Extension of Product Shelf-life

for the Food Processor

A strategic report compiled for the Food Processing Faraday by the Scientific
and Technical Information Section, Leatherhead Food International.
Contents
Page
1: Introduction 1
1.1: Shelf Life 1
1.2: Why Extend Shelf Life? 1
1.3: Other Considerations 2
1.4: Scope 2
1.5: Benchmarking 3

2: Extending Shelf Life? Safety Points to Consider 4

3: Legislation 5
3.1: Primary Legislation 5
3.2: Secondary Legislation (Regulations) 5

4: Conventional Technologies Extension of Shelf Life 6

4.1: Introduction 6
4.2: Hurdle Technology 6
4.3: Heat Preservation 7
4.3.1: Ohmic heating 8
4.3.2: Microwave heating 8
4.3.3: Other emerging heating technologies 9
4.4: Cooling 9
4.4.1: Deep chilling 9
4.4.2: Other emerging refrigeration technologies 10
4.5: Drying 10
4.5.1: Microwave drying 11
4.5.2: Heat pump drying 11

5: ‘New’ Processing Technologies 13

5.1: High Pressure Processing 13
5.2: Irradiation 15
5.3: Natural Food Preservatives 17
5.3.1: Natural antimicrobials 17
5.3.2: Natural antioxidants 19
5.4: Other Developing Technologies 20
5.4.1: Pulsed electric field 20
5.4.2: Pulsed white light 20
5.4.3: Ultra-violet light, pulsed ultra-violet light 21
5.4.4: Ultrasound 21
5.4.5: Combinations of preservation technologies with potential 22
5.5: Further Reading 22

6: Packaging 24
6.1: Map 24
6.2: Active Packaging 26

7: Decontamination Techniques 28
7.1: Introduction 28
7.2: Chemical Techniques 28
 7.2.1: General considerations 28
7.2.2: Water 28
7.2.3: Ozone 29
7.2.4: Chlorine (hypochlorite) 29
7.2.5: Dimethyl dichloride 30
7.2.6: Hydrogen peroxide 31
7.2.7: Organic acids 31
7.2.8: Peracetic (peroxyacetic) acid 32
7.2.9: Other chemicals that may have a role as decontaminants 32
7.3: Thermal Techniques 34
7.3.1: Hot water 34
7.3.2: Steam 34
7.3.3: Steam vacuum 35
7.4: Other Technologies 35
7.5 Sources of Further Information 36

8: The Food Production Environment: Impact on Shelf Life 37

8.1: Sourcing of Ingredients 37
8.2: Storage of Ingredients 37
8.3: Processing Areas 37
8.3.1: Processing equipment 38
8.3.2: Ventilation 38
8.4: Clean Room Technology 38
8.5: Cleaning Technology 39
8.5.1: Traditional cleaning methods 39
8.5.2: Clean in place (CIP) systems 40
8.5.3: Novel cleaning methods 40
8.5.4: Ultra-violet light 41
8.5.5: Solid carbon dioxide (CO2) 41

9: Hygiene Monitoring - How efficient is cleaning? 43

9.1: Visual Inspection 43
9.2: Traditional Swab/Plate Methods 43
9.3: Rapid Hygiene Monitoring 43
9.3.1: ATP kits 43
9.3.2: Colour hygiene tests 44

10: Estimating Shelf Life and the Use of Predictive Models 46

10.1: Models Currently Available 46
10.1.1: Combase 46
10.1.2: Forecast 46
10.1.3: Food Spoilage Predictor 46
10.1.4: Seafood Spoilage Predictor 47
10.1.5: ERH-CALC™ 47
10.1.6: Coolvan 47
10.1.7: Water Analyzer Series 47
10.2: Frozen Food Models 47
10.3: Accelerated Shelf Life Testing 48

11: Sources of Further Information 49

1: Introduction • Transfer of odours or flavours (e.g.
tainting or flavour loss)
• Changes caused by exposure to light
This report was commissioned by the Food
(e.g. loss of colour)
Processing Faraday in response to the
• Physical damage to packaging
identification of a need for information on the
subject of shelf life extension among its
These mechanisms are controlled by a number
members and other stakeholders. The Faraday
of factors, which may be product related
also consulted with Regional Technology
(intrinsic), or environmental and process
Transfer Centres (RTTCs) during the
related (extrinsic). For example:
commissioning of the report. The RTTCs
comments emphasised the need for the report
Intrinsic factors:
to address the particular needs of small and
medium enterprises (SMEs). The content and
• The composition and formulation of the
presentation of the report have been strongly
product
influenced by these comments, and the result
• Product structure
is aimed very much at smaller food processing
• Moisture content and water activity
operations.
• pH and acidity

1.1: Shelf Life • Level of oxygen and redox potential

Extrinsic factors:
The Institute of Food Science and Technology
(IFST) defines the shelf life of a food as “The
• Storage temperature
period of time under defined conditions of
• Relative humidity
storage, after manufacture or packing, for
• Exposure to light
which a food product will remain safe and be
• Gaseous atmosphere
fit for use.”
• Processing
• Hygiene
(It is important to note that this definition
• Packaging
places safety before any other consideration)

Knowledge of how these factors, individually or

Every food product has a shelf life, because all
in combination, affect the sensory, physical,
foods deteriorate, albeit at very different rates
chemical and microbiological characteristics of
and in different ways, and become unsafe or
a food helps us to understand what limits its
unpalatable. For example, fresh fish begins to
shelf life. But the same understanding also
deteriorate almost immediately, even at chill
opens up the possibility to influence product
temperatures, due to the action of enzymes in
shelf life by manipulating one or more factors.
the flesh and rapid microbial growth. On the
This is the basis of food preservation. In other
other hand, fully sterilised canned foods may
words, the intrinsic and extrinsic factors above
remain fit for consumption for several years.
can be used by the food processor to extend
the shelf life of products.

Examples of the mechanisms that limit shelf

life include:
1.2: Why Extend Shelf Life?

There is clearly no point in investigating

• Chemical or biochemical changes
potentially expensive technical solutions for
(e.g. browning, rancidity)
shelf life extension unless the end result
• Microbiological growth and metabolism
represents a commercial advantage. In fact, in
• Moisture migration into, or out of, the
some cases, shelf life extension could be a
product
positive disadvantage. For example, foods
• Gas transfer (e.g. ingress of oxygen)
marketed as ‘fresh’ that have a shelf life of

1
three or four weeks may not be well received
by the consumer.
Some of the potential benefits of extending
shelf life are obvious, some less so. For
example:
• Product can remain on sale on the shelf
for longer
• Consumers favour products that
‘keep well’
• Fewer consumer complaints
• More efficient production planning
• Improved stock rotation
• Reduced wastage and product returns
from retailers
• More extensive product distribution is
possible
• Highly seasonal products can be
stockpiled
• Most retailers require food deliveries
to have at least 75% of shelf life
remaining
• New legislation (e.g. Animal By-
Products Regulations) identifies some
product that has exceeded its use-
by-date as ‘waste’ requiring
expensive controlled disposal
Generally speaking, extension shelf life is more
likely to be of benefit for highly perishable
foods that are required to carry a ‘use by’
date. Many of those advantages listed above
can be achieved with an increase in shelf life of
just one or two days for some foods.
Nevertheless, more durable products that need
only display a ‘best before date’ may also
benefit.
1.3: Other Considerations
Some of the more traditional methods of
extending the shelf life of foods are becoming
increasingly unpopular. For example, many
consumers do not want foods made safe and
stable by the addition of high concentrations of
salt or sugar, or by the use of chemical
preservatives. The regulatory authorities too
are beginning to look closely at the salt
content of foods from a human health point of
view. It is minimally processed foods that are
2
now favoured and valued by consumers, and
therefore by retailers. This means that many
food processors will increasingly have to look
to new technology and more sophisticated
processing methods to maintain their position
in the market.
1.4: Scope
The aim of this report is to provide processors
with practical information to help them to find
appropriate technology that they can exploit to
gain all the benefits of extended shelf life.
Some food preservation methods (e.g. drying
and salting) have been in use for thousands of
years, and were probably developed to serve
the then vital purpose of ensuring that food
collected in times of plenty could still be
consumed when times were hard. Other
methods (e.g. canning and mechanical
freezing) have been available for many
decades and hardly qualify as new technology.
It is not the purpose of this report to provide
an exhaustive review of all food preservation
methods. The focus is on innovative new
technologies, or recent developments in
existing (conventional) technologies,
particularly those that are, or may eventually
be, of use to the smaller food processor. The
emphasis is on new practical developments
that smaller companies may be able to use,
now or in the near future, to obtain real
benefits in extended shelf life.
Neither does this report go into great technical
detail about the technologies described. The
aim is to supply an overview in each case, to
outline the potential applications, and to
highlight the benefits and drawbacks of each
processing technology. Wherever possible, the
interested reader is directed to sources of
further information throughout the report.
1.5: Benchmarking

Before investigating the potential for extending

product shelf life and the technology that
might be used to achieve it, it can be a very
worthwhile exercise to review the performance
of a product to determine whether an
extension will provide significant benefits. This
exercise can also be used to define the
baseline, from which the extent of those
benefits can be measured.
This can be done relatively easily by
monitoring key indicators that are directly
related to shelf life.

• Number of consumer complaints due

to product failure
• Quantity of product remaining unsold at
end of shelf life
• Extent of product failure in the
distribution and retail chain
• Typical shelf life of competitors
products
• Degree to which shelf life influences
production scheduling

Carried out over a period of several months,

this exercise should provide sufficient data to
determine whether shelf life extension will
provide benefits and to help quantify those
benefits. The information collected will be vital
for formulating a business case to extend shelf
life.

3
2: Extending Shelf Life? Some microorganisms can cause foodborne

Safety Points to Consider illness when present in very low numbers (e.g.
Salmonella, and verocytotoxigenic Escherichia
coli [a group that includes E. coli O157]), and
For many ambient stable and frozen food
these should be absent from all ready-to-eat
products shelf life is determined by a loss in
products. There are other species, notably
quality leading to the product becoming
certain strains of Clostridium botulinum and
unacceptable to the consumer. But in some
Listeria monocytogenes, that may be present
cases, particularly for chilled foods, it can be
in chilled foods in low numbers, but which
the microbiological safety of the food that is
have been linked to severe foodborne illness
the most important factor when determining
when the conditions in the food are favourable
shelf life. Food processors must be aware that
for these organisms to increase in numbers.
when the shelf life of a product is extended, it
Both of these bacteria are able to grow, albeit
is possible that the additional time on the shelf
slowly, at chilled temperatures. Extending the
could allow food poisoning organisms to grow
shelf life of chilled products could give enough
to dangerous levels
time for dangerous levels to be reached.

This problem is most likely to occur in the

It is also possible that changes in processing
chilled food sector. This is partly because many
could allow other hazards (chemical or
chilled foods undergo minimal processing that
physical) to be present in the finished product.
may not destroy microorganisms, but also
because they are often vulnerable to
It is vital that such possibilities are considered
contamination with food poisoning bacteria
when an extended shelf life product is
during production. However, microbiological
developed. The effect of the changes on
safety issues are by no means limited to the
product safety could be significant and so the
chilled sector. For example, the development of
HACCP plan for the product must be
long shelf life, ambient stored, modified-
completely reviewed. Food processors must
atmosphere-packaged, part-baked bread
ensure that they have access to adequate
products may produce an environment in
expertise to do this effectively (e.g. a qualified
which Clostridium botulinum (the organism
food microbiologist). No extended shelf life
that causes botulism) can multiply. This
product should be launched onto the market
possibility has to be taken into account when
before the safety implications are fully
such products are in development.
understood and under control.

4
3: Legislation Sources of further information

It is important to be aware of the framework The Food Standards Agency

of food legislation that applies to many of the http://www.foodstandards.gov.uk/

technologies included in this report. Although enforcement/ foodlaw/

there are many possible methods of obtaining

a longer shelf life for a specific food product, Leatherhead Food International

the application of many of these is limited by http://www.leatherheadfood.com/

law. Relevant food law is spread across a

number of specific pieces of legislation, and Campden and Chorleywood Food Research

these cannot be covered comprehensively in Association

this report. The following represents a brief http://www.campden.co.uk/services/

outline of the legislation that may apply, but it legislation/ legislation.htm

is important to obtain expert advice wherever

necessary. EC Legislation
http://europa.eu.int/index_en.htm

3.1: Primary Legislation

The principal piece of primary legislation

applying in the UK is the Food Safety Act
1990. Any extended shelf life product must
first of all comply with the requirements of the
Act in that it must not be ‘injurious to health’,
and must be fit for human consumption.

(Note: from 1/1/05, new EU legislation

(Regulation (EC) No. 178/2002) will come into
force that applies harmonised provisions for
food safety requirements. These are essentially
equivalent to the provisions already afforded
by the UK’s Food Safety Act 1990.)

3.2: Secondary Legislation

(Regulations)

There are a number of food Regulations that

may have an impact on the development of
extended shelf life products. The Regulations
covering the following areas may apply, and
should be considered early in the development
process.

• Composition
• Novel Ingredients
• Additives
• Contaminants
• Processing and Packaging
• Labelling
• Hygiene

5
4: Conventional Technologies The following section deals with some recent

Extension of Shelf Life developments within those four conventional

technologies that are predicted to make a

4.1: Introduction commercial impact in the near future.

The shelf life of a wide range of foods has

4.2: Hurdle Technology
been successfully extended using ‘traditional
Modern consumers are moving away from
methods’ for decades, and in some cases
heavily processed foods in favour of products
thousands of years. We can refer to these
that appear fresh and natural. This means that
methods as ‘conventional technologies’, and
the market for foods preserved by traditional
they almost all fall into one of the following
methods is changing, and sales of ‘minimally
categories:
processed’ foods are growing steadily. Foods
that utilise chemical preservatives, high salt or
• Heat preservation
acid levels, and heavily heat processed foods,
• Cooling
are under particular pressure from changing
• Drying
consumer preferences, and in some cases,
• Chemical preservation
from changes in the attitude of the regulatory
authorities.
These four basic categories cover an enormous
range of preserved food products that at first
Manufacturers therefore need to adapt to
appear to be preserved by a similarly wide
these changes by adopting less severe
range of methods. However, almost all of these
solutions, but this clearly means developing
methods can be placed in to one of the above
products that may have a seriously reduced
categories.
shelf life. The safety of some foods can also be
compromised (e.g. by reduction in salt or
For example:
preservative concentrations). One solution to
this problem is to use a number of different
Heat preservation – pasteurisation, retorting
preservation technologies in combination to
and canning, aseptic processing, traditional
exploit the ‘hurdle effect’.
cooking processes.

