Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Dr. Akepati S. Reddy School of Energy and Environment Thapar University, Patiala Punjab (INDIA)
Sanitation
Sanitation
According to WHO, Sanitation is a hygienic means of promoting health through prevention of human contact with the hazards of wastes
Hygienic means of prevention can be by
using engineering solutions (sewerage and sewage treatment) simple technologies (latrines, septic tanks) personal hygiene practices (hand washing)
Hazards can be physical, (micro) biological, or chemical agents of disease Wastes include human and animal feaces, solid wastes, domestic wastewater (sewage, brown water, black water and grey water), storm water, industrial effluents, etc.
Sanitation includes provision of facilities and services for the collection and safe disposal of human excreta Maintenance of hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage collection and wastewater disposal
Sanitation
Sanitation is very important for good health inadequate sanitation is a major cause of diseases world-wide
Diseases transmitted from poor sanitation include diarrhoea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and hepatitis A Annually 1.5 million diarrhoea deaths (mostly <5 year children from developing countries) occur from poor sanitation and hygiene practices
Improved sanitation refers to the management of human faeces at the household level
terminology used to describe the MDG target on sanitation, by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program
Sanitation
2.6 billion people (40% of world population) still lack access to improved sanitation facilities
Continuity of current trend will rise it to 2.7 billion by 2015 Southern Asia has only 36% coverage (coverage of sub-Saharan Africa is 31% and of Oceania is 53%)
1.1 billion people still practice open defecation - lack of sanitation facilities force people to defecate in the open World is badly off-track in achieving the MDG target (75% coverage) for sanitation Sanitation is a serious problem urban areas
Rapid urbanization (daily addition of 180,000 people) is putting stress and overloading the existing sanitation system urban growth occurs predominantly in peri-urban areas and at city fringes, usually unserved by urban sanitation systems Existing urban sanitation facilities have been proving both expensive and inapproriate to the intended users
Diarrhoea
Typhoid Ascariasis Hookworm disease Schistosomiasis
1 800 000
600 000 3 000
3 000
60 000
15 000
1 700 000
Hepatitis A
no data
no data
Only 300 million (just 10% of the urban sewage) have end-of-the-pipe sewage treatment to secondary level
Proportion of the population in 59 developing countries using both improved drinking water sources and improved sanitation (per cent)
Conventional Sanitation
Conventional sanitation
Sanitation, in the narrow sense, is collection/containment of human excreta and its sanitization/treatment and disposal Subject to the affordability mostly urban areas use flush toilets as user interfaces for excreta collection Collection of toilet outputs, and their treatment and disposal are integral of the sanitation system
Toilet outputs include human excreta (faeces and urine), wash water and flush water (black water or brown water plus urine)
Very few communities in the world can afford fully functional sewage system (Sewerage and Sewage Treatment Plant)
Conventional sanitation
Sewerage systems are used for the collection and conveyance of excreta away from the toilet users
Conventional sewerage, simplified sewerage and small bore sewerage system sewers carry sewage Mixing of human excreta with grey water, industrial effluent and storm water occurs overtaxes the sewage treatment plants These fail to contain and sanitize the excreta
Sewage treatment plants (centralized or decentralized or household level) are used for the treatment
Do not efficiently remove pathogens and nutrients get released into environment
Irrigation/agricultural use, discharge into surface water or use for groundwater recharging are the disposal means followed Uncontrolled irrigational use of raw sewage is rampant in periurban areas
Sewerage system
Flush Toilets
Types: pore flush squat type (Indian) and cistern flush seat riser type (English) Amenable for use within the building Anal cleaning may be either by water or by toilet paper anal wash water and toilet paper are mixed with the excreta
0.5 to 3 L of water may be used for anal cleaning Toilet paper is not easily compostable
Water is used for flushing out excreta from toilets A discharge pipe takes away the flushings including the anal washwater to a septic tank or sewer
Has a water seal to prevent coming back of odours
A skilled plumber is required to install a flush toilet Safe and comfortable for the user provided it is kept clean
Flush Toilets
Cistern flush toilet (water closet or WC)
Usually made of ceramic material and has two parts
A tank/cistern supplying water forflushing A bowl into which the user deposits excreta
Needs connection to constant running waterconWater is used for flushing out excreta from toilets
15000 L of flush water (at about 1.5 L/sec. rate) is used to flush 50 L faces and 400-500 L urine per capita year Flush size may be 7 to 14 L Often have small flush (for urine) and large flush provisions Often separate urinals are used
High cost and need ofskilled personnel for installation makes the system not affordable (rarely found in rural areas) Availability of water for flushing are the major problems associated with the flush toilets
Flush Toilets
Pour-flush toilet
