially in the case of aluminium alloy).

Fig. 1.13. Typical plate girder cross-section 1.c. Lattice girder (Fig. 1.14) is a built-up structural beam made of a triangulated

system of bars subjected to axial forces. It is able to resist forces acting in its plane.

h L
M

Top chord Web members Bottom chord

C h D T

Fig. 1.14. Example of lattice girder

MSd 0 MSd = MRd = C h (or MRd = T h) NSd = 0 T + D cos C = 0 D =

CT cos

( 1.5 )
( 1.6 )

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES Truss (Fig. 1.15) is a lattice girder used in the roof framing.

Fig. 1.15. Example of truss 1.d. Cold-formed shape (Fig. 1.16) is a cross-section obtained from plates by

bending or by rolling at normal temperature. They are especially used for purlins (secondary beams of the roof structure).

Fig. 1.16. Examples of cold-formed cross-sections used for beams 2. Column (Fig. 1.17) is a structural member whose primary function is to carry

loads acting in its longitudinal axis. The dominant effort is N.

he

buckling

buckling

(a)
Fig. 1.17. Examples of columns

(b)

Remark: The fact that practically all the compressed structural members are sized by

the buckling resistance of the member is typical for steel structures. In the concrete structures the loss of stability is an uncommon phenomenon. For the column in fig 1.17a the strength requirement (1.1) turns into:

2 EI PSd PRd = (2 he )2 External force Critical force

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( 1.7 )

1. STEEL STRUCTURES

As a result, in order to avoid buckling in any vertical plane, the cross-section must be developed in its plane, like shown in figure 1.18.

Fig. 1.18. Examples of cross-sections for columns 3. Beam-column (Fig. 1.19) is a structural member whose primary function is to

carry both transverse to longitudinal axis and acting in its longitudinal axis forces. The dominant efforts are M and N. P H
N M

P M=Hh

Fig. 1.19. Example of beam-column Remark: The following are typical for the cross-sections used in metal structures:

the cross-section is preferentially developed in the plane of the acting bending moment with regard to the strong axis y-y (Fig. 1.20a); in the situations when it is necessary, the moment of inertia (second moment of the area) with regard to the weak axis z-z is improved (Fig. 1.20c). Beam z y z y y z Column z y y z Beam-column z y lip

Iy >> Iz Iy Iz Iz is improved by lips (a) (b) (c) Fig. 1.20. Examples of cross-sections for beams, columns and beam-columns 21

1. STEEL STRUCTURES 4. Structural wall (Fig. 1.21) is a structural member whose primary function is to

carry both vertical and horizontal forces acting in the plane of the wall. P H

Fig. 1.21. Example of structural wall 4.a. Vertical bracing (Fig. 1.22) is a structural wall made of a triangulated system of

bars subjected to axial forces. P H P H P P H P P

Fig. 1.22. Example of vertical bracing

1.5. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

1.5.1. Structural philosophy

The concept of steel structural system is largely influenced by some particularities of structural steel as a material and of the behaviour of the structural members. As a result, steel design is based on its own structural philosophy, which presents some particularities in comparison with the concept of structural systems in reinforced concrete, brick or timber. 22

1. STEEL STRUCTURES 1.5.2. Structures with a single column

1.5.2.1. Structural philosophy Problem 1 (Fig. 1.23)

Lead to ground (Fig. 1.23a) a vertical force P (gravitational) acting at the level
h from the ground in the plane xOy.

point A

P A

N=P

(a) (b) Fig. 1.23. Leading a vertical force to the ground Solution Use a vertical bar on the acting line of the force P to connect the point A to the point B on the ground (Fig. 1.23b). Remarks 1. This solution is the most economical, thanks to the following: the path AB is the shortest one to carry the force P to the ground; only the force P is to carry on the load path AB (according to a principle of structural mechanics, a force translates on its acting line by its value). 2. This solution, corresponding to the case of a vertical force, can also be applied in the case of an inclined force P.
Problem 2 (Fig. 1.24)

Lead to the ground a horizontal force H (wind, seismic action, etc.) parallel to the ground, acting at the level h.

