PART 1: BRITISH INDIA AND POST-COLONIAL STATE OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN It was largest colony of British Empire.

In order to refer to geographical territory of this area, terms subcontinent and South Asia are being used. Todays India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka were under British colonial Empire. Large part of South Asia was a part of British India. Indian nationalist movements (before independence) started to gain strength after WWI. The independence was achieved after WWII (1947). This independence was followed by Partition (partition of British India into India and Pakistan). Role of the leaders, what kind of stuff they left? Origin and rise of nationalist movements? Why and how independence was achieved? What impact did the independence had on newly created states? These nationalist movements were successful, and were achieved in 1947, right after the WWII. It was first colony that gained independence, and became inspiration for all colonies in the world. If India emerged as a quite stable democracy, now regarded as growing power in the world, on the other side, Pakistan was having important problems with achieving independence and how to handle some crucial issues (economical, diplomatic, ) Pakistan faced several dictatorships up to now, and it is about to gain democratic institutions. Main problem is how to succeed in having democratic institutions. THE ORIGIN AND RISE OF NATIONALIST INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS IN INDIAN SUBCONTINENT (1857-1920) A. THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDIA AS A BRITISH COLONY 1) INDIA BEFORE THE BRITISH Many people arrived, immigrated, to India from north, and Europeans arrived through sea. Aryen tribes, before Christ After Christ, Turks were first one who were arriving, from north, Persian population too. Most of the invaders were converted to Islam and Sultanates were established in different provinces. During 16th century, Mughal Empire was created, it was very strong. It lasted from 1526-1858. It united entire subcontinent. Rest of the population was Hindu. This Empire was ruled by Muslim Emperor and rest of population was Hindu (Hinduism). It was polytheistic religion, and many groups were favoring certain god. Hinduism is based on oral tradition, everything is transferred from one generation to another one. Hierarchy and Cast system Top of this system were brahmins. Their duty was to maintain the tradition what Hinduism is. There are lower classes, and there is one category which is out of the class system: outcast or untouchables or Pariah. They cant take part in public life, and their duty is to do all dirty job what other classes dont want to do. Most of the population composed Hindus, Muslims, Christians and Sikh (pacifist religion, emerged from Hinduism). European started to get interested in India, especially for trade (spices, etc.). Portuguese created ports on the coasts, Duchess, French and British. Two colonial powers which were interested into gaining more than just a trade were French and British. The race began in 18th century, and British gained more influence and gained influence over India. I.

2. ESTABLISHMENT OF BRITISH RULE East India Company (EIC) was founded in 1601, and idea was to start important trade with Indian subcontinent. The colonization of India didnt start by political institution of Britain, it started by EIC. It started to gain more influence, from 1601 to 1857. It was very powerful. For Britain was a source of pride and high profit. They were trying to gain more and more control. In 1857 there was a rebellion started by Indian population. It was first time when EIC was challenged. It started from inside of the EIC army, because this army was composed of all different religious groups. The soldiers were forced to grease weapons with pork and beef fats. When soldiers realized what they are using, a mutiny started. British completely disrespected religious belief. It was main element of riot. The Emperor of Mughal Empire seized the opportunity to seize British. The riot was supported by vast population: from highest to the bottom of the society. These riots lasted for a year. This uprising meant to break to control of EIC. British govt in London sent army to subcontinent to crush the uprising. As a main consequence British govt took control in India. From 1858, Great Britain, Queen became Indian Empress. Indian Revolt (historians), First War of Independence (nationalists), Indian Mutiny (British) 1857-58 Indian soldiers were called Sepoys. Mughal Emperor was supporting this revolt. East India Company wasnt able to keep the situation under their control, and British decided to send an army to crush the revolt. They succeeded in crushing the revolt. As a result, in 1858, India became British India, and British Queen became an Empress. India was referred as a jewel in the crown. Indian states were called as Princely states, and after 1858, had to sign an agreement where they are only in charge of local affairs. At the same time British rule over same territory was recognized. Viceroy of India was official representative of British monarch in India; this person didnt have such important political power, because decisions were made in London. It is more like prestigious position. Over 5000 civil servants were sent from Britain to help British India with administration. The govt was totalitarian, because British were deciding everything for India, while India didnt have any representatives. They were mostly excluded from political life. Then, British introduced Indian civil service, but only for low positions. When it comes to military, officials were British, while the soldiers were Indian. People who were working in the subcontinent, they were paying taxes. Indian people were paying taxes, and money was sent to London, and was used for different projects, some including India, and some not. British improved railway system in India. Whole India was covered very well with railway network, but todays Pakistan area wasnt covered well enough. Western education was introduced to greater extend. This education was based on racial superiority. The mission was to civilize Indian subcontinent. When British arrived in India, they were ignorant, after they wanted to understand the complexity of the social organization they were confronted in India. They just raised the racism, and more emphasized cast system. Basically, British used existing divides, and British administration increased divides, and used it for own benefit. Cast as a concrete measurable thing that could be fitted into a hierarchy able to be ascertained and quantified in reports and surveys T. Metcalf The British aim somehow was to divide the population into more groups, so it would be more difficult for them to unite. Divide and rule British India was great source of profit and benefit, and British were getting more powerful. It was called with a reason jewel in the crown. Jute, indigo, spices, tea, cotton Raw materials were taken from India, manufactured in Britain, and sold back in India. Because of all raw materials, a lot of lands were not being used for a food production. The food was produced for transportation. Farmers and peasants were dependant on global trends. After abolition of slavery, Britain introduced a system called indentured labor. They

