6.

0 BREATHING AND GAS EXCHANGE

Contents
6.1 The respiratory system
6.2 Gaseous exchange
6.3 Breathing mechanism
6.4 Common respiratory diseases
Learning outcomes
Students should be able to:
(a) Identify on diagrams and name the nostrils, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and associated
capillaries:
(b) State the functions of the structures listed above in (a).
(c) Describe the role of hairs, cilia and mucus.
(d) Describe the sequence of events occurring during inspiration and expiration.
(e) Demonstrate an experiment to show a working model of chest and lungs.
(f) State the differences in the percentages of the gases in inhaled air exhaled air.
(g) Investigate an experiment to compare carbon dioxide content between inspired and expired air.
(h) State the causes and health effects of common respiratory diseases.
6.1 The respiratory system
Lungs are the respiratory structures found in many terrestrial animals. Although lungs serve the same basic purpose as
other respiratory systems, they are structurally and functionally different.
Human bodies contain two lungs, both located in the chest cavity, one on each side of the body. They are surrounded
by a ribcage and are situated above a large muscle, the diaphragm. Throughout the human lung are numerous tiny
grape-shaped sacs called alveoli, which give the lung its spongy texture. Alveoli provide a large surface area over which
gases can diffuse and are connected to a series of passages through which air passes during breathing.

Fig. 6.1 The respiratory system

Breathing
Air moves into and out of the lungs via the process of breathing. The chest cavity expands as the diaphragm contracts
(moves downward), air is drawn in, or inhaled, into the lungs. When the diaphragm relaxes, the chest cavity decreases
in volume, causing air to be exhaled, or released from the body.
During the process of breathing, air moves through the structures of the respiratory system in the following order:
A. Nasal cavities
Air passes through two nostrils into the nasal cavities. The nasal cavities are guarded by hairs. Their inner surface is
lined with mucus-secreting cells, ciliated cells, blood capillaries and olfactory cells

Hairs filter the dust and germs in the inhaled air.

The mucus traps dust and germs and moistens the inhaled air.
The beating cilia move the trapped dust and germs to the back of the mouth where they are swallowed.

The blood capillaries warm the inhaled air.

The olfactory cells give the smell sensation of the inhaled air.
B. Pharynx
At the back of the mouth is the pharynx where the respiratory tract and the alimentary canal cross each other. It allows
for separation of food and air.
C. Larynx
The larynx is a box made of cartilage at the top of the trachea. It contains vocal cords which vibrate to produce sounds.
D. Trachea and bronchi
Trachea
Trachea passes into the thoracic cavity where it divides into two tubes called bronchi. Each bronchus enters a lung.
Bronchi
1. Inside the lung the bronchus divides repeatedly into many tiny tubes celled bronchioles. Each bronchiole ends
in tiny bags called air sacs.
2. Each air sac has many cup-shaped alveoli.
Special structures of trachea and bronchi

Their walls are supported by C-shaped rings of cartilage, which prevents them from collapsing during
inspiration and swallowing.

Their inner lining is made up of smooth muscle, lined with ciliated epithelium, which possesses goblet cells.
Goblet cells produce mucus that traps dust and germs. The cilia beat to move the mucus upwards to the
pharynx where it is swallowed or coughed out.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 6.2 (a) Transverse section of trachea seen with light microscope (b) diagram showing section of trachea

(a)

(b)

Fig. 6.3 (a) Section of trachea showing cilia covered with pollen grains and dust breathed in (b) diagram
showing cilia and goblet cells
6.2 Gaseous exchange
The sites of gaseous exchange in mammals are the alveoli, minute air-sacs some 100-300 m in diameter and situated
in the lungs. The lungs are paired organs found in the thorax.
Alveoli
The two lungs of man are made of 700 million alveoli which provide very large surface area (80-90 m2) for gas
exchange to occur. The alveoli with the following features form an ideal respiratory surface.
How the structure of the alveoli is related to its function
The 300 million alveoli in each lung of a human have a total surface area of around 70m 2. Their structure is shown
below. Each alveolus is lined mostly with squamous epithelial cells only 0.1-0.5m thick. Each alveolus has a diameter
of between 100 m and 300 m. Around each alveolus is a network of pulmonary capillaries, so narrow (7-10 m) that
red blood cells are flattened against the thin capillary walls in order to squeeze through. These capillaries have walls
comprising only a single layer of endothelial cells.
1. the red blood cells are slowed as they pass through the pulmonary capillaries, allowing more time for diffusion
2. the distance between alveolar air and red blood cells is reduced as the red blood cells are flattened against the
capillary walls
3. the walls of both alveoli and the capillaries are very thin and therefore the distance over which diffusion takes
place is very short
4. each alveolus is 0.1 to 0.2 mm in diameter - This small size maximizes surface area and allows for faster
exchange of gases.
5. A film of lipoprotein covers the alveoli. This lowers surface tension and prevents the alveoli from collapsing.