Similar to cistern flush toilet with certain differences Instead of water coming from a cistern, water poured by the user from a bucket or jug is used for the flushing Flush water requirement is much lower (2 to 3 L)
Aqua privy
It is a single water filled pit latrine Water is used regularly for topping the pit Excreta as is deposited is transferred into a storage chmaber/seepage pit/sewer line
Urinals
Can be wall mounted (men and boys) unit or can be a drainage channel constructed on floor in connection with wall Use water for flushing Can keep toilets clean and decrease demand for toilet seats
Aqua privy
Urinals
Effluent disposal
into surface fresh water bodies (streams, rivers and lakes) into coastal waters Reuse for irrigation and for aquaculture (fish ponds) on land (soil absorption systems like soak pits) ground water recharging
Biogas plant
Vegetated pond
Pit Toilets
It consisted of
A pit dug in the ground covered by a slab with excreta drop hole size of the pit depends on number of persons using and on the design period Typical size is 3 m depth and 1.0 to 1.2 m diameter A superstructure, built using locally available materials (provide protection from sun and rain, and privacy and comfort to user
Human excreta is isolated from the surrounding environment and disease transmission is prevented
Contamination of top soil and surface waters is avoided
It is inexpensive and uses local materials and local skills These are the basic structures and can easily be adopted into different other types of latrines
Pit toilet/latrine
Pit Toilets
Pits are prone to flooding and spilling of contents (constructed on slight mound) Pit contents can prove unsightly (drop hole can be covered) Pits are smelly and often infested with flies (attracting flies and breeding flies and mosquitoes) ventilation can help Composting of pit contents are affected by entry of too much water (minimizing water use, urine and washwater diversion, and adding absorbent, bulking and compostable materials) Pits can cave in and fail to support the super structure (lining of pits and providing ring beam can help) May fails to contain and sanitize excreta pathogens and nutrients can seep into groundwater (having the pit above the expected groundwater table) Deep pit toilets fail to recycle nutrients of the excreta too deep for plants to reach and uptake (plant a tree in the pit or recover compost for using as soil conditioner/fertilizer) After every few years digging of new pits is needed
Pit Toilets
Use double pit latrine (when one is full the other will be in service)
When filled upto 50 cm below the slab, use of the pit is stopped, soil and biomass are filled to brim, and pit is seal for composting After composting (for > 6 months up to 12 months) empty the pit, use the compost as soil conditioner/fertilizer
Can not be used in crowded areas, rocky ground, high groundwater level, and high and periodically flooded areas
Site toilet away from residence (at >6 m distance) on the downwind side and away from water source (at >30 m distance) Build the pit upwards with concrete ring or blocks under rocky conditions Keep the pit above the maximum ground water table expected Make the pit water tight
Open Defecation
People unserved or not having access to sanitation facilities are forced to open defaecation
Collection, treatment and disposal facilities are either not available or when available not adequate or not properly functioning Not having access to toilet (a user interface) Enough water is not available for flushing the toilets and for anal cleaning Unhygienic conditions not allowing the use of specially community facilities
Open defecation (an insult to self esteem) is more common in rural areas Open defecation and unsafe disposal of faeces can result in
Transmission of Infectious agents from faeces to hands and then to mouth Contamination of foods and/or water flies play important role
fingers
Hands
field
Ground Flies
2
Food
Mouth
Present sanitation systems are not viable and not affordable. These are polluting, unhealthy, resource consuming and unsustainable Consider human excreta as hazardous waste and unacceptable Very costly and inaccessibility The scarce water consuming
50 L/capita.day of faeces and 500 L/capita.day urine require about 15000 L/capita.year of water for flushing
Unsustainable
Products of Sanitation
Generation rate: 50 L/capita.year (150 g/capita.day) Semisolid excrement responsible for most diseases Composition of faeces
Nitrogen: 2 g/person.day Phosphorus: 0.6 g/person.day Potassium: 0.6 g/person.day Moisture content: 95% Faecal coliform count is 107 to 109 per 100 mL
Sanitize (destruct most or all the disease causing organisms) faeces by dehydration and decomposition
Dehydration/drying needs not mixing urine or water with faeces High organic content of faeces makes the fecal compost an excellent soil conditioner
Safe enough for use either directly or after a short period of storage in agriculture without any treatment
Can be used directly at household level if the crops are intended for household consumption
Undiluted urine provides harsher environment for microorganisms and for breeding of mosquitoes
Storing undiluted urine for one month renders urine safe for use in agriculture (recommended storage time is 1 to 6 months for storage temp. of 4 to 20 C depending on the type of crop)
Handwash water
Wash water generated from the hand wash after visiting toilet Toilet/latrine usually has a hand wash facility and wash water generated is contaminated with soap and excreta
Brown water
Faeces and flush water but contaminated with some urine Urine diverting flush toilets generates brown water
