Forging

Forging is the shaping of metal using localized compressive forces. Forging is often classified according to the temperature at which it is performed: '"cold," "warm," or "hot" forging. Forged parts can range in weight from less than a kilogram to 580 metric tons.[1][2] Forged parts usually require further processing to achieve a finished part. 1 History 2 Advantages and disadvantages 3 Processes 3.1 Temperature 3.2 Drop forging 3.2.1 Open-die drop forging 3.2.2 Impression-die drop forging 3.2.2.1 Design of impression-die forgings and tooling 3.3 Press forging 3.4 Upset forging 3.5 Automatic hot forging 3.6 Roll forging 3.7 Net-shape and near-net-shape forging 3.7.1 Cost implications

3.8 Induction forging History Forging is one of the oldest known metalworking processes.Traditionally, forging was performed by a smith using hammer and anvil, and though the use of water power in the production and working of iron dates to the 12th century, the hammer and anvil are not obsolete. The smithy or forge has evolved over centuries to become a facility with engineered processes, production equipment, tooling, raw materials and products to meet the demands of modern industry. In modern times, industrial forging is done either with presses or with hammers powered by compressed air, electricity, hydraulics or steam. These hammers may have reciprocating weights in the thousands of pounds. Smaller power hammers, 500 lb (230 kg) or less reciprocating weight, and hydraulic presses are common in art smithies as well. Some steam hammers remain in use, but they became obsolete with the availability of the other, more convenient, power sources. Advantages and disadvantages Forging can produce a piece that is stronger than an equivalent cast or machined part. As the metal is shaped during the forging process, its internal grain deforms to follow the general shape of the part. As a result, the grain is continuous throughout the part, giving rise to a piece with improved strength characteristics.

Some metals may be forged cold, however iron and steel are almost always hot forged. Hot forging prevents the work hardening that would result from cold forming, which would increase the difficulty of performing secondary machining operations on the piece. Also, while work hardening may be desirable in some circumstances, other methods of hardening the piece, such as heat treating, are generally more economical and more controllable. Alloys that are amenable to precipitation hardening, such as most aluminium alloys and titanium, can be hot forged, followed by hardening.[citation needed] Production forging involves significant capital expenditure for machinery, tooling, facilities and personnel. In the case of hot forging, a high temperature furnace (sometimes referred to as the forge) will be required to heat ingots or billets. Owing to the massiveness of large forging hammers and presses and the parts they can produce, as well as the dangers inherent in working with hot metal, a special building is frequently required to house the operation. In the case of drop forging operations, provisions must be made to absorb the shock and vibration generated by the hammer. Most forging operations will require the use of metal-forming dies, which must be precisely machined and carefully heat treated to correctly shape the workpiece, as well as to withstand the tremendous forces involved. Processes

A cross-section of a forged connecting rod that has been etched to show the grain flow. There are many different kinds of forging processes available, however they can be grouped into three main classes:[1] Drawn out: length increases, cross-section decreases Upset: Length decreases, cross-section increases Squeezed in closed compression dies: produces multidirectional flow Common forging processes include: roll forging, swaging, cogging, open-die forging, impression-die forging, press forging, automatic hot forging and upsetting. Temperature Hot working and Cold working All of the following forging processes can be performed at various temperatures, however they are generally classified by whether the metal temperature is above or below the recrystallization temperature. If the temperature is above the material's recrystallization temperature it is deemed hot forging; if the temperature is below the material's recrystallization temperature but above 3/10ths of the recrystallization temperature (on an absolute scale) it is deemed warm forging; if below 3/10ths of the recrystallization temperature (usually room temperature) then it is deemed cold forging. The main advantage of hot forging is that as the metal is deformed

work hardening effects are negated by the recrystallization process. Cold forging typically results in work hardening of the piece.

Drop forging There are two types of drop forging: open-die drop forging and closed-die drop forging. As the names imply, the difference is in the shape of the die, with the former not fully enclosing the workpiece, while the latter does. The similarity between the two is that a hammer is raised up and then dropped onto the workpiece to deform it according to the shape of the die. Open-die drop forging Open-die forging is also known as smith forging.[6] In open-die forging, a hammer strikes and deforms the workpiece, which is placed on a stationary anvil. Open-die forging gets its name from the fact that the dies (the surfaces that are in contact with the workpiece) do not enclose the workpiece, allowing it to flow except where contacted by the dies. Therefore the operator needs to orient and position the workpiece to get the desired shape. The dies are usually flat in shape, but some have a specially shaped surface for specialized operations. For example, a die may have a round, concave, or convex surface or be a tool to form holes or be a cut-off tool. Open-die forging lends itself to short runs and is appropriate for art smithing and custom work. In some cases, open-die forging may be employed to rough-shape ingots to prepare them for subsequent operations. Opendie forging may also orient the grain to increase strength in the required direction.

Cogging is successive deformation of a bar along its length using an open-die drop forge. It is commonly used to work a piece of raw material to the proper thickness. Once the proper thickness is achieved the proper width is achieved via edging. Edging is the process of concentrating material using an concave shaped open die. The process is called edging, because it is usually carried out on the ends of the workpiece. Fullering is a similar process that thins out sections of the forging using a convex shaped die. These processes prepare the workpieces for further forging processes.[9] Edging Fullering Impression-die drop forging Impression-die forging is also called closed-die forging. In impression-die work metal is placed in a die resembling a mold, which is attached to the anvil. Usually the hammer die is shaped as well. The hammer is then dropped on the workpiece, causing the metal to flow and fill the die cavities. The hammer is generally in contact with the workpiece on the scale of milliseconds. Depending on the size and complexity of the part the hammer may be dropped multiple times in quick succession. Excess metal is squeezed out of the die cavities, forming what is referred to as flash. The flash cools more rapidly than the

rest of the material; this cool metal is stronger than the metal in the die so it helps prevent more flash from forming. This also forces the metal to completely fill the die cavity. After forging the flash is removed. In commercial impression-die forging the workpiece is usually moved through a series of cavities in a die to get from an ingot to the final form. The first impression is used to distribute the metal into the rough shape in accordance to the needs of later cavities; this impression is called an edging, fullering, or bending impression. The following cavities are called blocking cavities, in which the piece is working into a shape that more closely resembles the final product. These stages usually impart the workpiece with generous bends and large fillets. The final shape is forged in a final or finisher impression cavity. If there is only a short run of parts to be done it may be more economical for the die to lack a final impression cavity and instead machine the final features. [3] Impression-die forging has been further improved in recent years through increased automation which includes induction heating, mechanical feeding, positioning and manipulation, and the direct heat treatment of parts after forging. One variation of impression-die forging is called flashless forging, or true closed-die forging. In this type of forging the die cavities are completely closed, which keeps the workpiece from forming flash. The major advantage to this process is that less metal is lost to flash. Flash can

account for 20 to 45% of the starting material. The disadvantages of this process include additional cost due to a more complex die design and the need for better lubrication and workpiece placement. There are other variations of part formation that integrate impression-die forging. One method incorporates casting a forging preform from liquid metal. The casting is removed after it has solidified, but while still hot. It is then finished in a single cavity die. The flash is trimmed, then the part is quench hardened. Another variation follows the same process as outlined above, except the preform is produced by the spraying deposition of metal droplet into shaped collectors (similar to the Osprey process).

Closed-die forging has a high initial cost due to the creation of dies and required design work to make working die cavities. However, it has low recurring costs for each part, thus forgings become more economical with more volume. This is one of the major reasons closed-die forgings are often used in the automotive and tool industry. Another reason forgings are common in these industrial sectors is because forgings generally have about a 20 percent higher strength-to-weight ratio compared to cast or machined parts of the same material.