6. the alveoli and blood capillaries have a very large total surface area of 70 m 2. This is about half the area of a
tennis court.
7. breathing movements constantly ventilate the lungs, and the action of the heart constantly circulates blood
around the alveoli. Together, these ensure that the steep concentration gradient of the gases to be exchanged
is maintained

Fig. 6.4 Structure of alveoli

Lungs
The lungs are spongy in nature and red in colour. They are present in pair and enclosed inside the thoracic basket.
Thoracic basket. (rib cage)
Lungs are protected by the thoracic basket which consists of sternum, ribs and vertebrae.

Pleural membranes, pleural cavity and pleural fluid

1. The outside surface of the lungs is covered with the inner pleural membrane. The inside surface of the thoracic
wall is covered with the outer pleural membrane.
2. Between these membranes is the air-tight pleural cavity. If the pleura is punctured, air leaks in. The lung
collapse due to its own elasticity.
3. The pleural cavity is filled with pleural fluid which is secretd by the pleural membranes. The pleural fluid
lubricates the pleurae to reduce friction between them during breathing movement.
Gas exchange in the alveoli
1. The pulmonary artery drains deoxygenated blood to the lungs. The deoxygenated blood has lower oxygen
concentration than that in the alveoli. Therefore oxygen diffuses from the alveolus through the alveolar wall and
the capillary wall into blood plasma.
2. Oxygen enters red blood cell by diffusion and forms oxy-haemoglobin. This is the form in which oxygen is
transported in the blood.
Oxygen + haemoglobin oxyhaemoglobin

3. The carbon dioxide concentration in the deoxygenated blood is higher than that in the alveolus. Therefore
carbon dioxide diffuses from the lung capillaries into the alveolus and transported away.
4. After gaseous exchange the blood becomes oxygenated and has more oxygen and less carbon dioxide. It flows
out of the lungs by way of the pulmonary veins to the heart.

Fig. 6.5 Gaseous exchange in alveolus

6.3 Breathing mechanism
As the lungs sink in the body, ventilation is necessary to supply oxygen to the lungs and to remove carbon dioxide from
them. Ventilation is brought about by the breathing movements which include inspiration (breathing in, inhalation) and
expiration (breathing out, expiration). Breathing depends on the change in volume of the thoracic cavity that is brought
about by the action of the ribs and the diaphragm.
Parts of breathing system

Inspiration

Expiration

1.

Diaphragm

Contracts and moves downwards to Relaxes and moves upwards to dome

flattened shape
shaped

2.

External intercostal muscles

Contract

Relax

3.

Internal intercostal muscles

Relax

Contract

4.

Ribs

Raised upwards and outwards

Lowers downwards and inwards

5.

Volume of thorax

Increases

Decreases

6.

Pressure in pleural cavity

Decreases

Increases

7.

Movement of air

Into the lungs

Out of the lungs

8.

Shape of lungs

Inflated

Deflated

Fig. 6.6 Diagram showing inspiration

Fig. 6.7 Diagram showing expiration

Model of lung

Fig. 6.8 Diagram showing lung model

Working of the lung model
Inspiration
When the rubber sheet (diaphragm) is pulled, the volume inside the bell jar (thoracic cavity) increases that will reduce
the pressure there. When the pressure inside the bell jar is lower than the atmospheric pressure, air rushes into the

balloon (lungs) through the glass tube (trachea) and the side tubes (bronchi) to balance the pressure. The balloons are
inflated.
Expiration
When the rubber sheet is pushed back to the original position, the volume inside the bell jar decreases that will increase
the pressure there. The increased pressure allows the inflated balloons to return to its original shape under its elasticity.
Thus air inside the balloons is forced out though the Y-tube.
Comparison of the composition of inhaled and exhaled air
The table below shows the composition of inhaled and exhaled air
Composition of gases/ %
Inhaled air

Exhaled air

Nitrogen
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide

79.01
20.96
0.03

79.5
16.4
4.1

Water vapour
Temperature

Variable
Variable

Fully saturated
Same as body

Reasons for the differences in gas composition between inhaled and exhaled air
After gaseous exchange has taken place in the lungs, the composition of gases in the exhaled air changes.
1. There is less oxygen because some of it diffuses from the alveoli into the deoxygenated blood.
2. There is more carbon dioxide because those produced by cellular respiration diffuses from deoxygenated blood
into the alveoli.
3. There is no change in the nitrogen concentration because it is neither used nor produced by body tissues.
4. There is more water vapour because the inhaled air is moistened by the mucus secreted by the nasal cavities,
trachea and the moist alveolar air.
5. The temperature is higher because the inhaled air is warmed by the heat released from the blood capillaries
underlying the nasal cavities and covering the alveoli.