were sent to other countries for labor, in Africa, West Indies, etc. After slavery was abolished, they still needed work power. It was also forced labor, because people couldnt break the contract, couldnt run away. Diaspora is a group of people living out of their country, which were forced by some reason to live, but they are keeping their culture. B. DIFFERENT FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTED TO RISE OF NATIONALISM . Indian National Congress, from important meetings became a real political party. Mostly educated people were a part of this party (mostly Hindus from the highest cast) upper middle class. They tried to bring social changes, firstly they werent challenging the continuation of British rule, they were calling for greater representation- legislative councils. They were just being consulted, and had no real power while on the other side British had all power. Indian National Congress was pushing for to get more representation into council, to get more involved into it. They asked for Indian Civil Service, some Indians were working into administration, asked for easier access. They were going to London to have main exam. Some part of Muslims took part of the council, and the most important thing was the nation as whole, regardless of religious differences. In 1906, another political party was created; All-India Muslim League. Its aim was to defend the interests of Muslims. It was composed out of a elite, upper middle classes, and had same features of Indian National Congress. III) Conflict in Bengal 1905 It was first real opposition to colonial rule in British India. British decided to divide the province of Bengal. The capital was Calcutta, and it was also capital of British India. People in this province was better educated, and asked for more action, to get more active (administration and council). They were the most ambiguous people. Mostly they had Bengali population, majority of Hindus and minority of Muslims. Bengali Hindus were dominating the life of the region. Viceroy of India Lord Curzon, extreme colonialist and authoritarian Wanted to divide the province without consulting Indians After partition in 1905, Bengal speaking people became a minority, they merged with another region which was speaking another language and it was bigger. Protest would start which would oppose political rule, and INC would become very active. Anti-partition movement opposed partition by petitions, etc. First tries werent efficient and were disregarded by British. Later, campaign of boycott was called SWADESHI MOVEMENT/CAMPAIGN. Swadeshi means your own country. Idea was to boycott all the British goods or products. Some of those goods were burned in public places. Indians responded quite positively, and local people started buying only local products. British trade decreased by 25% in India. British didnt know how to react. -mainstrain congressBritish were forcing recruitment and taxes were becoming heavier and heavier. There were important movements that were existing during the WWI, and a reminder that opposition was existing, certain number of mutinies, and opposition wanted some power. In British India, these mutinies happened because they didnt want to go to Europe and fight. Second reason is that they would have to fight against Ottoman Empire, against the Muslim nation. Important mutiny that happened is Gadhr movement 1915 Punjab movement. For the British it was surprising, because this region was calm, and British had no problems with handling this region. Another important mutiny that had more impact, was Home Rule Leagues in 1916 (It was also called Swaraj). Hindus thought that if they would use British terminology, words, British could get scared and could listen them more. The point was to achieve independence in India. Tilak and Annie Besant created their own home rule leagues in order to fight British. This opposition wasnt radical, it was the beginning of

mass movement. Open public meetings, petitions etc. They were supporting the idea that British would take care of foreign policy, and to let Indians to take care of domestic policy. Future leaders of the subcontinent, Jinnah and Nehru, were a part of these Leagues. British reaction; British were concerned, Annie Besand and Tilak were sent to prision, without a trial. British new that national opposition would get stronger and stronger if they wouldnt do anything. The idea was getting closer, but the goal was far from achieved. There was really good co-operation between two political parties, Congress and Muslim League. They signed a pact called Cucknoa pact in 1916. The aim was that they should oppose vs. British. This pact showed and revealed the unity of the country. It symbolizes the union. Religion wasnt important and independence was more important. In 1917, British recognized that they would give more autonomy to British India, and that was what nationalist were asking for. It was called Montagu declaration, it promised self-governing of institutions. It was named after Secretary of State for India. It opened a way for nationalist. They pushed British for giving them normal step, an award, towards possessing their own governing institutions. The reason why British was to crush Home Rule Leagues was done by political way. British were not ready in 1918 to consider nationalist movement in India. Wilson Woodrow was pushing the British to give independence to India, considering Wilsons 14points. It was a constant fight between British and Americans. Americans tried to put pressure, but British were disrespecting the global movement of self-governing and self-autonomy institutions and were not ready to recognize India. In 1919, Rowletts Act was the new secretary of India, repressive laws, measures to crush nationalist oppositions. Full name of this act was: Revolutionary and Anarchical Crimes Act. If somebody publishes an article or a picture, he would be sent to jail. There was wide range of political activities, and those who were dangerous for public were put away, and leaders of those activities were imprisoned. Amritsar Massacre in 1919 (April) happened in Punjab region. This region was populated by Sikh religion. Before it joined British India, there was an Empire where official religion was Sikh. In this region, they were loyal to British, and as WWI started, they were showing more and more resistance. It was important turning point of nationalist course. There were nationwide protests (public meetings were forbidden) in India, and new form of protestation (strike actions) which in Indian terminology were called Hartal movements. People were urged to stop working, and were followed. Important strikes in main cities in India (marches). Thats context behind Amritsar massacre. Movement wasnt split according to religious lines. In Punjab, were some public meetings and strike actions, one turned on terrible massacre. They ignored a ban on public meeting, and more than 1o.ooo people gathered at one place. In April 1919, British came to the gathering place, and it was historical place, and it was enclosed by walls, and there were very small exits. When British troops arrived, they started to shoot/fire on protestors. In 1o mins, when British run out of ammunitions, 379 people died and 1200 wounded. General Dyer was British officer in charge of Punjab region, and he was main who called for this massacre. General Dyer said if troops were having more ammunition, they wouldnt stop firing at protestors. This was regarded as an act of barbarity. This general got support by British people in British India and back in Britain, because British interests were threatened. No severe actions were taken against General Dyer. Direct consequence is that there was an increase of people joining the nationalist movement. British rule was being referred to Raj. Mohandas Gandhi was important political figure that emerged after Amritsar massacre. He lead nationalist movement of India vs. British. 6) DEVELOPMENTS AFTER WWI During the WWI, India contributed a lot to British war effort. Iron and steel were massively transported to Britain. After the war India was suffering, and most of the population was extremely poor and was living from farming. Due to the Great Depression, India suffered a lot. Millions of people, mostly peasants, were forced, because of G.D., to leave villages and to start living in the

cities to look for jobs. Soldiers that were fighting on the west realized that poor population in western countries was living better than poor people in India. Another aspect which is linked to Amritsar massacre; 1917 what British promised that they are going to start giving Indians more control over internal government Montagu declaration. New constitutional changes appeared; Government Act of India 1919 which gave life to Montagu declaration, and made it real. Main steps taken by British authorities were: Central govt remains under British control. There was transfer of powers in Legislature councils (health, education, agriculture). Judiciary system, same for the police and army were under British control, and 10% of the male population was able to participate into the elections in India. Those 10% were the wealthiest part of the population. It was a limited democracy, because one part of the population had right to vote. Muslims got some reserved seats, the Muslim electorates would vote for their own representatives. Some other groups had same power Sikhs and Christians. The reaction of Indians was really cold towards what British did for them. It was a very small step towards gaining more autonomy. People were ready for complete independence, while British were thinking of not giving it them right now. Nawabs Muslim princes Maharajas Hindu princes Princely states states within India, were having control over domestic affairs While British practiced their hobbies, many spicies suffered (Bengal Tiger)