Grey water
Water generated from the washing of foods, cloths and dishware as well as from bathing Accounts to 60% of the wastewater produced by households with flush toilets (15000-30000 L/capita.year or 40-80 L/capita.day) from baths, kitchens and laundry
Storm water
Rainfall runoff collected from roofs, roads and other surfaces
Ecological Sanitation
An approach rather than a technique for human excreta management
Often expanded to include management of anal wash water, hand wash water, grey water and household organic matter also
A resource minded approach rather than waste minded approach - human excreta is considered as a resource (not as a waste/hazardous waste)
Tries to recycle nutrients and water from excreta in a hygienically safe manner
A sanitation that conserves water and not pollute the environment (water bodies, groundwater and land)
Very little water or no water is used to flush toilets and carry away excreta Excreta is contained, while ensuring hygienic conditions, sanitized and transformed into safe end product (used in agriculture as soil conditioner and fertilizer)
Ecological Sanitation
Objective is
to protect human health and environment while reducing the use of water and recycling nutrients
Boundary conditions are should be affordable, acceptable (aesthetically non-offensive and consistent with cultural and social values) and simple (robust and easy to maintain)
Cultural taboos against handling of excreta People unwilling to use crops and foods produced from excreta
Source Separation
Involves
Avoiding mixing of water with excreta Diversion of urine, anal wash water and hygiene water away from faeces
Source Separation
Diverting urine (and anal wash water, hand wash water, etc.)
Urine and faeces require different treatments Urine is almost free from pathogens and can be used as fertilizer either directly or after storing for sanitization
Odours can be from urine (flushing away the urine with water may be needed)
Source separation of liquids from faeces is needed for facilitating processing of the faeces
Both dehydration and composting techniques demand less moisture in fecal matter
Having separate urinals (urination and defecation can not be easily separated!) Diverted urine, anal wash water and other wastewaters of latrines require a separate system for the handling and disposal
Anal wash water is fecal contaminated
Liquid separation keeps faeces volume small, prevents excess humidity in the processing vault, reduces odour problem and makes pathogen destruction from faeces simple
Water used for anal washing can be treated in an evapotranspiration bed or in a septic tank
Aquatron device
(Placed on top of a processing vault/chamber)
Not allow mixing of relatively non-hazardous urine with the hazardous faeces
Sanitization or Processing
Objectives
Sanitization of the contained fecal matter
Destruction of pathogenic organisms
Transformation of the material into humus like substance that can be safely returned to soil as fertilizer and/or conditioner
Decomposition/composting/mineralization and transformation into humus
Involves dehydration (moisture reduction) and composting (volume reduction) processes Occurs in two steps
An on-site primary processing step An on-site or off-site secondary processing step
Sanitization or Processing
Primary processing
Occur while the pit/vault/container is still in use and still receiving fecal matter Preventing nuisance and moisture reduction are important Containment conditions should not be violated The contained fecal matter should become compatible for transport and secondary processing - facilitating storage, transport and further treatment
Secondary processing
Make material safe to return to soil as fertilizer and/or conditioner May involve
High temperature composting for <1 year to 2 years time Treatment with alkaline materials (lime or urea) at pH >9 for 6-12 months Storing for longer time Carbonization or incineration (can be used if persistence of intestinal worm eggs is a concern)
Avoiding addition of moist plant materials Separate and drain out liquid from the pit/vault/container contents
Filter net, perforated flooring, etc., are used
Lowering moisture to <25% (dehydration) deprives microorganisms of moisture and affects their survival
Can minimize or eliminate odour and/or fly breeding problems
Temperature
Composting can raise temp (destructive to pathogens)
May not be efficient in primary processing
Addition of carbon rich material (4 or 5 times to faeces), such as, weeds, husk, waste shavings, kitchen waste, can rise the temperature occasional turning of the pile can help through raising the decomposition rates (possible in secondary processing)
pH C:N ratio
Optimum C:N ratio for composting is 15:1 to 30:1 Adding carbon rich materials (grass clippings, vegetable scraps, straw, rice husk, wood waste, etc. increases the C:N ratio Since urine is rich in nitrogen, urine diversion increases C:N ratio
Regular addition of soil and/or wood ash covering the fresh faeces controls both odours and flies Flies in the pit/vault are attracted to light and may enter the super structure through the squat hole
Dark coloured seat cover also discourages
Super structure with semi-dark interior discourage flies exit through the squat hole
Superstructure with a roof and a spiral entry or a self closing door can result in semi dark superstructure
Vent pipe sucks air from superstructure through squat hole into pit/vault and then into atmosphere through vent
