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TRUCK TIRE TYPES AND ROAD CONTACT PRESSURES

by
Pedro Yap
Senior Design Engineer
The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
A Paper Prepared for Presentation
at the
Second International Symposium on
Heavy Vehicle Weights and Dimensions
Kelowna, British Columbia
June 1989
ABSTRACT
Meeting the changing requirements of the trucking industry has
resulted in the development of new tire concepts and sizes. The
contact pressures developed at the interface of the tire and
roadway are an important consideration in the truck tire
design/development process. Critical tire performance properties
affecting the economics and safety of the truck operation are
impacted by the interaction between the tire and roadway. The
magnitude and distribution of the tire contact pressures produced
are a function of tire factors and various operational param-
eters. Results of a laboratory study to determine the effect of
the primary operational parameters of load and inflation on tire
contact pressures are presented. Key tire sizes are addressed.
INTRODUCTION
The economic and regulatory considerations facing the trucking
industry impacts the direction of truck tire development efforts.
New tire concepts and tire sizes have been and are continuing to
be developed to meet the changing trucking operational
environment.
The first step in the truck tire development process involves
identifying the tire performance properties required for the
target application, examples of these performance properties are
listed in TABLE 1 (1). The interaction between the truck tire
and the roadway is an important design consideration as it has a
direct impact on the cost and safety of the truck operation, in
addition to being an issue relative to pavement life.
PRIMARY TIRE PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES
MECHANICAL ENDURANCE
TIRE DYNAMICS DURABILITY
TRACTION TREADWEAR
NOISE BRUISE
ROLLING RESISTANCE CUTTING, CRACKING, It TEARING
TIRE CONTACT PRESSURE
Table 1 Truck Tire Performance Properties
Many factors, both tire related and operations related will
affect this tire/roadway interaction. A laboratory study was
conducted to measure vertical tire contact pressures to obtain a.
better understanding of the influence of these factors (2).
TIRE/ROAD CONTACT PRESSURE
contact pressures for this study were collected in the laboratory
with the use of a specially instrumented flat bed machine, FIGURE
1. Contact data at selected tire loads/inflations were obtained
by rolling the tire slowly over a strain gage imbedded in the
flat bed. The bed also moves with the slow rolling tire, this
enables the strain gage to collect data over the entire length of
contact, FIGURE 2. Lateral positions of the strain gage are also
selected to characterize the behavior of each tread element
across the contact width.

/: :."-.
Figure 1 Tire Contact Pressure
Test Machine
1'-'1 : .... :
_u ___ _
- - -
A STRAIN GAGE
LOCATION
Figure 2 Contact Pressure
Measurement Path
Tire load and velocity generate forces at the interface of the
tire and roadway. These forces act in two planes within this
interface region, called the contact area or footprint area.
There is a vertical component acting in the "Z" direction, a
longitudinal component acting in the "X" direction, and a lateral
component acting in the "Y" direction, FIGURE 3.
-T""""
LOAD
Figure 3 Tire/Road Contact Force Component Directions
Those in the lateral and longitudinal direction are termed
"inplane" contact forces. They result from the bending of the
tire as it is deformed from its normally toroidal shape at the
tire/road interface. These inplane contact forces are generally
smaller in magnitude than those developed in the vertical
direction.
The lateral forces generated in the footprint tend to close the
grooves of the tire. These forces (Fy) remain fairly constant
through the majority of the contact length, FIGURE 4.
"Y" DIRECTION
20
~ 15
VI
..0
w
U
a:::
10
~ 5
I-
U
0
I-
Z
o
U -5
-10-t--,.---,--.,----,----,---,----r---r----,
o 2 J 4 5 6 7 8 9
CONTACT LENGTH (IN.)
Figure 4 Lateral Contact Forces
The longitudinal forces are generally directed towards the center
of the footprint. Normally there is a change in the direction of
the longitudinal force (Fx) close to the midpoint of contact
length and at the exit region, FIGURE 5.
20
-;- 15
(I)
..0
.::::,..
w
U
et:
10
e 5
I-
U