PART 2) ORGANIZATION OF THE MOVEMENTS AND METHODS OF ACHIEVING INDEPENDENCE 19201945 A) Nature of the resistance to British rule in early 20s 1) Gandhi and satyagraha (salt-force) Gandhi lived in South Africa, and started to build his political believes and ideologies. He was a lawyer there, and Indians were minority there. He got back in India in 1915, and became a part of nationalist movements. He developed there satyagraha, which was struggle for truth, for justice, etc. and main idea was to fight in non-violent way. You should resist to authorities but in non-violent way. He knew that if masses would support the movement and to protest in non-violent way, it would be very symbolic and effective. If so, it would be difficult for the British to tackle the movement, because they would have to use force. Ahimsa (non-violence) Behind this concept it would be idea, refusing the provocation, but using spiritual force. Ashram is a spiritual community that lives together and pursues non-violent way, lives spiritually. Gandhi created his own ashram, and he had many followers. He was preaching, trying to spread his political ideas. He continued to use boycotts of British goods (swadeshi campaign), non-cooperation movements, hartal campaigns (strikes) were political means that Gandhi would use a lot in his upcoming campaigns vs. the British. British were controlling the army which was powerful institution; the situation was that they had to create a new way of thinking/acting to successfully oppose the army. He needed to appear stronger and morally more superior, because he needed other means that very stronger and different from the British. Thats why Gandhi developed such a way of ... and he needed to target the weakness of the British. At the end of 1919, early 20s, Gandhi achieved good cooperation between different religious groups. They achieved to get the common aim, which was to diminish British from the society. Khilafat movement started among a Muslim population in India. The idea behind was to preserve the caliphate, because Ottoman Empire was ruled by caliphate. It started because British wanted to divide Ottoman Empire because of the reasons of WWI. After the war, this movement still existed, and gained strength. The Congress and Gandhi at the end were supporting the movement. At that

time it was too late, and Khalifat movement joined nationalism movement. Gandhi succeeded to bring together different elements in order to fight British. He emerged as the most important figure in the early 20s. He succeeded to use anti-British feelings and to put them together with nationalistic movement. 2) Non-cooperation campaign (1920-22) Gandhi was a leader of this campaign and the Congress supported Gandhi. The idea of swaraj complete independence was asked for from the British. Demands for self-government was asked. British goods were boycotted, and they didnt know what to do with the situation. They started with arresting the people. Around 30.000 people were arrested, and it was the first time anyone involved masses into the movement. More and more demonstration, also more resistance. People didnt pay taxes, in Indian service they refused to go to work, some were boycotting the institutions of British India. Round table conference was asked, but nothing was achieved. As a result in December in 1921, Gandhi again introduced, second phase, and asked for civil disobedience campaign. There were more and more participants. Some violence started to appear in the movement and it was getting out of control. It was a perfect position for British, so they would have a right to act aggressively. Idea of communalism in South Asia, India, is referring the idea of communal tensions religious tensions, fight between Hindus and Muslims. In December 1921, there was a huge increase in violence considering non-cooperation campaign. In the south of the country, there were some Muslims that killed their Hindu neighbors. It was called Moplah rebellion. Their descendants were Arabs traders who came into India LONG time ago. The fear of Gandhi was arising, and important divide started to arise, which will weaken nationalistic movement. Gandhi was personally devastated, despite the number of people that participated, and violence was becoming a part of this movement. As a result, Gandhi decided to retire from political activity, and stopped the campaign in the country (February, 1922). He decided to leave and started living in his ashram, to have peaceful life and concentrate on social issues that are important to him. In March 1922, the British decided to arrest Gandhi. He got a sentence of 6 years in jail. He spent only two years, because Gandhi was physically not in good condition. British didnt know how to handle Gandhi, because they never dealt with anyone like Gandhi. He decided to go back to ashram and to work with untouchables (Harijans son of God were a lowest cast of the system a name that Gandhi gave to them). Social equality. He tried to improve their condition in the society, and tried to raise the consciousness of the society about them. British called this group depressed classes. More communal tension were rising, and particular group was created. It was Hindu nationalist group (1925) RSS. Later it came a formal political party. It was largely anti-Muslim, was considering the fact that the country was supposed to be Hindu country. They were mostly defending Hindu values and countries. Ideology that they developed was called Hindutva. Their aim was to create a Hindu India. As a result, branch of the Muslim community, Muslim League started to refuse to cooperate more in order to settle issues, because they started defending only Muslim interests. Congress was becoming more and more suspicious, because they started looking a person in the society by a religious background, not trying to achieve global unity. There was even a Hindu militia, which was opposing Muslims and Christians. They were trying to sweep away everyone who was having different, foreign religion. Large number of peasants and workers were Muslims, and landowners were Hindus In the larger proportion!! British govt in Britain appointed Simon Commission (1927), and they arrived in India in 1928, and their aim was to talk with important people, interviewing people -- fact-finding tour--. 3) POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND CONSTITUATINAL REFORMS British govt in Britain appointed Simon Commission (1927), and they arrived in India in 1928, and their aim was to talk with important people, interviewing people -- fact-finding tour--. The idea