All indoor models are provided with vent pipes Vent are typically of 100 to 150 mm dia. straight pipes provided immediately above the pit/vault/chamber and extending at least 50-90 cm above roof
Double vault alternatively receiving excreta (often with perforated floor for liquid separation) Chamber with or two movable excreta containers (often with perforated floor for liquid separation) The pit/vault/chamber can have a vent The chamber/vault usually has
access door for taking out primary processed faeces solar heating provision - a metal sheet cover (also acting as an access lid of the vault/chamber) painted black can be used for solar heating associated evapotranspiration bed (for the liquid handling) or a liquid collection chamber (for sanitization)
Provision for household organic waste addition to the vault Provisions for collecting, handling and disposal of diverted urine, anal washwater and toilet hygiene water
Piping and container/can for collecting and storing urine Urine diversion to nitrogen loving plant (banana) Evapo-transpiration unit for the disposal of urine, anal washwater, hygiene water and also the hand wash water
Provisions for storing and adding materials like wood ash, lime, soil, husk, leaves, etc. to the pit Provisions for hand wash (either within or outside the superstructure) Ventilation system (venting the pit/vault/chamber into atmosphere) to control odours and flies
Absrobents
Ash,lime, saw dust, husk, crushed dry leaves, peat and dry soil Dry grass, twigs, shavings, etc. are used in composting toilets for making the faeces pile less compact and allowing air to enter Added to the faeces immediately after defecation both in dehydrating and composting toilets Absorb moisture, reduce smells, make the pile of faeces less compact and less unsightly Mechanical pedal operated ash dispensers are used in school toilets
Faeces are kept in processing vault/container for 6-12 months secondary processing types include high temperature composting, alkaline treatment, further storage, and carbonization/ incineration
Eco-san systems
Composting toilets
Human excreta (faeces and urine) is deposited in a processing chamber along with organic household waste, garden refuse and bulking agents like straw, peat mass, wood shaving, twigs. Temperature, air flow (ventilation), moisture, carbon materials and other factors are controlled for optimal decomposition Retained in the processing chamber for 6-8 months Then, partially decomposed material is moved to garden compost or eco-station for secondary processing (high temp. composting)
Eco-san systems
Soil composting
Human excreta and liberal amount of soil (wood ash also), are deposited in processing vault/container/pit for composting In some two pits are alternatively used and in some a tree is planted in the pit for utilizing the nutrients Most of the pathogens are destroyed within 3-4 months time Competition between organisms for carbon and nutrients defeat the pathogens by dominant soil microorganisms Composted material can be removed and subjected to secondary processing or directly spread on fields
12 months composting in a shallow pit is recommended before application of the material to gardens One month after the application the non-salad crops can be safely sown on the field
The vault is usually filled in 4-5 months (for a family of 4-6 persons) contents of one vault when filled to 2/3rd volume
2nd vault is brought into use faecal matter of the first vault is leveled with a stick, and dry powdered earth is added to the brim and the vault is sealed
Before use, floor of the vault is covered with a layer of soil (to absorb moisture from faeces and prevents excreta sticking) After every use, 2 bowls of ash is sprinkled (absorbs moisture, neutralizes odours, and makes faeces less attractive to flies) Urine is collected in a jar (either empty or partially filled with water, lime or ashes) behind the toilet Paper used for anal cleaning is dropped in a box/jar and burnt Toilet is located aboveground and the vaults on solid concrete/brick/clay floor at least 10 cm above ground
avoids rainwater run-on
Pedal operated ash dispenser is used to sprinkle ash on faeces Toilets are placed indoors (on 2nd or 3rd floor) and vaults are provided above ground at ground level
Faeces fall through a 200 mm size PVC chute into vaults A baffle directs faeces to one of the two vaults
Diverted urine is also collected at ground level A vent pipe from toilet room via processing chamber extending above the building roof provides ventilation In urban areas (Erdoes, Inner Mongolia), a communal system of faeces collection and management is practiced
Faeces are collected and primary treated in a movable processing container placed under the chute Municipal staff collects the processing containers and transports to neighbourhood eco-station for secondary treatment
These toilets were used in Hermosa province of El Salvador in low income (slum like) urban housing
attached to house and sometimes placed inside the houses
Vaults are lined with straw, and ash is sprinkled over faces every time
Occasionally straw, leaves, paper scrap, ec. are also added
Process chamber has an access door and faeces are collected in a wide, low plastic container which when full is replaced
Lime is used as additive Container filled with faces is kept in the processing chamber untill the second container is full
A fan is used to draw air from bath room through the toilet and processing chamber into atmosphere by a vent
The human excrement falls down a vertical chute (2) and into one end of a specially designed helical screw conveyor (3). Every time the toilet lid (1) is lifted, a mechanism rotates the conveyor.
