Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A multi-period settlement/cemetery was excavated at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway. The main phase of the site was a
substantial early medieval enclosure ditch with a cemetery area contained in its eastern half.The enclosure and associated
features were divided into three phases based on their uses and location. The human remains assemblage is made up
of 132 individuals, although the cemetery could originally have been much larger, extending beyond the limit of
excavation. It was separated into four phases, from the seventh to the fifteenth century AD, and contained a
disproportionate percentage of non-adults, with predominantly infant and foetal remains in the later phases. Non-
metric traits may indicate a degree of relatedness in the assemblage, consistent with the possibility that Carrowkeel was
founded by an extended family splitting from a larger kin group. The Carrowkeel cemetery appears to represent the
spatial segregation of non-adults within a normal cemetery population and is not thought to be a cillín, which are
common in the later and post-medieval period, especially in the west of Ireland. The segregation at Carrowkeel may
be a precursor to this Irish tradition, however.
Fig. 1 —Location of excavation area and overall site plan, with detail of cemetery area.
An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 59
extent of ditch 1015 was uncertain within the interior Owing to their shallow nature these features could not
of the main phase 2 enclosure (1023) but was clearly be characterised as either post-holes or pits, although
truncated by it. It may originally have extended further their linear arrangement suggests the former. Moving
south, but if so this section may have been shallower from north to south, the first subcircular cut feature
owing to outcropping of bedrock at the top of the hill (1051) was 0.75m long, 0.63m wide and 0.23m deep. It
and may subsequently have been adversely affected by was filled by mid-brown sandy silt (1052), with a
the relatively deep plough truncation in this area. It was moderate quantity of stone inclusions up to 0.2m in size.
1.95m wide, 0.67m deep and 11m long. Two primary A subcircular cut feature (1049) was excavated south of
deposits of red-brown silt were noted at the base (1016 this. It was 0.5m in diameter and 0.06m deep, with
and 1018). The main fill was a mid- to dark brown silt shallow sides and a flat base. It was filled by a deposit of
(1017) with inclusions of approximately 35% small black-grey silty clay (1050) with occasional charcoal
stones. A small gully (1535), 1.2m long, 0.6m wide and flecks and small fragments of chert inclusions.
0.32m deep, was associated with this ditch. It was filled Subcircular cut 1047 had steep sides and a concave base.
by orange-brown silty clay (1536) of moderate It was 0.6m in diameter and 0.11m deep, and was filled
compaction. by black-grey silty clay (1048) with inclusions of small
In conjunction with 1015 just described, ditch 1020 stones, frequent charcoal flecks and burnt bone. An
formed a possible entrance onto the brow of the hill. It irregular subcircular cut (1057) with irregular shallow
was V-shaped in plan, 1.8m wide and 0.6m deep, and sides and a concave base was excavated adjacent to this
extended east–west for 12m before turning sharply to feature. It was 0.5m in diameter and 0.11m deep and
run north–south for 10m. It was filled by a mid-brown filled by black-grey silty clay (1058). Cut feature 1045
silty sand (1021) containing a large quantity of stones, was subrectangular with shallow sides and a flat base. It
animal bones and charcoal. A weathered piece of was uneven and only 0.05m in depth and 0.4m in
medieval pottery (E2046:1302:001) of a local, oxidised diameter. It was interpreted as a post-hole in alignment
fine orange fabric was recovered from this feature, but its with other features even though it was rectangular,
abraded nature and position close to the surface of the uneven and very shallow. It was filled by 1046, a dark
feature suggested that it was residual. Ditch feature 1020 grey silty clay of moderate compaction with stones and
appeared to be truncated by the phase 2 main enclosure occasional charcoal flecks. A suboval cut (1053) in
ditch (1023), although at this point it was very shallow alignment with these features was likely to have been a
and the area was disturbed by a large modern pit (1375). natural feature.
This modern pit truncated the inside edge of the main Three pieces of black chert were recovered from a
enclosure but extended no further. subcircular cut feature (1051). These artefacts were not
Linear feature 1022 was L-shaped in plan and was strictly diagnostic but were the product of a well-
located to the north-east of 1020 and 1015, running controlled flake industry supporting a date in the late
west–east for 15m before turning south and continuing Neolithic (Ballin 2007). They included a secondary
in that direction for 7m. It had sloping sides and a hard-hammer flake with an untrimmed platform edge
concave base that was almost V-shaped in section at the (30mm x 28mm x 8mm), a proximal section of tertiary
western end but flattened out considerably towards the hard-hammer flake (23mm x 23mm x 4mm) and a
eastern end. Deposit 1316 was light brown silty clay tertiary irregular or multi-directional core (24mm x
within 1022 and contained small stones, charcoal and 19mm x 19mm). Although all these features were
animal bone inclusions. It contained an iron strap assigned to phase 1, they could equally be contemporary
(E2046:1315:001), and during environmental processing with the main enclosure, with chert incorporated into
of the samples a small blue glass bead was retrieved. earlier fills as residual material. A rim fragment
Feature 1372 was a small linear feature running east–west characteristic of Carrowkeel ware (E2046:1001:001) was
on the northern side of the main enclosure ditch (1023), also recovered from the topsoil. It consisted of a reduced
although its precise relationship with earlier ditches buff-grey fabric, with frequent black and red small stone
could not be determined owing to similarities of and occasional mica inclusions, and may also be
deposits. It had sloping sides and a flat base and was 0.6m indicative of generalised low-level Neolithic activity.