Design of impression-die forgings and tooling Forging dies are usually made of high-alloy or tool steel. Dies must be impact resistant, wear resistant, maintain strength at high temperatures, and have the ability to withstand cycles of rapid heating and cooling. In order to produce a better, more economical die the following rules should be followed:[11] The dies should part along a single, flat plane if at all possible. If not the parting plane should follow the contour of the part. The parting surface should be a plane through the center of the forging and not near an upper or lower edge. Adequate draft should be provided; a good guideline is at least 3 for aluminum and 5 to 7 for steel Generous fillets and radii should be used Ribs should be low and wide The various sections should be balanced to avoid extreme difference in metal flow Full advantage should be taken of fiber flow lines Dimensional tolerances should not be closer than necessary The dimensional tolerances of a steel part produced using the impression-die forging method are outlined in the table below. It should be noted that the dimensions across the paring plane are affected by the closure of the

dies, and are therefore dependent die wear and the thickness of the final flash. Dimensions that are completely contained within a single die segment or half can be maintained at a significantly greater level of accuracy.[10] Dimensional tolerances for impression-die forgings, Mass [kg (lb)] Minus tolerance [mm (in)] Plus tolerance [mm (in)] 0.45 (1) 0.15 (0.006) 0.48 (0.018) 0.91 (2) 0.20 (0.008) 0.61 (0.024) 2.27 (5) 0.25 (0.010) 0.76 (0.030) 4.54 (10) 9.07 (20) 22.68 (50) 0.28 (0.011) 0.84 (0.033) 0.33 (0.013) 0.99 (0.039) 0.48 (0.019) 1.45 (0.057)

45.36 (100) 0.74 (0.029) 2.21 (0.087) A lubricant is always used when forging to reduce friction and wear. It is also used to as a thermal barrier to restrict heat transfer from the workpiece to the die. Finally, the lubricant acts as a parting compound to prevent the part from sticking in one of the dies.

Press forging Press forging works slowly by applying continuous pressure or force, which differs from the nearinstantaneous impact of drop-hammer forging. The amount of time the dies are in contact with the workpiece is measured in seconds (as compared to the milliseconds of drop-hammer forges). The press forging operation can be done either cold or hot. The main advantage of press forging, as compared to drop-hammer forging, is its ability to deform the complete workpiece. Drop-hammer forging usually only deforms the surfaces of the workpiece in contact with the hammer and anvil; the interior of the workpiece will stay relatively undeformed. Another advantage to the process includes the knowledge of the new part's strain rate. We specifically know what kind of strain can be put on the part, because the compression rate of the press forging operation is controlled. There are a few disadvantages to this process, most stemming from the workpiece being in contact with the dies for such an extended period of time. The operation is a time consuming process due to the amount of steps and how long each of them take. The workpiece will cool faster because the dies are in contact with workpiece; the dies facilitate drastically more heat transfer than the surrounding atmosphere. As the workpiece cools it becomes stronger and less ductile,

which may induce cracking if deformation continues. Therefore heated dies are usually used to reduce heat loss, promote surface flow, and enable the production of finer details and closer tolerances. The workpiece may also need to be reheated. When done in high productivity, press forging is more economical than hammer forging. The operation also creates closer tolerances. In hammer forging a lot of the work is absorbed by the machinery, when in press forging, the greater percentage of work is used in the work piece. Another advantage is that the operation can be used to create any size part because there is no limit to the size of the press forging machine. New press forging techniques have been able to create a higher degree of mechanical and orientation integrity. By the constraint of oxidation to the outer most layers of the part material, reduced levels of microcracking take place in the finished part. Press forging can be used to perform all types of forging, including open-die and impression-die forging. Impression-die press forging usually requires less draft than drop forging and has better dimensional accuracy. Also, press forgings can often be done in one closing of the dies, allowing for easy automation.

Upset forging Upset forging increases the diameter of the workpiece by compressing its length.[12] Based on number of pieces produced this is the most widely used forging process. [12] A few examples of common parts produced using the upset forging process are engine valves, couplings, bolts, screws, and other fasteners. Upset forging is usually done in special high speed machines called crank presses, but upsetting can also be done in a vertical crank press or a hydraulic press. The machines are usually set up to work in the horizontal plane, to facilitate the quick exchange of workpieces from one station to the next. The initial workpiece is usually wire or rod, but some machines can accept bars up to 25 cm (9.8 in) in diameter and a capacity of over 1000 tons. The standard upsetting machine employs split dies that contain multiple cavities. The dies open enough to allow

the workpiece to move from one cavity to the next; the dies then close and the heading tool, or ram, then moves longitudinally against the bar, upsetting it into the cavity. If all of the cavities are utilized on every cycle then a finished part will be produced with every cycle, which is why this process is ideal for mass production.[12] The following three rules must be followed when designing parts to be upset forged:[13] The length of unsupported metal that can be upset in one blow without injurious buckling should be limited to three times the diameter of the bar. Lengths of stock greater than three times the diameter may be upset successfully provided that the diameter of the upset is not more than 1.5 times the diameter of the stock. In an upset requiring stock length greater than three times the diameter of the stock, and where the diameter of the cavity is not more than 1.5 times the diameter of the stock, the length of unsupported metal beyond the face of the die must not exceed the diameter of the bar.

Automatic hot forging The automatic hot forging process involves feeding milllength steel bars (typically 7 m (23 ft) long) into one end of the machine at room temperature and hot forged products emerge from the other end. This all occurs very quickly; small parts can be made at a rate of 180 parts per minute (ppm) and larger can be made at a rate of 90 ppm. The parts can be solid or hollow, round or symmetrical, up to 6 kg (13 lb), and up to 18 cm (7.1 in) in diameter. The main advantages to this process are its high output rate and ability to accept low cost materials. Little labor is required to operate the machinery. There is no flash produced so material savings are between 20 and 30% over conventional forging. The final product is a consistent 1,050 C (1,920 F) so air cooling will result in a part that is still easily machinable (the advantage being

the lack of annealing required after forging). Tolerances are usually 0.3 mm (0.012 in), surfaces are clean, and draft angles are 0.5 to 1. Tool life is nearly double that of conventional forging because contact times are on the order of 6/100 of a second. The downside to the process is it only feasible on smaller symmetric parts and cost; the initial investment can be over $10 million, so large quantities are required to justify this process. The process starts by heating up the bar to 1,200 to 1,300 C (2,192 to 2,372 F) in less than 60 seconds using high power induction coils. It is then descaled with rollers, sheared into blanks, and transferred several successive forming stages, during which it is upset, preformed, final forged, and pierced (if necessary). This process can also be couple with high speed cold forming operations. Generally, the cold forming operation will do the finishing stage so that the advantages of cold-working can be obtained, while maintaining the high speed of automatic hot forging. Examples of parts made by this process are: wheel hub unit bearings, transmission gears, tapered roller bearing races, stainless steel coupling flanges, and neck rings for LP gas cylinders. Manual transmission gears are an example of automatic hot forging used in conjunction with cold working.

Roll forging Roll forging is a process where round or flat bar stock is reduced in thickness and increased in length. Roll forging is performed using two cylindrical or semi-cylindrical rolls, each containing one or more shaped grooves. A heated bar is inserted into the rolls and when it hits a stop the rolls rotate and the bar is progressively shaped as it is rolled out of the machine. The work piece is then transferred to the next set of grooves or turned around and reinserted into the same grooves. This continues until the desired shape and size is achieved. The advantage of this process is there is no flash and it imparts a favorable grain structure into the workpiece.

Examples of products produced using this method include axles, tapered levers and leaf springs. Net-shape and near-net-shape forging See also: Near-net-shape This process is also known as precision forging. This process was developed to minimize cost and waste associated with post forging operations. Therefore, the final product from a precision forging needs little to no final machining. Cost savings are gained from the use of less material, and thus less scrap, the overall decrease in energy used, and the reduction or elimination of machining. Precision forging also requires less of a draft, 1 to 0. The downside of this process is its cost, therefore it is only implemented if significant cost reduction can be achieved.

Cost implications To achieve a low cost net shape forging for demanding applications that are subject to a high degree of scrutiny, i.e. non-destructive testing by way of a die-penetrant inspection technique, it is crucial that basic forging process disciplines are implemented. If the basic disciplines are not met, there is a high probability that subsequent material removal operations will be necessary to remove material defects found at nondestructive testing inspection. Hence low cost parts will not be achievable.

Example disciplines are: die-lubricant management (Use of uncontaminated and homogeneous mixtures, amount and placement of lubricant). Tight control of die temperatures and surface finish / friction.

Induction forging Unlike the above processes, induction forging is based on the type of heating style used. Many of the above processes can be used in conjunction with this heating method. Equipment Hydraulic drop-hammer (a) Material flow of a conventionally forged disc; (b) Material flow of an impactor forged disc.