behind was to decide on potential reforms. Indians were not asked to participate in the commission. In 1927, British wanted to make Indians involved into decision-making process. And here contradiction appears; they didnt include Indians. As a result, the Congress decided to boycott by not giving interviews, not coming to any kind of meetings, starting protests, etc. Even the Muslim League was boycotting it, less than Congress. Nehru Report (1928) which was happening at the same time as Simon Commission. It came out and some radical statements were made, asking for Dominion status (like New Zeeland, Australia, Canada ) in one way to get complete autonomy. They would rule with their country but Britain is still has the power. Main point of this report was to ask this status. There were some radical elements that young politicians asked for. They wanted full, complete independence. Official demand that was delivered, asked to Britain was Nehru report. During the time Nehru report was happening, new divide happened between Muslims and Hindus. Jinnah, the leader of the Muslim League, he was trying to secure the Muslims in India from this drafter constitution. Idea of this report was to create unity in India. He wanted to legally secure important rights to Muslim community. He was trying to maintain electorate(preserving separate, legal protection, safeguard situation, proposed counter constitution but was disregarded from the Congress and he retired from the political life in India, he left India in 1928 and came back, was a good lawyer in Britain), but Congress didnt wanted it. With it, unity of movement stopped. Back in Britain, there were elections, and it raised new party (Labor party 1929 left wing). It wanted to give more rights to the Indians. It had for some time positive effects considering India. In 1929, the Labor govt accepted the possibility of giving India a dominion status. At the end of this decade, the tensions, opposition to British policies never stopped. The communist party of India was created. It used more radical actions, and had more support from the society, gaining more influence. They were pushing the labors for permanent strikes. British started to arrest the communist leaders. Large number of Congress members didnt wanted changes, they wanted to maintain the tradition. The father of independence of India was Jawaharlal Nehru and he became new leader of the Congress. At the end of 20s, when Congress feared the lack of unity within society, decision to put J. Nehru was political game, so they can maintain the sense of unity. He is more leftie oriented. Gandhi supported this idea. He didnt want to be a part of Congress and didnt want to be a part of politics. He was a thinker not a achiever. Nehru was regarded as spiritual son from the point of view of Gandhi. While Nehru was new president, they again asked for the complete independence, dominion status wasnt enough. B) FROM RESISTANCE TO MASS-BASED NATIONALIST MOVEMENT IN 1930s 1) Salt March of 1930 At this time, salt was very precious raw material and British had full control over it. Indians had no right to produce salt, and it was high taxed by the British. What Gandhi decided was to organize a march that started form his ashram. Idea was to march through the coast, Dandi Beach (400 km), at arriving on the beach; they would collect the salt on the beach. To do this march, he chooses 78 people (satyagrahis). When they arrived, they collected the salt. Every time they stopped, more and more people were coming and listening Gandhis speeches, and joining them. Idea behind of the salt march was that Indians break important British rule it was forbidden to trade with salt for Indians. Media was covering this event worldwide. Lower classes people were supporting this movement more and more. It took them 4 weeks to arrive to the beach. On their way back, they had some number of people attending public speeches, and more outside people were joining. Salt march was pushing towards greater protests against the British rule mass disobedience. A lot of people broke the salt law officially. British didnt know how to react and they didnt think that salt march would produce such a problem. They started arresting people. In 1930, 1oo ooo people were arrested by British, and 1oo of them

were killed by British authorities. One of the persons who were arrested was Gandhi. British pushed for table conference in London. Congress refused to boycott the meeting, because they didnt want India to get dominion status. Finally in 1931, while Viceroy of India was Lord Irwin, knew that he should try to start some important talks with him. He released Gandhi and was having Irwin-Gandhi talks. Gandhi agreed to call of civil disobedience movement if British authorities decide to release all the prisoners who were arrested and didnt do any kind of violence. He was also asking the Viceroy of India to start to report on police actions, asking for inquiry of police brutality. Beside all of that, Gandhi also asked from Irwin to let small peasants to grow plants on their own, private businesses, without the pressure from British authorities. Back in London at that time, new govt was formed. Churchill came to power and govt wasnt ready to agree on Irwin-Gandhi talks. Because of the failure of Irwin-Gandhi talk, two roundtable conferences were set up to agree on compromise. After two roundtable conferences (1932), nothing was achieved. It was a complete autonomy or nothing. They asked for complete self-rule or nothing. In return, Gandhi decided to restart mass disobedience campaign. New step was not paying the taxes. Again in 1932, Gandhi was arrested and some more people. Peasants refuse to pay the taxes, they were still boycotting British goods, and another 1oo ooo people were arrested. British had no idea what to do with Indians, because Gandhi was in prison, and authorities had problems with people. Again British started with their tactic to divide the nationalists. British reconfirmed that minorities should have separate electorates. Muslims would only vote for Muslim representatives, same for Christians. Idea was also to create separate electorate even for untouchables. It was called Communal Award (Muslims, Christians, Sikh and untouchables). Gandhi decided to fast to death, to make pressure on British in order not to pass Communal Award. Finally, the leader of untouchables passed the act that untouchables wouldnt have their electorate representative, they would have reserved seats. **There were some members of the untouchables that succeeded to get involved into politics and were educated.**For now on, Gandhi succeeded to preserve the unity in nationalist movement. In 1935, Government of India Act was passed, that British govt passed in London. It was a set of constitutional reforms which were very complex. They did give more control to the elected ministers in provincial govt, but at the same time British authorities continued and had right to intervene at any time into Indian affairs. This act was seen as treason. It was completely different what nationalist movement was asking for. Nehru called it charter for slavery and for Jinnah it was the most retrograde (degrade) and reactionary proposition. Despite the fact of this act, they all participated in the elections of 1937. The Congress emerged as complete victor of the elections with 70% of voting and Muslim League only gained 5% of the total Muslim votes (had their own electorate). Most of the Muslims were recognizing the actions of Congress, the unity and fighting vs. British rule. Jinnah tried to negotiate with Congress so they can co-operate in the politics. Congress refused to cooperate. This refusal impacted the unity, and the League was working on their own. Idea of 2-nation states was firstly used at that time by some religious leaders, but not political leaders. Jinnah was emphasizing that Muslims should have their own state and that Islam was in danger. Jinnah was completely secular (religion and politics should be completely separated). Jinnah used Islam as a political tool, not as religious manner, he was trying to say that Islam was carrying special cultural heritage. This was political motivation, not religious one. Jinnah was also supporting the idea that Muslim provinces should be created, where Muslims were larger minority. An idea to have a distinct nation within India was on. Jinnah wasnt representing whole Muslim community. This strategy was really revealing that co-operation between main political parties was more and more difficult. Congress was still stubborn. Congress was made of a few divisions, moderates and radicals. The leader of radical branch of Congress was Subhas Chandra Bose. Because he was becoming more radical, Gandhi got involved into a Congress and made Bose to go away. He made a new political