wide and 0.15m deep. It was filled by deposit 1373,
which comprised a mid-grey-brown sandy silt of firm
compaction with animal bone and stone inclusions. PHASE 2: THE MAIN ENCLOSURE AND
ASSOCIATED FEATURES (EXCLUDING
Phase 1 discrete features THE CEMETERY)
A linear arrangement of six cut features was identified in
the north-west quadrant of the main (phase 2) enclosure The main enclosure ditch (1023) was truncated by the
on the brow of the hill, described below in sequence. line of the proposed road and continued around the
An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 61
contour of the hill. Three main subphases were because it would act as a windbreak.
recognised in the ditch and bank sections (phases 2a, The evidence for phase 2 occupation is quite
2b and 2c; Fig. 2). In the eastern portion of the limited, comprising a few discrete features that do not
enclosure three contemporary ditches (1260, 1359 and seem to belong to phase 1 or phase 3. These included
1475) served to partially delineate the cemetery area, a subrectangular pit (1292) with steep sides and a flat
separating it from the rest of the site. The similarity of base that was located outside the enclosure near the
the fills of these features, their parallel construction and northern end of the excavated area. It was interpreted
the lack of truncation suggested that they were as a cooking pit owing to its alternating fills of charcoal
contemporary rather than successive phases of recut. A and silt, indicating in situ burning. The burning was
number of discrete but undated features were also concentrated at the northern end of the pit, where
identified as most likely belonging to the occupation there was also evidence of burnt clay in its base. It was
phase of the enclosure. 2.7m long, 1.2m wide and 0.65m deep. A further
The main feature of phase 2 was a U-shaped ditch feature (1346) was a pit to the north of the site, also
(1023) with the partial remnants of an internal upcast interpreted as a cooking pit. Soil analysis of samples
bank (Fig. 2; Pl. 2). It measured approximately 65m by recovered high concentrations of charcoal, a small
47m and was situated in a commanding position at the quantity of unidentified burnt animal bone but no
top of the hill, overlooking a valley and the surrounding charred cereal grain. Feature 1351 was subrectangular
landscape. The enclosure continued around the brow of and aligned north–south, with gentle sides that were
the hill and was truncated by the line of the proposed steeper on the northern and southern ends. The base
road scheme, with approximately a third of the enclosed was concave and dropped to a deeper northern end,
area beyond the limit of excavation.The enclosure ditch where most of the burnt bone was found. It was lined
was on average 1.5m deep and 3m wide at the top and with medium-sized stones and was 3.02m in length,
was excavated by a series of sixteen 2m-wide slots (Figs 2.5m in width and 0.35m in maximum depth.
2 and 3).There were no breaks in the ditch indicating an The animal bone assemblage from Carrowkeel
entrance, although this may lie in the unexcavated part provided much better evidence for domestic
of the site. The upcast bank was partly preserved by a occupation (see Appendix 1;Tourunen 2007).The total
much later drystone field wall that respected the line of assemblage comprised 13,631 specimens characteristic
the bank for a short distance in the southern part of the of domestic waste, consisting of both high- and low-
site (Pl. 2). utility skeletal elements. No wild mammal specimens
The main deposits filling ditch 1023 were fairly relating to subsistence were recovered. Cattle were the
uniform, and variations were accounted for by changes dominant species, followed by sheep, pig and horse, and
in the natural subsoil through which the ditch had these derive mainly from the main enclosure ditch.The
been cut (Fig. 2). The three main subphases recognised animal bones were characteristic of domestic waste,
in the ditch and bank sections are as follows. After the consisting of butchery remains, food debris and
construction of the ditch (phase 2a), a thin layer of silt discarded dead animals like cats and dogs or stillborn
and unconsolidated natural subsoil was washed into its calves, piglets and lambs.
base (phase 2b). The primary silting began soon after House mice bones (Mus musculus) were recovered
construction, as the upcast bank began to slump back from processed soil samples originating from a context
into the ditch. The presence of slump material on both in the main enclosure ditch at the interface between
sides of the ditch indicates that unconsolidated material phases 2b and 2c. They were radiocarbon-dated to cal.
eroded from the sides of the ditch as well as from the AD 860–1020 (GU-15327) and cal. AD 670–890
internal bank. Following this initial slumping, the ditch (GU-15326). Because mice are burrowing animals it
stabilised into an S-shaped profile, consolidated by a cannot be assumed that these ranges accurately date
possible vegetation layer (phase 2b). This was followed phases 2b and 2c, but this possibility is strongly
by a final phase when the ditch was deliberately supported by the fact that these date ranges are broadly
backfilled with large stones and boulders, probably as a contemporary with cemetery phase 2 (below). The
result of field clearance (phase 2c). A series of small, house mouse tends to live near human populations and
isolated burnt patches were identified in the upper does not dig deeply into the ground, so there is every
topsoil deposits filling the ditch but proved too diffuse possibility that these bones derive from animals
to section properly.They were often discovered against, contemporary with the main phase of occupation
or near to, the outside of the ditch cut, particularly within the enclosure. In addition, these ranges are of
around the northern and north-eastern parts of the intrinsic significance because before now it was not
ditch. These features were interpreted as temporary certain that the house mouse was present in Ireland
hearths located within the depression formed by the prior to the arrival of the Anglo-Normans (see
partially silted ditch, which may have been chosen Appendix 1; Tourunen 2007).
An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 63
Two discrete features excavated in the cemetery Cemetery phase 1 (c. 650–850)
area could have been structural, although no clear At some time between c. AD 650 and 770, ditch 1260
pattern could be discerned. An oval post-hole (1229) was dug at the eastern extent of the burial-ground,
was recorded adjacent to the limit of excavation, forming a curving boundary to this part of the
truncated by the cemetery phase 2 burial of skeleton cemetery. This was the largest of the three ditches
32. It contained a single bird talon but no other finds. delimiting the cemetery area, with steep sides and a
Close to this a second oval post-hole (1279) was concave base, a maximum width of 2.46m and
recorded, truncated on the south side by the cemetery maximum depth of 1m. A consistent deposit sequence
phase 1 burial of skeleton 49. These features were was observed, although slight variation in the
identified close to the limit of excavation, and they raise composition of fills was recorded. The primary fill
the possibility that there was a structure in this area (1368) was identified in all sections. It was rapidly
during cemetery phase 2. deposited soon after construction as the sides of the
The human remains assemblage represented a total freshly cut ditch weathered. This was followed by
of 158 individuals, a minimum number calculated from secondary deposit 1353, which had gradually
both articulated burials (132 individuals) and accumulated through the natural silting of the ditch
disarticulated bone (26 individuals). The burials can be and surrounding ground surface over time. The
split into four cemetery phases over 800 years from the carcasses of at least eleven sheep were buried within the
seventh to the fifteenth century. Phasing of the basal fill (1368). The colouration of the ends of long
cemetery was undertaken using a combination of bones indicates that they were articulated when buried,
stratigraphic analysis and radiocarbon dating of 40 probably placed longitudinally, although there was
individuals.Table 1 shows the distribution of adults and some degree of post-depositional disturbance
non-adults across the cemetery population. In this case, (Appendix 1). Any cutting of the bodies prior to
‘Juvenile’ covers age categories from younger child to deposition was more likely for ease of transport rather
adolescent, from six to eighteen years at death than for consumption.
(Appendix 4). The adolescent remains of skeleton 72 were also
66 Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde
Table 1—Number of individuals in the assemblage from Carrowkeel, by cemetery phase and age category.
SK no. Age category Sex Lab no. BP date Calendar date (AD)
1 Young adult Female UB-7448 1249 ± 31 678–832
22 Older middle adult Male UB-7412 1186 ± 32 770–899
27 Younger child – UB-7414 1156 ± 31 798–906
51 Older adult Female UB-7417 1228 ± 31 761–884
53 Infant – UB-7418 1214 ± 31 765–890
57 Younger middle adult Female UB-7420 1264 ± 31 667–783
69 Younger adult Male UB-7423 1244 ± 32 682–872
70 Older child – UB-7424 1182 ± 32 771–900
72 Adolescent – UB-7425 1250 ± 34 676–870
85 Older child – UB-7430 1185 ± 31 770–899
86 Younger child – UB-7431 1193 ± 34 766–899
87 Younger child – UB-7432 1261 ± 33 668–827
93 Infant – UB-7434 1215 ± 32 764–890
100 Younger child – UB-7435 1203 ± 32 765–895
107 Younger middle adult Male UB-7436 1193 ± 31 768–897
112 Foetus – UB-7483 1227 ± 31 761–884
113 Younger child – UB-7439 1168 ± 32 775–903
114 Younger middle adult Male UB-7440 1301 ± 31 660–772
115 Younger adult Female UB-7441 1182 ± 31 771–900
119 Younger middle adult Female UB-7443 1305 ± 34 658–773
122 Younger adult Female UB-7445 1196 ± 35 765–898
124 Infant – UB-7446 1223 ± 33 761–887
125 Foetus – UB-7447 1193 ± 33 767–898
interred within ditch 1260, deposited as the feature was outside the south-eastern edge of ditch 1260.
beginning to silt up. The burial was partially cut into A smaller ditch (1359) ran parallel to ditch 1260
the silting deposit (1353) and the north-western (Fig. 1). It had steep sides with a concave base and a
section of the ditch terminus. This burial also cut the maximum depth of 0.44m. The function of this ditch
interface between this ditch and the smaller ditch was difficult to determine, as it was very close to the
(1359). This individual was buried in a flexed position larger ditch feature (1260) and comparatively very
(Pl. 3) and was dated to cal. AD 676–870 (UB-7425) narrow. One possibility is that it formed the foundation
(Table 2). Following this burial, the ditch continued to trench for a palisade fence, although no post-holes were
silt and skeleton 33 (cal. AD 857–991 (UB-7482)) was discovered within it. Ditch feature 1475 was located
interred directly above its south-western end. Other 3m south of these two ditches and further downslope.
cemetery phase 1 burials (skeletons 42 and 52) were It also terminated at the eastern end of the cemetery. It
also interred over both ditches 1260 and 1359. had a V-shaped profile, was 1m wide and 0.5m deep,
Cemetery phase 2 skeletons 13, 14 and 71 also utilised and the primary deposit (1477) had accumulated as a
the ditch area once both ditches had fallen out of use. consequence of the slumping of upcast material and
Even then, however, the remnants of the ditches were colluvial erosion. The secondary deposit (1476) was
probably visible and continued to be perceived as the likely to be the result of stones and gravel accumulating
boundary of the cemetery, for no interments took place at the base of the ploughsoil in the depression of the
An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 67
ditch, probably owing to bioturbation and worm buried supine and extended, 1% (n = 1) crouched and
action.The similarity of fills and the lack of intercutting 21% (n = 16) flexed. One infant, skeleton 50, was buried
stratigraphy made the relationships between these three flexed and prone, the only burial of its type in the
ditches difficult to determine. The presence of cemetery. The crouched burial of a younger child,
cemetery phase 2 burials directly above ditches 1359 skeleton 84, is also unique in the assemblage. As in
and 1260 suggests that these ditches may be cemetery phase 1, the majority of the burials were
contemporary. It is possible that ditch 1475 is a aligned north-east/south-west. Four individuals,
replacement cemetery boundary, dating from cemetery skeletons 10, 17, 18 and 34, were truncated by later
phase 2, but this is not supported by any dating agricultural activity in the form of an east–west furrow.
evidence.
The cemetery phase 1 assemblage totals 37 Cemetery phase 3 (c. 1050–1250)
individuals (28% of the whole), 22 of whom were It appears that the cemetery began to fall out of use
radiocarbon-dated (Table 2). Just over 70% of the during the latter part of cemetery phase 3, dating from
individuals from cemetery phase 1 are non-adults. This the mid-eleventh to the mid-thirteenth century (Table
group can be further subdivided into foetus (14%), 4; Fig. 7). Only eighteen individuals were recovered
perinate (8%), infant (16%), younger child (16%), older from this phase, with a more even spread of age
child (11%) and adolescent (5%). Of the adults at categories than in the previous cemetery phases. This
Carrowkeel, cemetery phase 1 has 61% of the total may indicate a shift in use of this portion of the
number, and almost 90% of the females. Of those cemetery towards a more ‘normal’ burial population.
burials for which direction could be assessed, the Non-adults still account for 78% (n = 14) of the
majority (76%, n = 28) lay north-east/south-west (Fig. cemetery phase 3 assemblage, but they are older than in
4). Body position was recorded for 31 individuals; 71% cemetery phase 2, with only 44% (n = 8) below one
(n = 22) were supine and extended, while the year of age at death (foetus 17%, infant 28%). No
remaining 29% (n = 9) were found to be flexed. The perinates, neonates or adolescents were recovered in
majority of the flexed burials were non-adults, aside this period. Burial orientation followed the same broad
from skeleton 51 and skeleton 119, both adult females. pattern as cemetery phases 1 and 2, with 67% (n = 12)
aligned north-east/south-west (Fig. 4). Body position
Cemetery phase 2 (c. 850–1050) was more uniform. Supine extended burials account
The second cemetery phase dates from the mid-ninth to for 50% (n = 9) of the group and 17% were flexed.The
the eleventh century (Table 3; Fig. 6).The largest part of remaining 33% (n = 6) were disarticulated. East–west
the assemblage, this cemetery phase contains 75 furrow 1169 also truncates two individuals in this
individuals, 93% (n = 73) of which are non-adult. The period, skeletons 46 and 47. Skeleton 46 was recovered
only adult remains present were skeleton 90 and skeleton disarticulated within the furrow itself.
105, both male. Cemetery phase 2 contains the largest
proportion of very young children. Of these, 64% were Cemetery phase 4 (c. 1340–1450)
below one year of age at death (foetus 27%, perinate 7%, Only two individuals belong to the final cemetery
neonate 4% and infant 27%).Younger children made up phase (Table 5). One dates from the fourteenth century,
16%, and 12% were older children. The excavated while the other dates from the fifteenth century. This
portion of the cemetery appears to have been used may indicate a move away from this portion of the
almost exclusively for the burial of non-adults in this cemetery, the discontinuation of use of the burial-
period. Body position was more varied than in cemetery ground as a whole, or later burials unconnected with
phase 1.This is probably linked to the higher number of the earlier cemetery phases. The very young age of
non-adults, who show more differention in their burial both burials suggests that in this period the site was
positions than the adults. In total, 44% (n = 33) were used as a cillín.
SK no. Age category Sex Lab no. BP date Calendar date (AD)
60 Foetus – UB-7422 815 ± 31 1169–1269
74 Infant – UB-7426 830 ± 31 1159–1265
77 Adult Female UB-7427 940 ± 31 1024–1161
79 Older middle adult Male UB-7428 906 ± 31 1038–1208
89 Younger adult Female UB-7433 954 ± 31 1022–1156
110 Infant – UB-7437 949 ± 32 1023–1208
111 Younger middle adult Male UB-7438 935 ± 31 1024–1165
116 Younger child – UB-7442 907 ± 30 1037–1192
An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 69
The demographic profile of the population from which the assemblage is derived
The Carrowkeel assemblage is dominated by non- was calculated using formulae provided by Acsádi and
adults (Table 1). Only 11% of the individuals are adults. Nemeskéri (1970):
There were no older adults and the majority died
before the age of 35. Males and females were equally P = D(e/t)K,
represented in the adult portion of the assemblage; the
majority of females were found in cemetery phase 1, where P = size of living population, D = size of skeletal
however. This may indicate preferential burial of assemblage (158), e = life expectancy at birth (28.5), t
women in one area of the cemetery during this earliest = time-span of cemetery (800), and K = constant (10%
period. Estimations of attained adult stature showed of t) (80). The contributing population size was thus
close male and female means (168cm and 164cm estimated to be 450.3 individuals over 800 years. It
respectively). Often stressed populations will not should be remembered that as the cemetery was not
achieve their full genetic potential, especially in adult fully excavated this number refers only to the size of
stature levels. Males tend to be more affected than population for this part of the cemetery. In reality, the
females, with the result that there is less sexual associated population may have been much larger.
dimorphism in stature level (S. Lewis 1997, 35). As discussed above, the assemblage was
The calculation of a life table provided an estimated characterised by young children, with almost 90%
life expectancy of 55 years for the assemblage. The size made up of non-adults. Over 53% of individuals were
70 Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde
Pl. 4—Os acromiale of the right scapula, skeleton 90, a middle-aged adult male, cemetery phase 2.
72 Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde
paralleled in the majority of ecclesiastical sites. Swan place the dead in the usual site of disposal (Parker
(1983, 274) defined ecclesiastical sites on the basis of Pearson 1999).To focus discussion on the foundation of
eleven attributes: evidence of enclosure, a burial area the site, Chrisitianity had already become established as
(normally in the south-east corner), a place-name with the dominant belief system by AD 600 (Edwards 1990,
an ecclesiastical element, structural remains, a nearby 99), so religious reasons were unlikely to have been the
holy well, a bullaun stone, a carved or decorated stone only, or indeed the principal, motivation for the
cross or slab, a townland boundary forming part of the founding of Carrowkeel. Possibly it was founded as a
enclosure, a souterrain, a pillar stone, a founder’s tomb, result of a family lineage breaking away from a larger
and a traditional ritual or folk custom. He further kin group. The prominence of Carrowkeel on a hill
specified that at least five of these are required. On this overlooking an area of known early medieval and
basis Carrowkeel would not qualify as an ecclesiastical prehistoric activity (RMP: GA097-068) may have
site. The absence of evidence for a church in particular influenced the choice of location for the main
means that it cannot be definitively classified as enclosure. Another factor may have been the presence
ecclesiastical, though it is possible that a church stood of earlier ditches and discrete features pre-dating the
in the unexcavated part of the enclosure. main enclosure, though the date, duration and character
Alternatively, Carrowkeel may belong to a group of of this earlier phase of activity remain unclear.
sites recently recognised as a result of pre-development Notwithstanding the trend towards burial at
archaeology that are generally referred to as ecclesiastical sites, it seems that a group at Carrowkeel
settlement/cemeteries (e.g. Clarke 2002; Seaver 2006; continued to bury their dead, or at least some of their
A. O’Sullivan and Harney 2008, 78–84). In many dead, in a non-ecclesiastical burial-ground throughout
respects these are similar to ecclesiastical settlements but the early medieval period and beyond. They may have
they appear to lack church buildings. The possibility had pragmatic reasons for doing so. The founding of
that they were not ecclesiastical sites is supported by the cemetery and its enduring use as a formal burial
documentary evidence that indicates that until at least area was a deliberate strategy by a group bound by
the eighth century some communities were not familial and kinship ties to perpetuate their relationship
bringing their dead for churchyard burial but with their ancestors. The act of burial makes the
continued to bury them in non-ecclesiastical family remains of the dead a fixed part of the landscape,
burial-grounds (O’Brien 1984; 1999, 52). Compilers of thereby legitimising the rights of the living to it (Parker
the early eighth-century Collectio Canonum Hibernensis Pearson 1999, 125). In a predominantly pastoral
were not entirely opposed to the continuing use of economy based on a transhumance model of summer
ancestral burial-grounds.They cited biblical precedents grazing, the settlement enclosure would also have
for the practice, in particular the example of Jacob and helped to secure tenure of the surrounding land.
Joseph, who requested that their bones be carried back Seasonal occupation is one possible explanation for the
from Egypt to the land of Canaan in order that they limited evidence for substantial structures within the
might be buried in the tomb of their ancestors. enclosure.
Increasingly, however, monks, ecclesiastical tenants and
sections of the wider population were being Funerary practices
encouraged to have their affiliation recognised in death The extent to which pagan or Christian religious
through burial at ecclesiastical sites (O’Brien 1999, 52). beliefs can be seen to dictate burial custom at
Some ancestral burial-grounds were unenclosed or Carrowkeel throughout this period is uncertain. The
partially enclosed sites dedicated purely to burial, but role of Christian ideology in the Irish early medieval
others, the so-called settlement/cemeteries, like period can be usefully separated into two phases: an
Johnstown, Raystown and Carrowkeel, are within expansion period when the faith was still a minority
larger enclosures that were used for occupation as well practice and not fully integrated, and a consolidation
as burial. To date, the vast majority of these have been period when Christianity was the dominant (but not
identified in Leinster. Carrowkeel is particularly exclusive) belief system (Mytum 1992, 60). The
significant as it is the first possible example excavated positioning of the body as a supine west–east
west of the Shannon. inhumation is usually regarded as a Christian practice.
The cemetery at Carrowkeel remained in use until This reflects the Christian belief that the dead will rise
the fifteenth century. The social conditions in which again, and an alignment with the orientation of the
the cemetery was established were very different to rising sun during Eastertide (mid- to late April) was
those that led to its eventual abandonment. Both preferred. A lack of grave-goods is also interpreted as
founding and abandonment represent breaks with reflecting a change from a pagan to a Christian
tradition: a significant initial investment in a new conception of the afterlife.
cemetery and an active decision not to continue to Cross-cultural surveys of burial practice also advise
74 Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde
Pl. 3—Adolescent
flexed burial at the
terminus of ditch
1260, cemetery phase
1 (cal. AD 676–870).
caution when applying generalisations: because of the adolescent found at the terminus of ditch 1260 from
diverse nature of mortuary rites there will usually be cemetery phase 1 (Fig. 4; Pl. 3), the tightly crouched
divergences from the norm (Ucko 1969, 262). An adolescent from cemetery phase 2 and the highly
analysis of the Irish excavation evidence indicates that unorthodox ‘akimbo’ female burial, also from cemetery
Roman burial customs were adopted independently of phase 2 (Fig. 4). The placement of these individuals in
Christianity, so there must be other supporting evidence deliberately different burial positions may indicate that
to determine the religion of an individual (Raftery some funerary rituals were the site of contested
1981).The Carrowkeel burials were almost all uniformly meaning, although the reasons why they were accorded
simple in nature, with little evidence of lining of graves, such treatment was not evident. No patterning in either
grave-markers or grave-goods. Burial was in accordance age, sex or temporal and spatial distribution could be
with Christian rites in a roughly east–west orientation, identified, and no pathological conditions could be
although there were some startling departures from the determined that would have singled these individuals
general pattern. Unusual burials included the flexed out as different.
An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 75
River-rolled quartz and some animal bone were early medieval period was a common phenomenon
also found in a number of burials, which may represent across Britain and Ireland, one which had an influence
older, non-Christian practices retained by the on the Irish tradition of cillín burial in later centuries.
population, although quartz pebbles are commonly While the separate burial of children in cillíní has
found in burials at early ecclesiastical sites (Cardy 1997, been well documented for the later and post-medieval
556; White Marshall and Walsh 2005, 81). The pattern period in Ireland (Finlay 2000), there has been little
of quartz deposition does not vary greatly between the evidence for the segregation of children in the early
cemetery phases, nor does there seem to be a significant medieval period, although in recent years excavations at
trend in the inclusion of quartz with male, female or the Rock of Cashel and Raystown, Co. Meath
non-adult burials.The significance of the stone to Irish (Hodkinson 2003; Seaver 2006), have found separate
burial culture is not certain; quartz may symbolise the clusters of non-adults within larger cemeteries. Clusters
soul of the dead, or light the way into the next world. of child burials are often found within Anglo-Saxon
Excavations in Wales have also found quartz placed in cemeteries, and there does appear to be a Christian
graves dating from the early medieval period, and it has trend in early medieval Britain for the separation of
been suggested that the practice is linked to a passage young children within cemeteries such as Raunds
from Revelations which states ‘. . . give him a white Furnells in Northamptonshire and Whithorn Priory in
stone, and in the stone a new name written, which no Galloway (Boddington 1987; Cardy 1997).The pattern
man knoweth saving he that receiveth it’ (Revelations is also seen at other ecclesiastical sites in Europe from
2:17, quoted in Holbrook 2005). the period, including the cathedrals of Trondheim and
Hamar in Norway (M. Lewis 2007, 30–3). The
Segregated burial in the early medieval period segregated burial of children has also been recognised
Phase 1 of the cemetery was made up of three distinct at the Late Roman site of Cazzanello in central Italy,
subphases, identified through stratigraphic analysis and where a small group of perinate burials was found
a programme of radiocarbon dating. The majority of within the remains of a fourth-century AD bathhouse.
burials (n = 75) were found in phase 2 of the cemetery, This seems to form part of a wider Etruscan pattern
dating from AD 850 to 1050. This is distinct in that may be a precursor to the modern Italian practice
character from the earlier and later use of this section of separate burial for foreigners and very young
of the cemetery, and seems to provide evidence for the children (Becker 2007, 290).
deliberate spatial segregation of children. Cillíní are There is evidence for the segregation of certain
essentially children’s burial-grounds, common groups during the medieval and post-medieval period
throughout Ireland but mainly focused in the western at sites such as Relignaman, Co. Tyrone (Hamlin and
counties such as Kerry and Galway (Dennehy 1997). Foley 1983), and St Ronan’s, Iona (J. O’Sullivan 1994),
They are known to have been in use during the where the separate burial of women is connected to
medieval and post-medieval periods, but their origins the presence of convents or chapels dedicated to the
remain obscure. Often sited in visible monuments such Virgin. Defining conceptual divisions between the
as abandoned ringforts, tower-houses and ecclesiastical dead, therefore, may be a common European practice
ruins, they have been described as a physical which in some areas develops into the practice of
embodiment of limbo within the landscape. The establishing totally separate burial-grounds for certain
development of this practice is assumed to coincide sections of society.
with the twelfth-century Church reforms leading to The Carrowkeel assemblage provides a securely
the establishment of the doctrine of limbo infantus dated example of the spatial segregation of children in
(Finlay 2000, 408–9). an Irish context. This spatial segregation of children in
Archaeologically, cillíní are recognised through the one section of the cemetery may be a precursor to the
seemingly disorganised burial of very young children later and post-medieval cillín tradition, which is now
within older monuments, often overlying more becoming better understood but whose origins remain
organised and formal burials. During excavation it was obscure (Finlay 2000). Recent excavations at
assumed that the cluster of young children buried at Cloncowan II, Co. Meath (Baker 2007, 72), revealed an
Carrowkeel represented the later, probably post- earlier ditched enclosure reused as a possible cillín
medieval reuse of the site as a cillín. The extensive between the tenth and thirteenth centuries. This
programme of radiocarbon dating undertaken on the corresponds to Carrowkeel cemetery phase 3 and
remains showed this not to be the case, and generated suggests an emerging pattern. The work reported here
questions about the origin of the cillín tradition and should highlight the importance of extensive
how this may relate to the spatial segregation of radiocarbon dating of cemeteries, or areas within
children within early medieval cemetery populations. It cemeteries, dominated by infant remains, for it shows
is possible that the separate burial of children in the that we cannot assume that these are post-medieval
76 Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde
cillín assemblages. Rather, like the Carrowkeel osteodontal trait analysis. American Journal of Physical
assemblage, they may provide important new insights Anthropology 71, 393–400.
into the complex and potentially early origins of this Buczacki, S. 2002. Fauna Britannica. Hamlyn.
phenomenon. Buikstra, J. and Ubelaker, D. (eds) 1994. Standards for
data collection from human skeletal remains. Arkansas.
Cardy, A. 1997. The human bones. In P. Hill (ed.),
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Whithorn and St Ninian: the excavation of a monastic
town 1984–1991, 519–92. Stroud.
The authors are indebted to all staff at Headland Clark, J. (ed.) 1995. Medieval finds from excavations in
Archaeology Ltd, particularly Stuart Callow, Kevin London 5: the medieval horse and its equipment, c.
Murphy and Deborah Riches, who supervised the 1150–1450. London.
excavations, and to Emer O’Donovan and Bryan Clarke, D.V. 1971. Small finds in the Atlantic province:
McDomhnail for survey work. Dr Stephen Lancaster problems of approach. Scottish Archaeological Forum
visited the site on two occasions and assisted greatly 3, 22–54.
with interpretation of the archaeological sediments. Clarke, L. 2002. An early medieval enclosure and
Thanks to Eavan O’Dochartaigh for all illustrations and burials, Johnstown, Co. Meath. Archaeology Ireland
to Amy Bunce for drafting the stratigraphic report. 16(3), 13–15.
Thanks must also go to Colm Maloney, who project- D’Arcy, G. 2006. The animals of Ireland. Dublin.
managed the excavation, and to Damian Shiels, who Dennehy, E. 1997. The ceallunaigh of County Kerry: an
managed all post-excavation work. Sincere thanks to archaeological perspective. Unpublished MA thesis,
Jerry O’Sullivan, NRA Project Archaeologist, and also University College Cork.
to Martin Jones, NRA Assistant Project Archaeologist, Edwards, N. 1990. The archaeology of early medieval
who provided welcome comment and guidance at all Ireland. London.
stages of the project. Thanks to the staff of RPS Egan, G. 1998. Medieval finds from excavations in London
Consulting Engineers for their assistance throughout 6: the medieval household, daily living c. 1150–1450.
the project—Senior Resident Engineer Tom London.
Prendergast, Resident Engineer Niall Healy and Finlay, N. 2000. Outside of life: traditions of infant
Resident Archaeologist Ross MacLeod. We would also burial in Ireland from cíllín to cist. World Archaeology
both like to extend thanks to Jean Price for her 31, 407–22.
patience with the final editing of this text. Special and Goodall, I.H. 1993. Iron currying and leather-working
final thanks are reserved for our team of excavators, tools. In S. Margeson (ed.), Norwich households: the
who braved the storms through three cold months on medieval and post-medieval finds from Norwich Survey
what has to be the windiest hill in County Galway. excavations 1971–1978, 189–90. Norwich.
Gorsky, M., Bukai, A. and Shohat, M. 1998. Genetic
influence on the prevalence of torus platanius.
BIBLIOGRAPHY American Journal of Medical Genetics 75, 138–40.
Hamlin, A. and Foley, C. 1983. A women’s graveyard at
Acsádi, G. and Nemeskéri, J. 1970. History of human life Carrickmore, Co. Tyrone, and the separate burial of
span and mortality. Budapest. women. Ulster Journal of Archaeology 46, 41–6.
Baker, C. 2007. Excavations at Cloncowan II, Co. Hodkinson, B.J. 2003. First draft final report on the
Meath. Journal of Irish Archaeology 16, 61–133. excavations at Cormac’s Chapel, Cashel, 1992 and
Ballin, T. 2007. The lithics from Carrowkeel, Co. 1993. http://homepage.tinet.ie/~dunamase/
Galway. Unpublished report for Headland Dunamase.html. Accessed 23-05-07.
Archaeology Ltd. Holbrook, N. 2005. An early-medieval monastic
Becker, M.J. 2007. Childhood among the Etruscans: cemetery at Llandough, Glamorgan: excavations in
mortuary programs at Tarquina as the indicator of 1994. Medieval Archaeology 49, 1–92.
the transition to adult status. In A. Cohen and J. B. Jones, M.O. 1999. Finger-rings, bracelets and latchets:
Rutter (eds), The construction of childhood in ancient towards a sociology of jewellery from later
Greece and Italy, 281–92. Athens. prehistoric and early historic Ireland to c. 800 AD.
Boddington, A. 1987. Raunds, Northamptonshire: Unpublished MA thesis, National University of
analysis of a country churchyard. World Archaeology Ireland, Galway.
18, 411–25. Kelly, F. 1997. Early Irish farming. Dublin.
Bondioli, L., Corruccini, R.S. and Macchiarelli, R. Knüsel, C. 2000. Activity-related skeletal change. In A.
1986. Familial segregation in the Iron Age Fiorato, C. Knüsel and A. Boylston (eds), Blood red
community of Alfedena, Abruzzo, Italy, based on roses: the archaeology of a mass grave from the Battle of
An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 77
APPENDIX 1: SUMMARY OF FAUNAL 14057, GU-15327), and 1245 ± 45 uncal. BP, cal. AD
REMAINS 670–890 (SUERC-14234, GU-15326). This is the
AULI TOURUNEN earliest dated house mouse from Ireland and
categorically confirms the presence of the species in
A total of 13,631 animal bone specimens were analysed Ireland in the early medieval period.The history of the
from Carrowkeel (Table 6). Of these, 8,437 specimens house mouse (Mus musculus) in Ireland is not yet fully
were recovered by hand-picking and an additional understood. Mice bones, interpreted to be those of the
5,194 were found in soil samples. The high number of house mouse, were recovered in thirteenth-century
unidentified specimens reflects both the high deposits in Cork with some rat bones (McCarthy 2003,
fragmentation rate and the sieving of the soil samples. 381). The house mouse had already arrived in Britain
In both quantification methods used (NISP, during the Iron Age (Buczacki 2002, 474). Some claim
Number of Identified Specimens, and MNE, that it was introduced into Ireland during the Norman
Minimum Number of Elements), the assemblage is period (D’Arcy 2006, 8). According to Kelly (1997,
dominated by cattle. According to MNE figures, in 243), the early Irish written sources mention the house
enclosure phase 1 66.1% of the bones derive from mouse as a significant vermin. There was some
cattle, 18.6% from sheep or goat and 15.3% from pig. uncertainty about this before now, however, because
Comparison of enclosure phase 2 was hampered by the the Irish word for mouse, luch, seems also to have been
presence of bones from the articulated skeletons, mixed applied to rats (ibid., 244).
with disarticulated remains. Specimens categorised as
large ungulates, deriving mostly from ribs and Table 6—Species representation (NISP) in material. Rabbit and
vertebrae, are likely to derive from both cattle and rat are likely to be later intrusions. Specimens deriving from
horse, but most of these bones probably belong to cattle complete skeletons are in brackets.
and they are included in cattle figures. Sheep is the next
most common species. As goat is represented by only Species NISP
one specimen, it is probable that most of the specimens Cattle 846
in the ‘sheep or goat’ category derive from sheep, as Sheep 49 (318)
well as many of the specimens in the small ungulate Goat 1
category. Pig was the least common of the three main Sheep/goat 432
domesticates. Pig 196
As the site was intensively sampled, a large number Horse 31
of bird, small mammal and lizard bones were recovered. Dog 58 (36)
The hunting of wild animals did not play an important Cat 4 (96)
role in the economy, nor did fishing. Bones of domestic Rabbit 8
fowl, quail and possibly red grouse (or grey partridge, Rat 1
but the former species is more likely: the size of the Mouse 188
bone matches better with red grouse) are likely to Shrew 46
represent consumed birds. Bones of larger songbirds Rodent 3
like thrushes may also indicate consumption, but they Large ungulate 728
could derive from natural deaths too. Some passerine Small ungulate 425
(perching bird, ‘songbird’) bones derive from such a Carnivore 6
small species that their consumption is unlikely. Small mammal 19
Variations observed in the species representation or Small animal 192
in the anatomical representation within features and Bird 172
phases might be the result of changes in the deposition Fish 29
pattern inside the site or changes in the subsistence Lizard 22
pattern. The higher number of small ungulates in the Unidentified 9,725
main enclosure ditch is likely to represent their Total 13,631
increased importance compared to the earlier phase
(Table 7). There seems to be a change in consumption Table 7—Proportion of cattle, sheep or goat and pig in features
pattern, as more young cattle are represented in the and areas (% NISP).
material during the later phase. Ditch 1260 contained
the articulated skeletons of eleven sheep, which Phase Cattle Sh/g Pig N
probably died in an accident or from disease. Phase 1 84 8 8 270
Two house mice mandibles were radiocarbon-dated Phase 2 (main 69 17 14 336
to 1115 ± 35 uncal. BP, cal. AD 860–1020 (SUERC- enclosure ditch)
An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 79
identification. No. 6 probably formed a decorative beneath legs, phase 1 (650–850), 14C 765–895
finial, such as are commonly found on candle prickets (Fig. 3).
(cf. Egan 1998, 141). No. 7 may be part of the 9. Pin? Long thin pointed shaft, curled into a loop at
mouthpiece from a horse-bit (cf. Clark 1995, 49). top. Length 66mm. SF1, context 1518, fill of grave,
SK116, younger child (5–6yrs), undisturbed stone- OK? or
3. Knife. Complete pointed single-sided blade. lined grave-cut, under left scapula, phase 3
Whittle tang, possibly broken at end. Overall (1050–1250), 14C 1037–1192 (Fig. 3).
1315
length 148mm, length of blade 93mm, width of
blade 21mm. SF1, context 1315, secondary fill of Nails and coffin fittings
ditch 1317 (Fig. 3). There appear to be very few coffin nails in the
4. Knife. Blade broken and bent at tip. Tang broken. assemblage and none at all from grave fills, suggesting
Overall length 85mm, width of blade 14mm. SF1, that wooden coffins were a rarity at the cemetery.
context 1316, primary fill of ditch 1317. There were only seven nails from the site, spread
5. Awl. Double-pointed tool, tapering evenly from through the graveyard soil, pits and other features. One
centre to a square-sectioned point, and on the is very large and is more likely to be part of some kind
other side to a round-sectioned blunted point. of structural work than from a coffin. Of the remainder,
Length 112mm, max. width 10mm. SF4, context four are small, suitable for fixing down coffin lids, while
1029, fill of enclosure ditch 1023. two are larger and could have been used in the
6. Curling finial. Short length of wrought iron rolled construction of coffin walls. Only one of the smaller
into tight curl. SF1, context 1076, fill of enclosure examples (from pit fill 1468), however, has mineralised
ditch 1023 (Fig. 3). wood remains adhering to the shaft, a feature often
7. Horse-bit? Length of iron, with remains of two found in coffin nails where the wood decays with the
broken loops at each end in perpendicular planes. nails in situ.
Length 69mm. SF1, context 1029, fill of enclosure There are also two flat strip fragments, which may
ditch 1023 (Fig. 3). be part of corner brackets or other coffin fittings. One,
from the graveyard soil (1098), appears to be
Finds from graves decoratively shaped but is too fragmentary to be certain
Both the finds from graves are a little enigmatic. There of its use or shape.
is little to identify the use of no. 8, as there is no
apparent means of attaching it to anything. It may have Discussion
been part of a strap end. No. 9 may be a pin, for The finds from the ditch seem to form a more varied
securing either clothing or a shroud. Ringed pins are a and interesting collection than those from graves,
common find in early medieval Ireland, but are including tools, fittings and the large finger-ring.
typically in copper alloy (Edwards 1990, 141).This may Unfortunately, most are of little help in terms of dating.
be a baser version of the same, in iron, possibly with an Even the ring is of a type current for such a long time
organic ring. that it cannot be taken as definitive dating evidence.
There is little evidence of grave-goods. Two iron
8. Strip with possible rivet at wide end, tapering to a objects may be dress accessories, or may be coffin
rounded point at other. SF1, context 1437, fill of fittings or shroud-fastenings.
grave, SK100, younger child (18mths–2yrs),
An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 81
Notes
1. All of the sample material from Carrowkeel is 2. The calibration programme for dates from
unburnt human bone from inhumation burials, apart Carrowkeel is that of Reimer et al. (2004).
from two samples of mouse bone recovered from the
primary deposit of the main enclosure ditch (1023).
Table 9—Radiocarbon dates.