The most common type of forging equipment is the hammer and anvil. Principles behind the hammer and anvil are still used today in drop-hammer equipment. The principle behind the machine is very simpleraise the hammer and then drop it or propel it into the workpiece, which rests on the anvil. The main variations between drop-hammers are in the way the hammer is powered; the most common being air and steam hammers. Drophammers usually operate in a vertical position. The main reason for this is excess energy (energy that isn't used to deform the workpiece) that isn't released as heat or sound needs to be transmitted to the foundation. Moreover, a large machine base is needed to absorb the impacts. To overcome some of the shortcomings of the drophammer, the counterblow machine or impactor is used. In a counterblow machine both the hammer and anvil move and the workpiece is held between them. Here excess energy becomes recoil. This allows the machine to work horizontally and consist of a smaller base. Other advantages include less noise, heat and vibration. It also produces a distinctly different flow pattern. Both of these machines can be used for open die or closed die forging. A forging press, often just called a press, is used for press forging. There are two main types: mechanical and hydraulic presses. Mechanical presses function by using cams, cranks and/or toggles to produce a preset (a predetermined force at a certain location in the stroke) and reproducible stroke. Due to the nature of this type of

system, different forces are available at different stroke positions. Mechanical presses are faster than their hydraulic counterparts (up to 50 strokes per minute). Their capacities range from 3 to 160 MN (300 to 18,000 short tons-force). Hydraulic presses use fluid pressure and a piston to generate force. The advantages of a hydraulic press over a mechanical press are its flexibility and greater capacity. The disadvantages include a slower, larger, and costlier machine to operate. The roll forging, upsetting, and automatic hot forging processes all use specialized machinery. List of large forging presses : Force (tonnes) Ingot size (tonnes) 16,000 15,000 China 14,000 13,000 Cold sizing Double hammer Semi-solid metal casting Anvil 600 580 600 Doosan Company Erzhong China China First Heavy Industries Japan Steel Works South Korea Japan Country

The anvil serves as a work bench to the blacksmith, where the metal to be beaten is placed. Anvils are made of cast or wrought iron with a tool steel face welded on or of a single piece of cast or forged tool steel. The flat top has two holes; the wider is called the hardy hole, where the square shank of the hardy fits. The smaller hole is called the punch hole, used as clearance when punching holes in hot metal. Chisel Chisels are made of high carbon steel. They are hardened and tempered at the cutting edge while the head is left soft so it will not crack when hammered. Chisels are of two types, hot and cold chisels. The cold chisel is used for cutting cold metals while the hot chisel is for hot metals. Usually hot chisels are thinner and therefore can not be substituted with cold chisels.[1] Tongs Tongs are used by the blacksmith for holding hot metals securely. The mouths are custom made by the smith in various shapes to suit the gripping of various shapes of metal. Fuller Fullers are forming tools of different shapes used in making grooves or hollows. They are often used in pairs, the bottom fuller has a square shank which fits into the hardy hole in the anvil while the top fuller has a handle. The work is placed on the bottom fuller and the top is

placed on the work and struck with a hammer. The top fuller is also used for finishing round corners and for stretching or spreading metal. Hardy The hardy is a cutting tool similar to the chisel. It is used as a chisel or hammer for cutting both hot and cold metals. It has a square shank that fits into the hardy hole in the anvil, with the cutting edge facing upwards. The metal to be cut is placed on the cutting edge and struck with a hammer. They are also used with set tools which are placed over the workpiece and struck. Slack tub A slack tub is usually a large container full of water, brine, or oil used by a blacksmith to quench hot metal. The term is believed to derive from the word "slake", as in slaking the heat. Workpiece Materials The materials that are used most commonly in drop forging are aluminum, copper, nickel, mild steel, stainless steel, and magnesium. Mild steel is the best choice, and magnesium generally performs pretty poorly as a drop forging material.

Oven Oven depicted in a painting by Jean-Franois Millet An oven is an enclosed compartment for heating, baking or drying. It is most commonly used in cooking and pottery. Ovens used in pottery are also known as kilns. An oven used for heating or for industrial processes is called a furnace or industrial oven. In modern times the oven is used to cook and heat food in many households across the globe. Ancient Greek portable oven, 17th century BCE Settlements across the Indus Valley Civilization were the first to have an oven within each mud-brick house by 3200 BC. Culinary historians credit the Greeks for developing bread baking into an art. Front-loaded bread ovens were developed in ancient Greece. The Greeks created a wide variety of doughs, loaf shapes and styles of serving bread with other foods. Baking developed as a trade and profession as bread increasingly was prepared outside of the family home by specially trained workers to be sold to the public. This is one of the oldest forms of professional food processing. Contents 1 Cooking 2 Industrial, scientific, and artisanal use

Cooking Modern oven In cooking, the conventional oven is a kitchen appliance and is used for roasting and heating. Food normally cooked in this manner includes meat, casseroles and baked goods such as bread, cake and other desserts. Modern ovens are fueled by gas or electricity. When an oven is contained in a complete stove, the fuel used for the oven may be the same as or different from the fuel used for the burners on top of the stove. Ovens usually can use a variety of methods to cook. The most common may be to heat the oven from below. This is commonly used for baking and roasting. The oven may also be able to heat from the top to provide broiling. In order to provide faster, more-even cooking, convection ovens use a small fan to blow hot air around the cooking chamber. An oven may also provide an integrated rotisserie. Ovens also vary in the way that they are controlled. The simplest ovens (for example, the AGA cooker) may not have any controls at all; the ovens simply run continuously at various temperatures. More conventional ovens have a simple thermostat which turns the oven on and off and selects the temperature at which it will operate. Set to the highest setting, this may also enable the broiler element. A timer may allow the oven to be turned on and off automatically at pre-set times. More sophisticated ovens may have complex, computer-based

controls allowing a wide variety of operating modes and special features including the use of a temperature probe to automatically shut the oven off when the food is completely cooked to the desired degree. Some ovens provide various aids to cleaning. Continuous cleaning ovens have the oven chamber coated with a catalytic surface that helps break down (oxidize) food splatters and spills over time. Self-cleaning ovens use pyrolytic decomposition (extreme heat) to oxidize dirt. Steam ovens may provide a wet-soak cycle to loosen dirt, allowing easier manual removal. In the absence of any special methods, chemical oven cleaners are sometimes used or just old-fashioned scrubbing. Industrial, scientific, and artisanal use Outside the culinary world, ovens are used for a number of purposes. A furnace can be used either to provide heat to a building or used to melt substances such as glass or metal for further processing. A blast furnace is a particular type of furnace generally associated with metal smelting (particularly steel manufacture) using refined coke or similar hot-burning substance as a fuel, with air pumped in under pressure to increase the temperature of the fire. A kiln is a high-temperature oven used in wood drying, ceramics and cement manufacture to convert mineral feedstock (in the form of clay or calcium or aluminum rocks) into a glassier, more solid form. In the case of ceramic kilns, a shaped clay object is the final result,

while cement kilns produce a substance called clinker that is crushed to make the final cement product. (Certain types of drying ovens used in food manufacture, especially those used in malting, are also referred to as kilns.) An autoclave is an oven-like device with features similar to a pressure cooker that allows the heating of aqueous solutions to higher temperatures than water's boiling point in order to sterilize the contents of the autoclave. Industrial ovens are similar to their culinary equivalents and are used for a number of different applications that do not require the high temperatures of a kiln or furnace. Kiln For the census-designated place, see Kiln, Mississippi. For the software package, see Fog Creek Software. "Kilns" redirects here. For the house where C. S. Lewis wrote many of his works, see The Kilns. Charcoal Kilns, California Gold Kiln, Victoria, Australia

Hop kiln. Anagama kiln firing. Farnham Pottery, Wrecclesham, Surrey with the preserved bottle kiln on the right of photo