party called Forward Block Party. It was far more radical in its decisions. As a consequence, there was a lack of unity, mostly because Congress didnt want to co-operate with Muslim League. The outbreak of the WWII gave last and very important nationalist cause. The way that British handled nationalist movements was repressive. Without consulting Indian leaders, Britain declared that India would fight on the side of the Allies. This particular decision had very important impact on the struggle for independence. It created opportunities for nationalist, that the war might open the situation; if they co-operate with British and they in return give India complete autonomy. It would be hard for British to fight the war and war in India vs. nationalist. Britain relied a lot on the India. Roosevelt pushed Churchill to give India some power. The Atlantic Charter (1941) that was signed between Roosevelt and Churchill; in this charter it was written that they would recognize the self-determination of all countries. Roosevelt was directly aiming at Britain and India and Churchill was for it because he was aiming at Europe. Roosevelt pushed Churchill to send a person to India, Cripps mission. They went to India to see what kind of political concessions British would agree to favor Indian nationalists. They proposed the deal, which was; Britain would agree to give full independence after the war, only if India commits itself with Britain, if India sustains war effort for Britain. What was very surprising is that Congress refused this proposition. It was because Congress wanted independence right now, and they will fight side-by-side with Britain vs. the fascist powers. Why Churchill sent this Cripps mission is that Japan was advancing a lot in east; already captured Burma and it was at the door of British India. 2) Quit India Campaign (1942) Just after the Congress declined the proposition, they decided that they should launch a new massive civil disobedience campaign vs. the British in India. Quit India Resolution was adopted in Bombay on August 1942. It was a campaign with non-cooperation with British. They asked every man and women to participate into this campaign. Bose created Indian National army and he fought with Japanese while Japan was taking over Burma. British really cracked down, and sent political leaders to prison, and Congress and all other political parties were banned by British authorities. More intense repression, Gandhi and Nehru were again in prison and some more than 6o.ooo people joined them in jail. The point is that the British didnt know what to do and far more people were killed during the protests, more than a 1.ooo. The campaign lasted only for six months, because British were successful in suppressing the campaign, by the end of 1942, the movement was killed. Churchill himself was very determined to crush the movement. With this, British lost the moral of their authority. Roosevelt himself was supporting nationalists in India and tried to push the Churchill to give them independence. The American opinion knew what was happening in India, and there was a great feeling that British wanted to defeat the nationalist movement not the fascist powers. 3) FORMATION AND CHALLENGES TO POST COLONIAL STATES OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN a) How independence was finally achieved? 1) First steps towards achieving independence? Right after 1945, when the war was over in Europe, there were massive protests in India. Indian National Army led by Bose decided to join the Japanese. At the end the war, when British were victors, he was captured and members and supported the army were trialed and sentenced by British authorities. Indian public opinion saw this as another try from the Britain to try to control the India. That was the reason for the protests. There were many mutinies. In 1945, British had to recognize that they had to recognize the independence of India. It will take two more years until it really happened. This is the period of 1945, and when Churchill was replaced, some changes starting to take place.

What British had to deal after the war is how to give independence to India, to create one country that would embrace the whole Indian population and one country that would defend the interests of the Muslims. Still, the tensions were high between the Muslim League and the Congress. During the war, Muslim League decided to accept the deal with Britain (Crisp mission) but Congress didnt. Important divisions, what post-colonial states should do. Nehru, the leader of the Congress had aims to fight poverty, famine and to modernize and industrialize the country. On the other side, Muslim League was for the division of the country. The reasons are because the Muslim minority would be neglected in new Indian state. They tried to preserve the interests of the Muslim community. Muslim community had more than one community within this one. Muslim League was representing the views of the majority of Muslim communities not of all Muslims in India. In the critical years of 1945-47, they were fighting to create the separate nation for the Muslims of the continent. Nehru was socialist and Jinnah was quite conservative in its aims. He was trying to maintain the privileges of Muslim population, not to bring changes, not to do what Nehru wants, and wants to keep class divisions. During the elections, in the area where Muslims were majority, not great support was given to Muslim League, because they didnt need anyone to preserve their rights, while on the other side in the areas where Muslims were minority, great support was given to Muslim League because they felt unsecure by the others. Muslim population in British India was ranging in between 20-22 % of population. Meanwhile Jinnah had good relationship with British, Jinnah knew that British were thinking of creating two states, and was pressuring British officials. British started to believe that it might be only option for post colonial states. In the elections that took place in spring of 1946, everyone was waiting to see what was the situation, to check how much Congress and League were supported by the public opinion. Results of these elections were becoming polarized??? It was a success for Congress and they won 90% of seats in the Congress and in the Muslim League, they succeeded to win 75 % of all Muslim votes while winning 90% of the seats that Muslim could have for reserved seats for provincial councils. On national level, the League won all the seats that were reserved for the Muslims on general assembly (30 seats at general assembly out of 130ish seats in total). On July in 1945 conservatives lost the elections in London and Churchill too. Labor party won them and prime minister was Clement Atlee. He was socialist and wanted to bring independence to India. Cabinet is common expression to refer to British govt, all ministries. Cabinet mission (after elections of 1946) was sent to India to decide what to do. British didnt want to get involved into the confict between Indians and Muslims. Britain promised that it will respect the promise. Crisp was again the leader of the mission. This mission was a failure because of disagreement between Musim League and Congress. There was another conference that was decided by British authorities, 1946 (Simla Conference). Indian political leaders were invited to discuss two constitutional propositions: Option 1.was: maintaining the union and making union govt of India and different provinces could decide to group themselves into certain political identities Option 2.was to separate India into two countries; Pakistan and Hindustan Congress wasnt satisfied with any of the options. Jinnah called for hartal strikes; to show the British authorities and Congress that Muslims are willing to create their own country. It was meant to be peaceful and to use Gandhis idea of peaceful protests. Jinnah thought that this was his last option in order to show everyone that he was supported with this idea. This day was called Direct Action Day (16.August 1946). Protests were held

