Engineering Fundamentals 1 Science section SI Units- Systme International or International System giving standard international units Definitions

SI Unit Metre Abbr. m Measured quantity Length Symbol l Definition The SI unit for measurement of length metre (scientific) - length equal to 1650763.73 wavelengths of the orange line in the spectrum of an internationally specified krypton discharge lamp. The SI unit for measurement of mass A mass of a platinum-iridium cylinder stored under controlled conditions of temperature and humidity at the international Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres, near Paris. The SI unit for measurement of time The interval occupied by 9192631770 cycles of radiation corresponding to the transition of the caesium 133 atom The SI unit for measurement of electric current The rate at which electricity flows past any given point of an electric circuit The SI unit for measurement of temperature 0 K indicates the temperature at which the body posses no thermal energy. 0 C = 273.15 K = temperature at which ace melts under standard atmospheric pressure

kilogram

kg

Mass

Seconds

Time

Ampere

Electric current

Kelvin

Temperature

Scientific notation These are SI recommended symbolic and numerical notations. Instead of writing a number like 200 000 000 000 Hz for frequency we write = 200 x 109 Hz or 200 GHz. The scientific notation uses ten raised to the powers of multiples 3 to represent the number of zeros. The table below gives some examples which are commonly used:
Number

1 1000000000000 1 1000000000 1 1000000 1 1000

1000 1000000 1000000000 1000000000000

Power of 10 1x10-12 1x10-9 1x10-6 1x10-3 1x 103 1x106 1x109 1x1012

Prefix name pico nano micro milli kilo mega giga terra

abbreviation p n m k M G T

Notice that capitalisation of letters of abbreviations matters.

Examples
20 metre = 20x10-6metre =20m 1000000 b. 40 gigasecond = 40 000 000 000 second = 40x10 9 second = 40Gs 500 c. 500 millimetre = metre =500x10 -3 metre =500 mm =0.5 m 1000 Exercise: Fill in the answers in the table below, one answer has been filled for you:

a. 20 micrometer =

Number and units of measure 1100 metre 0.000005 metre 1654 000 second 0.008 ampere 0.0000000092 metre

Standard powers of 10 or Scientific notation 1.1x103m

short form of prefix and unit of measure 1.1 km

Dynamics Definition Vector A vector is a quantity that is specified by two dimensions one of which is magnitude and the other being the direction Example 1. The (x, y) coordinates in mathematics specify a location of point completely by giving its magnitude and its direction. 2. (-x, y) is another point absolutely specified by the two quantities Magnitude and direction. 3. If a police officer was chasing after a thieve and he disappeared, he asks for the direction towards which the thief went and the means of transport he was using, whether he was using a car or bicycle or running on foot. The last information gives him the rate of covering of distance with respect to time. Scalar Is a unit which is specified in one dimension in terms of magnitude only. In other words only one quantity of measure is given. Comparisons
Quantity Speed range of a new car Velocity of wind in Mahe Mass sugar Weight of sugar on boys shoulder Weight of sugar on an astronaut at a certain point from the earth heading towards the morn Acceleration Deceleration Force of vehicle wheel on the road Force of ground friction on the wheel Magnitude 220 km/hr 15 km/hr 10kg 10kg x 9.8= 98N 0N 100m/s2 100ms-2 1kN 1kN Direction None North None Shoulder Astronaut Forward Backwards Backwards Forward Type scalar Vector Scalar Vector Vector Vector Vector Vector Vector

Definition of speed, velocity and acceleration

Quantity Speed Velocity Unit of measure m/s m/s definition The distance travelled by a body in unit time or the rate at which distance is covered with respect to time the rate at which distance is covered with respect to time in a specified

Acceleration

m/s2

direction The rate at which the velocity changes with respect to time

Waves Waves are caused by energy that changes from one form to the other at a point. Examples of waves