I-
z
o
U -5
-10-t----,--,--,---,---,---.----._--.------.
o 2 J 456 7
CONTACT LENGTH (IN.)
8 9
"X" DIRECTION
Figure 5 Longitudinal Contact Forces
There are three types of tire/road contact pressures: static,
dynamic, and transient. The contact pressures addressed in this
paper are quasi-dynamic because of the slow speed the test data
was collected, .10 mph. Dynamic pressures are more difficult to
assess, measurement of these effects are beyond the test machine
capabilities. Understanding the static interaction between the
tire and roadway will provide a good foundation before addressing
the dynamic interaction.
VERTICAL CONTACT PRESSURES
This study focused on the pressures exerted by the loaded tire in
the vertical direction. Vertical contact pressures are generally
non-uniform over both the width and length of contact, FIGURE 6.
Peak vertical contact pressures are achieved in the central
region of the contact area. The shape of the longitudinal
pressure curve is dependent on its lateral position across the
contact width, illustrated in FIGURE 7. The shoulder region
pressure curve in this example exhibits a gradual rise and fall
of contact pressures, the center region pressure curve exhibits a
. more rapid increase of pressure at the entry region of contact, a
plateau at the midsection, and a rapid decrease at the exit
region.
w
a:
::l
Vl
Vl
W
a:
Cl.
I-
U
cc
I-
Z
o
U
..J
cc
u.
~ ~ I I I I I ~
Figure 6 vertical Tire contact Pressure
iiiij+---SHOULDER REGION
~ --CENTER REGION
DIRECTION OF TRAVEL
UJ
a:
:::l
Cl)
Cl)
UJ
a:
0.
/ CENTER REGION
~ - - - - ~
t; -' ... ---- .........
~ , "
z, ,
o / ,
u /, ,
~ I "SHOULDER REGION \
U I \
~ I \
UJ I \
> I \
CONTACT LENGTH
Figure 7 Contact Pressures Along Contact Length
Vertical contact pressures are a function of tire factors and
operational factors. It is these factors which determine how the
tire distributes contact pressures across its tread width and the
peak contact pressure achieved,FIGURE 8. Any number of pressures
distributions across the contact width are possible, depending on
the tire's state of loading and its particular tire construction,
FIGURE 9 (3). This is the reason why for the same tire size,
contact pressure distributions may differ from tire manufacturer
to manufacturer and even within the same manufacturer.
250
100
Figure- 8 vertical contact Pressure Distribution
Radial
TYPE 'A'
1 1 R 2 4 _ ~ RAOIAI.-I'I.."
5640 LaS. LOAD
9!5 PSI IN"IJ. TION
Radial
TYPE '8'
-------
Figure 9 Typical Radial Tire contact Pressure
Distributions
Radial
TYPE 'C' -
Tire Factors Affecting Contact Pressures
Tire construction and tire design are the two key tire factors
which influence how a truck tire distributes vertical contact
pressures and the peak level achieved, FIGURE 10. Tire
construction consists of the materials and their orientation
within both the crown and carcass structure of- the truck tire.
Tire design consists of parameters such as tire shape, tread
pattern, and tire dimensions.
I TIRE CONSTRUCTION I
---------CROWN STRUCTURE
~ - - CARCASS STRUCTURE
I TIRE D@@RJ
TIRE SHAPE
TREAD PATTERN
TIRE DIMENSIONS
Figure 10 Tire Factors Affecting Contact Pressure
One of the major developments in terms of tire construction has
been the radial-ply truck tire. Since its introduction during
the late 1960's the radial-ply truck tire has continued-to
increase its market share over its predecessor, the bias-ply
truck tire, FIGURE 11. It offers improved tread life in addition
to improved fuel economy. The bias-ply truck tire has a fairly
stiff carcass structure, due to it multiple cross-angled' fabric
body plies. The crown structure has multiple cross-angled fabric
breakers in addition to the fabric body plies. The radial-ply
truck tire on the other hand has a fairly soft carcass structure
but a relatively stiff crown structure. This is a result of the
carcass construction having a single radially oriented steel body
ply. The crown structure is constructed of multiple angled steel
belts. These construction differences result in a marked
difference in the way the two tires respond to load. The softer
carcass structure of the radial- ply tire produces a greater
amount of vertical deflection, FIGURE 12. This is also an
indication of the damping characteristics of the tire.
I BIAS-PL Y I I RADIAL-PLY I
Figure 11 Truck Tire Constructions
2.00
?
u
6
1
.
50
z
o
1.00
L.J
-l
L.....
L.J
Cl
L.J 0.50
0:::
i=



_ 95 _
S

:
.......................................

o 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
TIRE LOAD (Ibs,)
6000 7000 BOOO
Figure 12 Tire Deflection Versus Tire Load
Maximum vertical contact pressure of these two tire types at
their typical steer and drive/trailer axle loads/inflations are
.shown in FIGURE 13. The bias-ply tire generates lower peak
pressures than the radial-ply tire, in the order of about -12%
less at the steer tire load and about 26% at the drive/trailer
loads. Average contact pressures at these same loading
tions are about equal to inflation pressure, the bias-ply tire
still is less than the radial-ply tire, FIGURE 14.
250
"'"'"' 'in
5200
L.J
e::::
::::>
V11
V1
L.J
e::::
a..
1-1
u

I-
z
o
u
INFL:
o
STEER DRIVE/TRAILER
BIAS RADIAL BIAS RADIAL
95 psi 100 psi 100 psi 105 psi
Figure 13 Vertical
Contact Pressure
L.J
e::::
::::>
V11
V1
L.J
e::::
a..
1-1
U

I-
z
o
u
INFL:
STEER DRIVE/TRAILER
BIAS RADIAL BIAS RADIAL
95 psi 100 psi 100 psi 105 psi
Figure 14 Average Vertical
contact Pressure
The second of the two tire factors affecting contact pressure is
tire design. Three tire parameters fall within this category:
tire shape, tread pattern, and tire size.
With respect to tire shape, the area of interest is the crown
region and the dimensions of tread width and tread radius, FIGURE
15. The maximum width of the contact patch or footprint is
determined by the tire's tread width. Tread radius is the
curvature of the tread, shoulder to shoulder. The amount of
curvature will affect the distribution of pressures across the
tread.
r--TREAD ----1-.1
WIDTH
Figure 15 Tire Shape Factors Affecting Contact Pressure
The second tire design parameter is that of tread p a t t e r n ~ A
tire's tread pattern can be characterized by its tread design,
its non-skid depth, and its net-ta-gross. Non-skid depth refers
to the depth of the grooves. Net-to-gross is the percentage of
void area in the tread design. Four basic tread patterns are
illustrated in FIGURE 16 (1). The tread pattern will affect the
tire's crown area stiffness, which in turn will influence the
contact pressure distribution. The greater percentage of void
area as found for example in traction tread patterns result in
higher contact contact pressure levels since the effective
contact area is smaller.
A. HIGHWAV AlII
C. ON/OFF HIGHWAV
(MIXED SEAVICE)
11. HIGHWAV LUG
D. OFF HIGHWAV
TREAD DESIGN
NON-SKID DEPTH
NET - TO-GROSS RATIO
Figure 16 Tire Tread Pattern Factors Affecting
contact Pressure
The third tire design parameter is that of tire size. This
design parameter is defined by the tire's overall diameter, its
section width, and the wheel rim diameter, FIGURE 17 (4). With
these tire and wheel dimensions, load and inflations are calcu-
lated using formulas standardized by the Tire and Rim Associ-
ation. Two tire size concepts differing dimensionally in section
width are illustrated in FIGURE 18. The wide base tire features
a greater section width than the conventional tire, it also has a
greater load carrying capability. One application is replacing a
dual tire assembly with a single wide base tire. This offers a
number of potential benefits affecting operating cost. It also
results in the axle end load being transferred through a smaller
contact area than with a dual tire assembly. The average and the
maximum vertical contact pressures of the single wide base tire
are higher, FIGURE 19. A larger size wide base tire is direc-
tionally better with respect to both average and maximum contact
pressures.
l--SECTION WIDTH
NOMINAL
RIM
DIAMETER
Figure 17 Tire Size Factors Affecting contact Pressure
00
11 R24.5 DUALS
AIR HOT
SIZE VOLUME INFLAnON LOAD
(lnch
3
)
--
(plO (Iba.)
11R24.S 13,813 105 4,250
385/85R22.5 9,844 130 8,500
42S/8SR22.5 12,359 120 8,500
CONTACT
AREA
( l n c ~ )
114 (*)
87
90
( )
385/65R22.5 SINGLE
(*) Dual Tires
Figure 18 Single Wide-Base Tire versus Dual Tire Assembly
250
INf'L:
AVERAGE
MAXIMUM
255
.......
'iij

t..J
cc:
::l

t..J
cc:
Cl.
,..'
U
< ,..
Z
0
U
l1R24.' 385/I5R22.' 425/65R22.S l1R24.5 385/65R22.5 42S/6SR22.S
DUAlS SINGLE SINGLE DUAlS SINGLE
105 psi 130 psi 120 psi INf'L: 105 pll 130 psi
Figure 19 Average & Maximum Contact Pressures-
Dual Tire Versus Single Wide Base Tire
SINGLE
120 psi
Another possible tire size concept is down-sized duals, FIGURE
20. The smaller wheel rim diameter reduces axle height, which in
turn allows the trailer floor to be lowered, providing increased
trailer cube capacity. Because air volume is lower, these
sized duals require a higher level of inflation pressure to carry
the equivalent load of a conventional size dual tire. These
tires also have smaller contact patches. Average contact
pressure for the down-sized dual tire was greater than the
conventional size dual and the wide base single tire. Down-size
dual tire maximum contact pressure fell between the conventional
dual and the wide base single pressure levels, FIGURE 21.
AIR HOT
SIZE VOLUME INFUnOH LOAD
(Jnch
3
) (PlO
--
(1b1J
11R24.S 13,813 101 4,210
211/75R17.S 5,513 131 4,250
11R24.5 215/75R17.5
DUALS DUALS
Figure 20 Down-Size Dual Assembly Versus Conventional
Dual Tire Assembly
CONTACT
AREA
o;;;r)
114 (.)
74 (.)
(.) DUll TIre.
250
..-...
'in
~ 2 0 0
w
0:::
::::>
<11150
<11
w
0:::
a...
I-- 100
U

I--
~ 50
U
0-"--
l1R24.5
INFL:
DUALS
105 psi
AVERAGE
15"
215/75RI7.5 385/65R22.5
DUALS SINGLE
135 psi 130 psi
250
..-...
Vl
~ 2 0 0
w
0:::
::::>
(/')1
(/')
w
0:::
a...
I-- 100
U

I--
~ 50
U
0-"--
INFL:
l1R24.5
DUALS
105 psi
MAXIMUM
255
215
2 I 5/75R 17.5 385/65R22.5
DUALS SINGLE
1.35 psi 130 psi
Figure 21 Average & Maximum contact Pressures-
Conventional Dual & Single Wide-Base
Versus Down-Size Duals
Operational Factors Affecting contact Pressures
Operational factors'such as inflation pressure, tire load, wheel
alignment, vehicle speed, and vehicle suspension type will
influence contact pressure distribution and maximum contact
pressure levels. Alignment effects is an area of on-going study,
its influence on the development of irregular tire wear is
critical to maximize tread life. vehicle speed and vehicle
suspension type are dynamic considerations which were not part of
this quasi-dynamic study. The dynamic effect though is an
important consideration. The focus of this laboratory study was
to address the impact of load and inflation on the average and
maximum contact pressures and the distribution across the width
of contact.
Inflation Effect
conventional size bias and radial ply tires were tested at
various inflation. pressures to determine how these different tire
types respond with respect to contact pressure (2). Tire load
was held constant at the typical drive/trailer load of 4,250
pounds.- Inflation pressures were varied approximately +/-20 psi
from their rated T&RA condition. Both tires exhibited an
increase in average contact pressure resulting from the reduction
in contact area as inflation pressure increased FIGURE 22.
..100
w
0:::200
::l
(/')
(/')
W
0:::
a..
0 100
<
I-
Z
o
U
LOAD = 4250 Ibs.
RADIAL-PLY
........ _-_._-------_ ... _-_._-_ ... __ ._-_._-
_----BIAS-PLY

60 80 100 120 140
INFLATION (psi)
Figure 22 Effect of Inflation on Average Vertical contact
Pressure
The distribution of pressures across the contact width also
varied with inflation; the area affected was mainly
region of the tire, FIGURE 23. Increased inflation pressure
resulted in an' increase in the center region contact pressures.
The bias-ply tire didn't exhibit a change in maximum contact
pressure within the range of inflations tested, FIGURE 24. -The
maximum contact pressure sensitivity with respect to inflation
variation for a radial-ply tire is dependent on its
istic contact pressure distribution. Examples of these distrib-
utions were shown earlier, FIGURE 9. The radial-ply tire
illustrated in FIGURE 23, exhibited a steady increase in maximum
contact pressure with increased inflation. A radial-ply tire
having a concave pressure distribution like that of a TYPE 'A'
distribution rather than the convex like the TYPE 'B'distrib-
ution, will tend to exhibit less sensitivity to inflation
pressure variation. The greater the shoulder region contact
pressures are relative to the center region, the less sensitive
the tire's maximum contact pressure will be to inflation
pressure.
Average contact pressures for either the bias or radial ply tires
did not exceed inflation pressure. Measured maximum contact
pressures were between 1 to 2 times the inflation.
INFLATION (PSI)
_ - 9S
-75
250
. 65
100
RadIal
TYPE 'B'
INFLATION (PSI)
_ - 115
Figure 23 Effect of Inflation Pressure on Vertical contact
Pressure Distribution
-in

w

.300

VI
w

Q.
I-
U
-<
I-
Z
o
U lOO
:::I
:::l
:::I
X
-<
:::I
RADiAl TYPE 'B'
.----_ ..
_ ... ----.. ...... RADIAL TYFE 'A'
BIAS
LOAD = .,2S0 fbs.

60 80 lOO 120 140
TIRE INFLATION (PSI)
Figure 24 Effect of Inflation Pressure on
Vertical contact Pressure
Load Effect
A similar test was conducted to determine how the two tire types
responded to load variation (2). Tire inflation was held
constant at their rated T&RA condition, this did result in a 20
psi difference between the two tires. Load was varied approxi-
mately +/-2,000 pounds, to simulate empty, fully-loaded, and
over-loaded conditions. Both tires exhibited an increase in
average contact pressure with increased tire load, FIGURE 25 .
.300
-
'u;
a.
........
L.t.J
et: 200
:::>
(/')
(/')
L.t.J
et:
a..
0100

I-
z
o
u
INFLATION: BIAS = 75 psi
RADIAL= 95 psi
. RADIAL-PLY


2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
LOAD (Ibs.)
Figure 25 Effect of Load on Average Vertical contact Pressure
Load affected mainly the contact pressure distribution in the
shoulder region. Higher shoulder region contact pressures were
produced as tire loading increased, FIGURE 26. The bias-ply tire
exhibited a steady increase in maximum contact pressure as tire
load increased, FIGURE 27. The radial-ply tire's sensitivity to
load variation is dependent on its characteristic pressure
profile, as it was for inflation pressure variation. The radial
tire featuring higher center region contact pressures, TYPE 'B'
distribution, exhibited a decrease in peak contact pressure as
load increased from the initial 2,500 lbs. load. Once the
pressure distribution shifted from a center loaded to a shoulder
loaded one, the maximum contact pressure increased with load at
a rate similar to the bias-ply tire. For a radial-ply tire
featuring higher shoulder region contact pressures, TYPE 'A'
distribution, the sensitivity to load variation is similar to the
bias-ply tire.
:::- 250
~
w
a:
~
/I)
::l 100
a:
CL
250
100
Radial
TYPE 'B'
LOAD (LBS)
----6500
-4250
------ 2500
Figure 26 Effect of Load on vertical contact Pressure
Distribution
-Vi
.e:.
.....
a::
300
~ 2 0 0
III
.....
a::
Cl..
...
U
~
Z
o
u 100
~
~
~
x
~
~
..........
/ ........... / ..... .
RADIAL TYPE'S' ............. ..
----_L-
RADIAL TYPE 'A' .....
......... _ ................... .
INFl..ATION: SIAS = 75 psi
RADIAL= 95 psi
0+-------------.----------.--------------.----------,
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
TIRE LOAD (LBS)
Figure 27 Effect of Load on Maximum Vertical contact
Pressure
SUMMARY
Truck tire contact pressures are affected by many factors, tire
related and operations related. It is the combination of these
factors that determine how contact pressures are distributed
within the contact patch and the peak level achieved. Major tire
factor considerations are internal construction and size. Just
as important are the operational factors of inflation pressure
and tire load.
Regardless of its particular tire factors, all responded to load
and inflation variation in a similar manner. Inflation variation
with constant load affected the contact pressures in the central
region of the footprint. Load variation at constant inflation
affected the contact pressures in the shoulder regions of the
footprint. Higher contact pressures will result from either an
increase in inflation pressure or an increase in tire load.
whether a radial tire's characteristic contact pressure distrib-
ution is concave, convex, flat, or a combination of these, will
affect its maximum contact pressure sensitivity to either
inflation or load variation. Differences exist between-the
various radial-ply tire manufacturers and even within the same
manufacturer, with respect to the tire construction materials
utilized, tire component placement/geometry within the tire
structure, and tire design. This results in differences in the
contact pressure distributions/sensitivity for the same tire
size.
Average contact pressures generally did not exceed the tire's
inflation pressure. Peak pressures though, were found to be as
high as twice the inflation pressure. Within the range of loads
and inflation pressures tested, load variation produced the
greater change in tire contact pressures.
Dynamic effects were not addressed in this study due to test
equipment limitations. Dynamic tire contact pressures/loads need
to be quantified as part of an integrated tire/suspension s y s t ~ .
REFERENCES
1. Ford, T.L., Charles, F.S., Heavy Duty Truck Tire Engineering,
Paper SP-729, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., February
1988.
2. Yap, P., A Comparative study of the Effect of Truck Tire
Types on Road contact Pressures, Paper 881846, Society of
Automotive Engineers, Inc., November 1989.
3. Ford, T.L., Zekoski, J., Impact of Truck Tire Selection on
contact Pressures, Proc. of the 25th paving and Transpor-
tation Conf., Symp. on Pavement Rutting, Albuquerque, NM:
University of New Mexico, January, 1988.
4. 1989 Yearbook, Akron, OH: The Tire and Rim Inc.,
1989.

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