Catenary arch kiln under construction An empty, intermittent kiln; note the decorated vase having just been removed from kiln A kiln is a thermally insulated chamber, or oven, in which a controlled temperature regime is produced. Kilns are used to harden, burn, or dry materials. Specific uses include: To dry green lumber so that the lumber can be used immediately Drying wood for use as firewood Heating wood to the point of pyrolysis to produce charcoal For annealing, fusing and deforming glass, or fusing metallic oxide paints to the surface of glass For cremation (at high temperature) Drying of tobacco leaves Firing of material, such as clay, to form ceramics Drying malted barley for brewing Drying hops for brewing (known as a hop kiln or oast house) Smelting ore to extract metal Heating limestone with clay to make cement

Heating lime to make quicklime or calcium oxideContents [hide] 1 Ceramic kilns 1.1 Types of kiln 2 Wood-drying kiln Ceramic kilns Kilns are an essential part of the manufacture of all ceramics, which, by definition, require heat treatment, often at high temperature. During this process, chemical and physical reactions occur which cause the material to be permanently altered. In the case of pottery, clay materials are shaped, dried and then fired in a kiln. The final characteristics are determined by the composition and preparation of the clay body, by the temperature at which it is fired, and by the glazes that may be used. Although modern kilns often have sophisticated electrical systems to control the firing temperatures, pyrometric devices have been used to provide visual indication of the firing regime since around 1000 AD. Clay consists of fine-grained particles, that are relatively weak and porous. Clay is combined with other minerals to create a workable clay body. Part of the firing process includes sintering. This process heats the clay until the particles partially melt and flow together, creating a strong, single mass, composed of a glassy phase interspersed with pores and crystalline material. Through firing, the pores are reduced in size, causing the material

to shrink slightly. This crystalline material is a matrix of predominantly silicon and aluminium oxides, and is very hard and strong, although usually somewhat brittle. Types of kiln In the broadest terms, there are two types of kiln, both sharing the same basic characteristics of being an insulated box with controlled inner temperature and atmosphere. In using an intermittent kiln, the ware to be fired is loaded into the kiln. The kiln is sealed, and the internal temperature increased according to a schedule. After the firing process is completed, both the kiln and the ware are cooled. A continuous kiln, sometimes called a tunnel kiln, is a long structure in which only the central portion is directly heated. From the cool entrance, ware is slowly transported through the kiln, and its temperature is increased steadily as it approaches the central, hottest part of the kiln. From there, its transportation continues and the temperature is reduced until it exits the kiln at near room temperature. A continuous kiln is the most energy-efficient, because heat given off during cooling is recycled to pre-heat the incoming ware. A special type of kiln, common in tableware and tile manufacture, is the roller-hearth kiln, in which ware placed on bats is carried through the kiln on rollers.

Kiln technology is very old. The development of the kiln from a simple earthen trench filled with pots and fuel, pit firing, to modern methods happened in stages. One improvement was to build a firing chamber around pots with baffles and a stoking hole, this allowed heat to be conserved and used more efficiently. The use of a chimney stack improves the air flow or draw of the kiln, thus burning the fuel more completely. Early examples of kilns found in Britain include those made for the making of roof-tiles during the Roman occupation. These kilns were built up the side of a slope, such that a fire could be lit at the bottom and the heat would rise up into the kiln. With the advent of the industrial age, kilns were designed to utilize electricity and more refined fuels, including natural gas and propane. The majority of large, industrial pottery kilns now use natural gas, as it is generally clean, efficient and easy to control. Modern kilns can be fitted with computerized controls, allowing for refined adjustments during the firing cycle. A user may choose to control the rate of temperature climb or ramp, hold or soak the temperature at any given point, or control the rate of cooling. Both electric and gas kilns are common for smaller scale production in industry and craft, handmade and sculptural work. Anagama kiln - the Asian anagama kiln has been used since medieval times and is considered the oldest style of production kiln, brought to Japan from China via Korea in the 5th century. This kiln usually consists of one long firing chamber, pierced with smaller stacking ports on

one side, with a firebox at one end and a flue at the other. Firing time can vary from one day to several weeks. Traditional anagama kilns are also built on a slope to allow for a better draft. Bottle kiln - a type of intermittent kiln, usually coal-fired, formerly used in the firing of pottery; such a kiln was surrounded by a tall brick hovel or cone, of typical bottle shape. Catenary arch kiln, typically used for the firing of pottery using salt, these by their form (a catenary arch) tend to retain their shape over repeated heating and cooling cycles, whereas other types require extensive metalwork supports. Electric kilns - kilns operated by electricity were developed in the 20th century, primarily for smaller scale use such as in schools, universities, and hobby centers. The atmosphere in most designs of electric kiln is rich in oxygen, as there is no open flame to consume oxygen molecules, however reducing conditions can be created with appropriate gas input. Feller kiln brought contemporary design to wood firing by re-using the unburnt gas from the chimney in order to heat the air up before entering the firebox. This leads to an even shorter firing cycle and less wood consumption. This design requires external ventilation to prevent the in-chimney radiator from melting, being typically in metal. The result is a very efficient wood kiln firing one cubic meter of ceramics with one cubic meter of wood.

Microwave assisted firing - this technique combine microwave energy with more conventional energy sources such as radiant gas or electric heating in order to process ceramic materials to the required high temperatures. Microwave-assisted firing offers significant economic benefits. Noborigama kiln - the Noborigama is an evolution from Anagama design as a multi-chamber kiln, usually built on a slope, where wood is stacked from the front firebox at first, then only through the side-stoking holes with the benefit of having air heated up to 600 C from the front firebox, enabling more efficient firings. Svres kiln was invented in Svres, France and enabled to reach efficiently high-temperature (1280 C) in order to have fully water-proof ceramic bodies and easy to obtain glazes. It features a down-draft design that enabled to reach high temperature in shorter time, even with woodfiring. Top-hat kiln - an intermittent kiln of a type sometimes used in the firing of pottery. The ware is set on a refractory hearth, or plinth, over which a box-shaped cover is then lowered. Wood-drying kiln A variety of wood drying kiln technologies exist today: conventional, dehumidification, solar, vacuum and radio frequency.

Conventional wood dry kilns (Rasmussen, 1988) are either package-type (sideloader) or track-type (tram) construction. Most hardwood lumber kilns are sideloader kilns in which fork trucks are used to load lumber packages into the kiln. Most softwood lumber kilns are track types in which lumber packages are loaded on kiln/track cars for loading the kiln. Modern high-temperature, high-air-velocity conventional kilns can typically dry 1-inch-thick (25 mm) green lumber in 10 hours down to a moisture content of 18%. However, 1-inch-thick green Red Oak requires about 28 days to dry down to a moisture content of 8%. Heat is typically introduced via steam running through fin/tube heat exchangers controlled by on/off pneumatic valves. Less common are proportional pneumatic valves or even various electrical actuators. Humidity is removed via a system of vents, the specific layout of which are usually particular to a given manufacturer. In general, cool dry air is introduced at one end of the kiln while warm moist air is expelled at the other. Hardwood conventional kilns also require the introduction of humidity via either steam spray or cold water misting systems to keep the relative humidity inside the kiln from dropping too low during the drying cycle. Fan directions are typically reversed periodically to ensure even drying of larger kiln charges. Most softwood lumber kilns operate below 240 F (116 C) temperature. Hardwood lumber kiln drying schedules typically keep the dry bulb temperature below 180 F (82