Wave type Water waves

Cause Kinetic energy from a falling stone or disturbance

Effect Spreading motion of water outward from the point of incidence. The pattern of motion on the surface of water is wavy or curly or undulating because of the following reasons: before the stone falls on water, water particles were balanced by the container and the atmospheric pressure making water to be evenly distributed. When a stone falls on the surface of water it exerts an excess force in addition to the atmospheric pressure in that area. This force pushes water down but the ground opposing force causes the water in the pressed area to spread side ways. On the sides there are other water particles that resist the sideways motion as a result the whole area pushes water up since the atmospheric pressure in the area adjacent to the point where the stone hit is less than the pressure exerted by the stone plus the atmospheric pressure at the point of incident. This generates the peak of the 1st wave. This peak is raised above the normally water level and hence has potential energy which causes pressure on the sides and generates another ripple. Hence many ripples are developed because of high pressure- low pressure areas along the surface of the water. The effect is the same as above the only difference is that it only involves air instead of water and that air is all over hence does not have a visible surface like water. The waves then spread in all directions as areas of low and high pressure of air or compression and rarefactions. A conductor of wire carrying current is surrounded by magnetic field. If the current in the conductor is changing this is like agitation of water, the surrounding magnetic field change in the like pattern. This energy is transmitted as a combination or interaction of electric and magnetic wave through free space from the source of the disturbance. Speed of these electromagnetic waves is 3x108m/s or 300m/s. Compression Sound wave vibrations

Sound waves

Electromagnetic waves

Kinetic energy of the vibrating sound instrument Flow of current in a conductor

Rarefaction

a
Electric or magnetic wave only one of them shown if they are combined then one of them is at 90 plane with the other

The wave has the following properties 1. Wavelength this measures the distance that it takes for a particular wave to repeat its pattern. It the shortest distance between any two identical points along the wave in which the particles are in the same phase of their oscillation. It is measured in metres. 2. Frequency the number of complete waves forms that pass a given fixed point in one second. It is the total number of wavelength that are produces in one second or the number of complete cycles that are made in one second. Frequency is measured in Hz 3. Amplitude shown as a in the diagram- the maximum displacement of any particle from its mean position. 4. Velocity the speed with which its outline is travelling in the direction of the wave. V= f 1 5. Period the time taken to oscillate through one cycle. Period, T= and its f m/s T 6. There are two main categories of waves namely, electromagnetic (light, radio, etc)which can travel through a vacuum and dynamical (sound, water, waves etc)which can travel only through a material medium 7. All waves can be reflected just like mirrors reflect light or refracted i.e. its rays can bend within or inside the second mediums when they are beamed from one medium to the other in other words refraction is the change of velocity as the wave pass from one medium to the other. measured in seconds. Hence V =

Refraction Reflection

Sound- is pressure changes in an elastic medium, these pressure changes can travel through gases, liquids and solids. Audible Sound occupy the frequency range 15Hz to 20 KHz. Sound travels at different speed in different mediums; 335 m/s in standard atmospheric conditions, 1220 m/s in lead, 4880m/s in glass and 5190 m/s in aluminium.

Momentum An impelling force that is defined as: The product of mass and velocity. Any moving body gather a forward propelling force or momentum. Momentum = mass x velocity = m [kg] x v [m/s] = mv [kg m/s] kg m/s = N for Newton

Sir Isaac Newton The man who studied and produced the Law of motion. He defined three laws of motion. These are
Laws Law 1 Law 2 Law 3 Mathematical Meaning Every body continues to be in a state of motion with uniform velocity, where velocity can be any values {V, 0, +V}, unless acted upon by the resultant force Change of momentum per second is proportional to the resultant force on the body and the change of momentum takes place in the direction and sense of the resultant force Action and reaction are always equal and opposite i.e. if body A exerts a force F, on body B then it follows that body B is exerts a force of equal magnitude and direction but opposite sense to F.