Experiment to compare carbon dioxide content of inhaled and exhaled air

In this experiment, a volunteer breathes in through one tube containing a CO 2-detecting liquid, and out through another
tube containing the same CO2-detecting liquid.
Materials

2 boiling tubes
delivery tubes to fit the apparatus below
50 cm3 of lime water or bicarbonate indicator

Fig. 6.9 Apparatus used to compare amount of carbon dioxide in inhaled and exhaled air.
Procedure
1. Check that the apparatus is assembled correctly.
2. Add same volume of lime water or bicarbonate indicator to both boiling tubes, and insert the tip each long
delivery tube at about the same level in the liquid.
3. Securely insert the bungs in the both tubes.
4. Breathe in very gently.
5. Without removing your mouth from the apparatus, breathe out gently.
6. Continue to breathe in and out without removing the tube from the mouth. This should ensure that the same
amount of air passes through both tubes.
Results
The hydrogen bicarbonate indicator remains orange (limewater clear) in tube Y while the bicarbonate indicator in tube X
turns yellow (limewater cloudy/milky).
Interpretation
The carbon dioxide concentration in inhaled air is less thus it could not change the colour of the indicator while in tube X
exhaled contains a higher percentage of carbon dioxide which cause the colour change in the indicator.
Conclusion
Exhaled air contains more carbon dioxide then inhaled air.

6.4 Common respiratory diseases

Since the respiratory system is in direct contact with air, it is prone to be infected with bacteria and viruses and affected
by pollutants in air. Some of the most common respiratory disease are: common cold, bronchitis, emphysema, lung
cancer, asthma, pneumonia and tuberculosis. Every year thousands of people die due to several respiratory
diseases, the most common being emphysema and tuberculosis.
Common cold
This is caused by viruses which infect the upper respiratory tract. Symptoms include: influenza, runny nose and
headache.
Bronchitis
Bronchitis is characterized by redness and swelling of the lining of the air passages, and the destruction of cilia. As a
result, dust and harmful chemicals or disease causing organisms (pathogens) are able to move past the bronchi and
invade the alveoli. The air passages then become irritated and clogged with mucus and dust, resulting in infections in
the lungs. Patients suffering from bronchitis have a lot of phlegm and are always coughing.
Asthma
The irritants that are found in air e.g. pollen, dust , ash from cigarette smoke, chill air etc. may cause allergic reactions in
the respiratory tract. A sensitive respiratory tract suddenly constrict. An sudden asthma attack may lead to suffocation
and death.
Emphysema
As a result of pathogens and dust invading the alveoli, numerous alveolar sacs may be destroyed while others become
less elastic. This inhibits gaseous exchange and many patients with emphysema have difficulty breathing. Any slight
physical exertion will result in shortness of breath. A wheezing sound occurs during breathing and the chest becomes
barrel shaped. Some patients become dependent on respirators to help them breathe.
Lung cancer
Lung cancer occurs when the lung tissue cells start to divide without any control to form a mass of undifferentiated cells
known as a tumour. Tobacco smoke is the leading cause of death due to cancer. One compound called benzopyrene
found in tar in cigarette smoke, is a powerful carcinogen (cancer causing compound). Symptoms include: weight loss,
coughing up blood and extreme chest pain leading to death.
Pneumonia
Pneumonia is an infection of the lungs that is caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites. It is characterized
primarily by inflammation of the alveoli in the lungs or by alveoli that are filled with fluid. At times in very serious
condition, pneumonia can make a person very sick or even cause death. Although the disease can occur in young and
healthy people, it is most dangerous for older adults, babies, and people with other diseases such as AIDS.
Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease that is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. TB
primarily affects the lungs, but it can also affect organs in the central nervous system and circulatory system among
others. Talking, laughing, spitting and coughing cause spread of TB. Symptoms include coughing blood, chest pain,

shortness of breath, fever, sweating and weight loss.