Hurdle technology relies on the fact that

Cooling – freezing and chilling.
preservation factors, such as heating, pH,
water activity, redox potential, atmosphere,
Drying – traditional drying (e.g. air drying),
and chemical preservatives often have a
mechanical drying, baking, salting, conserving
synergistic effect in combination, and their
(e.g. jams).
effectiveness is therefore greater than would
be expected by simply adding their respective
Chemical preservation – pickling, acidification,
effects together.
nitrite in meat curing, addition of sulphites,
organic acids and esters.
The concept is applied mainly to
microbiological spoilage of relatively short shelf
These technologies are very well established,
life foods, and the idea is that the spoilage
and although continuously refined, have
microbes may be able to overcome one or
remained fundamentally unchanged for many
more factors (hurdles), but will not be able to
years. These conventional technologies are not
‘jump’ over all the hurdles present. For
dealt with in detail here, but for more
example, they may survive pasteurisation, and
information on the traditional food preservation
be able to grow at low moisture levels, but a
techniques you are referred to the ‘further
small reduction in pH, or the addition of a
reading’ list on page 50.
preservative, may then be sufficient to inhibit
their growth.

6
Examples of food products that apply hurdle
technology to extend shelf life:
• Cooked cured meat products
• Chilled fruit juices
• Reduced sugar jams and spreads
• Reduced fat spreads
• Mild flavour pickles and sauces
An understanding of hurdle technology is
particularly useful in product design, and it can
be applied effectively by both large and small
organisations. The essential questions that
need to be asked at the product design stage
are:
What hurdles do I have in my product?
How high are they?
This is something that many food processors
have in effect been doing for some time, but
without referring to it as hurdle technology. By
describing the process in this way it becomes
much easier to apply to new products in a
structured and formal way that can be
documented and reviewed.
Sources of more information
Hurdle technologies: combination treatments
for food stability, safety and quality. Leistner,
L. & Gould, G.W., New York. Kluwer
Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2002.
4.3: Heat Preservation
In essence, all heat preservation processes
extend shelf life by the destruction of
microorganisms and/or by the deactivation of
enzymes in fresh foods that could cause
spoilage.
The processes concerned range from very mild
heat treatments (e.g. thermisation of raw milk)
to very severe commercial sterilisation
processes applied to some canned foods.
Thermisation and processes destroy a
proportion of the heat sensitive
microorganisms in a product and increase the
time to spoilage, but a large proportion of the
microflora may survive. Commercial
sterilisation processes on the other hand are
designed to destroy all the microorganisms
that would be able to grow in the finished
product under the conditions in which it is
stored and distributed. For some canned foods
that are intended for export to hot climates
this could mean applying a heat process
equivalent to 121 °C for 25-30 minutes at the
slowest heating point in an individual pack.
Whereas a thermisation process may be only
65 °C for 15-20 seconds followed by rapid
cooling.
Recent developments in thermal processing
have concentrated on minimising damage to
the sensory characteristics of the product. This
can be considerable, as is demonstrated by
products such as sterilised milk retorted in
bottles, which now occupies a very small
section of the market. For some products,
prolonged heating at high temperature is not a
problem. For example, some canned meats
can be made using lower quality raw materials
because the severe heat process improves
palatability. However, more delicate products,
such as soups, sauces, dairy products and fruit
juices can be badly affected by thermal
processing.
The development of ultra high temperature
(UHT) and high temperature short time (HTST)
processes in combination with aseptic filling
processes has helped to overcome these
problems.
UHT processes achieve commercial sterility by
heating product (usually liquids) to very high
temperatures (130-145 °C), and holding at
that temperature for a very short time, often
for just a few seconds. The product is then
cooled rapidly and filled into cartons, bottles,
pouches etc. in a sterile environment. This
means that the product remains at high
temperature for the shortest possible time,
thus minimising loss of quality, but maximising
the destruction of bacteria. The Tetra Pak
system is one of the best examples of this
approach, but other systems are employed for
a range of products.
7
These systems lend themselves to liquid
products, but are much more difficult to apply
to foods containing solids, such as meat pieces
or diced vegetables. Recent processing
technology developments have focused on
further improving in-container and aseptic
systems for heat-processed foods, especially
for products containing solid components.
Some examples of such processing
technologies are as follows:
4.3.1: Ohmic heating
Ohmic heating generates heat by passing an
alternating electric current through a food that
has electrical resistance. Heat is generated
directly and there is no need to transfer heat
into the food through a surface. The heating
rate is determined by the voltage applied and
by the electrical conductivity of the product.
The amount of heat that can be applied
depends on how much variation in conductivity
exists in the product and by the residence
time.
Various applications for ohmic heating have
been investigated, including continuous
pasteurisation and sterilisation processes allied
to aseptic filling. It has the potential to
produce heat evenly through all the
components in a product, even when quite
large particulates are present. It therefore has
a lot of potential for liquid foods containing
solids, such as soups and sauces. Ready-meals
and pasta are processed in this way in Japan,
but take-up in Europe is quite limited so far.
Advantages
• Very energy efficient
• Reduced risk of fouling
• Rapid heating (heating rates of up to 1 °C
per second)
• Easy process control
8
Drawbacks
• Capital cost of equipment
• Need to control product conductivity by
formulation and pre-processing (e.g.
de-aeration.
Sources of further information
APV ohmic heating.
http://www.apv.com/HeatExchangers/
ohmicheating.htm
Birmingham Uni presentation on Ohmic
heating.
http://web.bham.ac.uk/L.J.Davies/work/
overview/sld001.htm
Ohmic heating. Ruan R., Ye X., Chen P., Doona
C.J., Taub I. Thermal technologies in food
processing. Richardson P. Cambridge
Woodhead Publishing Ltd. 2001, 241-265.
Preserving foods with electricity: ohmic
heating.
Rahman M.S. Handbook of food preservation.
Rahman M.S. New York. Marcel Dekker, 1999,
521-532.
4.3.2: Microwave heating
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with a
wavelength that can be measured in
centimetres. They fit into the spectrum
somewhere between infrared radiation and
radio waves. Microwaves generate heat by
dielectric heating, which in simple terms
involves the conversion of electrical energy
into heat by making water molecules in the
food oscillate rapidly in an electric field that
changes direction. The molecules alternately
absorb energy and then release it into the
food. The result is a rapid heating process that
can penetrate food quite effectively.
Although microwave heating has been in use
for many years in domestic and catering
environments, the best established commercial
use of microwave heating is the tempering of
frozen meat to temperatures just below the
freezing point to allow dicing or slicing prior to
further processing. Very large joints of meat
can be tempered evenly in hours or even
minutes rather than days by conventional
methods. Commercial pasteurisation processes
have also been investigated.
Advantages
• Rapid and relatively even heating
• Ease of process control
Drawbacks
• Capital cost of equipment
Sources of further information
Industrial Microwave Systems
http://www.industrialmicrowave.com/
FLAIR-FLOW II (F-FE 212/96): Microwave
sterilisation, an AAIR project.
http://www.flair-flow.com/industry-
docs/ffe21296.htm
Handbook of microwave technology for food
applications. Datta A.K., Anantheswaran R.C.
New York Marcel Dekker, 2000.
4.3.3: Other emerging heating
technologies
Infrared (IR) heating
Radiation in the infrared part of the spectrum
can be used to heat the surface layers of foods
very rapidly and efficiently, and is used in
roasting, baking, or grilling processes. For
example the baking of biscuits can be done
more rapidly using an IR system.
Radio frequency heating
Radio frequency (RF) heating uses
electromagnetic radiation at wavelengths
longer than those of microwaves and heats
mainly by dielectric heating at lower
temperatures, but increasingly by electrical
conductivity heating as the temperature rises.
RF heating is rapid and even and has been
investigated for a number of applications,
including blanching of vegetables, thawing and
pasteurisation of meat, drying applications and
post-baking of snack foods.
4.4: Cooling
The refrigeration of foods is a well established
technology first developed over 100 years ago.
Frozen foods have been commercially produced
for about 80 years, and the chilled food sector
has been expanding rapidly since the domestic
refrigerator came into widespread use in the
1950s and 60s.
Both chilling and freezing extend the shelf life
of foods by slowing or completely preventing
spoilage by microorganisms, and enzymic and
chemical reactions. However, there are
disadvantages with both processes.
For example, even at chill temperatures many
spoilage bacteria are still able to grow quite
rapidly (psychrotrophic bacteria), and these
may still cause spoilage and reduce shelf life
significantly. The low temperatures in chilled
food processing environments suit these
organisms well and they can colonise
processing equipment.
Freezing processes can cause textural damage
to foods when ice crystals form within cells in
the food during freezing and damage their
structure. Enzymic spoilage and oxidative
rancidity are also able to proceed at
temperatures well below freezing.
Refrigeration technology has been continuously
developed over the decades to improve the
control, speed, cost effectiveness, and
application of both chilling and freezing
processes. Recent developments have also
focused on improvements in quality and
extension of shelf life.
Some examples are as follows:
4.4.1: Deep chilling
‘Deep chilling’ involves cooling a food to a
temperature just above its freezing point. Most
foods freeze at temperatures below 0 °C, and
9
therefore deep chilling may achieve
temperatures significantly lower than those
typically found in the chill chain, but without
ice crystals being formed in the food. At these
temperatures, even psychrotrophic
microorganisms grow only very slowly, or not
at all. Therefore, the time for microbiological
spoilage to occur is greatly extended, as is
shelf life. Furthermore, the growth of
psychrotrophic food poisoning organisms such
as Listeria is effectively prevented below 0 °C.
Deep chilling is used commercially to extend
the storage life of some chilled foods, such as
ready meals and cooked meats. It is a very
useful way of ensuring that large amounts of
stock can be built up and stored before being
released into the chill chain to meet fluctuating
demand. The ‘cook chill’ system operates on
the same principle.
Advantages
• Storage life can be extended significantly.
The life of some products may be
extended by several weeks.
• The risk from the growth of
psychrotrophic food poisoning bacteria is
almost completely eliminated.
Drawbacks
• Increased refrigeration and energy costs.
• Potential freshness and flavour loss during
storage.
• Very accurate temperature control is
required to avoid accidental freezing.
Sources of further information
Food Refrigeration and Process Engineering
Research Centre
http://www.frperc.bris.ac.uk/frperc.htm
10
4.4.2: Other emerging
refrigeration technologies
Super freezing
Super freezing refers to storage temperatures
in the range -40 to -60 °C, which is
considerably lower than conventional freezing
(-20 to -30 °C). Storage at this temperature
has been found to give significant
improvement in quality for some high value
products, particularly oily fish such as tuna.
Super freezing is used commercially in Japan
for some fish products to achieve higher
quality, although the processing and storage
costs are also correspondingly high. General
improvements in freezing technology may
allow the same approach to be applied to other
high value foods in the future.
Dehydrofreezing
Dehydrofreezing combines drying and freezing
in a single process to produce improvements in
colour flavour and texture for some foods at
low cost. The technique involves partially
dehydrating the product to a moisture content
low enough (around 30% for vegetables) so
that it does not freeze when cooled to -20 °C.
The method is used mainly for vegetables and
fruits, and is said to give a higher quality
product than conventional freezing.
Rehydration times are also substantially less
than for conventional dried products. Energy
and transport cost benefits can also be
achieved by dehydrofreezing, since the
products weight is reduced, as is its volume.
Dehydrofreezing differs from freeze-drying in
that the product is not frozen under vacuum.
4.5: Drying
Drying foods to preserve them is one of the
oldest technologies in use in the food industry.
Removing the moisture from a food product
has the effect of reducing its water activity
(the amount of water available in the product),
and it is this that is the key factor in
preservation. Once the water activity falls
below about 0.6, no microbial growth is
possible and so microbial spoilage does not
occur. Reduced water activity also inhibits
chemical and enzymic spoilage. Many
conventionally dried products have a final
water activity of 0.3 or less, and products such
as dried herbs and spices may have a shelf life
of a year or more, only limited by gradual
flavour loss.
Partial drying can also result in considerable
increases in shelf life. For example, many dried
fruits have a final water activity of between 0.6
and 0.85, achieved by removal of water and
consequent concentration of sugars in the
fruit. At this level, some moulds (xerophilic
moulds) are able to grow and cause spoilage.
Fruits such as dried apricots need to be
treated with quite large concentrations of
sulphur dioxide, to prevent browning and
microbial growth.
Drying technology has been continuously
refined for many years, and a large number of
conventional drying systems have been
developed, including drum dryers, belt dryers,
spray dryers, and fluidised-bed dryers. The
principal aim of all drying systems is to
remove moisture from the product rapidly and
efficiently, minimising processing costs and
loss of product quality. Different drying
systems are best suited to particular products.
For example, many dried dairy products are
produced by spray drying, and diced
vegetables are well suited to fluidised bed
drying.
Two comparatively recent developments in
drying technology are:
4.5.1: Microwave drying
Microwave drying technology relies on the fact
that water molecules in food absorb energy
from microwaves and generate heat evenly
throughout the product. This means that
microwave dryers do not need to rely on
heating by conduction and on the
establishment of moisture gradients in the
food, both of which limit the efficiency of
conventional dryers. Nevertheless, microwave
drying is slow when used in isolation, and it is
usually combined with other drying
technologies, such as forced air convection or
vacuum drying, in practice.
Microwave drying has been applied to dried pet
foods, fruit and vegetables, and is said to give
improvements in taste and texture and less
shrinkage than conventional dryers.
Advantages
• Improved sensory characteristics
• Potentially rapid heating and drying
• Reduced energy consumption
• Reduced running costs
Drawbacks
• Capital cost of equipment
• Possible product damage through the
formation of ‘hotspots’ during drying
Sources of further information
Industrial Microwave Systems
http://www.industrialmicrowave.com/
Principles and applications of microwave
drying. Sanga E., Mujumdar A.S., Raghavan
G.S. Drying technology in agriculture and food
sciences. Mujumdar A.S. Enfield Science
Publishers, 2000, 253-289.
4.5.2: Heat pump drying
Heat pump dryers operate by cooling warm
wet air drawn from the dryer over an
evaporator coil, which cools the air to below its
dew point. Water condenses on the coil and
runs away. The dry cool air is then passed
through a condenser, where it is re-heated
before being passed through the dryer where it
picks up more moisture from the product.
Conventional heat exchangers can be
combined with heat pumps to improve the
efficiency considerably.
Heat pump dryers are used widely for drying
wood, but have also been investigated for
drying pet foods, fish and fish products, and
confectionery.
11
Advantages

• Can operate at lower temperatures, or

more rapidly than conventional dryers
• Improved product quality
• Energy efficient
• Reduced processing costs

Drawbacks

• Capital cost of equipment

• Low drying temperatures may allow
microbial growth during drying
• Potentially difficult to clean

Sources of further information

IEA Heat Pump Programme

http://www.heatpumpcentre.org/

12
5: ‘New’ Processing case of a ham for example, treatment is

Technologies as effective at the centre of the mass of

meat as it is near the surface.