F = ma

Faction = Freaction

The absolute unit of force is Newton. A Newton is the force which cause a mass of 1kg to accelerate at 1m/s2. Law II Momentum = mv Change in momentum = mvb mva mv - mu Fresultant But t v-u m( ) Fresultant t giving F ma F = (constant) x ma [kg m/s2] But we can choose a constant to be 1, then the units of measurement becomes Newton instead and the equation becomes F = ma Law III
Reaction or bodys own pull on the earth

Earth pull on the body or gravity

Law I
Constant forward velocity If this reaction or opposing force is Zero the body keeps moving with constant forward velocity

Acceleration Is the rate of change of velocity and is a vector quantity. An easy to understand example of acceleration is the operation of a motor vehicle. The car is said to be accelerating if the velocity is changing. Example of vehicle acceleration are given below
Velocity/speed From 0 km/ to 10 km/hr From 10km/hr to 25 km/hr From 25km/hr to 40km/hr From 40 km/hr to 60km/hr From 60km/hr to 120 km/hr Travelling at 120km/hr Reaching the destination applying brakes to stop the vehicle Gear 1 2 3 4 5 5 Change down from 5 to 1 in steps effect Acceleration Acceleration Acceleration Acceleration Acceleration No acceleration or acceleration =0 Deceleration or negative acceleration

Acceleration is measured in SI standard, in m/s2. Weight is the force that is exerted by the pull of the earth (or any large mass) on a body of a certain mass. It is equal to the product of the mass of that body that is being pulled and the acceleration due to gravity of the earth (or large mass). Mass is the numerical measure of the inertia or resistance of an object to change in its state of motion . Work Work is the total effort done by a force, F, in moving an object for a distance of s metres. Its mathematical definition is given below: Work done by the force = Force applied to the object x distances moved by the object in the direction and sense of the force W = Fs [Nm]

Examples
Force Man pushing a wall Man balancing a scaffold so that it does not move Pull of the earth on a satellite as it makes circular orbits around the earth A stationary boy holding a kite string as the kit move A book slides as the table is pushed 20N weight stone falls down 2m 30 N Friction resistance on a book sliding on a table as book moves 3m Direction of effort In line with the applied force In line with the applied force Perpendicular to the movement of body Perpendicular to the movement of kite Perpendicular to the movement In line with the applied force Same direction but opposite sense Distance moved by the body Zero Zero Many km Some meters Zero (book stationary) 2m 3m Work done Zero Zero Zero Zero Zero +40J -90J

W=20 N

W=10N

W=10N

2m 2m

Work done by force of gravity to bring the stone down = 20N x 2 = 40N

Work done by the effort to lift the block to a hight of 2m = 10N x 2 = 20N in both cases

Block Friction = 10N

Effort = 20N

Work done by effort = +100J Work done by friction = -50J

5m

Joules 1 joule is the work done by a force of 1 N when it moves a distance of 1 m in the direction and sense of the force. Joule is the SI unit of Work. Power Power is the rate of doing work. Mathematical, work done by force Power = time taken to do work W [ Joules] P= t [sec onds] 1 watt (W) is the rate of working when one of joule of work is done in 1 second.

Energy Energy is the ability to do work. If a body has the ability to do some work it has energy. The work done is a measure of how much energy has been transferred or interchanged between two bodies. The energy that is lost by one body is gain by the other body that receives it. We say a body can do work when it has energy. There are many forms in which energy can exist in a body and forms of transfer also. The forms of energy are listed below.
Form of energy Kinetic Expansion The energy that a body possesses when in motion. Change in the bodys K.E. =work done by the forces on the body. If work done is 40J then the body gained 40J K.E. K.E is also = mv2 Energy possessed by the body by the reason of its position above the ground level. Sometimes called gravitational potential. P.E. increases but its sign is ve, when a body moves up and decreases when the body moves down towards the earth