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES

H point A h

Fig. 1.24. Leading a horizontal force to the ground

General remark In accordance with a principle of structural mechanics, a force H displaces parallel to itself by its value H and a bending moment M. As a result, it is much more expensive to carry a horizontal force to the ground than to carry a vertical one. Solution a (Fig. 1.25) Use a bar transverse to the acting line of the force H to connect the point A to the point B on the ground. H A

Q=H

h
M=Hh

B
Fig. 1.25. Solution a for leading a horizontal force to the ground

Remark a Using this solution, the required area of material to carry a horizontal force H could be 5 to 10 times (in some cases even more) greater than the required area to carry the same force acting vertically P = H. 24

1. STEEL STRUCTURES

Solution b (Fig. 1.26) Use a vertical bracing; the simplest one is a triangulated system. H T C C=T C cos + T cos = H H C=T= 2 cos

Fig. 1.26. Solution b for leading a horizontal force to the ground

Remark b This solution is more economical, because the force H is carried to the ground by axial forces. For instance, if the force H = P the steel consumption is 2 to 3 times greater than for the same force P acting vertically, depending on the distance a between the supports. The greater the distance a is, the arm lever increases and, as a result, the forces diminish.
Problem 3 (Fig. 1.27)

Lead to the ground a vertical force P and a horizontal force H parallel to the ground, acting at the level h from the ground, in the plane xOy. x H point A h P

Fig. 1.27. Leading a horizontal force and a vertical force to the ground

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES

Solutions (Fig. 1.28) Four possible solutions are presented, based on the previously discussed ones: (a) cantilever; (b) structural wall (solved as a vertical bracing); (c) a triangulated system; (d) guyed tower.

The solution (d) represents a combination between (a) and (c). The cables must be in tension in any loading case so they need to be pretensioned. As a result, the initial tension in the cables Tinit must be greater than the highest compression CH produced by the force H. This solution is generally required by high rise TV towers. P H H P H T C P H P Compressed bar Pretensioned cables Tinit > CH (a) (b) (c) (d) Fig. 1.28. Solutions for leading a horizontal force and a vertical force to the ground

1.5.2.2. Structural systems

Some structural systems based on the solutions presented in figure 1.28 are shown in figure 1.29. These solutions are developed in order to realise spatial structures, required both by stability requirements and by the effects of horizontal forces H acting on any direction.

2 3 1 1 11

2 3

22 4 33 4 44

Fig. 1.29. Structural systems with a single column

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES 1.5.3. Structures with a number of columns in a line

Figure 1.30 shows a steel structure designed to support a pipe-line. A L C A AA

Fig. 1.30. Steel structure for sustaining a pipe-line

P H B C

VB

This solution is typical for steel structures and is characterized by: cantilever columns (C) (Fig. 1.30), sized to resist the vertical forces P and the horizontal forces H transverse to the line of columns; they also provide the required stiffness in the transverse plane (each column resists its own P and H forces); for this reason, their cross-sections are developed in the plane of the acting bending moment produced by the transverse forces H; a vertical bracing (VB) (Fig. 1.30), sized to resist all the horizontal forces L acting in the longitudinal direction and to provide the required strength and stiffness in the longitudinal direction; two continuous beams (B) (Fig. 1.30), sized to resist the vertical loads P acting between columns and to transmit them to the columns; at the same time, the beams connect the columns in the longitudinal direction. Remarks The vertical bracing is typical for a steel structure. It is located in the middle of the structure, to allow a good behaviour of the structure to the effects of temperature variations. Built-up cross-sections able to resist bending moments in two planes like those ones in figure 1.31 are to be avoided due to their high cost of fabrication.