everywhere peaceful except in Calcutta Bengal region, where was a mass violence. This day was also called Great Calcutta killings where 6.ooo people died in Calcutta itself, more than 2o.ooo were wounded and 1oo.ooo were left homeless (They started to migrate and to decide to which side they should join). It showed that violence was starting and India was becoming far more problematic. This has killed idea and optimism for fighting for India. Jinnah didnt want to turn this protests into violence, he just wanted to use masses just like were used some time ago. At northwestern part of British India, no violence was used in those regions. After this traumatic event, British still were trying to push Indian leaders to finally draft the constitution. In September of 1946, they created Interim Government, which supposed to be transition government. The Congress decided to take part in this Conference, and Jinnah after he suffered for what he was blamed for after killings in Bengal region, Muslim leaders decided not to join. After a while, Jinnah decided to be a finance leader, and in the final months of 1946, there was mass violence that was spread all over the country (Bombay, Bengal, Central India, etc.). It was becoming difficult to maintain, and British authorities were trying to protect civilians which was difficult, with their army which still was in British India. British Prime Minister, C.Atlee, thought that the only way out of this situation is partition. He changed the Vice Roy from Wavell to Lord Mountbatten. His task when he arrived in India (February 1947 became a Viceroy and no longer than June 1948 work completed), his task was to finish the British rule in India. British didnt want to be involved into the situation and wanted to finish this as soon as possible. The date was put forward, August 1947, which supposed to be month of independence of newly created India and Pakistan and departure of the British. Then the problem was where Pakistan supposed to be created, where to draw division line. British wanted o speed up the border and decided to draw borders in very rapid time and Radcliffe was incharge of designing the border of India and Pakistan. When decision was made, people were unsatisfied because they would have to migrate. Day of independence of India and Pakistan is 14-15 August of 1947. Two days only, borders were publically announced. When people heard that they were created, people feared how are the borders going to be shown. Upcoming month would be crazy situation, and intense migration would be on. The most traumatic event took place in Punjab, but in Bengal wasnt that much less important. Mass rape was commonly used as horrible political action vs. the women of both religious communities. Some families preferred that they would kill their own women rather than to be raped by someone. More than a 1 million of people were killed and number of people that migrated was 6 million. Still 4o.million Muslims remained in India after the partition and 5-6million of Hindus and Sikh who remained in Pakistan. Big problem was when refugees arrived to India/Pakistan. The history of partition is still traumatic today. DEALING WITH THE CHALLENGES OF THE NEWLY CREATED STATES (post1947)

Nehru died in 1964, and he was ruling India from 1947. Nehru had a daughter, that was named Gandhi (Indira Gandhi), her husbands last name was Gandhi but he wasnt related to Mahatma Gandhi. She would emerge as a leader of the country. From 1967-84 she would become a prime minister of India. She was assassinated by Sikh extremists, who asked for more rights. Her sons would take the rule, and they were assassinated too. All of them were elected for the position; they didnt get the position because of nothing. India emerged as stable country; despite important illiteracy (people who cant read and write) people were participating in politics. Later they introduced electronic machine who did voting for them, and was one of the first countries who used that system.

On 26. January of 1950 officially was republic and adopted a constitution. It was decided how country would be governed. First elections happened in 1952, and were a great success for a Congress party. Nehru became officially a prime minister of India. General elections were happening every 4 years. Regarding the constitution, India became secular country. Right after the partition, there were 4o million of Muslims as minority, and today 13% of population are Muslims, while Hindus were 80% of the population. Christians were 2,3% of the population and Sikh were 1.9% and 0.8/ of Buddhist. Today there are more Muslims in India than in Pakistan, and it is second largest Muslim country in the world, after Indonesia. Princely states in provinces after the partition had a choice to join India or Pakistan, 561 of them. Three provinces didnt join India. The province of Junaghad wanted to join Pakistan, but was separated by other provinces (300 miles separated from Pakistan). The ruler was Muslim, and population was composed of Hindus. Finally this territory was integrated into India without any major problem. Due to the situation, the ruler had to accept that his state will go to India. State of Hyderabads ruler was one of the richest men in the world; he was called Nizam of Hyderabad. He refused to join India and Pakistan. He also was a Muslim, and most of the population was Hindu, and was having his own army. Nehru was about to send Indian army, and there were three days of firing of the capital. Indian army finally took over, and was integrated into Indian Union. Last case remaining was Kashmir and today is still the most important issue even today. Most of the population (more of the 60%) were Muslims, while on the head of the state was Hindu. It made more sense to join Pakistan, but the Indian ruler formally decided to join India. This issue will become central, and it was the reason for first Indo-Pakistani War (1947-49). In 1950, the constitution had to recognize that English and Hindi were official language of India. At the same time, India also recognized 14 national languages (16 in total). During early 1950s there were protests, especially in the South of India. States within new India wanted to reorganize their borders because they wanted to follow linguistic lines. States were: Andhra Paradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. In 1956, borders were reorganized. Main languages that were spoken in this region are: Andhra Paradesh Telaga, Tamil Nadu Tamil, Kerala Malayalam, Karnataka- Kannada. In 1956, State reorganization mission, amendment was passed in constitution. This language issue would continue later on. When English language was put as one of the main languages, but it supposed to stay from 1950-65; 15 years. In 1965, govt had to decide to abandon English language as official language and Hindi had to be only official language. South was having a lot of problems with it and was making strong opposition. There were two linguistic families: Indo-European languages (Hindi) and Dradividian languages (South languages). They were quite different. Devanagari script is script that is used today to write Hindi language. Officially in 1965, English remained as official language without stating a period for how long it will remain. Some people were opposing it; some wanted to keep using it. It remained as associated language. Language issues will be periodically emerge as a problem. There were growing demands from Sikh community. After partition Punjab was divided, and Sikh which lived in Punjab region, moved to India. By 1950s they felt that they werent respected enough. They asked for separation of India or to have autonomous region. They asked for creation of Khalistan, and Akali Dal being a political party which was asking for this. There was a crisis in 1951, India govt sent Indian army to Amritsar, where was a Golden Temple, which was very important region for Sikh population. This party started political campaign to destabilize India. Response from the India was violent; India army entered and suppressed the protest. In 1965, there was another important crisis, it dealt with linguistic reorganization. It came from Sikh population, they asked for dividing existing Punjab region, where Sikh population would be majority. They wanted to be in charge of domestic policies. Indian govt accepted the request. Punjab was