Traditional thermal processes can be harsh and

• If the applied pressure is sufficiently high,
have an adverse effect on the sensory
all vegetative microbial cells and spores
properties and nutritional value of foods. In
may potentially be inactivated.
addition, many processors are seeking to
minimise or avoid the use of conventional
• HPP may be used in combination with
preservatives, such as sulphite, nitrite and
other techniques, such as heat, irradiation
sorbate.
and manipulation of pH, to provide
enhanced inactivation.
‘New’ processing technologies based on
physical techniques for food preservation have
• Since the chemical effects of HPP are
the potential to address some of the demands
different from those of heat (heat disrupts
of the consumer and deliver high-quality
covalent bonds and HPP affects
processed foods with an extended shelf-life
hydrophobic and ionic bonds), HPP has a
that are additive-free and have not been
number of unexpected and interesting
subjected to extensive heat treatment. The
functional effects, particularly on proteins.
potential of a number of processing
These can be useful and desirable. For
technologies has been investigated - they
example,
include high-pressure processing,
• Enhanced digestibility of meat proteins.
electroporation, high-intensity laser and non-
• Faster thawing of frozen foods.
coherent light pulses, and high-strength
• Modification of the surface active
magnetic field pulses.
properties of proteins.
• Induction of a cooked appearance to
High-pressure processing and irradiation are
meat, fish and egg-white proteins.
the only ones that have been developed
commercially to any extent and, together with
• HPP can be used for in-pack foods in
microwave and pulsed electric field processing,
flexible packaging, which eliminates the
are considered here.
need for additional aseptic packaging

5.1: High Pressure Processing processes.

Outline of the HPP process

High Pressure processing (HPP) is also known
as high-hydrostatic pressure (HHP) or ultra-
HPP processing can be applied to foods before
high-pressure (UHP) processing. Pressures of
or after packaging. The food is placed in a
around 300 to 700 MPa (3,000-7,000 times
pressure-transmitting medium, such as water,
the pressure of the atmosphere) are applied to
oil, or alcohol contained in a vessel of
a food product for a short time, to achieve
sufficient strength to withstand the pressures
what has been described as ‘cold
applied during the process. Pressure is applied
pasteurisation’. The process offers a number of
by means of a piston or a pump.
advantages over conventional thermal food
processes:
Although the process is usually described as
‘cold’, the application of pressure does cause a
• Inactivation of vegetative microorganisms
very small increase in temperature.
can be achieved without detrimental
effects on flavour, texture, colour and
Generally there is no permanent change in the
nutrient contents.
shape or appearance of the foodstuff. It
undergoes about 15% compression, which is
• Pressure is transmitted uniformly through
a food product, which means that, in the

13
recovered when the pressure is removed,
usually with little damage to the structure.
Conventional batch processing systems were
the first to become available. Batch systems
can handle both liquid and solid products,
which must be pre-packaged. In-line systems
can only be used for pumpable products such
as juices.
The effects of HPP on shelf life
The chemical and microbiological effects of HPP
depend on a number of factors, the most
important being process temperature and
treatment time. Bacteria vary in their pressure
resistance. Generally, Gram-negative
vegetative bacteria are less resistant to
pressure than vegetative Gram-positive cells.
In particular, Staphylococcus aureus appears to
have a high resistance to pressure. Bacterial
spores, particularly Clostridium spores, are
most resistant to pressure. Combining
pressure with heat treatment, for example 90-
110 °C and 500-700 MPa, has been shown to
inactivate spores of Clostridium botulinum in
certain food systems. Pressure cycling
treatments have also proved effective. HPP is
most effective at inactivating bacterium at acid
pH values.
Yeasts and moulds, which generally cause food
spoilage rather than illness, have been shown
to be inactivated by a few minutes of
treatment at pressures of about 400 MPa.
However, these treatments are not sufficient to
reduce levels of mycotoxins such as patulin.
Research has shown that high pressure affects
different enzymes in different ways. Some
enzymes may be partially or completely
inactivated, whilst others may actually be
stimulated. Enzymes associated with spoilage
can cause deterioration in appearance and
taste, and unless these enzymes are
inactivated, spoilage will occur.
To ensure the safety of food treated in this
manner it is essential that the effectiveness of
HPP on microbial inactivation be studied in
detail, together with factors that affect
14
microbial pressure resistance. The effects on
relevant enzyme systems must also be
investigated.
Applications
Fruits
HPP can enable the retention of the bright
natural colours, textural properties and
attractive taste of fresh fruits for an extended
period. Careful process design has enabled
manufacturers to develop novel fruit products,
such as fruit pieces in clear juice gel and whole
berries in syrup.
One of the most well known commercial
applications of HPP is the production of long-
life guacamole.
Meat
Although HPP offers the potential to inactivate
food poisoning bacteria such as Listeria,
Salmonella and Escherichia coli, the meat
industry has not yet invested in HPP to any
great extent. The process is likely to prove
very costly. In addition, HPP affects the
sensory characteristics of raw meat, and also
promotes protein denaturation. However, HPP
has been successfully applied to ready-to-eat
meats, such as cooked ham and salami.
Milk and dairy products
These react well to HPP treatment; however,
from the point of view of cost, HPP is unlikely
to be able to compete with heat treatments for
the safe production of milk. However, since
pressure can bring about changes in the
functional properties of milk proteins, interest
in HPP processing of dairy products continues,
particularly for cheese processing and the
modification of the foaming, emulsifying and
gelling properties of milk proteins.
Shellfish
In addition to inactivation of bacteria, oysters
and shellfish that have been subjected to HPP
are extremely easy to shuck. Taste and
appearance are claimed to be unaffected. ‘Gold
Band Oysters’ are on sale in the US.
Ready meals/sandwiches
Also on sale in the US are high-quality fajita
kits, comprising high-pressure processed
guacamole, salsa, fresh peppers and onions,
and beef or chicken strips.
Avure Technologies AB suggests that HPP
technology can contribute to savings for
sandwich producers. The process can give a
longer shelf life to fresh high-quality foods
without loss of organoleptic quality. The
Company says that its technology could extend
the shelf life of fresh cooked meat fillings and
wet fillings by a factor of between 2 and 4.
The fillings are packed in a flexible pack, such
as a pouch, and then processed. The packaged
sandwich fillings can be kept in a cold store by
the producer and, unlike conventional
products, do not have to be used within a day
or two of delivery.
Advantages
• High quality product with good sensory
properties
• Some desirable effects on food proteins
• Potential to develop and exploit new
markets
Drawbacks
• High capital investment and operating
costs
• Some bacterial spores and enzymes may
survive HPP processes
• Long and complex development
procedures needed for new products
• Currently a ‘niche market’ process
Manufacturers of HPP equipment
Flow International Corp., ACB Pressure
System-Alstom and Kobe Steel are the most
important equipment producers at present.
These companies specialise in large industrial-
scale systems for the food industry.
Other companies include Engineered Pressure
Systems International (Belgium and US),
UHDE Hochdrucktechnik (Germany), Elmhurst
Research (US), Stansted Fluid Power (UK),
Resato International (Netherlands), and
Unipress (Poland).
Sources of further information
Avure Technologies AB
www.avure.se
European Federation of Food Science and
Technology
www.EFFOST.org
Research Groups working on HPP
Food Quality Group, University of Strathclyde
Basic Strategic Research at the Catholic
University of Leuven (Katholieke Universiteit
Leuven Netherlands)
CSIRO Australia (orange juice)
Teagasc (dairy products)
5.2: Irradiation
In spite of a huge body of evidence to support
its effectiveness, consumer resistance has
discouraged the development of food
applications of irradiation in Europe. However,
irradiation is now permitted in more than 30
countries worldwide. In the US, since final
approval for the irradiation of red meat was
granted by the USDA in 2000, its use for
treatment of ground beef to combat
Escherichia coli O157 H7 has increased very
significantly. Irradiated meat products, such as
fresh and frozen hamburgers, are selling at
premium prices in supermarkets across the
US.
Outline of the irradiation process
Ionising radiation transfers energy to
molecules, promoting the formation of ions or
free radicals and causing a small percentage of
chemical bonds to break. In microorganisms,
15
irradiation disrupts DNA and so causes the
destruction of microbial cells. The extent of the
effect depends on the applied radiation dose.
Microorganisms vary in their susceptibility to
irradiation; in addition, factors such as the
food medium, influence the dose necessary for
effective treatment. The following table gives
an approximate guide to the radiation dose
level (in kiloGrays) required to achieve
different effects.
Effects of Irradiation Radiation Dose
(kGy)
Inhibit sprouting of 0.05 – 0.25
potatoes, etc.
Destroy parasites in 0.1 – 3.0
meat, fish
Retard fruit senescence / 0.5 – 1.0
destroy insect pests
Destroy vegetative 1.0 - 10.0*
bacteria (pasteurisation
process)
Destroy microbial spores 10.0 – 50.0 kGy*
*At present, the WHO recommends a
maximum for food irradiation of 10 kGy.
Irradiation equipment
The radiation used for treatment can be
gamma, x-ray or electron beam: all provide
sources of energy that act in a similar way.
Gamma-rays are produced using a system
centred on a Cobalt 60 or Caesium 137 source.
Electron beams and x-rays are generated using
a machine that can be switched on and off.
The electron beam system is the easiest to use
on-line in a food factory. The equipment is
more compact and requires less shielding. A
French plant, for example, has installed such a
system for killing Salmonella in deboned
chicken meat. The SPI Circe II accelerator unit
provides a dose of 5 kGy and is capable of
processing 3 tons/hour.
Gamma- and x-rays, because they penetrate
further into solid materials, can be used to
treat palletised products in standard shipping
16
boxes, whereas electron beams are only
suitable for treating individual shipping boxes.
In the UK, there is just one licensed processing
facility, which treats herbs and spices. There
are 12 licensed plants in Europe.
Applications
Fruits and vegetables
Irradiation is a well-established treatment for
inhibiting sprouting of bulbs and tubers, such
as onions and potatoes.
In the UK, irradiation of vegetables to delay
senescence is permitted at levels of 1 kGy.
Similarly, irradiation of fruits to delay
senescence and reduce spoilage is permitted at
levels of 2 kGy. As an example, irradiation at
this level is effective at eliminating spoilage
moulds and bacteria from fruits such as
strawberries.
Herbs and spices
Treatment of herbs and spices at 10 kGy to
control pathogenic microorganisms is the only
application presently licensed in the UK.
Meat
Radiation doses of up to 10 kGy have been
shown to be sufficient to destroy most
foodborne pathogens, including Salmonella,
Campylobacter, E. coli O157:H7, and Listeria
monocytogenes. However, this is not sufficient
to eliminate spores of Clostridium botulinum
and some other species. Research has also
indicated that irradiation is not a suitable
treatment for eliminating viruses from meat
products. Irradiation is not able to inactivate
prions in meat products and would not be
effective against the infective agent of BSE.
At present, poultry treated at 7 kGy for control
of pathogens is permitted in the UK.
As mentioned previously, irradiated ground
beef products are gaining widespread
acceptance in the US.
Cereals
Cereals irradiated at a dose of 1kGy to prevent
sprouting are currently permitted in the UK.
There is interest in the use of irradiation of
bulk crops to replace chemical fumigants and
ozone-depleting chemicals such as methyl
bromide.
Advantages
• Powerful decontamination technique that
can destroy microorganisms and insects
and retard germination and sprouting in
seeds, fruits and vegetables.
• Has very little effect on sensory
properties.
• It can be used to treat packaged foods
and foods in a frozen state.
• Irradiation treatment could enable the use
of fumigation chemicals to be reduced.
• Relatively low operating costs.
Drawbacks
• Irradiation could be used to
decontaminate foods with high bacterial
loads that would otherwise be
unacceptable for sale.
• If irradiation eliminates spoilage bacteria,
but not pathogenic bacteria, there may be
no visual indication that a food is unfit for
consumption.
• Microorganisms may develop resistance to
irradiation.
• Irradiation can cause detrimental effects
on the nutritional value of certain foods.
It may also have an undesirable effect on
texture.
• High capital investment costs.
• Consumer concerns about the safety of
the process and irradiated foods.
Manufacturers of irradiation equipment
IBA Food Safety Division, Memphis, Tenn.,
produces cobalt-based irradiation services.
SureBeam Corp., San Diego, Calif., offers
electron beam equipment.
Further sources of information
EC Commission on Food Irradiation
http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sfp/
fi_index_en.html
Food Standards Agency – research programme
http://www.food.gov.uk/science/research/
RadiologicalSafety/a05prog/a05projlist/
Puridec Irradiation Technologies
http://www.reviss.co.uk/puridec/
foodirradiation/foodirradiation.asp
Isotron
http://www.isotron.com/home.htm
5.3: Natural Food
Preservatives
The use of natural alternatives to synthetic
antioxidants and preservatives has become of
intense interest in the face of consumer
concerns about food additives and product
labels bearing multiple E numbers.
Natural preservatives may act to enhance shelf
life by different routes:
• Antimicrobial activity – inhibition of
spoilage or pathogenic bacteria
• Antifungal activity – inhibition of yeasts or
moulds
• Antioxidant activity – inhibition or
retardation of lipid oxidation.
Natural preservatives may show one or more
of these different types of activity. They also
exhibit a wide range of mechanisms of action,
which, in many cases are very complex.
5.3.1: Natural antimicrobials
Antimicrobial agents prevent or inhibit the
growth of microorganisms. (Although this
definition includes some traditional
preservatives such as sugar, salt and vinegar,
these are not considered here.)
17
Antimicrobial enzymes
Lysozyme (E1105), which is derived from egg
whites, is the most commercially important
antimicrobial enzyme. At present, it is the only
enzyme permitted as a preservative. Lysozyme
is used against lactate-fermenting Clostridium
species in milk, and in ripened cheese to
prevent ‘late blowing’.
Other enzymes of natural origin with potential
applications as antimicrobials are beta-
glucanases and chitinases, which attack fungal
cell walls, and oxidoreductases such as
lactoperoxidase, glucose oxidase and catalase,
which catalyse reactions that produce cytotoxic
compounds. Glucose oxidase and catalase may
also inhibit lipid oxidation and so act as natural
antioxidants.
Antimicrobial peptides
A range of peptides displays antimicrobial
activity.
Peptides with iron-binding properties
These peptides show an antimicrobial effect
that is explained by their binding essential iron
needed for microbial growth. Food poisoning
such as Listeria and Salmonella are reported to
be inhibited by antimicrobial peptides,
although in real food systems the effect has
been found to be limited.
Lactoferrin, which is present in the milk of
many species, is of particular interest. Its
hydrolysate, known as lactoferricin, has a
much higher activity than native lactoferrin.
Lactoferrin has been shown to inhibit
attachment of pathogenic bacteria to meat
surfaces. The USDA approved this use on beef
in January 2002.
Bacteriocins – antimicrobial proteins
produced by bacteria
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) produce a wide
variety of different bacteriocins, which have
potential applications as effective natural food
preservatives. Bacteriocins are proteins that
18
can destroy or inhibit the growth of other
bacteria. Bacteriocins are isolated from foods
that normally contain LAB, such as meat and
dairy products, and as such, are already part
of the human diet. Bacteriocins are the only
antimicrobial peptides currently used in the EU
as food preservatives.
Nisin is the most well known bacteriocin.
Although nisin occurs naturally it is only
considered to be a ‘natural’ preservative when
used in concentrations that do not exceed
those that occur in foods fermented with a
nisin-producing culture.
Bacteriocins are particularly suitable for use as
part of a hurdle strategy for food preservation,
particularly in dairy products, meat and fish.
They are generally effective against Gram
positive bacterial cells and spores. Nisin has
been shown to inhibit the development of
Clostridium botulinum spores in cheese
spreads and the growth of Listeria in soft
cheeses such as cottage cheese. Nisin is also
used to control late blowing in matured
cheese, and to inhibit the spores of spoilage
bacteria in canned vegetables.
Nisin has shown promise in certain meat
systems, but other bacteriocins, specifically
pediocin, have proved more effective, for
example against Listeria in chicken.
Antimicrobials from plants
Essential oils
Essential oils, obtained from plants by steam
distillation, pressing or extraction, in addition
to their characteristic aroma and flavour,
usually contain phenolic compounds with a
certain level of antimicrobial activity. Among
the herbs and spices with oils best known for
their antimicrobial properties are chilli, garlic,
sage, thyme, oregano and rosemary. The
activity of essential oils against
microorganisms is strongly dependent on the
food system in which they are used. It also
depends on other variables, for example, plant
variety, climatic factors and extraction method.
Only a few essential oils have been shown to
have useful antimicrobial activity at
concentrations suitable for use in food
processing; they include allspice, bay, basil,
cinnamon, clove, garlic, lemon grass, mustard,
oregano, rosemary, sage and thyme. Among
the many food applications of essential oils as
natural preservatives that have been
investigated are the use of oregano oil against
Escherichia coli O157:H7 in aubergine salads
and basil oil for washing lettuces.
Essential oils are acceptable to the consumer
as natural preservatives. They have a long
tradition of use and are generally regarded as
safe (GRAS). However, their characteristic
sensory properties limit their application to
foods that already have a strong flavour.
In addition to antimicrobial activity, essential
oils often exhibit useful antioxidant activity.
Rosemary, sage and oregano extracts are
among the commercially available natural
antioxidants and are used in several
commercial blends of natural products. Among
the suggested applications are meat, poultry,
fish, oils, and soups.
Natural organic acids
Naturally occurring acids, such as acetic acid,
malic acid, citric acid, lactic acid and oxalic
acid, work as antimicrobials mainly by lowering
the pH of food. Applications are generally
limited to products in which acid flavour is
desired.
Enzyme-released antimicrobials
Two main types of antimicrobial compounds
are activated by enzymes. The first group are
found in plants of the Allium family (onion,
leek, garlic). Of these, garlic gives rise to the
most potent antimicrobial, allicin. Research has
shown that these substances inhibit most
microorganisms, providing a high concentration
is used.
The second group are found in the Cruciferae
(cabbage, mustard, horseradish). Hydrolytic
enzymes act upon the glucosinolate content of
the vegetables to form antimicrobial
isothiocyanates. For example, sinigrin in
mustard seeds is cleaved by myrosinase to
give allyl isothiocyanate (AITC, the main
component of mustard essential oil). The
gaseous form of AITC has been shown to have
greater antimicrobial activity than the liquid,
and at very low doses is effective against
spoilage fungi.
Phytoalexins
Antimicrobial phytoalexins are synthesised in
certain plants in response to invasion by
microorganisms. They include pisatin from
garden pea, phaseollin from beans and rishitin
from potatoes and tomatoes. It has been
suggested that these might potentially play a
role as natural food preservatives.
5.3.2: Natural antioxidants
Antioxidants are capable of retarding or
preventing the development of lipid oxidation
and may increase food product shelf life by
inhibiting the development of rancidity. In
addition, the majority of these antioxidants
have a positive image to the consumer, and
are associated with a number of positive
health effects, such as reduced risk of heart
disease.
Natural antioxidant compounds work by a
number of different mechanisms, and
antioxidant mixtures may prove to work
synergistically, or sometimes antagonistically.
As may be expected, food components can
affect antioxidant activity, and so careful
testing in the food system of interest is
essential before any novel approach to
preservation is adopted.
There has been considerable commercial
development in natural antioxidants in recent
years. Among the most important are
tocopherol/tocotrienol; ascorbic acid; herb and
spice extracts, such as rosemary, oregano and
sage; green tea extracts; organic acids;
lecithin; carotenoids; and flavonoids. Many
suppliers, including RC Treatt, Bush Boake
Allen, Kalsec, ADM, Jan Dekker International,
19
Overseal, and Chr. Hansen now offer a wide
range of different natural antioxidants or
antioxidant blends.
Many natural compounds have both
antimicrobial and antioxidant activity. These
include organic acids such as citric acid,
lactoferrin, and plant extracts.
Advantages
• A consumer-friendly label with no (or
fewer) E-numbers.
• The replacement of chemical
preservatives and antioxidants, some of
which may be associated with safety
concerns.
• The concept of natural antioxidants is
welcomed by the consumer. Natural
antioxidants are perceived as being
beneficial to health.
Drawbacks
• To achieve equivalent activity to that of
chemical preservatives, higher doses of
natural preservatives are often required.
• Certain natural preservatives may have a
strong characteristic flavour or odour,
which may limit the dose that can be
used.
• The nature of the foodstuff substrate has
a significant effect on the activity of
natural preservatives, which makes it
particularly important to test the
performance of the preservatives in the
real system.
• Higher costs than conventional
compounds.
20
5.4: Other Developing
Technologies
5.4.1: Pulsed electric field
Microorganisms in foods may be inactivated by
the application of very intense electric field
pulses. The process, which takes only a few
minutes, causes only a minimal increase in
temperature, and no appreciable physical or
chemical changes in the treated food.
In pulsed electric field (PEF) systems, energy
supplied by a high-voltage power supply is
stored in capacitors and discharged as short
pulses through a food material in a treatment
chamber. At Ohio State University, one of the
leading centres for the development of PEF
technology, researchers have reported very
positive results for extension of the high-
quality shelf life of liquids such as fresh orange
juice, skimmed milk, apple juice, liquid egg,
cheese sauce and salsa.
At present no commercial PEF systems are in
place. It has been estimated that the capital
cost for future commercial systems is around
twice that of commercial heat processing
systems, and that, for fresh PEF-treated
orange juice, the expected increase in price to
the consumer would be about 3%.
Further sources of information
Ohio State University
http://fst.osu.edu/pef/
US Soldier Systems Center (Natick) Dual Use
Science & Technology (DUST) project
http://www.seabeecook.com/rations/
new/new_dehy.htm
5.4.2: Pulsed white light
Pulsed light treatment is the application of
intense short flashes of broad-spectrum white
light. It is able to inactivate microorganisms by
a combination of photochemical means and
light-induced photothermal effects. The
ultraviolet content of the light provides the
photochemical energy, and the high intensity
of the light pulses provides thermal energy,
which, because the pulses are of extremely
short duration, is restricted to the extreme
outer surface of the material to be treated.
Pulsed light treatment is most effective on dry
smooth surfaces, where there are no fissures
that could protect microorganisms from the
light. Promising potential applications for
extended shelf life include bakery products
such as bread, cakes, pizza and bagels. On-
line pasteurisation of drinking water and
sterilisation of packaging materials are among
the applications closest to commercial
introduction.
5.4.3: Ultra-violet light, pulsed
ultra-violet light
Light in the UV-C region (wavelengths
200-80 nm) produces the strongest
antimicrobial effect. It requires a much longer
treatment time than pulsed light, and, since
penetration levels are low, it is only suitable
for surface treatment. Since UV may produce
off-flavours in foods, the most promising
applications are in treatment of packaging
materials. UV-C is currently in commercial use
for disinfecting air particle filters and
decontamination of processing surfaces.
5.4.4: Ultrasound
Ultrasound treatment involves the transmission
of energy at frequencies higher than 18MHz.
At present, ultrasound is used in food
processing for a number of applications that
are not related to food preservation, such as
degassing and foam control, mixing,
emulsification and meat tenderisation. At high
intensities, ultrasound has a lethal effect on
microorganisms, and so has potential as a food
preservation treatment.
One of the limitations of the use of ultrasound
for preservation of foods is that the intensity of
ultrasound required to achieve microbial
inactivation is such that can also have physical
effects on foodstuffs. Ultrasound produces cell
cavitation, localised heating and can lead to
the formation of free radicals. However, low
doses may have potential applications as part
of a combination preservation strategy.
According to researchers at Campden and
Chorleywood Food Association, low-frequency,
high-intensity ultrasound combined with heat
treatment acts synergistically to enhance the
inactivation of spoilage and pathogenic
microorganisms by as much as twenty-fold.
Further information
FDA Center for Food Safety and Applied
Nutrition – the uses of ultrasound in the food
industry
http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~comm/ift-
us.html
5.4.5: Combinations of
preservation technologies
with potential
It has been stressed throughout that when
considering the implementation of novel
processing or preservation measures for foods
it is necessary to carry out careful testing, not
only to ensure food safety, but also to evaluate
the effects on food quality. In many cases the
use of a combination of preservation
technologies increases the effectiveness of
microbial inactivation without a quality penalty.
Many different combination treatments have
been investigated or proposed, some examples
are listed below.
Ultrasound causes microbial inactivation by
cellular cavitation, and the effectiveness is
increased when used together with high
temperature or with high temperature and
pressure. The combination treatments produce
a particularly marked increase in the
effectiveness of ultrasound at inactivating
enzymes. For example, in milk, ultrasound and
heat act synergistically in the inactivation of
alkaline phosphatase, lactoperoxidase and
glutamyltranspeptidase. Similarly, heat,
pressure and ultrasound act synergistically in
the inactivation of lipase.
High-pressure processing is effective against
microorganisms, but less so against bacterial
spores. Combining high pressures with heat
21
treatment has proved effective in certain food
systems such as tomato and other vegetable
products.
Pulsed electric field treatment is most effective
for foods of low pH. Fruit juices are good
candidates for PEF treatment. PEF also has a
synergistic effect when combined with
moderately elevated temperatures (50-60 °C),
and this has been investigated for skimmed
milk.
Natural preservatives are best used in
combination as part of a hurdle strategy. To
achieve the best results at the lowest dose
levels additional techniques such as modified
atmosphere packaging, heat treatment, and
pH modification have been suggested. Specific
examples include modified atmosphere
packaging with oregano essential oil vapour;
lysozyme and nisin with pulsed high-pressure
treatment; and pulsed electric field, nisin and
carvacrol.
Irradiation can act synergistically with heat
treatment - the combination is more effective
at destroying viruses in meat products, for
example. Chilled storage and modified
atmosphere packaging also work well in
combination with irradiation for meat and
poultry products.
5.5: Further Reading
General
Anon (2003) ‘Effect of preservation
technologies on microbial inactivation in foods’
Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and
Food Safety, Vol 2 (Supplement), 42-45
http://www.ift.org/cms/?pid=1000633.
Barbosa-Canovas G.V. (2002) ‘Key goals of
emerging technologies for inactivating bacteria’
Food Safety Magazine, August/September, 34-
42.
Clark J.P. (2002) ‘Thermal and nonthermal
processing’, Food Technology, 56 (12) 63-64.
Leadley C., Williams A., Jones L. (2003) ‘New
technologies in food preservation: an
22
introduction’ published by Campden and
Chorleywood Food Research Association Group.
Novak J.S., Sapers G.M., Juneja V.K. (2003)
‘Microbial safety of minimally processed foods’
published by CRC Press.
Ohlsson T., Bengtsson N. (2002) ‘Minimal
processing technologies in the food industry’
published by Woodhead Publishing Ltd.
Rodriguez J.J., Barbosa-Canovas G.V.,
Gutierrez-Lopez G.F., Dorantes-Alvarez L.,
Yeom H.W., Zhang Q.H. (2003) ‘An update on
some key alternative food processing
technologies: microwave, pulsed electric field,
high hydrostatic pressure, irradiation, and
ultrasound’ in ‘Food science and food
biotechnology’ by Gutierrez-Lopez G.F.,
Barbosa-Canovas G.V., published by CRC
Press.
Stewart C.M., Cole M.B. (2001) ‘Preservation
by the application of nonthermal processing’ in
‘Spoilage of processed foods: causes and
diagnosis’ by Australian Institute of Food
Science and Technology Incorporated Food
Microbiology Group, Moir C.J., published by
AIFST Inc.
High-pressure processing
Anon (2003) ‘Keeping the pressure up’ Sandwich
and Snack News Magazine (May) 18-19.
Hendrickx M.E.G., Knorr D. (2002) ‘Ultra-high-
pressure treatment of foods’ published by
Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Raso J., Barbosa-Canovas G.V. (2003)
‘Nonthermal preservation of foods using
combined processing techniques’ Critical
Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 43 (3),
265-285.
San Martin M.F., Barbosa-Canovas G.V.,
Swanson B.G. (2002) ‘Food processing by high
hydrostatic pressure’ Critical Reviews in Food
Science and Nutrition, 42 (6), 627-645.
Irradiation

