Mathematical Methods (2011-2012)

7 - Taylors and Laurents series

Paolo Boieri
Dipartimento di Scienze Matematiche

10th May 2012

P. Boieri (Dip. Scienze Mat.)

Math. Methods 2011/12

10th May 2012

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The fundamental Theorem

The following theorem is the central result in the theory of functions of a complex variable. Theorem Let f be holomorphic in a domain . Fix z0 and let Br0 (z0 ) be a neighbourhood of z0 contained in . Then for all z Br0 (z0 ), we have that f (n) (z0 ) (z z0 )n f (z ) = n!
n=0

(i.e. the power series converges to f (z ) if |z z0 | < r0 ). Remark. We can choose Br0 (z0 ) in an arbitrary way, with the condition that it is included in .The radius of convergence of Taylor series is then at least equal to the distance of z0 from the boundary of .

P. Boieri (Dip. Scienze Mat.)

Math. Methods 2011/12

10th May 2012

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The Cauchys formula for the derivatives

The proof of the fundamental theorem uses the Cauchys integral formula for the function f (z ) at the point z0 . As a result of this proof, we can give a generalization of the Cauchys integral formula. Theorem (Cauchys integral formula for the derivatives) If f is holomorphic in , then all its derivatives exist at z0 ; for each n 1 and for each Jordan curve counter-clockwise oriented with trace included in the neighbourhood Br0 (z0 ) where f is holomorphic we have that f (n) (z0 ) = n! 2 i f (s ) ds . (s z0 )n+1

P. Boieri (Dip. Scienze Mat.)

Math. Methods 2011/12

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Global results

An important application of the Cauchys integral formula for the derivatives is the following result, that states that there are no bounded functions in C (with the obvious exception of the constants). We remark that in R functions of these type exist (some examples are sine, cosine, arctangent). Denition. A complex function w = f (z ) is bounded in C if there exists a real positive value M such that |f (z )| M , z . Theorem (Liouvilles theorem) If f is an entire function and it is bounded in C, then f (z ) is constant. Using Liouvilles theorem it is possible to prove the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra.

P. Boieri (Dip. Scienze Mat.)

Math. Methods 2011/12

10th May 2012

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Zeroes of an analytic function

If f is analytic at z0 , then, in Br0 (z0 ), f is represented by its Taylors series n f (z ) = + |z z0 | < r0 . n=0 cn (z z0 ) , If z0 is a zero of f , then c0 = 0; if, moreover, we have that f (z0 ) = f (z0 ) = = f (m1) (z0 ) = 0 e f (m) (z0 ) = 0 ,

then z0 is called a zero of order m and for |z z0 | < r0 we have

+

f (z ) =
n=m

cn (z z0 )n =

= (z z0 )m (cm + cm+1 (z z0 ) + cm+2 (z z0 )2 + . . .) = = (z z0 )m g (z ).

P. Boieri (Dip. Scienze Mat.)

Math. Methods 2011/12

10th May 2012

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Zeroes of an analytic function (continued)

Since g (z0 ) = 0 and g is continuous at z0 , then g (z ) = 0 in a neighbourhood of z0 . Then we have the following result. Theorem The zero of an analytic function (non identically zero) are isolated points. In other words, if f is not identically zero, is analytic at z0 and f (z0 ) = 0, then there exists a neighbourhood of Br (z0 ), such that f (z ) = 0 for all z Br (z0 ) \ {z0 }.

P. Boieri (Dip. Scienze Mat.)

Math. Methods 2011/12

10th May 2012

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Laurents theorem

Theorem Let f be analytic in the annulus = {z C : r1 < |z z0 | < r2 } with z0 C and 0 r1 < r2 . Then for all z , we have that
+

f (z ) =
n=

cn (z z0 )n , where cn =

1 2 i

f (s ) ds (s z0 )n+1

and C is the curve, counter-clockwise oriented, whose trace is the circle {s C : |s z0 | = r } con r1 < r < r2 .

P. Boieri (Dip. Scienze Mat.)

Math. Methods 2011/12

10th May 2012

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Isolated singularities - 1

Denition A point z0 C is an isolated singularity for f if there exists a neighbourhood Br (z0 ) such that f is analytic in Br (z0 ) \ {z0 } In Br (z0 ) \ {z0 } the function is represented by its Laurents expansion f (z ) = + c2 c1 + + c0 + c1 (z z0 ) + c2 (z z0 )2 + 2 (z z 0 ) z z0

Denition The part of this series containing the negative powers of z z0 is called principal part of f at z0 .