With each rotation the human excrement slowly moves along, taking approximately twenty five days before falling into a reusable collection bag (4). It takes six months for the bag to fill with dry and odourless waste.
Through the uniquely designed ventilation pipe (5), adequate airflow is provided for the dehydration / evaporation, deodorising process. Human excreta is roughly 95% moisture. As the material move in the conveyer, urine and moisture is vented into atmosphere, and the material dries into a compost-like material, 5 - 10% of it's original mass.
Air conduits and a vent pipe are provided for drawing air through the compost heap
A single Clivus is found sufficient for a family of 8-10 people for the year round use
Solids can stuck halfway and not slid into the end storage area
The chambers are filled in sequence with the human excreta and organic household residue
Already composted material of the oldest chamber is removed through an access door
Liquid from the inner tank is drains out into the outer tank through bottom holes of the inner tank
From there the liquid is conveyed either into a separate container or into an evapo-transpiration bed
Separate water treatment systems for grey water and also for storm water
Artificial wetland is used for grey water treatment Partial collection and reuse of storm water retention and infiltration of rest of the storm water
Excreta is processed on ground floor in a small separate room adjacent to kitchen/living room with access only from outside
The room is provided with a thick layer of garden soil Processing involved a combination of soil composting and dehydration Processed excreta is removed twice a year (in spring and at the end of summer) and spread on fields
Faint smell of ammonia from splashed urine is a problem from the toilet
Arborloo model
It is a shallow pit (1.0 m) covered with a squatting pan
A ring beam contains the pit and supports the superstructure
Urine and faces, and anal cleaning material are deposited into the pit and, after each deposition, the faeces are covered with soil (wood ash and leaves were also often used)
Excreta to soil, ash and leaves ratio is around 50-50 Organic kitchen scrap can also be added in limited quantities
When the pit is to 2/3rd full, the squatting slab and super structure are removed The pit is topped with soil to the brim (15 cm) and a tree is planted in the top soil and watered lightly Every 6-12 months a new pit is required
A smaller side pit of same depth is dug at the same time adjacent to the main pit
The side pit is filled with fertile soil and planted a sapling
Hand washing device can be mounted over the sapling to help watering the latter
When the second pit is full, contents of the first pit are removed and used as fertilizer/soil conditioner Twin ring beams with single concrete slab are usually used
Both the pits can be enclosed in a single larger superstructure
Slab and super structure are moved from one pit to the other
Contents of the container are removed are removed at regular intervals and placed in a secondary composter along with some more soil mixed and kept damp with watering
Composting in the seocndary composter becomes very fast and may require 6-12 months retention
An independent urinal (for men and boys urination) Provisions for hand washing and for collecting the resultant handwash water Provisions for the toilet cleaning and collecting resultant hygiene water Water supply for analwash and handwash, and for toilet cleaning Provisions for the storage and addition of moisture absorbing/bulking material and/or faeces covering material Provisions for adding household organic waste
Provisions for the handling and disposal of the diverted urine and analwash water and the collected hygiene water and handwash water Vault or pit or chamber with containers for containing and processing the faeces and the added moisture absorbing/ bulking material and the household organic waste
Ventilation system for the pit/vault/chamber Access door to the pit/vault/chamber for taking out primary processed or processed material Vault or chamber should be aboveground to avoid run on of storm water
Composting toilets and soil compost toilets may prove quite appropriate for Indian urban and rural areas respectively
Systems for the handling and disposal of faeces, urine, analwash & handwash waters and toilet hygiene water