Causes of respiratory diseases
Although there is broad range of respiratory diseases, their causes, which are also large in number, have similarities.
Among the most common causes are accidents, inhalation of toxic materials and harmful lifestyle habits like incessant
smoking. Smoking is the leading cause of respiratory disease such as bronchitis, emphysema and lung cancer.
Tobacco smoke contains three toxic components among others: nicotine, carbon monoxide and tar. Genetic factors,
infections as well as anything else that are known to affect the development of the lungs are also believed to indirectly
or directly cause the symptoms of respiratory disorders.
Smoking. Smoke from cigarettes, cigars, and pipes is the number one cause of
lung disease. Don't start smoking, or quit if you already smoke. If you live or
work with a smoker, avoid secondhand smoke. Ask smokers to smoke outdoors.
Secondhand smoke is especially bad for babies and young children.
Air pollution. Recent studies suggest that some air pollutants like car exhaust may
contribute to asthma, COPD, lung cancer, and other lung diseases.
Some diseases that affect the lungs, like the flu, are caused by germs (bacteria,
viruses, and fungi).
Chapter summary

The organs and structures involved in gaseous exchange in humans are the pair of lungs and the air
passages that lead to them.

Breathing through nose is advantageous because:

o Harmful chemicals and substances can be detected
o The air is warmed and moistened
o Dust particles and germs are trapped in the nasal hairs and mucus produced by goblet cells.

Air passes through the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and eventually to the
alveoli.

The trachea is supported by a ring of cartilage.

Nasal hairs, cilia and mucus help to trap bacteria and dust particles in inspired air.
Breathing consists of inspiration and expiration.
During inspiration, the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract and enlarge the thoracic cavity.
During expiration, the diaphragm and internal intercostal muscles contract.

Gas exchange occurs between the capillary network surrounding the alveoli and the air in the alveolar cavity.
Common respiratory disease include common cold, bronchitis, emphysema, lung cancer, asthma,
pneumonia and tuberculosis.

The leading causes of respiratory disease are : a persons genetic background, lifestyle and exposure to
environmental factors.
Concept map
Air

nostril

inspiration

nasal cavity

pharynx

trachea
Breathing
bronchus

bronchioles

expiration

lungs

alveoli

Gas exchange

End of chapter Questions

Multiple choice question

1 Which air sample has just been breathed out?

Air
sample
A
B
C
D

Percentage
of oxygen
21
16
4
20

Percentage Percentage
of carbon humidity
dioxide
0.04
4.04
0.40
4.00

20
100
80
60

2 The diagram shows someone blowing up a balloon.

A
B
C

Decreased
Decreased
Increased

Decreased
Increased
Decreased

Increased

Increased

5 Which route is taken by air passing into the lungs of a

human?
A alveolus trachea bronchus
B bronchus trachea alveolus
C trachea alveolus bronchus
D trachea bronchus alveolus
6 The diagram shows some cells from the lining of the
trachea (windpipe) in the respiratory tract.

What percentage of the gas in the balloon is carbon

dioxide?
A 0.04 %
B 0.4 %
C 4.0 %
D 40 %
3 The diagram shows the breathing system and a
section of an alveolus surrounded by a capillary.
Which label shows a cell?

What is the function of the structures labelled X?

A absorbing oxygen
B killing micro-organisms
C moving mucus
D trapping bacteria
7 The table shows the composition of inspired and
expired air.
Inspired air%
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen and inert
gases

Expired air %

20
0.04
79.96

16
X
Y

What are the likely percentages at X and Y?

4 What are the effects of smoking on the gas exchange
system?
Mucus in the
airways

Chance of lung
infection

A
B

0.04
4

83.96
80

C
D

20
83.96

64
0.04

Structured questions
8 What happens to the diaphragm when breathing in?

A
B
C
D

Muscle action

Shape becomes

Contraction
Relaxation
Contraction
relaxation

Domed
Domed
Flattened
Flattened

Question 1
Fig. 1.1 shows an alveolus in which gaseous exchange
takes place.

9 When breathing out, which changes occur in the

volume of the thorax, the rib cage and the diaphragm?
Volume of Rib cage
thorax
A
B
C
D

Decreases
Decreases
Increases
Increases

diaphragm

Lowered
Raised
Lowered
Raised

Rises
Pulled down
Rises
Pulled down

10 The diagram shows part of the human gas exchange

system.

Fig. 1.1
(a) (i) Define the term diffusion.
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(ii) State what causes oxygen to diffuse into the blood
from the alveoli.
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Question 2
(a) The air which is inhaled is different from that which
is exhaled. Complete the following sentences about
these differences.
(i) Inhaled air has more than

What are W, X, Y and Z?