divided and Sikh were majority in their region. Portion that was left had Hindu majority and new created state was called Haryana. Sikh population would speak Punjabi and they had their own script. In 1984 Indira Gandhi was assassinated by Sikh bodyguard. Again in that year Indian Army entered in Golden Temple where they killed some people. That was the reason why Indira Gandhi was assassinated. After the assassination there were anti-Sikh riots, where non-Sikh people started to launch the riots vs. sikh people. Thousands of people were killed in these riots, communal tensions. Indira Gandhi was often called Mother India, and her assassination let to very important political crisis. Today is more peaceful and no major incidents happened between govt and Sikh population of Punjab region. Growing problem in India would be the rise of Hindu nationalism. Gandhi was assassinated by Hindu extremist, in 1948. His name was Nathuram Godse. He belongs to one political organization, RSS. They also had paramilitary group. They presented themselves as cultural organization and were using paramilitary to scare everyone around themselves. They were very anti-Muslim and thought that Muslims shouldnt participate into independence of India. Also they regarded Christian population as inferiors, because they thought Christians still presented colonizers, basically fighting all foreign elements. Hindutva is political ideology defended by RSS group. They werent political party. First official political party that was created was BJS (1952). Most of the political leaders were leaders of RSS organization. They finally created political party, so they can fight in politics. This party didnt win important part of electorate, only 3%. Most of the Indian population wasnt supporting these extremist ideas of RSS. Great impact on this party by population had the fact that their member killed Gandhi. This party didnt have great influence, then BJP (starting from 1980s) was created later, which had major influence. In 1992 there was another traumatic event, Ayodhia incident. There was a very old mosque in this city (Ayodhia, Utter Pradesh). A group of Hindu extremists decided to destroy the mosque of this city. There were some important anti-Muslim riots and Muslims were being killed in this region. It reveled that Hindu extremists started to gain more power. Communal violence was appearing in the south. Event from 1992, proved that the beliefs of Hindus nationalists were becoming more important in Indian society. Around 3000 people died. I t was difficult to calm down the situation. In 1998 elections, this party won the election (BJP). It really challenged the Congress party and was first time that Congress party was defeated. Prime minister was Vajpajee, and he stayed at head of India until 2004. Congress party would come back in power and it is still leading the country. On the other side, it is clear that BJP remained as very strong political party. For some people, rise of lower classes was presented as a threat to some people. They started to organize themselves into politics. Globalization, political system became more competitive. As a reaction, Hindu nationalism was more important, and tried to maintain traditional values. One of them was dominating over lower casts. Nehru was favoring Soviet Union and wanted to use their ideas, socialism, to industrialize very fast. Nehru introduced fine-year plans, to industrialize and modernize. Most of the people were peasants. In 60s, there was a try to modernize and improve agriculture of the country (Green Revolution). They began to use new types of seeds, which are more productive, developing irrigation systems, asked peasants to use more chemical fertilizers. It was trying to break the bond with traditional system. Some opposed this revolution, and after Green Revolution some peasants got way richer. This revolution wasnt a great success, productivity became higher, but social damages within the population, some inequalities type of problems. Instead of bringing more equality and modernity, it

did opposite. Some part of the north became more successful than the parts on the east. Population growth rate was enormous, and food had to be organized equally. In the 1980s, govt was facing problems, and should open more to globalization. Nehru was cautious with preventing foreigners that would like to take over Indian economy. Neo-colonialism having a great impact on someone in terms of economy. In the 1990s, India took completely different attitude towards its economic policies, and decided to reduce its tariff for importation and allowed increase of foreign capital. Today it is considered that India has one of the best economies. --- SOCIAL ISSUES Most challenging challenge was improving education. Right after independence literacy rate is 16%. Today, national percentage is 61%. Southern states have greater literacy rates, while north has lower. Main aspect that had to be developed, they had to make school compulsory, even in rural areas. Those children are mostly working on farms with their families and are not favoring school. Tried to create better educational institutions and now there are engineering school are challenging and it is very hard to get into the schools. Great emphasis was on technological institutes. Today India is very competitive when it comes to technology. Tried to improve the status of the women. Before women didnt have a right to get the land from the parents, it would go to her brothers. As a wife in marriage, she had no rights towards husband. Traditional system was very important. Young girls had to be involved and receive higher education. In rural areas, if a parent has a choice to send a boy or girl somewhere for education, boy would be chosen. What is today very common today, if women when pregnant finds out that she is going to give birth to a girl, she would abort the birth process. Today still exists a great inequality between men and women. Constitution of 1950 formally abolished the cast system and untouchability. Thats just on the paper, reality is different. Term for untouchables is used Dalit today. 1955 Bandung Conference - Non-alignment movement, Nehru, Suterno (Indonesia), Nasser (Egypt) and Tito the organizer from Yugoslavia For many independent countries was a challenge where they are going to belong, to western or eastern block (Cold War). Nehru was a socialist and India was in good relationship with Soviet Union, and it was hard to make a relationship between them and USA. They werent in friendly terms with them. India was never a part of Cold War and remained outside of Cold War. In this sense, this initiative was very important point in world politics. Even that British left India in 1947, their presence still stayed. French left India in 1954, where France was controlling some coast cities (Pondicherry). The last remaining European presence was Portuguese (Goa and some others), some territories in the west. They left in 1961, and Nehru asked several times them to leave. At that time, Salazar was dictator in Europe, because he didnt want to give them freedom. Nehru had to send Indian army and had to force Portuguese out of the country. In 1959, Communist China invaded Tibet and took over it formally; as a consequence some numbers of Tibet refugees fled into India. India welcomed great number of refugees and gave aslant (azil) to Dalai Lama. In 1962, China and India went to war against each other (Indo-Chinese war), which was fought over 4000m above sea level. Because China occupied one piece of territory which was independent, and there was a dispute over the control over that territory. C. MOST IMPORTANT CHALLENGES THAT PAKISTAN FACED AFTER INDEPENDENCE 1947- The problem at the beginning was how to find national identity. The religion, Islam, was the most important factor which contributed to the creation of Pakistan. Other factors are languages, ethnicities, etc. It was hard to create common identity for all regions within Pakistan. Urdu language was only spoken in the north of India, and it is the official language with English. Difficulty to find common identity, another important aspect was the army since the beginning would play very important role. It is mostly since early beginning. The Cold War in Pakistan would explain more in