System for handling primary processed or processed faeces
Conveying to eco-station and secondary processing (composting or carbonization/incineration) Transport and use of stabilized compost as soil conditioner/fertilizer
Systems for the handling and disposal of analwash water, toilet hygiene water and handwash water)
Passing analwash water, handwash water and hygiene water through an upflow filter and
Disposing into the evapo-transpiration bed Allowing to mix with the grey water for the handling and disposal
Ecosan system can be broadened to cover the grey water and the household organic material
Biological filter systems, evapotranspiration beds and constructed wetlands can be used the grey water treatment Composting toilets can be used for taking care of the household organic wastes
Availability of space for on-site or off-site processing, storage and local recycling of faeces and urine Customs, beliefs, values and practices influence the design Level of technology that can be supported and maintained by local skills and tools Characteristics of local agriculture and homestead gardens Legal framework and institutional support available (govt., industry, financial institutions, universities and NGOs)
Household management limited to the use and maintenance of the toilet (daily care of the toilet) Communal management is advantageous
More convenient to the user and safer for public health Trained staff can take care of the handling, processing, transport and sale/use of urine/faeces
Moisture absorbing materials added and accumulating: 1095 kg/year or 876 L/year
Assumptions made Bulk density of the absorbing material added: 1250 kg/m3 Mass and volume are conserved through the primary treatment
Household organic matter added: 438 L/year, and primary processed organic matter accumulated: 43.8 L/year
Assumptions made Bulk density is 1000 kg/m3 Moisture content is 80% Reduction of mass from primary processing: 70% (on dry mass basis) Moisture content of the primary processed material: 40%
Cover slab dimensions width: (1.1x2+0.1x3) = 2.5 m and cover slab length: (1.1+0.8+0.1x3) + 0.3 = 2.5 m
Thickness of the walls have been taken as 0.1 m Entry corridor width: 0.8 m Additional depth left for opening the door: 0.3 m
Vault bottom sloping towards the hinder side (slope: 1 in 10) A drain pipe for draining out any leachate accumulating in the vault on the hinder side Vents for the vaults (two vents, one per vault)
Diameter: 150 mm Height (from cover slab): 3.0 m Location: 0.6 m from mid line and 0.275 m in front of the hind wall
Vent of the toilet room: 100 mm dia. and 0.7 m above the roof Porch of the toilet room: 0.8 m x 1.75 m Three or four steps to approach the porch from one side Double wing door of toilet room
Height: 2.0 m (bottom 1.5 m blinding and the next 0.5 m of metal grid)
Hand wash basin in the porch on the other side of the porch Squat pans (with removable lids over the squat hole):
2 numbers both with provisions for anal washing Provisions for diversion of both urine and anal wash water
System for handling urine contaminated water and water not contaminated with urine
Wastewater generation
Diverted urine: (1.1-1.4 L/capita.day or 0.15 to 0.2 L/urination) = 6.3 to 8.4 L/day Water for urinal flushing: (0.5 to 1.0 L/urination) = 21 to 42 L/day (assumption: 6 urinations and 1 defecation per capita day) Urine contaminated water: 27.3 to 50.4 L/day Anal wash water: (1 to 2 L/defecation) = 6 to 12 L/day Hand wash water: (0.5 to 2 L/defecation) + (0.1 to 0.2 L/urination) = 6.6 to 13.2 L/day Hygiene water: 5 to 10 L/day Wastewater not contaminated with urine: 17.6 to 35.2 L/day
System for handling urine contaminated water and water not contaminated with urine
Evapo-transpiration bed
Bed area: 12 m2 or 2 m2/capita Bed profile
HDPE membrane at the bottom Multigrade bed with 25-40 mm size ballast at the bottom and 100 to 150 mm thick sand layer at the top Gravel layer thickness: 5 to 10 times maximum gravel size Gravel size in a layer: half the gravel size in gavel layer below Total bed depth (including sand layer): 500-600 mm Maximum free water depth of 0.1 m may be maintained by providing overflow drain Water overflows can be considered as grey water The bed may be used as a hydrophonic system Water may be introduced at the bottom of the bed