A
B
C

exhaled air.

bronchus

bronchiole

larynx

trachea

W
X
Y

X
Z
W

Z
Y
X

Y
W
Z

(ii) Exhaled air has more ..and

than inhaled air.
(iii) Inhaled air usually has a

..

temperature than exhaled air.

C......................................................................................

(b) One of the gases present in inhaled and exhaled air

is carbon dioxide.
Describe how you could test exhaled air for carbon
dioxide and describe the result if carbon dioxide is
present.

(b) Explain the effect of pulling down the rubber sheet.

test
..

result

(c) Gases enter and leave the blood by diffusion. Define

diffusion.
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Question 3
The apparatus below can be used as a model to
demonstrate the functioning of the diaphragm.

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(c) Other structures, not shown in the model, are also
involved in ventilation. Explain how they help in this
process.
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(d) Explain how a short period of exercise can affect
breathing rate.
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(a) Name the structures found in the human thorax that

are represented by the following parts of the model.

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A......................................................................................
B......................................................................................

Question 4

Adam used the apparatus below to compare the

concentration of carbon dioxide in inhaled and exhaled
air. He breathed in and out through the apparatus
several times for 2 minutes.

in composition from inhaled air.

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(ii) Other than changes in percentage composition, give
two ways that exhaled air differs from inhaled air.
1.......................................................................................
.........................................................................................

(a) Through which tube would the inhaled air pass?

Give a reason for your answer.
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(b) (i) Suggest a suitable indicator that could be used to
compare the carbon dioxide content of the inhaled and
exhaled gases.
.........................................................................................
(ii) Describe the changes you would expect in each
flask during the two minute period.

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2.......................................................................................
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(d) Describe the mechanism of inspiration.
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(e) State two conditions affecting the human breathing

system that are caused by smoking cigarettes.

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(c) (i) Explain why the air exhaled from the lungs differs

1.......................................................................................
2.......................................................................................

Question 5

(ii) Name the cells in blood that collect oxygen in the

lungs.

The diagram below shows the human lungs and related

.........................................................................................

structures.

(iii) Name the blood vessel that takes blood to the lungs
from the heart.
.........................................................................................
(c) Describe and explain how a carbon dioxide
molecule passes from the blood into the lungs and how
it is then breathed out.
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(a) Name the parts labelled X and Y.

X......................................................................................
Y......................................................................................

Question 6
The diagram shows part of the human respiratory
system.

(b) The table below shows the concentration of oxygen

and of carbon dioxide in blood entering and leaving the
lungs.
Gas

Concentration of the gas in cm3

per 100 cm3 of blood
Blood entering

Blood leaving

lungs

lungs

Oxygen

10.6

19.0

Carbon
dioxide

58.0

50.0

(i) How many cm3 of oxygen per 100 cm3 of blood are
collected in the lungs?
.........................................................................................

(ii) Name parts A, B, C and D.

A.
B.

C.
D.
The diagram shows some cells from the respiratory
system.
Healthy cells
(ii) What effect do the changes which occur during
expiration have on the volume and pressure in the
lungs?
.........................................................................................
Cells from a smoker

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(iii) Name the type of cells shown and describe their

.........................................................................................

function.
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(iv) Describe one difference between the healthy cells
and those of the smoker.
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Question 7
7 (a) (i) Define the term organ.
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(ii) Name two organs found in the respiratory tract.
1.......................................................................................
2.......................................................................................
(b) Fig. 7.1 shows some cells lining parts of the
respiratory tract.

(v) Name a disease caused by smoking.

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(b) (i) Complete the diagram of expiration by drawing in
the diaphragm and complete boxes X and Y to describe
the changes
Fig. 7.1
(ii) Name two parts of the of the respiratory tract where

this tissue is present.

1.......................................................................................
2.......................................................................................

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3.......................................................................................
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(iii) Suggest the function of this tissue.

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(iv) Which respiratory disease develops when this
tissue is destroyed?
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(v) Name one cause of this disease.
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Question 8
Smoking cigarettes has many harmful effects on the
body.
(a) Give two diseases of the lungs caused by smoking
cigarettes.
1.......................................................................................
2.......................................................................................
(b) Explain why some countries have banned smoking
in public places.

Question 10
(a) Explain how the following are involved in the
process of breathing.
(i) the diaphragm
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(ii) intercostal muscles
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Question 9
Gaseous exchange takes place while air flows in and
out of the lungs.
(a) State three ways in which inspired air is different
from expired air.
1.......................................................................................
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2.......................................................................................