P. Boieri (Dip. Scienze Mat.)

Math. Methods 2011/12

10th May 2012

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Isolated singularities - 2

Denition Let z = 0 be an isolated singularity of f . If the principal part of f at z0 contains a nite number of terms, we say that z0 is a pole for f . More precisely, if there exists a non zero integer m such that cm = 0 and cm1 = cm2 = = 0, i.e., if f (z ) = cm cm+1 c1 + c 0 + c 1 (z z 0 ) + + + + m m 1 (z z0 ) (z z0 ) z z0

we say that z0 is a pole of order m. In particular, if m = 1, it is a simple pole and if m = 2 is a double pole.

P. Boieri (Dip. Scienze Mat.)

Math. Methods 2011/12

10th May 2012

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Isolated singularities - 3

If z0 is a pole of order m, then we can write f in the form f (z ) = 1 (z z0 )m

cm+n (z z0 )n =
n=0

g (z ) , (z z0 )m

|z z0 | < r , cm = 0

where g is an analytic function not zero in a neighbourhood of z0 . Denition If the principal part of f at z0 contains an innite number of terms, then the point z0 is called an essential singularity.

P. Boieri (Dip. Scienze Mat.)

Math. Methods 2011/12

10th May 2012

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Theorem of the residues - 1

Denition Let z0 be an isolated singularity for f ; suppose that for r > 0 we have that
+

f (z ) =
n=

c n (z z 0 )n ,

0 < |z z0 | < r .

Then the coecient c1 is called residue of f at z0 and denoted by c1 = Res f (z0 ) or by c1 = Res ( f ; z0 ).

P. Boieri (Dip. Scienze Mat.)

Math. Methods 2011/12

10th May 2012

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Theorem of the residues - 2

We know that Res f (z0 ) = c1 =

1 2 i

f (z ) dz
C

where C is a Jordan curve with trace given (for instance) by the circle {z C : |z z0 | = r }. Theorem (Theorm of the residues) Let C be a Jordan arc and f be analytic on C and in its interior, with the exception of a nite number of points z1 , z2 , . . . , zn belonging to the interior of C . Then
n

f (z ) dz = 2 i
C k =1

Ref (zk ) .

P. Boieri (Dip. Scienze Mat.)

Math. Methods 2011/12

10th May 2012

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Computation of the residues - Simple pole - 1

If z0 is a simple pole for f , then for 0 < |z z0 | < r we have f (z ) = and (z z0 )f (z ) = c1 + c0 (z z0 ) + c1 (z z0 )2 + . Then c1 = Res f (z0 ) = lim (z z0 )f (z ) .
z z0

c1 + c0 + c1 (z z0 ) + z z0

P. Boieri (Dip. Scienze Mat.)

Math. Methods 2011/12

10th May 2012

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Computation of the residues - Simple pole - 2

n(z ) , with n(z0 ) = 0 and d (z ) that z0 is a zero of order one for d (z ) (this means that d (z0 ) = 0 and d (z0 ) = 0. Then we have that Moreover, suppose that f is of the form f (z ) = Res f (z0 ) = In fact Res f (z0 ) =
z z0

n(z0 ) . d (z0 )

lim (z z0 )

n (z ) (z z0 ) n(z0 ) = lim n (z ) = . d (z ) z z0 d (z ) d (z0 ) d (z0 )

P. Boieri (Dip. Scienze Mat.)

Math. Methods 2011/12

10th May 2012

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Computation of the residues - Multiple pole

If z0 is a pole of order m for f , then f (z ) = and (z z0 )m f (z ) = cm + cm+1 (z z0 ) + + c1 (z z0 )m1 + In order to compute the residue we dierentiate m 1 times: c1 = Res f (z0 ) = d m 1 1 lim (z z0 )m f (z ) . (m 1)! z z0 dz m1 cm cm+1 c1 + + + + c 0 + c 1 (z z 0 ) + m m 1 (z z0 ) (z z0 ) z z0

P. Boieri (Dip. Scienze Mat.)

Math. Methods 2011/12

10th May 2012

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Computation of the residues - Essential singularity

If z0 is an isolated essential singularity, the residue can be determined only by the direct inspection of the Laurent expansion of the function.

P. Boieri (Dip. Scienze Mat.)

Math. Methods 2011/12

10th May 2012

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