C). Difficult-to-dry species might not exceed 140 degrees F. Dehumidification kilns are very similar to conventional kilns in basic construction. Drying times are usually comparable. Heat is primarily supplied by an integral dehumidification unit which also serves to remove humidity. Auxiliary heat is often provided early in the schedule where the heat required may exceed the heat generated by the DH unit. Solar kilns are conventional kilns, typically built by hobbyists to keep initial investment costs low. Heat is provided via solar radiation, while internal air circulation is typically passive. Newer wood drying technologies have included the use of reduced atmospheric pressure to attempt to speed up the drying process. A variety of vacuum technologies exist, varying primarily in the method heat is introduced into the wood charge. Hot water platten vacuum kilns use aluminum heating plates with the water circulating within as the heat source, and typically operate at significantly reduced absolute pressure. Discontinuous and SSV (super-heated steam) use atmosphere to introduce heat into the kiln charge. Discontinuous technology allows the entire kiln charge to come up to full atmospheric pressure, the air in the chamber is then heated, and finally vacuum is pulled. SSV run at partial atmospheres (typically around 1/3 of full atmospheric pressure) in a hybrid of vacuum and conventional kiln technology (SSV kilns are significantly more popular in Europe where the

locally harvested wood is easier to dry versus species found in North America). RF/V (radio frequency + vacuum) kilns use microwave radiation to heat the kiln charge, and typically have the highest operating cost due to the heat of vaporization being provided by electricity rather than local fossil fuel or waste wood sources. Valid economic studies of different wood drying technologies are based on the total energy, capital, insurance/risk, environmental impacts, labor, maintenance, and product degrade costs for the task of removing water from the wood fiber. These costs (which can be a significant part of the entire plant costs)involve the differential impact of the presence of drying equipment in a specific plant. An example of this is that every piece of equipment (in a lumber manufacturing plant) from the green trimmer to the infeed system at the planer mill is the "drying system". Since thousands of different types of wood products manufacturing plants exist around the globe, and may be integrated (lumber, plywood, paper, etc.) or stand alone (lumber only), the true costs of the drying system can only be determined when comparing the total plant costs and risks with and without drying. The total (harmful) air emissions produced by wood kilns, including their heat source, can be significant. Typically, the higher the temperature the kiln operates at, the larger amount of emissions are produced (per pound of water removed). This is especially true in the drying of thin veneers and high-temperature drying of softwoods.

Furnace From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Furnace (disambiguation). This article is missing citations or needs footnotes. Please help add inline citations to guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. (July 2007) Industrial Furnace from 1907 A furnace is a device used for heating. The name derives from Latin fornax, oven. The earliest furnace was excavated at Balakot, a site of the Indus Valley Civilization, dating back to its mature phase (c. 25001900 BC). The furnace was most likely used for the manufacturing of ceramic objects.[1] In American English and Canadian English, the term furnace on its own is generally used to describe household heating systems based on a central furnace (known either as a boiler or a heater in British English), and sometimes as a synonym for kiln, a device used in the production of ceramics. In British English the term furnace is used exclusively to mean industrial furnaces which are used for many things, such as the extraction of metal from ore (smelting) or in oil refineries and other chemical plants, for example as the heat source for fractional distillation columns. The term furnace can also refer to a direct fired heater, used in boiler applications in chemical industries or for providing heat to chemical reactions for processes like

cracking, and is part of the standard English names for many metallurgical furnaces worldwide. The heat energy to fuel a furnace may be supplied directly by fuel combustion, by electricity such as the electric arc furnace, or through Induction heating in induction furnaces.Contents 1 Household furnaces 1.1 Modern Furnace components 1.2 Heat distribution 2 Metallurgical furnaces 3 Industrial process furnaces 3.1 Radiant section 3.2 Convection section 3.3 Burner 3.4 Sootblower 3.5 Stack 3.6 Insulation 3.7 First fire 4 Outdoor wood-fired boilers 4.1 Description 4.2 Benefits 4.3 Controversy

Household furnaces A condensing furnace A household furnace is a major appliance that is permanently installed to provide heat to an interior space through intermediary fluid movement, which may be air, steam, or hot water. The most common fuel source for modern furnaces in the United States is natural gas; other common fuel sources include LPG (liquefied petroleum gas), fuel oil, coal or wood. In some cases electrical resistance heating is used as the source of heat, especially where the cost of electricity is low. Combustion furnaces always need to be vented to the outside. Traditionally, this was through a chimney, which tends to expel heat along with the exhaust. Modern highefficiency furnaces can be 98% efficient and operate without a chimney. The small amount of waste gas and heat are mechanically ventilated through a small tube through the side or roof of the house. "High-efficiency" in this sense may be misleading, because furnace efficiency is typically expressed as a "first-law" efficiency, whereas the energy efficiency of a typical furnace is much lower than the first-law thermal efficiency. By comparison, cogeneration has a higher energy efficiency than is realizable from burning fuel to generate heat directly at a moderate temperature. However, as the vast majority of consumers (as well as many government regulators) are unfamiliar with exergy

efficiency, Carnot efficiency, and the second law of thermodynamics, the use of first-law efficiencies to rate furnaces is well-entrenched. Modern household furnaces are classified as condensing or non-condensing based on their efficiency in extracting heat from the exhaust gases. Furnaces with efficiencies greater than approximately 89% extract so much heat from the exhaust that water vapor in the exhaust condenses; they are referred to as condensing furnaces. Such furnaces must be designed to avoid the corrosion that this highly acidic condensate might cause and may need to include a condensate pump to remove the accumulated water. Condensing furnaces can typically deliver heating savings of 20%-35% assuming the old furnace was in the 60% Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency (AFUE) range. Modern Furnace components The furnace components can be divided into three categories. The burners, heat exchanger, draft inducer, and venting. The controls and safety devices. The blower and air movement. The flame originates at the burners and is drawn into the heat exchanger by the negative pressure produced by the draft inducer. The hot gases produced by the combustion of the flame pass through the chambers of the heat exchanger and heat the metal walls of the heat

exchanger. The gases cool as they transfer the heat to the heat exchanger and are at about 120 (49 ) as they exit on a high efficiency furnace. The cooled gases then enter the draft inducer blower and are pushed into the venting pipes. The exhaust gases then are directed out of the house through the vent pipes. The controls include the gas valve, ignition control, ignitor, flame sensor, transformer, limit control, blower control board, and flame roll out switch. The transformer provides 24 volts of electricity to power the controls. 24 volts is applied to the thermostat that is installed in the living space. The thermostat is basically an automatic switch that closes and completes the electrical circuit when the room temperature drops below the heat setting. This then allows 24 volts to the circuit board which initiates the heat sequence. The circuit board has a relay that closes to power up the motor on the draft inducer blower. Then the circuit board ignitor relay is energized which sends 120 volts to the hot surface ignitor and makes it glow bright and get extremely hot. Next the gas valve relay in the circuit board is energized. This allows voltage to the gas valve and energizes a solenoid coil in the gas valve which opens the valve to allow gas to flow to the burners. The gas flows into the burners and is ignited by the hot surface ignitor. The ignition control circuit board applies an AC voltage to the flame sensor which is just a stainless steel rod. An interesting thing occurs inside a burning flame, which is

called ionization. That is, free electrons are produced which can conduct electricity through the flame itself. The electrons will normally flow from the flame sensor, through the flame when present, and back to ground through the grounded burners. The ignition system must prove that a flame is present to continue the gas flow, or if there's no flame, then shut off the gas flow through the gas valve to prevent a possible explosion. It also must not be fooled into thinking there is a flame present by a flame sensor that is touching the ground from being broken or bent. The way it does this is by a diode effect where the sensor surface area is less than 10% of the ground surface area. This produces a half-wave of electrical current from each full wave. The ignition control circuit detects the half-wave to determine if the sensor is merely touching ground. If the ignition control receives this half wave signal from the flame sensor then combustion will continue. Now the circuit board timer counts a determined amount of time and energizes the blower relay. This relay powers up the blower motor and air is then pushed through the heat exchanger where it removes the heat from the hot metal and enters the ductwork to go to the various rooms in the house. The limit control is a safety device that will open the electrical circuit to the ignition control and stop the gas flow if the furnace overheats. The flame roll-out switch does the same thing if the flame was rolling out of the heat exchanger instead of being completely induced into it by the draft inducer.

The blower creates a negative pressure on the intake side which draws air into the ductwork return air system and blows the air out through the heat exchanger and then into supply air ductwork to distribute throughout the home.

Heat distribution The furnace transfers heat to the living space of the building through an intermediary distribution system. If the distribution is through hot water (or other fluid) or through steam, then the furnace is more commonly termed a boiler. One advantage of a boiler is that the furnace can provide hot water for bathing and washing dishes, rather than requiring a separate water heater. One disadvantage to this type of application is when the boiler breaks down, both heating and domestic hot water is not available. Air convection heating systems have been in use for over a century, but the older systems relied on a passive air circulation system where the greater density of cooler air caused it to sink into the furnace, and the lesser density of the warmed air caused it to rise in the ductwork, the two forces acting together to drive air circulation in a system termed "gravity-feed; the layout of the ducts and furnace was optimized for short, large ducts and caused the furnace to be referred to as an "octopus" furnace.

By comparison, most modern "warm air" furnaces typically use a fan to circulate air to the rooms of house and pull cooler air back to the furnace for reheating; this is called forced-air heat. Because the fan easily overcomes the resistance of the ductwork, the arrangement of ducts can be far more flexible than the octopus of old. In American practice, separate ducts collect cool air to be returned to the furnace. At the furnace, cool air passes into the furnace, usually through an air filter, through the blower, then through the heat exchanger of the furnace, whence it is blown throughout the building. One major advantage of this type of system is that it also enables easy installation of central air conditioning by simply adding a cooling coil at the exhaust of the furnace. Air is circulated through ductwork, which may be made of sheet metal or plastic "flex" duct and insulated or uninsulated. Unless the ducts and plenum have been sealed using mastic or foil duct tape, the ductwork is likely to have a high leakage of conditioned air, possibly into unconditioned spaces. Another cause of wasted energy is the installation of ductwork in unheated areas, such as attics and crawl spaces; or ductwork of air conditioning systems in attics in warm climates. The following rare but difficult-to-diagnose failure can occur. If the temperature inside the furnace exceeds a maximum threshold, a safety mechanism with a thermostat will shut the furnace down. A symptom of this failure is that the furnace repeatedly shuts down before

the house reaches the desired temperature; this is commonly referred to as the furnace "riding the high limit switch". This condition commonly occurs if the temperature setting of the high limit thermostat is set too close to the normal operating temperature of the furnace. Another situation may occur if a humidifier is incorrectly installed on the furnace and the duct which directs a portion of the humidified air back into the furnace is too large. The solution is to reduce the diameter of the crossfeed tube, or install a baffle that reduces the volume of re-fed air. Metallurgical furnaces The Manufacture of Iron -- Filling the Furnace, an 1873 wood engraving In metallurgy, several specialised furnaces are used. These include: Furnaces used in smelters, including: The blast furnace, used to reduce iron ore to pig iron Steelmaking furnaces, including: Puddling furnace Reverberatory furnace Bessemer converter Open hearth furnace Basic oxygen furnace

Electric arc furnace Electric induction furnace Furnaces used to remelt metal in foundries. Furnaces used to reheat and heat treat metal for use in: Rolling mills, including tinplate works and slitting mills. Forges. Vacuum furnaces Industrial process furnaces Schematic diagram of an industrial process furnace An industrial furnace or direct fired heater, is an equipment used to provide heat for a process or can serve as reactor which provides heats of reaction. Furnace designs vary as to its function, heating duty, type of fuel and method of introducing combustion air. However, most process furnaces have some common features. Fuel flows into the burner and is burnt with air provided from an air blower. There can be more than one burner in a particular furnace which can be arranged in cells which heat a particular set of tubes. Burners can also be floor mounted, wall mounted or roof mounted depending on design. The flames heat up the tubes, which in turn heat the fluid inside in the first part of the furnace known as the radiant section or firebox. In this chamber where combustion takes place, the heat is transferred mainly by

radiation to tubes around the fire in the chamber. The heating fluid passes through the tubes and is thus heated to the desired temperature. The gases from the combustion are known as flue gas. After the flue gas leaves the firebox, most furnace designs include a convection section where more heat is recovered before venting to the atmosphere through the flue gas stack. (HTF=Heat Transfer Fluid. Industries commonly use their furnaces to heat a secondary fluid with special additives like anti-rust and high heat transfer efficiency. This heated fluid is then circulated round the whole plant to heat exchangers to be used wherever heat is needed instead of directly heating the product line as the product or material may be volatile or prone to cracking at the furnace temperature.) Radiant section Middle of radiant section The radiant section is where the tubes receive almost all its heat by radiation from the flame. In a vertical, cylindrical furnace, the tubes are vertical. Tubes can be vertical or horizontal, placed along the refractory wall, in the middle, etc., or arranged in cells. Studs are used to hold the insulation together and on the wall of the furnace. They are placed about 1 ft (300 mm) apart in this picture of the inside of a furnace. The tubes, shown below, which are reddish brown from corrosion, are carbon steel tubes and run the height of the radiant section. The tubes are a distance away from the insulation so radiation can be reflected to the back of the

tubes to maintain a uniform tube wall temperature. Tube guides at the top, middle and bottom hold the tubes in place.

Convection section The convection section is located above the radiant section where it is cooler to recover additional heat. Heat transfer takes place by convection here, and the tubes are finned to increase heat transfer. The first two tube rows in the bottom of the convection section and at the top of the radiant section is an area of bare tubes (without fins) and are known as the shield section, so named because they are still exposed to plenty of radiation from the firebox and they also act to shield the convection section tubes, which are normally of less resistant material from the high temperatures in the firebox. The area of the radiant section just before flue gas enters the shield section and into the convection section called the bridgezone. Crossover is the term used to describe the tube that connects from the convection section outlet to the radiant section inlet. The crossover piping is normally located outside so that the temperature can be monitored and the efficiency of the convection section can be calculated. The sightglass at the top allows personnel to see the flame shape and pattern from above and visually inspect if flame impingement is occurring. Flame impingement happens when the flame touches the tubes and causes small isolated spots of very high temperature.

Furnace burner The burner in the vertical, cylindrical furnace as above, is located in the floor and fires upward. Some furnaces have side fired burners, such as in train locomotives. The burner tile is made of high temperature refractory and is where the flame is contained in. Air registers located below the burner and at the outlet of the air blower are devices with movable flaps or vanes that control the shape and pattern of the flame, whether it spreads out or even swirls around. Flames should not spread out too much, as this will cause flame impingement. Air registers can be classified as primary, secondary and if applicable, tertiary, depending on when their air is introduced. The primary air register supplies primary air, which is the first to be introduced in the burner. Secondary air is added to supplement primary air. Burners may include a premixer to mix the air and fuel for better combustion before introducing into the burner. Some burners even use steam as premix to preheat the air and create better mixing of the fuel and heated air. The floor of the furnace is mostly made of a different material from that of the wall, typically hard castable refractory to allow technicians to walk on its floor during maintenance. A furnace can be lit by a small pilot flame or in some older models, by hand. Most pilot flames nowadays are lit by an ignition transformer (much like a car's spark plugs). The pilot flame in turn lights up the main flame. The pilot flame uses natural gas while the main flame can use both

diesel and natural gas. When using liquid fuels, an atomizer is used, otherwise, the liquid fuel will simply pour onto the furnace floor and become a hazard. Using a pilot flame for lighting the furnace increases safety and ease compared to using a manual ignition method (like a match). Sootblower Sootblowers are found in the convection section. As this section is above the radiant section and air movement is slower because of the fins, soot tends to accumulate here. Sootblowing is normally done when the efficiency of the convection section is decreased. This can be calculated by looking at the temperature change from the crossover piping and at the convection section exit. Sootblowers utilize flowing media such as water, air or steam to remove deposits from the tubes. This is typically done during maintenance with the air blower turned on. There are several different types of sootblowers used. Wall blowers of the rotary type are mounted on furnace walls protruding between the convection tubes. The lances are connected to a steam source with holes drilled into it at intervals along its length. When it is turned on, it rotates and blows the soot off the tubes and out through the stack. Stack damper The flue gas stack is a cylindrical structure at the top of all the heat transfer chambers. The breeching directly

below it collects the flue gas and brings it up high into the atmosphere where it will not endanger personnel. The stack damper contained within works like a butterfly valve and regulates draft (pressure difference between air intake and air exit)in the furnace, which is what pulls the flue gas through the convection section. The stack damper also regulates the heat lost through the stack. As the damper closes, the amount of heat escaping the furnace through the stack decreases, but the pressure or draft in the furnace increases which poses risks to those working around it if there are air leakages in the furnace, the flames can then escape out of the firebox or even explode if the pressure is too great. Insulation Insulation is an important part of the furnace because it prevents excessive heat loss. Refractory materials such as firebrick, castable refractories and ceramic fibre, are used for insulation. The floor of the furnace are normally castable type refractories while those on the walls are nailed or glued in place. Ceramic fibre is commonly used for the roof and wall of the furnace and is graded by its density and then its maximum temperature rating. For example, 8# 2,300 F means 8 lb/ft3 density with a maximum temperature rating of 2,300 F. An example of a castable composition is kastolite. First fire The first fire is the moment when a furnace or another heating device (usually for industrial use such as

metallurgy or ceramics) is first lit after its construction. The refractory of the furnace walls should be as dry as possible and the first fire should be done slowly with a small flame as the refractory of the still unfired furnace has a minimal amount of moisture. Gradually or during subsequent firings, the flame or heat source (e.g. Kanthal heating elements) can be turned up higher. After first fire some adjustments should be done usually to fine-tune the furnace.Despite this, a first fire is always a moment of great excitement for the people who designed and built the furnace.

Outdoor wood-fired boilers Description An outdoor wood-fired boiler (OWB) also known as a waterstove or outdoor wood furnace or simply a wood boiler, is a heating technology that has grown in popularity in the Northern United States. OWBs in most cases look like a small shack with metal siding. They are self-contained, and are only connected to the building they heat through underground insulated water pipes. OWBs contain a metal combustion chamber for a wood fire, which is surrounded by a water tank or water jacket. The fire heats the water, which is then circulated through the insulated water pipes into the heated building. Once the hot water from the boiler reaches the building, the

heat from the hot water can be transferred to most existing heating systems and the building's hot water supply. A damper and fan on the boiler interacts with a thermostat inside the building. If the building's temperature falls, the thermostat will trigger the damper to open, letting oxygen enter the combustion chamber, which causes the fire to burn more intensely. The fire will then raise the temperature of the water which increases the heat supplied to the home. Benefits OWBs have several benefits that increase their popularity. Their large combustion chamber accommodates more fuel than many other forms of wood heat, decreasing the number of times an owner has to add fuel to the fire. Home insurance may cost more for people who heat with an indoor form of wood heat than with an OWB. Finally, for people with a large supply of free wood and willing to invest the time to prepare the wood and stock the OWB, an OWB can be less expensive than heating with gas, oil, or electricity Controversy OWBs are not without controversy, as their emissions sometimes bother neighbors. Some states and municipalities have regulated the devices.They are not currently regulated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), unlike other forms of wood heat. However, recently the EPA has worked with

manufacturers to develop a method for manufacturers to identify OWBs that meet a voluntary emissions standard.Studies conducted on OWBs suggest that these devices may produce more emissions, most notably particulate matter under 2.5 micrometers (PM2.5) than other heating technologies, though manufacturers dispute these assessments Exposure to elevated levels of PM2.5 has been associated with cardiopulmonary health effects and premature death.As of July 2006, the HPBA, along with many of the major OWB manufactures, have requested users of their products follow the "Outdoor Wood Furnace Best Burn Practices".[6] These guidelines have been set up by the HPBA to help cut down on problems associated with OWBs. Early in January 2007, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) initiated a voluntary program[4] for manufacturers of outdoor wood furnaces. The EPA's primary intent is to encourage manufacturers to produce cleaner Outdoor Wood-fired Hydronic Heaters (OWHH) models. The EPA also wants those who buy an OWHH / OWB to buy the cleanest models available, which are those that meet EPA performance verified levels. To participate in this program, manufacturers commit their best efforts to develop cleaner models with goals of distributing their units starting in April 2007.The EPA now publishes a list of all OWHH / OWB units that pass the new voluntary program. These furnaces come with either an orange EPA tag, signifying Level 1 certification, or a white EPA tag, signifying Level 2 certification, to notify

the customer of the units particular emission level output. (One beneficial aspect of this process to consumers is that outdoor wood boilers that are EPA-certified are usually more energy efficient than those that are not, extracting more energy per unit of wood, and thus reducing costs to the owner. Plus, consumers benefit by knowing that such boilers are far less likely to annoy their neighbors.) Boilers that do pollute enough to cause a public nuisance (such as by smoke wafting into the house of a neighbor) can be subject to lawsuits by nearby people who are impacted by the smoke nuisance in question, an ancient right under the common law for the abatement of nuisance. This is in addition to local and state regulations, laws, or ordinances that cause restrictions on operation to or even compel removal of excessively polluting boilers. For example, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection has barred the sale, installation, or use of new outdoor wood boilers that are not Level 2 certified by the EPA, though old boilers remain grandfathered so long as they do not cause a public nuisance or manifestly impact health and safety Clinker (waste) Clinker is a general name given to waste from industrial processes particularly those that involve smelting metals, burning fossil fuels and using a blacksmith's forge which will usually result in a large buildup of clinker around the tuyre. Clinker often forms a loose, black

deposit that can consist of coke, coal, slag, charcoal, grit, and other waste materials. Clinker may be reused to make hard cinder paths. It is laid and rolled, and forms a hard path with a rough surface. Clinker often has a glassy look to it; also note that it is much heavier than coke. .Definitions of forging terms In impression die forging, a workpiece is plastically deformed between two dies filling the die cavity. A small amount of material or "flash" that flows outside the die impression cools rapidly, creating resistance that facilitates material flow into unfilled impressions. Horizontal forging machines (upsetters) produce impression die forgings similar to those made on hammers or presses. "Grip dies" (the fixed die and moving die) correspond to the bottom die on a hammer or press; the ram-operated header die corresponds to the top die. Like other technical fields and engineering disciplines, forging technology has a language all its own. Knowing what these terms mean and how they are applied can be of enormous help in seeking quotations, specifying forged products over other alternatives, and understanding why forged components deliver superior performance over non-forged parts.

Aluminum precision forging plastically deforms an aluminum alloy to a finished part shape in special dies. By design, little or no subsequent machining/processing is required as a result of close tolerances, thin sections, small radii and minimum draft angles. Alloy steel forging: one made from a steel containing additional alloying elements other than carbon (e.g.. Ni, Cr, Mo) to enhance physical and mechanical properties and/or heat-treat response. Bar: a section hot rolled from a billet to a round, square, rectangular, hexagonal or other shape with a crosssection less than 16 sq. in. Billet: a semifinished section (width <2X thickness), hot rolled from a metal ingot, generally having a crosssection ranging from 16 to 64 sq. in. Also applies to a hotworked forged, rolled or extruded round or square. Blank: raw material or forging stock from which a forging is made. Bloom: same as a billet, but with a cross-sectional area greater than 36 sq. in. Blocker-type forging: one with the general shape of the final configuration, but featuring a generous finish allowance, large radii, etc. Carbon steel forging: one made from a steel whose major alloying element, carbon, produces the resultant properties and hardness.

Close-tolerance forging: one held to closer-thanconventional dimensional tolerances.

In impression die forging, a workpiece is plastically deformed between two dies filling the die cavity. A small amount of material or "flash" that flows outside the die impression cools rapidly, creating resistance that facilitates material flow into unfilled impressions.

Horizontal forging machines (upsetters) produce impression die forgings similar to those made on hammers or presses. "Grip dies" (the fixed die and moving die) correspond to the bottom die on a hammer

or press; the ram-operated header die corresponds to the top die. Closed die forging: see impression die forging. Coining: a post-forging process - on hot or cold parts - to attain closer tolerances or improved surfaces. Cold-coined forging: one that is restruck cold to improve selected tolerances or reduce a specific section thickness. Cold forging: various forging processes conducted at or near ambient temperatures to produce metal components to close tolerances and net shape. These include bending, cold drawing, cold heading, coining extrusion (forward or backward), punching, thread rolling and others. Cold heading: plastically deforming metal at ambient temperatures to increase the cross-sectional area of the stock (either solid bar or tubing) at one or more points along the longitudinal axis. Cold working: imparting plastic deformation to a metal or alloy at a temperature below recrystallization to produce hardness and strength increases via strain hardening. Controlled cooling of forgings is used to attain required properties and/or corresponding microstructural phase changes; applies to heat-treatable steels (e.g., quenching) and to microalloyed steels, which require no heat treatment, but only controlled cooling to attain final properties.