7.0 RESPIRATION
Contents
7.1 The need for energy
7.2 Aerobic respiration
7.3 Anaerobic respiration
Learning outcomes
Students should be able to:
(a) State the need for energy in humans.
(b) Define respiration.
(c) Define aerobic respiration.
(d) State the equation (in word) for aerobic respiration.
(e) Define anaerobic respiration.
(f) State the equation (in word) for anaerobic respiration in humans and in yeast.
(g) Describe the effect of lactic acid production in muscles during exercise.
(h) Demonstrate an experiment to find out whether carbon dioxide is given off during respiration.
7.1 The need for energy
Respiration is the oxidation of food substances (mainly glucose) with the release of energy in living cells. It is necessary
to supply organisms with energy, which help them to maintain themselves, move, excrete, grow and reproduce. The
main source of energy for organisms is the radiant energy from sunlight. During photosynthesis, green plants transform
this energy into chemical energy, which is stored in the organic foods (products of photosynthesis). This stored chemical
energy is obtained by organisms (animals) by feeding on green plants or on other animals.
Since the energy is locked up in the organic food molecules, an organism will have to oxidise them. This process of
oxidation which occurs within every living cells of animals (aw well as plants) is called respiration.
7.1.1 Uses of energy in humans
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Synthesis of proteins from amino acids

Cell division and therefore growth
Heartbeat
Respiratory movements
Muscular contractions

6. Active transport (absorption of glucose and amino acids by the villi in the small intestine is by active transport.
(So does absorption of mineral salts by the root hair cells)
7. Transmission of nerve impulses
8. Keeping warm (homeostasis)

Muscle
contraction

Respiratory
movements

Protein
synthesis

Need for
energy in
humans

Heartbeat

Active
transport

Nerve
impulse
transmission

Keep warm

Cell dision
and Growth

Fig. 7.1 Uses of energy in the human body

Respiration can be of two forms: AEROBIC RESPIRATION and ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION.
7.2 Aerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration is defined as the release of a relatively large amount of energy by the breakdown of food substances
in the presence of oxygen. Carbon dioxide and water are produced as wastes. The energy is stored as ATP (adenosine
triphosphate). The body uses this ATP for fuelling all activities of the body. Hence, ATP is known as the energy currency
as it is the immediate source of energy.

Fig. 7.2 Aerobic session in a fitness centre

Aerobic respiration can be represented by the following word equation.

Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + large amount of energy (28 ATP)
7.3 Anaerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration is defined as the release of a relatively small amount of energy by the breakdown of food
substances in the in the absence of oxygen.
There are two types of anaerobic respiration: one occurring in plants and yeast and one occurring in animals and
bacteria.
7.3.1 Anaerobic respiration in plants yeast (fermentation)
Yeast is a kind of fungi (one class of organism which feed on dead organic matter), which is used in bread making.
Yeast cells oxidise glucose during fermentation. The products are ethanol, which is an alcohol. For this reason,
anaerobic respiration is yeast is also called alcoholic fermentation. Anaerobic respiration is yeast can be represented by
the following word equation:
Glucose

(alcohol) carbon dioxide + small amount of energy (2 ATP)

Less energy is released because the alcohol molecule is relatively large and still contains a considerable amount of
chemical energy. The small amount of energy released is only enough for the yeast to survive.
(Note: the carbon dioxide produced as the waste products actually helps in raising the bread dough thus making the
bread fluffy. It is also used in the production of wine by the fermentation of grape juice)
7.3.2 Anaerobic respiration in human muscles
Normally muscle cells respire aerobically (using oxygen gas). But in certain circumstances, where oxygen is not
available for a very short period of time, these cells need to respire anaerobically (without oxygen gas). This usually
occurs during a vigorous or strenuous exercise such as sprinting in a 100 m race.

Fig. 7.3 Anaerobic respiration taking place in muscles

What actually happens during exercise?