about its foreign policy. Today, 19o.ooo people live there, and in India there are 1.2 billion people. India is the demographic power in the region. It is estimated that 96% are Muslims, 1.6 % are Hindus, 1.6% of others and other percentage are others. Here, religious minorities are extremely small. There are more Muslims in India than in Pakistan. Islam is the religion which is unifying the country. There are differences in Islam (Sunnis, Shias and Ahmadi). Sunnis are majority in this country. Ahmadi group is very separated from the community, because Pakistans constitution declared them as not Muslims. Pakistan started with lesser advantage than India, because everything they had been on Indian territory (communication system, etc.). They had to start from the beginning and to build infrastructures. Most of the great cities that were a part of British India, became a part of Modern India. The most important city for Pakistan was Lahore. It was dominion city of the economy in this region. The actual economy, most of the population was poor farmers and economy was mostly based on agriculture. The way resources were partitioned were unequal. Another challenge was the great flow of refugees that arrived. It was very important challenge to assimilate, integrate them into existing society. For very basic situation, how to give them homes, jobs, how to give them political representation, how are they going to be a part of population. The number of refugees that arrived compared to the population was great. Important part of the refugees received particular name Muhajir the ones who fled to India. Most of these refugees were not skilled, and were people coming from rural areas. There was a small minority that represented elite. There were disputes over assets, where Pakistan was in huge disadvantage. Pakistan had received far less assets in proportion to population. Gandhi started fast to death in order for Indian leaders to give something to Pakistan, where Indian leaders didnt want to do it. Another problem was how to divide army, where Pakistan received far less than India, because factories producing ammunitions and weapons were mostly in India. During First Indo-Pakistani war, Pakistan was unequipped and not ready to go to war. Division between East and West Pakistan, which later became Bangladesh, was high. Bengali was a language used in Bangladesh. It revealed that Islam was the only factor that was unifying this country. Also an important factor was lack of leadership after Jinnah died, and later the death of his successor Liaqa Ali Khan. He was assassinated in 1951, and it was a proof that leadership would be a huge problem in the future of the country. Also, country had a problem of adopting a constitution, that would be the base for the building the country. It already revealed the limit of democracy. Several times, military was controlling and was in charge of the country for longer period of time. A constitution was agreed in 1956, almost 10 years after the independence, because there were contrasting views within the society. Some people were fighting for having a secular country. When it was finally approved, it proved that isnt going to last long. First military takeover took place in 1958 (General Ayub Khan head of the armed forces, he suspended constitution).
post-colonial India

3) Social issues After independence = literacy rate = 16% ==) one the biggest challenge was to improve the state of education ==) to increase the number of children attending school = some success, but still a challenge in rural areas, the goal of compulsory education for all was far from being achieved But great emphasis on science and technology with the creation of major higher education institutions = new universities, institutes of technology ==) to support the economic goal of industrialisation and modernisation. ==) very good higher education system institutes of excellence After independence ==) important changes in the status of women ==) strong opposition from Hindu nationalists, BUT new laws gave women equal rights with men in the inheritance

and ownership property + greater rights in marriage. ==) legal position of women improved BUT in reality very difficult to change mentalities, especially in rural areas. Greater number of girls attending schools, but great inequality with boys. Even decades later literacy rate for women in India significantly lower than men. Other important issue = caste system ==) officially abolished by the new Constitution and Untouchability too. Dalits were now free to same shops, schools, place of worships... as any other citizen. Positive discrimination for them to try to improve their situation == to give them access to land, education, administration jobs, legal aid... Despite these new laws, social disadvantages and actual discrimination were far from being abolished; caste oppression still common in rural areas, even sometime acts of brutal violence 1950 India had a population of 350 million ==) life expectancy of 32 years Each year millions of people died in epidemics of smallpox, plague, cholera and malaria Important governmental funding to improve health services, build hospitals and clinics, train more doctors and nurses BUT population continued increasing putting more pressure on land and resources ==) government tried to implement birth-control policies but difficult/ ex: promoting small families 2 children only to be a happy family, + campaign of sterilisation programmes (but important resistance) Between 1947 and 2010 life expectancy doubled = 66 years + literacy rate significantly improved to reach 61% (important differences between regions, men and women, urban and rural areas) + also the population tripled to 1.2 billion
Post-colonial Pakistan: 2) Political challenges Leadership

Another difficulty for Pakistan = lack of continuity of its political experience =) Jinnah died in 1948 =) 1951, his successor Liaqat Ali Khan was assassinated (motivation by some extremists = against its secular policy and talks with Nehru over Kashmir) Also = India had the long experience of Congress, many of its leaders took positions in the government or key administrations after independence Muslim League had not such a strong experience, lesser participation to decisional process + again problem of geographical partition = heartland of the League was the province of Uttar Pradesh =) now part of India =) even if most of its lite moved to Pakistan, they became refugees, and were no longer in a dominant position + had to compete for land, jobs, etc, with local people... - Constitutional problems: Democracy and dictatorships Problems for adopting a Constitution =) very long process First drafts rejected by Bengalis giving too much power to central government, would prefer a federation, but also religious Muslim leaders who wanted to give a more important place to the principles of Islam. ==) complex situation = how to articulate religion with politics and governance of the country?

1956 = a Constitution finally approved, but did not provide a solid foundation for democracy 1958 = head of the armed forces, general Ayub Khan, constitution suspended, government taken over by military rule. First of several military take-overs Military becoming the dominant institution in the country =) mostly due to the difficult beginning of the independent state weak economy, Kashmir conflict, and feeling of having insecure borders shared with a strong and hostile neighbour ==) army frequently justified its intervention in politics on the pretext of trying to clean politics from corruption Starting from the 1950s long periods of military rule interrupted with interludes of weak civilian government + Impact of global context of Cold War and more recently war on terror, that also strengthened the position of the military
Kashmir issue

3) Foreign policy Pakistan became involved in Cold War politics USA realised strategic importance of Pakistan =) which was invited to join strategic anticommunist alliances 1954 = SEATO = South East Asia Treaty Organisation + 1956 = CENTO = Central Treaty Organisation part of the US policy of containment = American cold war strategy to prevent the spread of communism in the world. A series of alliances were created in order to achieve this. In return Pakistan received from the US military and financial aid == main motivation being the creation of a strong army able to recover Kashmir + provide protection against potential Indian aggression main consequence being the building up of a stronger military power in Pakistan + weaker democracy 1979: with invasion of Afghanistan by Soviet Union, Pakistan again on the frontline of the cold war =) additional aid from the US + both countries also supported Islamic Freedom Fighters = Mujahedin in their fight against the Soviet occupation. =) their interests overlapped But also mistrust coming from the mass population against this lack of independence in foreign policy 1989 = soviet forces withdrew =) victory for US camp, Taliban control over Afghanistan was welcome by groups in Pakistan as well 2000s with the War on terror starting after 9/11 =) invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, ongoing war against Taliban forces + extreme destabilisation of Pakistan at all different levels of the country