Fig. 1.31. Cross-sections that are not very common for steel columns

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES 1.5.4. Structures with a number of orthogonal column lines

1.5.4.1. Structural philosophy

Problem 4

Lead to the ground vertical (P), horizontal (H) and inclined (I) forces acting on the roof or on the floor of a building (Fig. 1.32). H I P

Fig. 1.32. Leading to the ground forces acting on the roof

Solutions Figure 1.33 shows three possible solutions, which are compared in table 1.1 from the point of view of their strength, stiffness and ductility properties.
Strength Stiffness Ductility

is the resistance to the forces S (N, Q, M, Mt) produced by the loads. is the resistance to the deformations , , produced by the loads. is the capacity to dissipate energy by large plastic deformations.

Solution 1: M.R.F. = Moment Resisting Frame 1 plastic hinge

Solution 2: C.B.F. = Concentrically Braced Frame buckling

Solution 3: E.B.F. = Eccentrically Braced Frame

1

plastic zone

Fig. 1.33. Possible solutions for leading forces acting on the roof

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES Table 1.1. Comparison among possible solutions Strength M.R.F. C.B.F. E.B.F. Stiffness Ductility

good good good

poor very good good

very good poor good

1.5.4.2. Single storey buildings

Figure 1.34 shows a typical structure of a single storey industrial building, based on the structural philosophy discussed above. H L P PH crane Pr L CRG
SIDE VIEW PLAN VIEW

HTB

VB

CRG

TRANSVERSE SECTION

HLB RHB MRF HTB

VB

Pr

Fig. 1.34. A typical steel structure for a single storey industrial building

The structure is composed of: transverse MRF, sized to resist vertical (P) and horizontal (H) forces and to provide the required strength and stiffness in the transverse plane; each MRF resists its own P and H forces and their cross-sections are developed in the plane of the acting bending moment M produced by the transverse forces H; vertical bracing VB, sized to resist all longitudinal forces L acting in the longitudinal direction and to provide the required strength and stiffness in the longitudinal direction; 29

1. STEEL STRUCTURES

roof framing, consisting of roof horizontal bracing RHB, composed of horizontal transverse bracing HTB and horizontal longitudinal bracing HLB, in order to provide torsional rigidity of the structure and purlins Pr to resist vertical forces acting on the roof and to transmit them to the MRF;

crane runway girders CRG, to resist the forces produced by cranes and to transmit their P and H forces to the MRF and L forces to the VB.

Remark: Trusses are often used instead of girders for long span buildings. In this case
MRF is composed of columns and trusses, usually pin connected, like in figure 1.35.

Truss (T)

Purlin (Pr) Column (C)

Crane runway girder (CRG)

Fig. 1.35. A steel structure for a single storey industrial building using trusses

1.5.4.3. Multi-storey buildings

Figure 1.36 shows a modern concept of a multi-storey steel structure composed of two systems: a frame system (F), resisting both vertical (P) and horizontal (H and L) forces; this could be a moment resisting frame (MRF), a concentrically braced frame (CBF) or an eccentrically braced frame (EBF); a gravitational system, resisting only vertical forces (P). Rigid diaphragm floors and side frame systems provide the torsional rigidity of the whole building, which is fundamental for the good behaviour of the structure when subjected to horizontal loads. Figure 1.37 shows three very well known present-day performances in highrise skyscrapers construction.

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES

PLAN
1 1

Frame system (F) Gravitational system (G)

SECTION 1 1

MRF

CBF

EBF

Fig. 1.36. A modern concept of a multi-storey steel structure

Petronas Towers 452m 88 floors 1998

Sears Tower

Empire State

442m 108 floors 1974 381m 1931

Fig. 1.37. Present-day performances in skyscrapers

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1. STEEL STRUCTURES

Figure 1.38 shows the tallest building in the world, Taipei 101, situated in Taipei, Taiwan.

Taipei 101 509m 101 floors 2004

Fig. 1.38. Present-day tallest building in the world

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