At the beginning of an exercise, the muscle cells first respire aerobically

Soon the amount of oxygen available in the muscle cells becomes depleted

Despite the increased breathing rate and heart beat, oxygen cannot be transported to the muscles fast enough
to be used for respiration

Under this circumstance, the muscle cells then respire anaerobically to continue producing energy (though only
a small amount is produced)

In the absence of oxygen in the muscle cells, the glucose is converted to lactic acid together with a
comparatively small amount of energy
Glucose l

small amount of energy (2 ATP)

1. During the exercise period the muscles are said to incur an oxygen debt (more oxygen is used up than can be
supplied by the blood)
2. This "debt" is "paid" by fast and deep breathing in the recovery period after the exercise
3. During the recovery period, 1/6 of the lactic acid produced during the exercise is oxidised aerobically into
carbon dioxide and water to produce enough energy to convert 5/6 of the lactic acid back into glucose
4. The glucose formed this way is then used in the normal aerobic respiration to release a large amount of energy
Note: Sometimes, individual experiences muscle cramp. This is due to an accumulation of lactic acid in their muscles. If
the level of lactic acid exceeds the individual tolerance level (depending on how fit the individual is), muscles stop
contracting and cramp occurs). Muscle fatigue is also the result of the accumulation of lactic acid.
This type of anaerobic respiration also takes place in bacteria. The lactic acid produced by these bacteria is used in the
production of yoghurt and cheese.
7.3.3 Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
1. Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen whereas anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of
oxygen.
2. Aerobic respiration releases a large amount of energy (efficient in terms of energy yield) whereas anaerobic
respiration only releases a small amount of energy (less efficient in terms of energy yield)
3. Aerobic respiration always produces carbon dioxide and water as the waste products whereas anaerobic
respiration produces lactic acid (as in the case of anaerobic respiration in muscle cells) and ethanol and carbon
dioxide (as in the case of anaerobic respiration in yeast)

Experiment to find out whether carbon dioxide is given off during respiration
Requirements
Three boiling tubes

5 pieces of curved delivery tubes

potassium or sodium hydroxide solution (5%)

One conical flask

4 Rubber bungs
lime water
Germinated mung beans or grasshoppers (or any easily available animal)
Filter pump (an aquarium pump can also be used)
Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in fig. 7.4.
2. Use the filter pump to draw water through the apparatus.
3. The concentrated potassium hydroxide solution in the first boiling tube is used to absorb carbon dioxide from the
incoming air.
4. The lime water in flask 1 is used to show that there is no carbon dioxide in the air entering the conical flask where
the living organisms are found.
5. The lime water in flask 2 is used to detect for the presence of carbon dioxide in the air leaving the conical flask.

Fig. 7.4 Apparatus used to show release of carbon dioxide during respiration
Observation
(a) What is the colour of lime water in
(i) flask 1?
.
(ii) flask 2?
.
Interpretation
(b) Suggest an explanation for the results obtained.
.......................................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................................................................

Chapter summary

Organisms require energy to fuel various processes which take place in the body such muscle contraction, cell
division and growth, protein synthesis, nerve impulse transmission, keeping warm among others.

Aerobic respiration is the release of a relatively large amount of energy in the presence of oxygen.
Energy is stored in the form of ATP.
Anaerobic respiration is the release of a relatively small amount of energy in the absence of oxygen.
Anaerobic respiration in humans releases lactic acid.
The accumulation of lactic acid results in oxygen debt and muscle fatigue.
Anaerobic respiration in yeasts produces alcohol and carbon dioxide. It is also known as fermentation used in
the production of wine (brewing) and making of bread.
Concept map
Respiration

Presence of oxygen

Absence of oxygen

Aerobic
respiration

Anaerobic
respiration

produces
Yeast
produces
Large amount
of energy

Water vapour

Human
produces

Carbon dioxide
Small amount
of energy

Used for
Muscle contraction

Lactic
acid
causes

Alcohol

Nerve impulse transmission

Cell division and growth
Keeping warm (homeostasis)
Protein synthesis

Muscle
fatigue

End of chapter questions

Multiple choice questions
1 In an experiment to investigate the anaerobic
respiration of yeast, two bottles are set up in a warm
room.

What is substance Z?
A alcohol
B carbon dioxide
C glucose
D oxygen

What describes the appearance of the balloons after

5 Which substances are formed during anaerobic

respiration in animals and yeast?

one day?
Balloon P

Balloon Q

Inflated

Inflated

B
C
D

Inflated
No change
No change

No change
Inflated
No change

2 From the graph, when did the person begin a period

of vigorous exercise after resting?

animals

yeast

Alcohol

Alcohol and
carbon dioxide

Alcohol and
carbon dioxide

Alcohol

Lactic acid

Alcohol and
carbon dioxide

Lactic acid and

water

Lactic acid

6 The diagram shows an experiment to investigate the

respiration of yeast.

3 Which word equation represents anaerobic

respiration in human muscle?
A glucose carbon dioxide + ethanol (alcohol)
B glucose carbon dioxide + lactic acid
C glucose ethanol (alcohol)
D glucose lactic acid
4 Yeast, warm water and substance Z were put into a
test-tube. The apparatus was then set up as shown.
After a while, the lime water began to go cloudy.