Conventional forging: one that, by design, requires a specified amount of finish (or machining) to reach the final dimensional requirements. Counterblow forging: one made by equipment incorporating two opposed rams, which simultaneously strike repeated blows on the workpiece. Cross forging: the practice of working stock in one or more directions to make resultant properties more isotropic (equal in three directions) - e.g., by upsetting and redrawing the material. Directional properties: refers to the inherent directionality within a forging such that properties are optimally oriented to do the most good under in-service conditions. Typically, maximum strength is oriented along the axis that will experience the highest loads. Disc: "pancake" shaped forging (flat with a round crosssection); e.g., a blank for gears, rings and flanged hubs. Draft: the necessary taper on the side of a forging to allow removal from the dies; also applies to the die impression. Commonly expressed in degrees as the draft angle. Draftless forging: a forging with zero draft on vertical walls. Drawing: (1) reducing the cross-section of forging stock while simultaneously increasing the length; (2) in heat treating, the same as tempering.

Drop forging: one produced by hammering metal in a drop hammer between impression dies.

Open die forging of shafts consists of manipulating the stock and progressively forging the component to shape. Turning on a lathe brings the shaft to near-net shape.

Open die forging of disc shapes involves progressive upsetting/forging to reach desired dimensions. Pierced discs are often used as preforms for saddle/mandrel rings and hollow forgings. Extrusion: forcing metal through a die orifice in the same direction as the applied force (forward extrusion) or in the opposite direction (backward extrusion). Finish: (1) the material remaining after forging that is machined away to produce the final part; (2) the surface condition of a forging after machining. Finish all over (F.A.O.): designates that forgings be made sufficiently larger than dimensions shown to permit machining on all surfaces to given sizes.

Finish allowance: amount of stock left on the surface of a forging to be removed by subsequent machining. Flash: excess metal that extends out from the body of the forging to ensure complete filling of the finishing impressions. Flashless forging: "true" closed die forging in which metal deformed in a die cavity permits virtually no excess metal to escape. Flow lines: patterns that reveal how the grain structure follows the direction of working in a forging. Forgeability: relative ability of a material to deform without rupture. Forging reduction: ratio of the cross-sectional area before and after forging; sometimes refers to percentage reduction in thickness. Forging stock: wrought rod, bar, etc. used as the raw material or stock in forging. Free-machining-steel forgings: those made from steels with special alloying-element additions to facilitate machining. Grain flow: fiberlike lines that show (via macroscopic etching) the orientation of the microstructural grain pattern of forgings achieved by working during forging processes. Optimizing grain flow orientation maximizes mechanical properties.

Hammer forging: one produced on a forging hammer, usually between impression dies but sometimes flat dies; the process of forging in a drop hammer (see drop forging). Hand forging: one made by manually controlled manipulation in a press without impression dies, usually between flat dies with progressive forging of the workpiece; also referred to as flat-die forging. Heat treatment: heating or cooling operations, sometimes isothermal, to produce desired properties in forgings. High-energy-rate forging: forgings made on equipment that utilizes very high ram velocities. Hog-out: product machined from bar, plate, slab, etc. Hollow forging: a cylindrical open die forging, e.g., thickwalled tubes or rings. Hot-die forging: a process in which dies are heated close to the forging temperature of the alloy being forged/ used for difficult-to-forge alloys.

One of many open die forging options, hollow forging starts with a punched or pierced disc on a tapered draw bar. Progressive reduction of the outside diameter increases the overall length of the sleeve, while the inside diameter remains constant.

Open die forging of rings starts with a preform on saddle/mandrel. Progressive reduction of the wall thickness to increase the diameter achieves the required dimensions. Subsequent machining then delivers the near-net shape. Hot forging: same as hot working - plastically deforming an alloy at a temperature above its recrystallization point, i.e., high enough to avoid strain hardening. Hub: a boss in the center of a forging that forms an integral part of the body. Impact extrusion: a reverse extrusion process in which metal is displaced backwards between a punch and a die to form a hollow part.

Impression die forging: one formed to shape and size in die cavities or impressions; also commonly referred to as closed die forging. Isothermal forging: is most commonly conducted at about 2000 degrees F under a controlled atmosphere or vacuum to prevent oxidation while forging superalloys. Machine forging (upsetter forging): one made in a forging machine or upsetter, in which a horizontally moving die in the ram forces the alloy into the die cavities. Mandrel forging: see saddle/mandrel forging. Match: aligning a point in one die half with the corresponding point in the opposite die half. Microalloyed-steel forging: one made from a mircroalloyed steel requiring only controlled cooling to reach optimum properties, which is in contrast to conventional quenched-and-tempered steels that require traditional heat treatments to achieve the same results. Microstructure: the microscopic structure of metals/alloys as seen on a mounted, ground, polished and etched specimen to reveal grain size, constituent phases, etc. Near-net-shape forging: forging components as close as possible to the required dimensions of the finished part. Open die forging: one produced by working between flat or simply contoured dies by repetitive strokes and continuous manipulation of the workpiece; sometimes called hand forging.

Parting line: the plane that divides the two die halves used in forging; also applies to the resulting forging and impression dies. Piercing: forming or enlarging a hole via a tapered or cylindrical punch. Plastic deformation: permanent distortion of a material without fracturing it. Plate: a flat, hot-rolled metal or alloy product whose thickness is much less than its width. Precision forging: any forging process that produces parts to closer tolerances than conventional forging processes.

Seamless ring rolling starts with a donut-shaped preform which is squeezed between a free-turning I.D. roll and a driven O.D. roll. Basically, the ring mill makes the section thinner while increasing the ring diameter.

A cold forging process, upsetting or cold heading gathers steel in the head and, if required, other locations along the length of the part. Metal flows at right angles to the ram force, increasing diameter and reducing length. Preform: forging operation in which stock is preformed or shaped to a predetermined size and contour prior to subsequent die forging operations; also, ring blanks of a specific shape for profile (contour) ring rolling. Press forging: the shaping of metal between dies on a mechanical or hydraulic press. Quenched-and-tempered steel forging: one that is quenched and tempered to produce the required hardness and properties; should more accurately be referred to as hardened-and-tempered. (Hardening and tempering are heat treatments that follow austenitizing, which is usually the first heat treatment performed on carbon- and alloy-steel forgings.) Restriking: a salvage operation following a primary forging operation - rehitting forgings in the same die in which they were last forged.

Rib: a forged wall or vertical section generally projecting in a direction parallel to the ram stroke. Rib-and-web forging: one whose basic configuration consists of ribs and webs. Ring rolling: forming seamless rings from pierced discs or thickwalled, ring-shaped blanks between rolls that control wall thickness, ring diameter, height and contour. Roll forging: shaping stock between power driven rolls that incorporate contoured dies; used for preforming and to produce finished parts. Rough machining: an initial machining operation that leaves adequate stock for subsequent finish machining. Saddle/mandrel forging: rolling and forging a pierced disc over a mandrel to yield a seamless ring or tube.

Backward extrusion, another cold forging process, produces hollow parts. Here, the metal flows back around the descending ram in the opposite direction.

Forward extrusion, a basic cold forging operation, reduces slug diameter while increasing length. Stepped shafts and cylinders are typical examples of this process. Slab: a flat-shaped semifinished, rolled metal ingot with a width not less than 10 in. and a cross-sectional area not less than 16 sq. in. Standard tolerance: an established tolerance for a certain class of product; preferred over "commercial" or "published" tolerance. Straightening: a finishing operation for correcting misalignment in a forging or between different sections of a forging. Structural integrity: inherent microstructural soundness of forgings as a result of achieving 100% density, uniform metallurgical structure and grain size, as well as the absence of porosity, segregation, large inclusions and other non-forged part defects. Swaging: reducing the size of forging stock; alternately, forging in semicontoured dies to lengthen a blank.

Target machining: incorporating a "target" (benchmark or gage point) on a forging to facilitate machining; coined locating surfaces and drilled centers are commonly used. Tolerance: the specified permissible deviation from a specified or nominal dimension; the permissible variation in the size of a part. Trimming: performed hot or cold, the mechanical shearing of flash or excess material from a forging by use of a trimmer in a trim press. Upset forging: one made by upset of an appropriate length of bar, billet or bloom; working metal to increase the cross-sectional area of a portion or all of the stock. Upsetter (forging machine): a machine with horizontal action used to produce upset forgings. Warm forging: forging of steel at temperatures ranging from about 1000 degrees F to just below the normal hot working range of 1900 to 2300 degrees F. Web: a relatively flat, thin portion of a forging - generally parallel to the forging plane - that connects ribs and bosses. Wide tolerance: any special tolerance wider than "standard". <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>