Deeley C. (2002) ‘Food irradiation – setting

new standards or a slippery slope?’ Food
Science and Technology, 16 (2), 52-55.

Mendonca A.F. (2002) ‘Inactivation by

irradiation’ in ‘Control of foodborne
microorganisms’ by Juneja V.K., Sofos J.N.,
published by Marcel Dekker.

Microwave processing

Bengtsson N. (2001) ‘Development of

industrial microwave heating of foods in
Europe over the past 30 years’ Journal of
Microwave Power and Electromagnetic Energy,
36 (4), 227-240.

Doores S., (2002) ‘Microwave inactivation of

pathogens’ in ‘Control of foodborne
microorganisms’ by Juneja V.K., Sofos J.N.,
published by Marcel Dekker.

Natural preservatives

Cleveland J., Montville T.J., Nes I.F., Chikindas

M.L. (2001) ‘Bacteriocins: safe, natural
antimicrobials for food preservation’
International Journal of Food Microbiology,
(December 4), 71 (1), 1-20.

Roller S. (2003) ‘Natural antimicrobials for the

minimal processing of food’ published by
Woodhead Publishing Ltd.

Thompkinson D.K., Singh A.K. (2000) ‘Natural

food preservation systems’ Indian Food
Industry, (September/October), 19 (5),
330-338.

23
6: Packaging of new applications and possibilities for
packaging as a major technique for controlling
shelf life. The potential of such developments
Food packaging performs a number of
as oxygen absorbers, carbon dioxide
important functions. Apart from protecting the
absorbers, antimicrobial release films, and
food product from its environment and
antioxidant release films is beginning to
enabling easy distribution of delicate or difficult
command considerable attention.
to handle products such as eggs or fresh
produce, it also has to carry product
information and has a marketing function. It
6.1: Map
also has to be convenient for the consumer to
For most foods there is an ideal atmosphere
use, suitable for safe food contact, and cost
that will optimise the shelf life of the product.
effective.
This is true even for quite complex
combination products. The purpose of modified
Packaging has had a key role in the
atmosphere packaging is to provide an initial
maintenance and extension of food shelf life
atmosphere in the pack that comes as close as
for many years, and in some cases it has an
possible to that ideal. For example, fresh cut
integral role in the preservation system. For
produce continues to respire after packing and
example:
will rapidly use up the oxygen in the
headspace of the pack, while levels of carbon
• Maintaining sterility of canned foods
dioxide increase. This promotes spoilage and
• Maintaining sterility of aseptically filled
reduces product shelf life. By supplying a
drinks
higher initial level of oxygen in the pack, this
• Exclusion of moisture from dried foods
can be overcome to some extent.
• Long-term physical protection of frozen
foods
Most MAP applications use a combination of
• Exclusion of light from vulnerable
three gases to produce an ideal atmosphere.
products (e.g. oils and fats)
• Oxygen barrier
• Oxygen:
• Microbiological barrier
Allows respiration to continue in fresh
produce.
All of these are important, but they are
Prevents loss of initial colour (e.g. in red
essentially passive functions. In recent years
meats).
there has been rapid development of new
Inhibits anaerobic bacterial growth.
packaging techniques to produce systems that
have a more active role in the preservation of
• Carbon dioxide:
food products.
The most important component in MAP
gas mixtures.
The best example of this is modified
20-100% in headspace inhibits some
atmosphere packaging (MAP), which has grown
bacterial and mould growth.
enormously over the last 20 years and now
has a significant presence in a number of
• Nitrogen:
sectors, including fresh produce, meat and
Inert gas used to displace oxygen and
poultry, dairy products, chilled ready-meals,
delay oxidation.
bakery products and seafood. The technology
Also indirectly inhibits aerobic microbial
has developed from simple gas flushing
growth.
designed to reduce oxygen levels in the pack,
Prevents pack collapse in high moisture
to sophisticated gas mixtures capable of
and high fat foods that absorb carbon
producing significant extension of shelf life.
dioxide.

More recently, other developments in the field

of ‘active packaging’ have opened up a range

24
Other gases have also been investigated for
Product % % Carbon %
possible application in MAP. These include Oxygen dioxide Nitrogen
carbon monoxide, argon, nitrogen dioxide, and
ozone. Of these, argon is the most promising Red meat 60-85 15-40 -

from a commercial point of view. This inert gas Poultry - 25 75

White fish 30 40 30
fills the same functions as nitrogen, but is
Oily fish - 60 40
more effective because of its higher molecular
Hard cheese - 100 -
weight. Bread - 60-70 30-40
Fresh pasta - - 100
Gas supplies Dried foods - - 100

Gases for MAP are most commonly supplied in

pressurised cylinders, but liquid gases are also
available, as are air separation systems for gas
generation on site.
Packaging materials
Other food products for which MAP can extend
shelf life include: ready meals; dairy products;
ground coffee; sandwiches; snack foods (e.g.
crisps and nuts); dressed salads (e.g.
coleslaw); cakes; and pastries.

The optimum gas mixture must be combined Advantages

with a packaging material and pack sealing
mechanism that allows the atmosphere in the
pack to remain optimum as long as possible.
For example, the packaging material must
have sufficient barrier properties to prevent
gases diffusing out of, or into, the pack too
quickly (This is a particular problem with
carbon dioxide, which diffuses through plastic
films more readily than other MAP gases.) But
it must also be capable of forming a gas-tight
seal. For this reason, a variety of laminates are
used for MAP products, and it is important to
ensure that the material used is matched to
the gas mixture. Examples of laminates used
include: nylon/PE; nylon/PVdC/PE; and
nylon/EVOH/PE.
It is also important to ensure that the ‘head
space-to-product’ ratio is correct. If the
headspace volume in the pack is too large,
then the pack appears to the consumer to be
poor value. If the headspace volume is too
small the amount of gas mixture in the pack
may be too low to have the desired effect.
Applications
MAP can give useful shelf life extension across
a wide range of products, and not only highly
perishable foods, such as fresh produce. Some
examples are given below, together with
commonly used gas mixtures.
• General benefits of a shelf life extension
ranging from several days to several
months (i.e. less waste, wider
distribution, improved production
scheduling etc.).
• Improved product visibility.
• Improved hygiene from hermetically
sealed packs.
• Reduces the need for chemical
preservatives.
• Allows better separation of sliced
products.
Drawbacks
• Increased costs:
• Capital cost of gas packaging
equipment
• Gas supplies
• Packaging material
• Analytical equipment to monitor gas
mixtures
• Quality assurance costs
• Increased pack volume.
• Potential microbiological safety hazards
(e.g. possible growth of Clostridium
botulinum in low oxygen packs.
• Vulnerable to seal failures and punctures
caused by physical damage.

25
Sources of further information
Air Products
http://www.airproducts.com/products/
equipment/foodfreezers/index.asp
Air Liquide
http://www.airliquide.com/en/business/
industry/food/applications/
map_packaging.asp
Society of Food Hygiene Technology paper on
MAP safety
http://www.sofht.co.uk/isfht/
irish_97_atmosphere.htm
Campden guidelines (paper publication)
http://www.campden.co.uk/publ/
pubfiles/ tm34.htm
Cryovac packaging
http://www.sealedair.com/eu/en/
products/food/default.htm
BOC MAP fact sheet
http://www.boc.com/markets/
appdetail.cfm?appdetailid= 30&market_
bs_id=46
6.2: Active Packaging
Active packaging can be defined as packaging
that interacts with the internal environment of
the pack. Some of the technologies currently
being developed are designed to modify the
atmosphere within the pack throughout shelf
life by absorbing or releasing gases, so that
the optimum gas mixture of an MAP system is
retained for a longer period. In other cases,
the packaging is designed to interact with the
product itself, perhaps by the slow release of
antimicrobial compounds or antioxidants.
Examples
• Oxygen scavengers –
Used either in sachet form, incorporated into a
label, or into the packaging film itself, to
absorb oxygen in the pack. Applications
include inhibition of mould growth on cheese
26
or bakery products, and delaying oxidation of
oils and fats.
• Ethylene scavengers –
Also used in sachets or packaging films to
absorb ethylene gas produced by some
ripening fruits and vegetables. Can be used to
delay ripening and softening of produce such
as bananas, avocados and potatoes.
• Carbon dioxide emitters –
Carbon dioxide diffuses through plastic
packaging films more readily than other gases.
Sachets containing CO2 emitters can be used
to maintain the original level. Useful for
preventing microbial spoilage in meat, poultry,
fish, cheese and some fruits.
• Ethanol emitters –
Sachets that emit ethanol into the pack
headspace have been developed in Japan.
They can be used to increase the mould-free
shelf life of bakery products.
• Antioxidant release films –
Films containing antioxidants such as
tocopherol, BHA, or BHT can be used to inhibit
oxidation of oils and fats in dried and high fat
foods.
• Antimicrobial release films –
Films impregnated with a range of
antimicrobial compounds (e.g. organic acids,
spice extracts, lysozyme, and other enzymes)
have been developed to inhibit the growth of
spoilage and harmful bacteria on the surface of
meat, poultry, fish, bakery products, cheese,
and fresh produce.
• Flavouring emitters –
Flavour compounds can be incorporated into
polymers to produce packaging materials that
minimise flavour loss and mask taints and off
odours in a wide range of products.
• Temperature compensating films –
Temperature compensating films, such as
‘Intelimer’ film, have a chemical structure that
changes abruptly and reversibly at a specific
temperature. This ‘switch temperature’ can be
anywhere between 0 °C and 45 °C. Below this
temperature, the film is an effective gas
barrier, but it becomes much more permeable
above the switch temperature. This can be
used to compensate for the increase in the
respiration rate of fresh-cut produce at higher
temperatures.

Current status of active packaging

A great deal of research into active packaging

is currently being undertaken, especially in
Japan and North America. So far, only oxygen
scavengers have had any significant
commercial impact, although both ethylene
scavengers and ethanol emitters are also used.

The impact in Europe has been very limited to

date, partly because of the effect of EU
legislation on food contact materials, but also
because of fears of consumer resistance.
However, the European Commission has
proposed a change to the regulations to allow
active packaging applications, and it seems
likely that there will be a surge in uptake of
these systems in the next few years.

Sources of further information

Food Science Australia fact sheet (Active

packaging)
http://www.dfst.csiro.au/actpac.htm

EU funded Actipak project

http://www.voeding.tno.nl/
ProductSheet.cfm?PNR=Actipak

Intelimer film
http://www.landecag.com/Intelimer.asp

27
7: Decontamination 7.2.1: General considerations
Techniques
There are a wide variety of chemical

7.1: Introduction decontamination agents that can be used and

it may be a sensible precaution to rotate

The decontamination of raw foodstuffs, such as different agents within a plant over time. This

raw meats and fresh produce, can enhance helps to prevent the build-up of a resistant

food safety as well as reduce the numbers of population of microbes.

spoilage microorganisms, and can help to

achieve a longer shelf life for a product. Safety for employees using chemicals should

Decontamination techniques can also help in be taken into consideration. More information

prolonging the shelf life of ‘processed’ products can be found in a health and safety executive

(e.g. cooked prawns) by removing (HSE) information sheet entitled ‘Controlling

microorganisms that have re-contaminated the exposure to disinfectants in the food and drink

product during or after processing. industries’ Food Information Sheet No 29.

http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/fis29.pdf.

Decontamination techniques currently used or

proposed for industry include the use of 7.2.2: Water
chemicals, thermal or physical treatments, and
other ‘alternative’ technologies. A number of The effective removal of dirt and other

treatments used together can result in a particles from fresh food using water has been

greater reduction of microorganisms than a used throughout history. Simple washing can

single treatment. slightly reduce surface microbial populations

but the efficacy of water as a decontamination

It is important to note that decontamination agent can be improved by ensuring that

technologies cannot usually be relied upon to potable water is used, raising the temperature

completely eliminate pathogens or spoilage of the water (up to 80 °C has been

microorganisms from foods. The main suggested), using different application

exception to this is irradiation. But methods (e.g. spraying, high pressure

decontamination does provide a means of spraying), using the wash in conjunction with

reducing the initial levels of microorganisms mechanical means such as brushes, agitation,

and so extend shelf life. and/or using multiple washing steps.

7.2: Chemical Techniques Water can also be used as a final step

following other chemical sanitising methods.

There has been great interest in chemical Water, particularly delivered using high-

decontamination techniques in recent years, pressure hoses, can be used in meat carcass

especially in the US following serious food trimming and is usually followed by the

poisoning outbreaks linked to raw meat and application of a vacuum to remove

fresh produce. Many chemicals have been contaminants. For fresh produce processing

evaluated for this purpose, and some have water should be kept at higher temperatures

been approved by the US authorities and are than produce to prevent bacteria and other

in commercial US. There has been less interest microbes being drawn into the interior of the

in the UK, and European legislation does not food product by a temperature-generated

contain a list of compounds that can be used. pressure differential.

Any chemical used as a decontaminant must

obviously be safe when applied to food and Applications

there must be no antimicrobial residues left on

the product, otherwise it could be seen as an To remove and loosen dirt and reduce

added preservative and not a processing aid. microbial contamination on fresh produce and
meat carcasses.

28
Advantages
• Natural sanitizer
• Consumer-acceptable
• Inexpensive
Disadvantages
• Limited effectiveness
• Use of untreated water may cause cross
contamination
• Hot water can affect the colour, texture
and flavour of produce
• Physical cleaning used with water can
damage produce and may lead to the
removal of waxy cuticles that are natural
barriers to microorganisms
7.2.3: Ozone
Ozone is a gaseous form of oxygen which,
when dissolved in water, has been shown to be
a powerful disinfectant. Ozone gas can be
generated either by using UV bulbs or corona
discharges in an oxygen-filled atmosphere.
Ozone has a short half-life and readily breaks
down to oxygen so food treated with ozone will
have no residues left over from processing.
Ozone can be used as a gas during the chilled
storage of various foods to reduce microbial
spoilage. The gas dissolves into the water
contained in the food being stored and so
reduces the levels of microorganisms on the
exposed surfaces of the product. Ozone can
also be used to decontaminate bottled water
and to treat water used to decontaminate
meat and fresh produce.
Applications
Bottled drinking water production,
decontamination of animal carcasses, in wash
waters for fruits, salads and vegetables, to
extend shelf life during storage of various
products including fruit and vegetables. Ozone
has recently been suggested for use to
decontaminate ready-to-eat meat and poultry
products.
Advantages
• No chemical residue on treated product or
in the water used for washing
• Operating costs are low
• Can be generated when needed and does
not need storage facilities
Drawbacks
• The capital cost of the initial equipment is
high
• The strong oxidising properties of ozone
can cause physical injury, such as black
spots in bananas, or colour changes in
some products
• Ozone can be corrosive to materials used
in processing equipment
• Difficult to control and monitor when
organic loads vary
• Ozone can be toxic to humans
Further information
http://www.waterwise.co.uk/
http://www.ozonetech.com/
http://www.boc.com/news/article_
detail. cfm?ID=633
http://www.praxair.com/
7.2.4: Chlorine (hypochlorite)
Chlorine-based chemicals, particularly liquid
chlorine and hypochlorites, are probably the
most widely used sanitisers for
decontaminating fresh produce.
Chlorine compounds are usually used at levels
of 50–200 ppm free chlorine and with typical
contact times of 1–2 minutes. Although
chlorine is more effective in solution at acid pH
levels, in order to minimize the corrosion of
processing equipment, chlorine-based
sanitisers are usually used at pH values
between 6.0 and 7.5. Processing water should
be kept at least 10 °C higher than the produce
being treated to prevent microbes being drawn
into the internal parts of the product by a
temperature-generated pressure differential.
The type of produce, the amount of organic
matter and numbers and types of microbes
29
present on produce all affect the effectiveness
of chlorine decontamination.
Washing produce in chlorine-treated water
reduces the chance for cross-contamination
between different batches of product. It is
usual to rinse washed produce in clean water
after decontamination. Chlorine compounds
can then be classified as processing aids and
residual chlorine on the produce could not be
claimed to extend shelf-life, which would mean
declaration on the label.
Applications
Chlorine is used in wash waters and assists
with decontaminating the surfaces of fresh
fruits, vegetables, salads and fresh herbs.
Chlorine treatments have also been suggested
for the decontamination of seeds for sprouting.
However, the effective use of chlorine for
decontaminating meat carcasses is disputed,
and it not now considered acceptable practice.
Advantages
• Readily available
• Inexpensive
• Well proven in use
• Effective and simple to monitor
Drawbacks
• May leave a residual taste or taint on the
product
• Chlorine rapidly loses activity on contact
with organic matter or exposure to air,
light or metals
• The formation of potentially hazardous
chlorinated organic compounds upon
treatment of fruits and vegetables with
chlorine is a concern
• Potential health and safety hazards
Further information
Guidelines are available for the use of chlorine
to wash fresh produce.
Campden and Chorleywood Food Research
Association. ‘The uses of chlorine in fresh
30
produce washing. CCFRDA Guideline No 38
(2002).’
Suppliers of equipment and sanitising
chemicals
http://www.proton-group.co.uk/
7.2.5: Dimethyl dichloride
Dimethyl dichloride (DMDC) is an effective
sterilising chemical treatment used to
inactivate microorganisms, including moulds
and yeasts, in a wide variety of beverages.
DMDC is added to the beverage immediately
prior to bottling and the chemical undergoes
complete hydrolysis within a few hours to
methanol and carbon dioxide. This breakdown
into naturally occurring components means its
use is as a ‘cold sterilant’ agent and not as a
persistent antimicrobial in the product. DMDC
is more effective as a sterilant at ambient and
higher temperatures; however, it breaks down
more rapidly at higher temperatures and
commercial suppliers recommend its use at
around 10 °C. The activity of DMDC is also
affected by the pH and alcohol content of the
treated product (products containing higher
alcohol levels and lower pH require less DMDC
for effective treatment). At levels lower than
200 mg/l its taste is undetectable in products.
Commercially available a ‘Velcorin®’
Applications
Alcoholic and non-alcoholic wines, sports
drinks, ready-to-drink teas, juice based
beverages and carbonated and non-carbonated
artificial drinks.
Advantages
• It does not affect the colour, taste, or
odour of the beverage at use levels
• It can reduce or eliminate the need for
chemical preservatives in beverages
• Does not require declaration on the label
when used as a sterilant
• Additional equipment required can be
incorporated into existing filling lines
• Low energy costs
• Can remove the need for hot-fill allowing
more packaging options
Drawbacks
• Not completely effective against all
microorganisms
• Capital outlay for additional equipment
fitted to filling lines
• The chemical is hazardous and requires
special handling
Further information
http://www.protectedbybayer.com/mpp/
global/applications/food_beverages/
beverages/
7.2.6: Hydrogen peroxide
The antimicrobial properties of hydrogen
peroxide have been known for many years and
preparations where hydrogen peroxide is the
active compound are marketed as
decontaminating solutions for the food
industry. In some countries the maximum
concentration for meat and poultry carcasses is
100 ppm. Dipping, spraying or treatment with
hydrogen peroxide vapour is reported as
effective for some fruit and vegetable
products. Combination treatments particularly
using hydrogen peroxide with acetic acid are
reported as very effective for reducing
foodborne pathogens on some types of fresh
produce.
Applications
To decontaminate meat and poultry carcasses.
Has been suggested as useful as an
antimicrobial in dairy products and to reduce
mould contamination in dried fruits. To
decontaminate fresh fruit and vegetables.
Advantages
• Rapidly breaks down leaving no residues
• It leaves no odour and does not effect the
taste of treated foods
• It is non-toxic at use concentrations and
has a neutral pH
• It has little impact on waste water or the
environment
Drawbacks
• Effective concentrations of hydrogen
peroxide may cause undesirable colour
and appearance changes in treated
carcasses
• Unacceptable colour changes are reported
with some types of fruit and vegetables,
particularly mushrooms, strawberries and
raspberries
Further information
http://www.sanosil.com/index.htm
7.2.7: Organic acids
The antimicrobial efficacy of organic acids
depends on type of acid, its concentration and
type of application. Efficacy also depends on
pH, temperature and other factors in the food
matrix. Organic acids such as lactic and acetic
acid are probably the most widely used
chemical decontaminants to reduce bacterial
contaminants on beef, lamb, pork and poultry
carcasses. Such acids are used prior to the
chilling of carcasses as they are most effective
when applied at temperatures between 50–55
°C. Organic acids can be used in combination
with other decontamination techniques, such
as high pressure water sprays.
Research has found that organic acids may
also be of use in the decontamination of fresh
produce, including herbs. Citric, acetic, lactic,
tartaric acid, and other organic acids, alone, or
in combination with each other, as well as
other cleaning agents such as chlorine and
surfactants, are all possible decontamination
agents.
Applications
Decontamination of meat carcasses.
Decontamination of fresh produce. To reduce
the microbial load on fish and prawns. As a
wash for poultry carcasses. As an external
decontaminant for cheese.
31
Advantages
• Organic acids naturally occur in many
foods
• Regarded as natural and environmentally
friendly by the consumer
• Readily available and relatively low cost
Drawbacks
• Can cause the discolouration of meat
surfaces and off-flavours
• Their use may cause the emergence of
acid-resistant pathogens with reduced
microbial competition on the
decontaminated meat
• The disposal of acids in wastewater can
be a problem
• The use of organic acid treatments can
accelerate equipment corrosion
More information
http://www.aamp.com/beefcarcslaug.htm
http://www.purac.com/documents/
literature/ FreshMeatEN.pdf
http://www.biokill.com.hk/PRODUCTS/
citrox.htm
http://www.agritrus.com/uses.htm#1
Organic acids. Samelis J., Sofos J.N. Natural
antimicrobials for the minimal processing of
foods. Roller S. Cambridge Woodhead
Publishing Ltd, 2003, 98-132.
7.2.8: Peracetic (peroxyacetic)
acid
Sanitisers containing peracetic acid have been
reported to maintain their efficacy in reducing
microbial loads over a broader pH range and in
a higher organic loading than hypochlorite.
Research has shown that in combination with
surfactants such decontaminates can be
effectively used to reduce pathogens on fresh
produce. The maximum concentration for use
on meat and poultry carcasses in 220 ppm.
Available commercially as ‘Tsunami®’
32
Applications
To use in waters for decontamination of fresh-
cut, further processed and post-harvest fruit
and vegetables. Used in poultry spray rinsing
and chill water, and in red meat carcass
sprays.
Advantages
• When used at recommended
concentrations peracetic acid does not
have an impact on colour, odour or taste
of product
• It breaks down mainly to acetic acid and
water and so it is compatible with waste
treatment systems
• It is supplied premixed so there is less
risk to processing personnel. It is non-
corrosive at use concentrations.
Drawbacks
• Is more expensive than hypochlorites
Further information
http://www.ecolab.com/Initiatives/foods
afety/ FST/Tsunami.asp
7.2.9: Other chemicals that may
have a role as decontaminants
Chlorine dioxide
Chlorine dioxide extremely effective at low
concentrations, typically levels of 3 ppm and
1 ppm are used for whole produce, and peeled
potatoes respectively. When compared with
chlorine and hypochlorites, chlorine dioxide is
less affected by organic matter and its activity
is unaffected by pH. Chlorine dioxide can be
used to wash fresh fruit, vegetables and
salads, although its use on some fresh produce
may be restricted by legislation. It has been
used in water for meat carcass washing and
processing, and in the preparation of ice to
store fresh fish.
Chlorine dioxide is difficult to store and
transport and is usually generated on-site. This
process is expensive and carries serious health
and safety concerns.
Further information
http://www.chlorine-dioxide.com/food/
index.htm
http://www.purate.com/
http://www.clo2.co.uk/
Trisodium phosphate
A mixture of water and food grade trisodium
phosphate (usually at concentrations between
8-12%) is used to clean and decontaminate
poultry carcasses. It acts as a detergent,
washing off faecal contaminants and dirt. It
decontaminates by acting as a surfactant due
to its high pH (pH of TSP solution is around
12-13), minimising the ability of bacteria to
attach to surfaces. It is used by spraying or
dipping for up to 15 seconds, and is followed
by a rinse in clear water. Trisodium phosphate
solutions can be recycled. It has simple feed
and application systems.
Unfortunately, it has a limited effect on
spoilage microflora, and can be corrosive to
plant and equipment over extended periods of
use. There are also waste treatment and
health and safety concerns.
Further information
http://www.rhodia-phosphates.com/
brochures/ phosprods/page7.asp
Cetylpyridinium chloride
Cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) is a quaternary
ammonium compound that has antimicrobial
properties against many microorganisms. It is
not currently approved for food processing in
the US. Its potential is for use as a spray or
dip treatment to decontaminate carcasses, and
studies have investigated its efficacy at
reducing foodborne pathogens using
concentrations between 0.5 and 1%.
Although it is non-corrosive to metal, is not a
severe health hazard, and has no effect on the
organoleptic qualities of the food, residual
levels of this chemical following treatment
have been considered excessive for human
consumption and CPC has yet to be approved
for food use.
Further information
http://www.safefoods.net/cecure/cecure.htm
Acidified sodium chlorite
Acidified sodium chlorite is prepared by mixing
sodium chlorite and citric acid (or another food
grade acid such as phosphoric acid,
hydrochloric acid, malic acid or sodium acid
sulfate). It can be applied onto food surfaces
by spraying or dipping at levels of 500-1200
ppm. The time between mixing and application
is less than 5 minutes. Chlorine dioxide is
produced during application, but levels do not
exceed 3 ppm. Although there is no post
treatment water rinse required for its use for
poultry, meat and meat products there is a
post treatment water rinse applied to fruit and
vegetables. There is also a withholding time
until the treated fruit and vegetables can be
processed (i.e. cut up).
Further information
http://www.sanova.com/toc.htm
Activated lactoferrin
Lactoferrin in a ‘natural’ antimicrobial, the
activated product (in a form that has the
greatest antimicrobial properties) available for
use as a decontaminating agent is derived
from milk. It is effective as a decontaminating
agent because it prevents bacteria from
attaching to carcasses. It also acts as an
antimicrobial, preventing the growth of any
remaining cells. It is applied by an electrostatic
application followed by a water rinse to
remove detached cells. In the US, it is
permitted for use at up to 2% of a water-
based antimicrobial spray.
33
Nisin
Nisin is an antimicrobial that is produced by
bacteria found in milk, and is perceived as a
‘natural’ food preservative. There are variable
reports on the efficacy of nisin as a
decontaminating agent for meat, as nisin’s
activity is affected by numerous factors such
as salt, fat content, pH, curing agents, storage
temperature, modified atmospheres and the
presence of other preservatives. Typically
commercial preparations are supplied at 2.5%
nisin. The activity of nisin against some
bacteria can be enhanced when used with co-
agents such as organic acids, or with other
technologies such as high hydrostatic pressure.
The addition of nisin to products can enhance
pasteurization treatments allowing less
product-damaging heat regimes to be used.
7.3 : Thermal Techniques
7.3.1: Hot water
Hot water is used as an immersion treatment
to control insects and post-harvest plant
pathogens on fresh produce and it may be of
use as a sanitiser for whole produce that is
then further processed for fresh-cut products
or unpasteurised juices.
Research has indicated that for meat carcasses
a hot-water spray followed by a cold wash may
be more effective than a hot spray alone. The
efficacy of hot water sprays can be improved
by delivering the water under high pressure.
Effective water temperature for the
decontamination of meat carcasses should
exceed 74 °C, and research using water at
temperatures above 80 °C report no adverse
quality affects on the product. Hot water spray
treatments are via washing cabinets.
Applications
Decontamination of meat carcasses.
Advantages
• Leaves no chemical residues on produce
34
• Perceived by the consumer as a natural
treatment
Drawbacks
• Uses large quantities of water when
compared with chemical treatments
• Achieving adequate temperatures on the
surface of meat product can be difficult
due to heat loss when water travels from
nozzle to carcass
• Hot water can generate condensate on
products
• Hot water can affect the colour, texture
and flavour of products
• Can be expensive in energy costs
7.3.2: Steam
Commercial processes for meat carcasses
using steam pasteurization reduce bacterial
counts by applying pressurised steam for
around 6 seconds to the surface of carcasses
after a washing step. This is usually followed
by another cool wash to reduce heat damage
to the carcass. Research indicates that
pressurised steam gives equivalent reductions
in pathogen numbers as for knife trimming or
steam vacuuming. Processes using steam
sterilization for the decontamination of herbs,
spices, seasonings and seeds have also been
developed. Material is exposed to saturated
steam for a short time (a high
temperature/short time [HTST] process), and
the product is dried and cooled.
Applications
To reduce microbial counts on meat carcasses.
To decontaminate dried herbs, spices,
seasonings and seeds.
Advantages
• Has reduced energy costs and water use
compared with hot-water sprays
• Bacterial reductions are achieved without
the use of corrosive chemicals
• If used correctly, there is no visual quality
effect on the carcass
• For dried products, the process is more
acceptable to the consumer when
compared with irradiation
Drawbacks
• If applied for longer than 6 seconds, can
affect the colour of meat products
• The effect on meat colour can cause plant
personnel to reduce the application time
or temperature that may lead to an
ineffective procedure
• Requires expensive capital investment in
equipment
• Not suitable for all spices because causes
the loss of volatile flavour and aroma
components
• The process raises moisture levels in dried
powders, possibly resulting in higher
mould counts
Further information
http://www.ventilex.net/Steam%20
Sterilization.htm
http://www.revtech.fr/siteeng/
food_decont.htm
Effect of steam condensation, hot water or
chlorinated hot water immersion on bacterial
numbers and quality of lamb carcasses.
James C., Thornton J.A., Ketteringham L.,
James S.J. Journal of Food Engineering, 2000
(March), 43 (4), 219-225.
7.3.3: Steam vacuum
The application of steam or hot water with a
suction or ‘vacuuming’ treatment is a process
used in meat carcass decontamination that
combines the physical removal of faecal
contamination along with the sanitisation of
the carcass. Typically, the process uses a
vacuum wand that has a hot water (82-88 °C)
spray inside. Steam is delivered by two
external spray nozzles that have two functions;
to decontaminate the carcass as well as to
sterilise the outside of the vacuum wand. The
technique functions as a spot cleaner for
carcasses. Research indicates that a
commercial steam vacuum system is more
effective than knife trimming and may remove
the need for a visual examination by an
inspector. Treatment has been used as three
even passes at a rate of 1 second per pass.
Applications
To clean and decontaminate carcasses.
Advantages
• Improves visual appearance and
decontaminates small areas on a carcass
using a single treatment
• May be more effective than knife
trimming and reduce the need for visual
inspections
Drawbacks
• Can only clean small areas on a carcass
at once
• Tends to be used when faecal
contamination is evident so would not be
applied to microbial contamination on
visually clean ‘areas’
7.4 : Other Technologies
Other processes have been proposed for the
decontamination of fresh produce or meat
carcasses. These include irradiation,
hydrostatic pressure, electric fields, pulsed
light, microwaves, ultrasound, UV treatments,
oscillating magnetic fields and biocontrol
agents. However, research into the efficacy of
these treatments is limited and is ongoing.
Irradiation is permitted to reduce microbial
loads for meat products in the US. However,
the process is probably more suited to packed
products rather than carcasses, so that post-
process contamination does not occur, thus
ensuring a safer product. In the EU irradiation
is permitted at the time of writing for the
decontamination of dried aromatic herbs,
spices and vegetable seasonings, but the
process must be declared on product labels.
35
7.5 : Sources of Further
Information

Meat decontamination

http://www.meatscience.org/pubs/
newsltr/attach/ncbafs1.pdf

Reduction of microbial contaminants on

carcasses. Castillo A., Hardin M.D., Acuff G.R.,
Dickson J.S. Control of foodborne
microorganisms. Juneja V.K., Sofos J.N. New
York. Marcel Dekker, 2002, 351-381.