Which gas is evolved and which new compound is

present?
Gas evolved

New compound

Carbon dioxide

Ethanol

Carbon dioxide

Lactic acid

Oxygen

Ethanol

oxygen

Lactic acid

7 Which equation represents aerobic respiration in

Structured questions

yeast?
A glucose + oxygen water + carbon dioxide
B glucose + oxygen alcohol + water

Question 1
Athletes often have a sports drink when they are

C glucose water + carbon dioxide

D glucose lactic acid + water
8 What do all living things release during respiration?

A
B
C
D

energy

oxygen

Carbon
dioxide

exercising.
(a) The drink contains water and sugar.
Explain how each substance is used in the athletes
body.
(i) water
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
(ii) sugar
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................

9 An athlete produces lactic acid in the leg muscles

while running a race. After the race he is seen to
breathe faster and deeper.
How does this help to remove the lactic acid?
A More carbon dioxide is used up.
B More energy is needed.

........................................................................................

C More lactic acid is breathed out.

D More oxygen is breathed in.

.........................................................................................

10 The flow diagram shows what happens to food in

humans.
Which stage shows human respiration?

.........................................................................................

(b) When the athlete exercises, his muscles respire

anaerobically and make lactic acid.
(i) What is meant by anaerobic respiration?
.........................................................................................

(ii) What is the effect of lactic acid in the muscles?

.........................................................................................
Question 2
(a) (i) In the box, state the word equation for aerobic
respiration.

(ii) Complete Table 2.1 to show three differences

between aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration
in humans.

Table 2.1

Question 4

Aerobic respiration in
humans

Anaerobic respiration
in humans

.
.
..

.
.
.

2 .
.
.

.
.
.

These athletes are long distance runners.

. .
.. .
Question 3
An active yeast culture is placed in a test-tube. This
test-tube is connected by a delivery tube to a second
test-tube containing hydrogen carbonate indicator
shown in Fig. 3.1.
Hydrogen

carbonate

indicator

changes

colour

according to pH. In alkaline solutions the indicator

becomes purple and in acidic solutions the indicator
becomes yellow.

(a) Explain why their heart rates increase as they run.

.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
(b) Explain what is taking place in their body muscles to
provide them energy for running.
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................

Fig. 3.1
At the start of the experiment the indicator is red in
colour. After 15 minutes the indicator becomes yellow.
(a) Explain the reason for this colour change.
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
........................................................................................

........................................................................................
Question 5
Insert correct words in the empty spaces to outline the
uses for energy in the human body.
1. .. division and growth.
2. Synthesis of . fats and
vitamins.

3. Transmission of nerve ...

Respiration is the release of .. from

4. Keeping the body ..

the breakdown of and takes place

5. .

the

in all of the body. If oxygen is used for

absorption of food substances by the small

this process, the respiration is called

intestine.

If oxygen is not used in the process, the respiration is

6. .

transport

in

contractions

e.g.

heartbeat & respiratory movements.

Question 6
Fill in the spaces to with correct word to show what
happens during exercise.
a. During vigorous muscular contraction, muscles
first use . to respire.
b. Rapid . occurs to
remove carbon dioxide and take in more

called ............................
Question 8
Complete the following equation which summarises
aerobic and anaerobic respirations of glucose:
(i) Glucose + .. .
water + large amount of energy
(ii) Glucose .. + small amount of
energy (in human)
(iii) Glucose . +

oxygen.
c. Heart beats .so that
more oxygen can be brought to the muscles.
d. Muscle cells carry out .
respiration.
e. Lactic acid slowly builds up in the

f.

+ small amount of energy (in yeast)

Question 9
Which two of the following statements are incorrect?
(a) Anaerobic respiration uses oxygen to release
energy from food.

Ans.

(b) Aerobic respiration releases oxygen from food

Muscle has an OXYGEN .

during oxidation.

Lactic acid causes muscle ..

(c) Aerobic respiration converts food to carbon dioxide

and water.

Question 7
Select the most appropriate word from the list below to
complete the following paragraph.
cells, food, carbon dioxide, muscles, aerobic,
oxygen, water, vitamin, protein, energy, anaerobic.

Ans.

Ans.

(d) Anaerobic respiration releases energy from food

without using oxygen.

Ans.

Question 10
(a) What chemical is normally used to test for the
presence of carbon dioxide?

(b) What is the result of the test if carbon dioxide is

present?

(c) Suggest why carbon dioxide need to be removed

from the body: