PRACTICAL TITLE: Introduction to pneumatic and electro-pneumatic control systems INTRODUCTION The reason for using pneumatics, or any

other type of energy transmission on a machine, is to perform work. The accomplishment of work requires the application of kinetic energy to a resisting object resulting in the object moving through a distance. In a pneumatic system, energy is stored in a potential state under the form of compressed air. Working energy (kinetic energy and pressure) results in a pneumatic system when the compressed air is allowed to expand. For example, a tank is charged to 100 PSIA with compressed air. When the valve at the tank outlet is opened, the air inside the tank expands until the pressure inside the tank equals the atmospheric pressure. Air expansion takes the form of airflow. Directional control valves To change the direction of airflow to and from the cylinder, we use a directional control valve. The moving part in a directional control valve will connect and disconnect internal flow passages within the valve body. This action results in a control of airflow direction. The typical directional control valve consists of a valve body with four internal flow passages within the valve body and a sliding spool.

Shifting the spool alternately connects a cylinder port to supply pressure or the exhaust port. With the spool in the position where the supply pressure is connected to port A and port B is connected to the exhaust port, the cylinder will extend. Then, with the spool in the other extreme position, supply pressure is connected to port B and port A is connected to the exhaust port, now the cylinder retracts. With a directional control valve in a circuit, the cylinder's piston rod can be extended or retracted and work performed.

PROCEDURE A pneumatic control system was designed and simulated using FluidSIM software and made the designed system using actual components. The design considerations of the system were as follow. 2S1 2S2 At the initial position, both cylinders were in the retracted state. Therefore, two limit switches, 1S1 and 2S1 are activated. To start the cycle, both 2S1 and push button valve must be activated. C2 When the cycle starts, piston of C1 advanced slowly and when it 1S1 1S2 came to the position of 1S2, the piston of C2 started advancing. When the piston of C2 reached 2S2, piston C1 retraced quickly back to the initial position of it. C1 When the piston of C1 reaches back to 1S1 position, C2 also retraced back to its initial position. Then the cycle could be repeated with the press of the push button.

DISCUSSION Different types of compressors and their pros and cons Reciprocating compressor Reciprocating or Piston compressors are the most common machines available on the market. They are positive displacement compressors and can be found in ranges from fractional to very high horsepowers. Positive displacement air compressors work by filling an air chamber with air and then reducing the chambers volume (Reciprocating, Rotary Screw and Rotary Sliding Vane are all positive displacement compressors). Reciprocating compressors work in a very similar manner as does as internal combustion engine but basically in a reverse process. They have cylinders, pistons, crankshafts, valves and housing blocks. Advantages Simple Design Lower initial cost Easy to install Two stage models offer the highest efficiency No oil carryover Large range of horsepower Special machines can reach extremely high pressures Disadvantages Higher maintenance cost Many moving parts Potential for vibration problems Foundation may be required depending on size Many are not designed to run at full capacity 100% of the time

Rotary screw compressor Rotary Screw Compressors work on the principle of air filling the void between two helical mated screws and their housing. As the two helical screws are turned, the volume is reduced resulting in an increase of air pressure. Most rotary screw compressors inject oil into the bearing and compression area. The reasons are for cooling, lubrication and creating a seal between screws and the housing wall to reduce internal leakage. After the compression cycle, the oil and air must be separated before the air can be used by the air system. Advantages Simple design Low to medium initial cost Low to medium maintenance cost Two-stage designs provide good efficiency Easy to install Few moving parts Most popular compressor design in plants Disadvantages Limited airend life Airends are not field serviceable High rotational speeds Shorter life expectancy than other designs Oil injected designs have oil carryover Single stage designs have lower efficiency Two-stage oil free designs have higher initial cost Difficulty with dirty environments

Rotary sliding vane compressor Rotary Sliding Vane Compressors like Reciprocating and Rotary Screw compressors are positive displacement compressors. The compressor pump consists primarily of a rotor, stator, and 8 blades. The slotted rotor is eccentrically arranged within the stator providing a crescent shaped swept area between the intake and exhaust ports. As the rotor turns a single revolution, compression is achieved as the volume goes from a maximum at the intake ports to a minimum at the exhaust port. The vanes are forced outward from within the rotor slots and held against the stator wall by rotational acceleration. Oil is injected into the air intake and along the stator walls to cool the air, lubricate the bearings and vanes, and provide a seal between the vanes and the stator wall. After the compression cycle, the oil and air must be separated before the air can be transferred to the air system.