Fresh produce

http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~comm/
ift3-5.html
http://www.pestlaw.com/x/international
/WHO-19991100A.html

36
8: The Food Production Further information

Environment: Impact on
Shelf Life Development and use of microbiological criteria
for foods.
Institute of Food Science and Technology
The processing environment can affect the
London IFST 1999.
shelf life of many foods. The main way in
which the environment influences shelf life is
by increasing the microbiological loading of the
8.2: Storage of Ingredients
product. For any product that is susceptible to
The appropriate storage of raw ingredients can
microbiological spoilage, and which is neither
influence the final shelf life of a product.
sterilised in its final container, nor aseptically
Temperature, humidity and light can all affect
filled after sterilization, the number of
the quality, and perhaps the safety, of a raw
microorganisms present at the point of
ingredient. Storage areas should be well
production will be an important factor in
designed for easy cleaning and must be kept
keeping quality.
clean. They should be free from pests and a
system for stock rotation should be
Important gains in shelf life can be achieved
implemented. Food processing premises should
simply by applying good hygiene practice
be designed and operated so that raw
throughout processing. A clean and
ingredients cannot cross-contaminate
contamination-free processing environment
processed product. Cross-contamination can
and well trained staff will help to minimize the
not only impact on the spoilage of a product
levels of microbial contamination that are
but also can lead to food poisoning.
present on a food product as it passes into the
distribution chain.
8.3: Processing Areas
Some specific measures that can be taken are
Careful attention to the design of a processing
detailed below.
area can help in extending the shelf life of a

8.1: Sourcing of Ingredients product.

Materials used in ceilings, walls and floors

The microbiological quality of raw materials
should be able to be easily cleaned and all
can also have a significant impact on the final
areas should be accessible for cleaning.
shelf life of a product. A microbiological
specification for each ingredient should be
Further information
agreed with the supplier; this should set tight
limits for contamination wherever possible, but
CCFRA Guideline No 40 (2002). Guidelines for
must be realistic for the ingredient and
the design and construction of floors for food
account for the environment in which it is
production areas (second edition)
produced. There is no point in setting a target
http://www.campden.co.uk/publ/
that is not achievable.
pubfiles/ g40.htm

It should also be remembered that processing

CCFRA Guideline No 41 (2003). Guidelines for
water is an ingredient in many foods. This
the design and construction of walls, ceilings
should always be of potable quality, and should
and services for food production areas (second
be monitored regularly, especially where there
edition)
are water storage tanks and extensive
http://www.campden.co.uk/publ/
distribution pipework within a plant.
pubfiles/ g41.htm

37
 Best practice guidelines on airflows in high-
8.3.1: Processing equipment
care and high-risk areas (2001). Silsoe
Research Institute.
Design of equipment is extremely important.
http://www.sri.bbsrc.ac.uk/
Processing equipment that is easy to clean is
essential, and potential contamination traps,
Controlling air quality in the food industry.
such as dead areas in tanks, valves, or pipes
Wray S. International Food Hygiene, 2003, 14
that are difficult to reach should be avoided.
(1), 11-13.
Paying attention to ease of cleaning at the
design or purchase stage will pay dividends in
operation. Easy to clean equipment not only
8.4: Clean Room Technology
has inherent advantages, but also encourages
Clean room technology supplies clean air
staff to apply proper cleaning procedures.
drawn through high efficiency filters (HEPA
filters) that can almost completely remove
Further information
microorganisms and other particles to a
physically separated area within the plant (the
CCFRA Guideline No 39 (2003). Guidelines for
clean room). The flow of air is also controlled
the hygienic design, construction and layout of
within the clean room, which is usually kept
processing factories
under positive pressure so that unfiltered air is
http://www.campden.co.uk/publ/
unlikely to be drawn in through entrances and
pubfiles/ g39.htm
exits. The staff working in the area must be
well trained and should be dressed in
8.3.2: Ventilation
appropriate protective clothing. Cleaning
procedures for the surfaces and equipment
The air supply to, and air flow in the
should be validated and implemented. The
processing environment can affect the
movement of staff and materials in and out of
microbiological quality of a final product, since
the room should be strictly controlled to
many microbial contaminants can be airborne.
prevent cross contamination. In this way, an
The appropriate use of air filters to remove
environment that is almost microbiologically
airborne particles and microorganisms from
sterile can be maintained.
incoming air in processing areas can reduce
spoilage and extend shelf life. Design and
Clean room technology can assist in achieving
layout can also have a big effect on the flow of
a longer shelf life for fresh products that have
air. For example, the position of external and
a stage in their production process where they
internal doors is very important.
are vulnerable to airborne contamination. It is
a technology that prevents rather than treats
In high-care areas where microbial
the contamination. Incorporating clean rooms
contamination can pose a major risk, air
into a process can help achieve a longer shelf
supply and air flow can have a significant
life by ensuring a low level of microbial
impact on the safety and spoilage of high-risk
contamination, if not sterility, and physically
products, particularly in extended shelf life
preventing cross-contamination from
chilled foods such as cheeses, pizzas and
elsewhere in the processing facility. The
pastas, and those products not receiving an
technology can also keep a product free from
additional heat treatment prior to
allergens or genetically modified material and
consumption.
help with the avoidance of foreign objects, e.g.
human hair.
Further information

Applications
CCFRA Guideline No 12 (1996). Guidelines on
Air Quality Standards for the Food Industry
Clean room technology is useful to products
http://www.campden.co.uk/publ/
that are exposed to air during filling, during
pubfiles/ g12.htm

38
the transfer from preparation line to the
packaging area or for component products that
are assembled into consumer-ready portion
packages. Cheese, fresh pasta, and bakery
products may all benefit from this technology,
and it has also been used to assemble ready
meals.
Advantages
• Suitable for refrigerated products that are
processed but contain little or no
preservative
• Can help extend shelf life for fresh
products without impairing quality
• Can allow alternative packaging options
because lower process
temperatures/filling options are available
using this technology
Drawbacks
• High Initial outlay and running costs
• High level of staff training needed
Further information
Clean room technology and its benefit to the
food and beverage industry. Schicht, H.H. New
Food, 1 (1998), 2, 18-23.
Guidelines for clean room technology.
Guideline No. 14. Dairy Practices Council.
Guidelines for the dairy industry relating to
sanitation and milk quality, volume 1. Dairy
Practices Council Keyport DPC 2001.
8.5: Cleaning Technology
Effective cleaning is of vital importance in
ensuring that food products do not become
contaminated with microorganisms and/or
physical soil that may reduce product quality
and shelf life. Although microbiological
concerns are paramount, cleaning helps to
prevent other problems. For example, the
presence on surfaces of small amounts of fat
or oil that have already begun to go rancid can
accelerate rancidity in further batches of
product. Removing soil and microorganisms
from all product contact surfaces and the
environment generally at adequate intervals
can therefore have a big effect on shelf life.
8.5.1: Traditional cleaning
methods
Traditional cleaning using simple physical
methods (e.g. scrubbing), chemical detergents
or disinfectants and/or heat can be very
effective for reducing soil and microbial loads
in a food processing environment. Even quite
complex processing equipment may sometimes
need to be stripped down, inspected, and
cleaned by hand if necessary.
Special care should be taken for the cleaning
of high care areas and chilled food production
lines. Cleaning options for processing areas
dealing with dry goods are limited mainly to
physical methods, since the introduction of
water and water-based liquids to dry areas
should not normally be permitted on a routine
basis. For areas hard to access, such as
overhead surfaces, disinfectants can be used in
a fogging (as an aerosol) system.
In all cases it is important to develop a
documented schedule of cleaning procedures
of proven effectiveness for staff to follow.
An enormous range of cleaning chemicals is
commercially available, and the choice of
chemicals can be difficult. It is important to
ensure that the detergents and sanitizers used
are appropriate for the product and plant.
Recent developments such as cleaning foams
may be useful alternatives to conventional
cleaning chemicals. While cost is an issue,
effectiveness is more important. The potential
cost of poor cleaning to a business can be very
large.
Applications
Can potentially be used to clean all areas of
food processing establishments.
Advantages
• Usually requires little capital outlay
• Effective if done thoroughly
39
Drawbacks
• Can leave a residue on equipment that
can cause a taint in product
• Health and safety issues
• Some cleaning chemicals can be corrosive
to equipment
Further information
Health and safety during use of disinfectants:
http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/fis29.pdf
On line review of food equipment and
cleaning:
http://www.hs.state.az.us/phs/oeh/fses
/food_eq_cl_san.htm
Cleaning and disinfection. Holah J. Chilled
foods: a comprehensive guide. Stringer M.,
Dennis C. 2nd edition. Cambridge. Woodhead
Publishing Limited, 2000, 397-428.
Cleaning and disinfection. Royal Institute of
Public Health and Hygiene. A supervisor’s
handbook of food hygiene and safety. Royal
Institute of Public Health and Hygiene, London
RIPHH, 1995, 69-81.
CCFRA Guideline No 44 (2003). Guidelines for
the hygienic design, selection and use of dry
cleaning equipment.
http://www.campden.co.uk/publ/
pubfiles/g44.htm
MAFF (1998) A practical guide to the
disinfection of food processing factories and
equipment using fogging.
8.5.2: Clean in place (CIP)
systems
CIP lends itself to liquid or semi-liquid
processing operations where the equipment
system used is in almost continuous use. CIP
systems are usually a part of the initial design
of equipment and they are built in to it as an
integral component. CIP relies upon the use of
a series of detergents, rinses, sanitizers, etc.,
to flush and wash an enclosed processing plant
(e.g. in a dairy) without the need to totally
40
dismantle the system. The CIP system is fine-
tuned so that surfaces are in contact with
santiser/rinse solutions at the correct
concentration, for the appropriate time and at
the correct temperature. CIP systems can be
fully automated or manually operated.
Applications
CIP is widely used in the dairy industry,
particularly milk processing plants. It is also
used in liquid soup and sauce processing, in
the brewery industry, for beverages, margarine
manufacture and desserts (e.g. ice cream).
Advantages
• Reduces the downtime involved in
dismantling a system, cleaning and
reassembling
• Can help in increasing shelf life because
cleaning can be done more frequently and
effectively
• Increased safety, exposing workers to
fewer chemicals
• Can reduce use of cleaning chemicals and
water if set up correctly
• Lower labour costs involved in cleaning a
process line
Drawbacks
• High capital equipment cost
• Needs very careful monitoring and fine-
tuning to ensure system is effective and
efficient
Further information
http://www.seiberling4cip.com/
evol&dev.htm
8.5.3: Novel cleaning methods
A number of novel alternative cleaning and
sanitising techniques and materials have been
investigated. They include the following:
Ozone
Research has indicated that ozone is effective
at killing microorganisms attached to surfaces
as well as within an aerosol. Ozone treated
water can be used to reduce microbial loads in
clean-in-place systems and as an effective
treatment for surfaces within the food
processing environment, storage areas and
transport vehicles.
Applications
Disinfecting agent suitable for use on most
food contact surfaces within a food processing
plant
Advantages
• Leaves no chemical residue on surfaces so
production can begin soon after use
without the worry of chemical taint or
contamination occurring
• Can be generated easily on site
• Effective sanitiser
Drawbacks
• Capital outlay for generation equipment
Further information
http://www.ozonetech.com/ozone.html
CCFRA R&D Report 109 (2000). The evaluation
of ozone for airborne and surface disinfection.
8.5.4: Ultra-violet light
Ultra-violet (UV) light can be used to disinfect
surfaces. Lamps producing UV radiation at the
optimum wavelength to destroy
microorganisms are positioned above the
surfaces that require treatment. Exposure time
depends on the energy produced by the lamps,
the distance from lamp to surface, and on the
nature of the surface to be treated.
Applications
Can be used to reduce microbial numbers on
food contact surfaces and on packaging. It is
also used to control contamination in process
water. UV lights can also be used to control
mould growth on the surface of stored
ingredients such as syrups in bulk storage
tanks.
Advantages
• The process leaves no residue so there is
no risk of taint transfer to product
• Can be fast and is easy to use
Drawbacks
• Capital cost to purchase equipment
• Some microorganisms (e.g. mould spores)
have significant resistance to UV light
• Cannot penetrate below a surface,
organisms in cracks or pits are protected
Further information
http://www.hanovia.net/uv-applications/
default.htm
http://www.lenntech.com/will1.htm
8.5.5: Solid carbon dioxide (CO2)
An alternative to conventional cleaning is
cleaning with pellets of carbon dioxide. CO2
pellets are mixed with an air jet and directed
against the surface to be cleaned under high
pressure at about 20 bar. The method works
because an abrasive action takes place as the
CO2 hardens the layer of soil to be removed,
which then cracks and starts to peel off. As the
CO2 pellets sublimate they enlarge their
volume about 700 times. The action continues
because the cracks formed in the surface dirt
allows carbon dioxide pellets to get under and
between the soil. The method is suitable for
organic soil and for microorganisms.
41
Applications

Useful in areas where heavy soiling occurs that

is difficult to remove by conventional methods.
Can be used in dry areas as no water is used
in the process.

Advantages

• Does not have the environmental clean-up

issues associated with cleaning chemicals.

Drawbacks

• Still an emerging technology.