Potential

Internal Elastic potential Heat Chemical Radiant Electro magnetic Nuclear

Friction and sometimes sound are internal energy of a body The energy possessed by a stretched spring or elastic material which has the elastic properties that pulls it back on release. The energy supplied by hot objects The energy released by chemical action or chemical reaction The energy released by radiation Electrical energy from the power supply that generate voltage which is as a result of electron current flow. Magnetic Energy produced by nuclear reaction

Principle of conservation of energy There is no change in the total energy in the universe. Energy is only being transferred from one form to the other. As work is being done by the system one body gain energy and while the other loses the same amount of energy to the body that receives energy. Energy cannot be created or destroyed. Energy transfers
System A bullet fired with 10J of energy into a block of wood and is embedded. Water of weight 5N at a height of 30M on a water fall. Electric iron 120J as a lady irons cloth 20J Original energy Kinetic = 10J PE = 150J Chemical = 20J Electrical =120J KE Energy transfer Friction = -10J KE =150J KE = 20J Heat = 120J Heat Final state KE=0, Friction = 10J

At the bottom KE=0 PE = 0 Reaction = 150J Cloth and environment received heat =120J and reaction force received = 20J Motion and heat

Engine rotation

Heater system

Electrical energy

Heater Element converts electrical into heat energy

Electrolysis process electrical into chemical and heat Electrical energy to charge batteries Batteries convert their stored chemical energy into electrical

+V

-V

Batteries convert electrical into chemical

Electrical power output Electric Motor Electric Generator

Electric motor converts electrical to mechanical energy

Electric generator converts mechanical to electrical energy

Efficiency Is the ratio of useful power output to overall power input. Example if the car engine is supposed to turn the wheel and drive the vehicle forward and the input chemical power is 100J while the output power that actually drives the engine forward is 75J the other 25J is lost as heat energy. Then efficiency is the measure of useful energy conversion = 75/100 = 75% STATICS A force is a vector because it has magnitude and direction As a revision determine if the following quantities are scalar or vector
Quantity Acceleration Energy Displacement Coefficient of friction Electric current Weight Vector or scalar Quantity Time Density Distance Work done Volume Vector or scalar

Representation of force as a vector A vector has magnitude and direction. It can be represented by a straight line as follows: 1. The length of the line represents to scale, the magnitude of the quantity 2. The direction of the line is parallel to the line of action of the force Examples
a A P

F O b Force B

W T

F =force of gravity = mg

OA = OB

BA

1. The first diagram shows one force represented in terms of magnitude and direction. 2. The second diagram above shows that one force acting in a certain direction can be broken down into to components one acting in the x- direction and one in the ydirection. This is called resolution of a force into its components. Parallelogram of forces To find the resultant of two forces P and Q 1. If we have scalar quantities like 5kg of mass and 10 kg of another mass we can calculate their total when put together = 5 kg +10 kg = 15 kg 2. And if we have two forces acting together in the same direction we can simply add their effect. Like

m = 30kg 100N

F=mg =300N Resultant = 300N-300N = 0 N

-30N

Resultant = 100N-30N = +70N

3. But if we have two forces acting in different directions simple addition is not possible. But a different approach can be made as shown below.
Q Q R

A parallelogram of forces can be drawn as shown on the right hand side. R is the resultant of the two forces Q and P. If P and Q are drawn accurately and proportionally, using the correct directions then R can be measured after completing the parallelogram, to give the resultant force. Also mathematical calculations can be performed to come up with the same answer. If Q is right angled then Pythagorass theorem can be used to find the resultant. The resultant of two forces acting at an angle q o between them can be found by completing a parallelogram out of the two forces magnitude and direction, with the diagonal between the two forces giving the required resultant. Triangle of forces The diagram below shows three coplanar forces (forces acting on a common plane or same layer) act on a body and keep it in equilibrium, then the forces can be represented in terms of magnitude, direction and sense to form a triangle. The arrangement of which must be such that the line directions form a continuous flow in one direction around the triangle. The resultant triangle is called the triangle of forces. It simplifies calculations involving balanced forces. 10