Advantages Simple design Easy to install Low to medium cost Low maintenance cost Field serviceable airend Long life airend Low rotational speeds Very few moving parts Forgiving to dirty environments

Disadvantages Oil injected designs have oil carryover Single stage designs have lower efficiency Difficulty with high pressures Oil free designs are unavailable

Centrifugal compressor Centrifugal Compressors are not positive displacement compressors like the Reciprocating, Screw or Vane Compressors. They use very high speed spinning impellers (up to 60,000 rpm) to accelerate the air then diffuser to decelerate the air. This process, called dynamic compression, uses velocity to cause an increase in pressure. In most Centrifugal compressors, there are several of these impeller/diffuser combinations. Typically, these machines have intercoolers between each stage to cool the air as well as remove 100% of the condensate to avoid impeller damage due to erosion. Advantages High efficiencies approaching two-stage reciprocating compressors Can reach pressures up to 1200 psi Completely packaged for plant or instrument air up through 500 hp Relative first cost improves as size increases Designed to give lubricant free air Does not require special foundations Disadvantages High initial cost Complicated monitoring and control systems Limited capacity control modulation, requiring unloading for reduce capacities High rotational speeds require special bearings and sophisticated vibration and clearance monitoring Specialized maintenance considerations

Operation of filters Prevent system contamination Remove air particulates Clean air is essential to good operation

The typical hydraulic system is cleaned by a single filter in the circuit. Often this filter is located on the inlet line in front of the pump, to protect the pump and downstream components. It is occasionally called a "suction filter" or "suction strainer." Many pump manufacturers object to this filter location, claiming that it "starves" the pump inlet, so the filter may be located at other points in the circuit, such as on the return line, in a pressure line, or on a bypass line. Filtration for pneumatic systems is handled quite differently. In most industrial pneumatics, compressed air is supplied from a single compressor to a large number of operating systems, as a plant resource, much like light or electricity. Individual filters are used on the separate systems. Sometimes more than one filter per system. Often the filters are found in conjunction with regulators and sometimes lubricators comprising a filterregulator-lubricator (frl) for the system.

Operation of lubricators Pneumatic lubricators are used in compressed air lines to atomize oil into aerosol form for injection into an air stream. The air stream is used to lubricate pneumatic tools, cylinders, motors, and valves. Pneumatic lubrication equipment includes devices such as line oilers as well as complete pneumatic lubrication systems. In a stamping lubrication system, the pneumatic lubricator is inserted in the machine itself. To protect downstream equipment, the lubricant is dispersed as an oil mist in discrete amounts. A complete pneumatic lubrication system also uses a metered quantity of air to remove moisture, rust, atomized particles, and dirt from machine parts. Pneumatic concentrators, pneumatic conveyors and pneumatic cartridge loaders are examples of machines that use pneumatic lubricators. Pneumatic lubricators differ in terms of specifications and features. A regulator lubricator can operate over a range of pressures that are measured in pounds per square inch (psi). The ambient operating temperature for a pneumatic lubrication system is also a range. Modular pneumatic lubricators are designed to be incorporated into existing pneumatic systems. They differ in terms of working pressure, operating temperature, and bowl capacity. Features for pneumatic lubricators include automatic shut-down, warning lights, and dirt stoppers. Pneumatic lubricators are used in a variety of medical, packaging, and printing applications. They are also used in automotive, aerospace, electronics, and textile manufacturing. Filter lubricators are used for edge and depth filtering purposes. Modular lubricators are designed to improve machine performance and increase the life of machine tools. Constant feed lubricators can work with heavy oils and are designed to provide continuous lubrication for mining and construction tools under heavy stress. Operation of a pressure regulator In a pneumatic system, energy that will be used by the system and transmitted through the system is stored as potential energy in an air receiver tank in the form of compressed air. A pressure regulator is positioned after a receiver tank and is used to portion out this stored energy to each leg of the circuit. A pressure regulator is a normally open valve. With a regulator positioned after a receiver tank, air from the receiver can expand (flow) through the valve to a point downstream. As pressure after the regulator rises, it is sensed in an internal pilot passage leading to the underside of the piston. This piston has a large surface area exposed to downstream pressure and for this reason is quite sensitive to downstream pressure fluctuations. When downstream pressure nears the preset level, the piston moves upward pulling the poppet toward its seat. The poppet, once it seats, does not allow pressure to continue building downstream. In this way, a constant source of compressed air is made available to an actuator downstream. Effect of moisture in compressed air As the air is compressed, the water vapor contained in the atmosphere is compressed along with it; the increased pressure causes much of the water vapor in the air to condense and drop out in a liquid form. When the compressed air is cooled, more water vapor can condense and drop out as a liquid. It is well recognized that the presence of liquid water in the compressed air system can cause a variety of problems in the long term reliability of the system as well as the immediate ability of the system to operate. Therefore all compressed air installations have some means of removing the liquid water. In addition most installations have a means of further drying the compressed air to prevent condensation - if the ambient temperature changes or if the air cools at locations where there is a rapid pressure drop. There are many technologies available to achieve the task of drying the compressed air, each with different capabilities. The degree to which the compressed air should be dried depends on the specifications of the equipment being operated by the compressed air. Dryers remove water vapor from the air, which lowers its dew point - the temperature to which air can be cooled before water vapor begins to condense. In broadest terms, there are four basic types of industrial compressed air dryers: deliquescent, regenerative desiccant, refrigeration, and membrane.