Further information

http://www.icesonic.co.uk/App-Food-
UK.pdf

42
9: Hygiene Monitoring – Applications

How efficient is the

cleaning? Monitoring microbial and/or chemical
contamination on food contact surfaces and in
the general food processing environment. Can
Although the food-processing environment may
be used to test specifically for food poisoning
appear clean, it is very important that the
organisms or spoilage bacteria.
effectiveness of the cleaning regime is
monitored with respect to both removing soil
Advantages
and to reducing microbial contamination. This
is achieved by the implementation of routine
• Swabs are inexpensive
monitoring, which can include:
• Can give a detailed breakdown between

9.1: Visual Inspection types of contamination, giving an

indication of source

A visual inspection for visible soil on surfaces,

Drawbacks
accessible parts of processing equipment and
other parts of the premises can be included in
• Cost of laboratory analysis
an inspection regime. This will pick up gross
• Takes time (days) for results, meaning
debris, greasy surfaces and sometimes
that days of production can have been
evidence that cleaning agents still remain on
exposed to contamination
surfaces.
• Does not detect food debris on a surface

Advantages
Further information

• Inexpensive
CCFRA Guideline No 20 (1999) Effective
• Immediately identifies obvious problems
Microbiological Sampling of Food Processing
Environments.
Drawbacks

• Cannot detect microbiological

9.3: Rapid Hygiene Monitoring
contamination or non-visible cleaning
The need for a quick result in determining the
agent residues
cleanliness of processing areas has lead to the
• Cannot be used for internal parts of
development of a number of ‘kits’ that give an
processing equipment
indication of the hygienic status of a surface.
• Subjective and non-quantitative

9.2: Traditional Swab/ 9.3.1: ATP kits

Plate Methods
ATP kits detect a chemical (adenosine tri
phosphate) found in all living cells, including
Microbiological contamination, and cleaning
microbes and most food materials. The system
fluid residues, can be checked using traditional
uses this chemical to produce visible light, the
sampling, swabbing and cultural/detection
amount of which can be measured. The
methods or agar contact plates. Wet/dry swabs
greater the amount of light or
or sponge swabs are used to sample
‘bioluminescence’ produced, the more living
contamination on surfaces at specific points in
material is present. Therefore, it can be used
the plant according to a sample plan developed
as an indirect means of quantifying the
using a statistical approach. The swabs are
amount of soil on a surface, and standards can
then analysed in a laboratory.
then be set for different processing areas. The
test can be applied on site and results are
available within minutes. ATP kits can also be

43
used to measure residue levels in cleaning
liquids such as rinse waters.
ATP kits were originally developed to measure
numbers of microorganisms in food, especially
dairy products. However, it is difficult to
remove the large amounts of non-microbial
ATP present in most foods, and so the method
was adapted to measure the total amount of
ATP in a sample, giving an overall measure of
cleaning effectiveness.
Applications
Rapid monitoring of food contact surfaces to
measure cleaning effectiveness and to indicate
when cleaning is necessary.
Advantages
• Very rapid
• Can be used on site by unskilled
operators
• Laboratory facilities not required
• Quantitative results
Drawbacks
• Chemical residues (e.g. from cleaning
chemicals) can affect the results
• Does not differentiate between general
soiling and microorganisms
• Relatively high purchase and operating
costs
Further information
http://www.aboatox.com/hygiene_
monitoring. html#atp
http://www.biotrace.com/content.
php?hID= 2&nhID=16&pID=10
http://www.charm.com/pdf/charmII-
pocketswab.pdf
http://www.promega.com/
http://pb.merck.de/servlet/PB/menu/
1108160/ index.html
44
9.3.2: Colour hygiene tests
Colour hygiene kits do not require any
specialist equipment and are usually self-
contained tests that rely upon a single, and
sometimes a series of colour changes, to
indicate the hygiene status of a surface. Some
kits have been developed to detect residual
protein on a surface and rely upon this to
determine the cleanliness of the surface. These
kits detect proteins and amino acids and are
suited to high-protein environments, such as
meat.
Other kits detect the presence of residual
carbohydrates and phosphates, and have been
developed for use where low-protein composite
manufactured product residues may be
present, such as fruit and vegetable processing
environments. A recent development has been
colour hygiene kits that detect a group of
compounds that are found in all living cells.
These tests have a similar role to ATP tests,
but with no need to use a luminometer, and
they are claimed to be more sensitive than kits
detecting protein residues.
Applications
Single-use tests in processing environments
and food preparation areas to determine the
levels of food residues on surfaces.
Advantages
• Very rapid
• Can be used on site by unskilled
operators
• Laboratory facilities not required
• Requires no purchase of equipment
• Relatively low consumable costs
Drawbacks
• Semi-quantitative tests
• Tend to be less sensitive than ATP tests
• Gives no indication of the microbial
loading on the surface
Further information

http://www.neogen.com/
http://www.charm.com/pdf/vericleen.pdf
http://www.hygiena.net/
http://www.biotest.de/
http://service.merck.de/microbiology/
tedisdata/prods/4976-1_31200_0001.html

Hygiene in food processing. Lelieveld H.L.M.,

Mostert M.A., Holah J., White B. Cambridge.
Woodhead Publishing Ltd. GBP135, 2003.

Introduction to hygiene in food processing.

Hutton T. Chipping Campden CCFRA. 30.00
pounds, 2001, 64pp, En Key.
Topics in Food Science and Technology No. 4.

Hygiene management in food factories.

Thomas P. Oxford. Chandos Publishing Ltd,
72.00 pounds, 2000.

The food hygiene handbook. Sprenger R.A.

11th edition Doncaster. Highfield Publications,
1999.

45
10: Estimating Shelf Life actions or changes to product formulations

and the Use of implemented as a result of the predictions

Predictive Models must be validated by appropriate trials.

Establishing the shelf life of many food

10.1: Models Currently
products can be an expensive and time-
Available
consuming business. It is essentially a process
of informed trial and error, and the only really
10.1.1: Combase
effective way to establish shelf life is to keep
The microbiological safety and likely spoilage
the product under typical storage conditions
of a range of food formulations can be
until spoilage occurs. But there are techniques
predicted using the Internet-based, publicly
now available that can be used to save a
and freely available database of food
significant amount of time and expense by
microbiology data known as ComBase.
helping to predict what the shelf life will be.
ComBase, contains accumulated data on the
Used correctly, these techniques can result in
growth, survival and death of foodborne
reduced product development times and costs,
pathogens and spoilage organisms across a
allowing the time to market to be cut
broad range of environments relating to foods.
considerably.
A collection of predictive models using the
ComBase data, such as Microfit and Growth
Simple mathematical calculations have existed
Predictor, is available to download from the
for many years to predict the stability of some
Internet.
products. For example, the ‘Preservation Index’
and ‘CIMSCEE’ models for acetic acid
Further information
preserved products, such as pickles and acid
sauces, respectively, and ‘mould-free shelf life
http://wyndmoor.arserrc.gov/combase/
determination’ for bakery products. These are
http://www.ifr.ac.uk/combase/
still applicable today although their application
can be limited and not necessarily relevant to
new product formulations that exploit the use
10.1.2: Forecast
of preservatives and/or alternative ingredients.
Campden and Chorleywood Research
Association (CCFRA) has developed a collection
The advent of the personal computer allowed
of bacterial spoilage models. Ongoing research
the development and broad application of
is increasing the range of models available
complex equations or ‘mathematical models’ to
through Forecast, as well as considering the
predict shelf life, or factors affecting shelf life,
effects of fluctuating temperature, dynamic
such as water activity or temperature, for
processing environments, modified
many food groups. In many cases, these
atmospheres and new product types. Forecast
models have been incorporated into software
is available as a charged-for service.
packages that display the results (i.e.
predicted time for spoilage, time to safety
Further information
hazard, final moisture content, etc.) in a
simple display form.
http://www.campden.co.uk/content.htm

The use of mathematical models to predict the

shelf life and characteristics of different
10.1.3: Food Spoilage Predictor
product formulations should always be used
Developed by researchers in Australia, Food
with caution and as a guide only. A great deal
Spoilage Predictor can be used to predict the
of experience is needed to interpret the output
rate of microbial spoilage in a wide range of
of the models, and an appropriate expert (e.g.
chilled, high-protein foods, such as meat, fish,
a microbiologist for microbial safety and
poultry and dairy products. The system uses a
spoilage) should always be consulted. Any

46
small data logger that is integrated with the
software containing the models. It can predict
remaining shelf life at any time in the cold
chain and can also calculate total shelf life. The
system is available for purchase in the UK.
10.1.4: Seafood Spoilage Predictor
Seafood Spoilage Predictor can be used to
predict the shelf life of seafood stored either
under fluctuating temperatures or under
constant temperature conditions. It was
developed by the Danish Institute for Fisheries
Research and is available free on the Internet.
Further information
http://www.dfu.min.dk/micro/ssp/
10.1.5: ERH-CALC™
The ERH-CALC™ software package is
applicable for perishable bakery products.
Users can input basic recipe formulations and
the software calculates the theoretical
equilibrium relative humidity (ERH). From this
data, the model then predicts the mould-free
shelf life (MFSL) of the ambient stored product
(using a simple calculation for MFSL). The
software is available for purchase.
Further information
http://www.campden.co.uk/publ/
pubfiles/ erhcalc.htm
10.1.6: Coolvan
Developed by the Food Refrigeration and
Process Engineering Research Centre, Bristol,
UK, Coolvan predicts the temperature of food
during a single/multi drop journey in a
refrigerated van. Knowing the changes of
temperature in a food can help in predicting
shelf life as well as enabling a producer to
ensure that a chilled food will be at the correct
temperature when it reaches the retailer. The
software is available for purchase.
Further information
http://www.frperc.bris.ac.uk/pub/
pub13.htm
10.1.7: Water Analyzer Series
The Water Analyzer Series of programs can be
used to predict water activity of component
products under a range of differing conditions.
The programs include: predicting water activity
of a component mix; programs to determine a
safe moisture content for a product to prevent
mould or the amount of water that can safely
be put in a product; the water activity of a
product at different ambient temperatures; the
expected water activity of a product
formulation and how this can be changed;
models to determine the efficacy of packaging
films in maintaining water activity of a
product; models to determine the changes in
moisture and water activity of a product over
time in a packaged product; and the
calculation of vitamin breakdown over time.
Each model is available to download from the
Internet free of charge for evaluation purposes
for a limited period. After this time, it can be
purchased.
Further information
http://www.users.bigpond.com/
webbtech/wateran.html
10.2: Frozen Food Models
Although frozen foods are not subject to the
same deterioration by microbiological action as
most chilled/ambient stored products, the
quality of frozen products does deteriorate
during storage, and a point will be reached
where the product is no longer acceptable to
the customer, denoting end of shelf life. Frozen
foods can have flavour, textural or colour
changes due to enzymatic action, loss in
nutrients (e.g. vitamin C) and physical changes
such as moisture loss or ice formation. Many of
these changes have been described in
equations or 'mathematical models' to help
predict shelf life.
47
For more information Further information

http://www.fsci.umn.edu/Ted_Labuza/P Accelerated shelf-life tests. Mizrahi S. The

DF_files/papers/Frozen%20Food%20Shel stability and shelf-life of food. Kilcast D.,
f%20Life% 20.pdf Subramaniam P. Cambridge Woodhead
Publishing Ltd. 2000, 107-128.
10.3: Accelerated Shelf Life
Testing

Another method of determining the shelf life of

a product quickly is accelerated shelf life
testing (ASLT). This is particularly applicable to
products where the anticipated shelf life is
long, and where the practicality of storing
samples for many months or even years would
cause an unreasonable delay in the product
coming to market. ASLT is a means of
compressing the life of the product into a
shorter time-span, usually by increasing the
storage temperature. This means that the
changes that occur in a product during its life
are speeded up. The extent of these changes
can then be used to estimate the shelf life at
the true storage temperature.

The results of ASLT need to be interpreted with

care. For example, in most cases ASLT cannot
be applied to the microbiological changes that
occur in foods because microbes have specific
temperature ranges in which they grow.
Elevated temperatures can often prevent a
microorganism from growing, or can permit
the growth of microorganisms not relevant at
the normal storage temperature of the
product. There are other physical issues in
foods relating to shelf life that are changed by
raising the temperature, so that observations
at the elevated temperature are not
necessarily applicable at normal storage
temperature.

However, ASLT can be useful in very specific

applications, such as: the determination of
potential spoilage of canned foods in the
tropics; for mould-free shelf life of bakery
foods; spoilage of beer; to study bloom
development on chocolate; to determine the
stability of edible oil; and to study oil stability
in situ in products, such as crisps, biscuits and
margarines. Surprisingly, it is also possible to
apply ASLT to some frozen foods.

48
11: Sources of Further Trade associations

Information
Biscuit, Cake, Chocolate and Confectionery
Alliance (BCCCA), 37-41 Bedford Row, London
General reading
WC1R 4JH. Tel +44 (0) 207 404 9111. Web
site: http://www.bccca.org.uk/
Shelf life. Man D. Oxford Blackwell Science Ltd.
GBP19.99, 2002, 113pp, En. Food Industry
British Sandwich Association. Picton House,
Briefing Series.
Lower Church Street, Chepstow,
Gloucestershire. NP16 5XT. Tel: +44 (0) 1235
Shelf-life evaluation of foods. Man C.M.D.,
821820. Web site:
Jones A.A. 2nd edition. Gaithersburg. Aspen
http://www.sandwich.org.uk/
Publishers, 2000.

British Retail Consortium. 21 Dartmouth

The stability and shelf-life of food. Kilcast D.,
Street, London, SW1H 9BP. Tel: +44 (0) 20
Subramaniam P. Cambridge. Woodhead
7854 8900 http://www.brc.org.uk/
Publishing Ltd, 2000.

Chilled Food Association (CFA). PO Box 6434,

Food shelf life stability: chemical, biochemical
Kettering, NN15 5XT. Tel: +44 (0) 1536
and microbiological changes. Eskin N.A.M.,
515395. Web site:
Robinson D.S. Boca Raton. CRC Press, 2000.
http://www.chilledfood.org/

Shelf life of foods - guidelines for its

Food and Drink Federation (FDF). 6 Catherine
determination and prediction. Institute of Food
Street, London WC2B 5JJ. Tel: +44 (0) 207
Science and Technology. London. IFST, 1993.
836 2460. Web site:
http://www.fdf.org.uk/home.aspx
Internet

Fresh Produce Consortium (UK). Minerva

Department of Environment, Food and Rural
House, Minerva Business Park, Lynch Wood,
Affairs: http://www.defra.gov.uk/
Peterborough, PE2 6AR. Tel: +44 (0) 1733
237117. Web site:
Health Protection Agency:
http://www.freshproduce.org.uk/
http://www.hpa.org.uk/

Meat and Livestock Commission (MLC). Head

Hygiene advice from the UK Food Standards
Office, Meat and Livestock Commission, PO
Agency: http://cleanup.food.gov.uk/
Box 44, Winterhill House, Snowdon Drive,
Milton Keynes, MK6 1AX. Tel: +44 (0) 1908
Institute of Food Science and Technology:
677577. Web site: http://www.mlc.org.uk/
http://www.ifst.org/

Soil Association, Bristol House, 40-56 Victoria

Royal Institute of Public Health and Hygiene:
Street, Bristol, BS1 6BY. Tel +44 (0) 117 929
http://www.riphh.org.uk/
0661. Web site:
http://www.soilassociation.org/
The Society of Food Hygiene and Technology.
http://www.sofht.co.uk/
Technology transfer centres

The UK Food Standards Agency:

The Department for Food and Rural Affairs
http://www.foodstandards.gov.uk/
(DEFRA) have funded Regional Food
Technology Transfer Centre that act as a point
of contact for small and medium-sized regional

49
food companies with food-related technical
needs.

Agrifood Centre (Newton Abbot): Tel: 01626

325858
http://www.agrifoodcentre.co.uk/sfdsn1.
html

CHARIS (Ayr): Tel: 01292 670166

http://www.hri.sari.ac.uk/flashframeset.
html

Food Technology Centre (Middlesbrough): Tel:

01642 499113
http://sst.tees.ac.uk/ftc/

Food Innovation Centre (Sheffield): Tel: 0114

2253976
http://www.shu.ac.uk/schools/slm/fic/

Food Knowledge and Know-How (Reading):

Tel: 0118 9316520
http://www.fkk-reading.co.uk/

London Food Centre (London): Tel: 020 7815

7988
http://londonfood.org.uk/

North West Food Centre (Manchester) Tel:

0161 247 2493
http://www.nwfoodcentre.com/

East Midlands Food Technology Centre

(Nottingham); Tel: 01636 817000
http://science.ntu.ac.uk/external/fhc/
organisation.htm

Training courses

Campden and Chorleywood Research

Association
http://www.campden.co.uk/
Chartered Institute of Environmental Health
http://www.cieh.org/training/courses/
foodsafety/

Leatherhead Food International Please note: Leatherhead Food International

http://www.lfra.co.uk/ uses every possible care in compiling,
preparing and issuing the information herein
given, but can accept no liability whatsoever in
connection with it.

50
Food Processing Faraday Partnership Ltd Leatherhead Food International
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