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    This work was originally published in french in 1975, by YMCA Press. An English translation was subsequently published in 1980 by Harper and Row. As a public service, I have transcribed this important work.

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    This work was originally published in french in 1975, by YMCA Press. An English translation was subsequently published in 1980 by Harper and Row. As a public service, I have transcribed this important work.

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    86 views130 pages

    Socialist Phenomenon

    Uploaded by

    Gustavo Abadie
    This work was originally published in french in 1975, by YMCA Press. An English translation was subsequently published in 1980 by Harper and Row. As a public service, I have transcribed this important work.

    Copyright:

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 130

    [ThefollowingisatranscriptionofIgorShafarevich's TheSocialistPhenomenon .ThisworkwasoriginallypublishedinRussianinFranceunderthetitle Sotsializmkakiavleniemirovoiistoriiin1975,byYMCAPress.AnEnglishtranslationwassubsequentlypublishedin1980byHarper&Row.Thisworkisnowout ofprintanddifficulttofind. Asapublicservice,IhavetranscribedthisimportantworkandIammakingitavailableforfreeviatheInternet.

    Notesonformat:
    l l l l l

    Horizontallinesmarkpageboundriesintheoriginal. Numbersappearingwithinsquarebracketsattheendofeachpagedenotepagenumbersintheoriginal. Wordsorbibliographicreferencesspanningpageboundriesintheoriginalnowappearintheirentiretyatthebottomofthelowernumberedpage. Blankpagesintheoriginalhavebeendeletedfromthistranscription. TheOCRsoftwareIusedforthistranscriptiontendstodropdiacriticalmarks.ImanuallyrestoredthemwhereverIcouldduringproofreading,butI'm suremanyarestillmissing.

    RobertLStephens]

    IgorShafarevich

    TheSocialistPhenomenon
    TRANSLATEDFROMTHERUSSIANBY WilliamTjalsma

    ForewordbyAleksandrI.Solzhenitsyn
    [iii]

    Contents
    Forewordvii Prefacexi

    PARTONE CHILIASTICSOCIALISM
    Introduction2 I. TheSocialismofAntiquity7 II. TheSocialismoftheHeresies18 1.GeneralSurvey18 Appendix:ThreeBiographies 46 2.ChiliasticSocialismandtheIdeologyoftheHereticalMovements 67 III. TheSocialismofthePhilosophers80 1.TheGreatUtopias80 2.TheSocialistNovel101 3.TheAgeofEnlightenment106 4.TheFirstSteps120 Summary129

    PARTTWO STATESOCIALISM
    IV. SouthAmerica132 1.TheIncaEmpire132 2.TheJesuitStateinParaguay142

    [v]

    V. TheAncientOrient152 1.Mesopotamia152 2.AncientEgypt161 Appendix:ReligioninAncientEgyptandMesopotamia 166 3.AncientChina168 Appendix:WasThereSuchaThingasan"AsiaticSocialFormation"? 185

    V. TheAncientOrient152 1.Mesopotamia152 2.AncientEgypt161 Appendix:ReligioninAncientEgyptandMesopotamia 166 3.AncientChina168 Appendix:WasThereSuchaThingasan"AsiaticSocialFormation"? 185 Summary189

    PARTTHREE ANALYSIS
    VI. TheContoursofSocialism194 1.TheAbolitionofPrivateProperty195 2.TheAbolitionofTheFamily195 3.TheAbolitionofReligion195 4.CommunalityorEquality196 VII. SurveyofSomeApproachestoSocialism202 VIII. TheEmbodimentoftheSocialistIdeal236 1.Economy239 2.TheOrganizationofLabor241 3.Family243 4.Culture248 5.Religion251 IX. SocialismandIndividuality258 X. TheGoalofSocialism270 XI. Conclusion286 Bibliography301 Index309 [vi]

    Foreword
    Itseemsthatcertainthingsinthisworldsimplycannotbediscoveredwithoutextensiveexperience, beitpersonalorcollective.Thisappliestothepresentbookwithits freshandrevealingperspectiveonthemillenniaoldtrendsofsocialism.Whileitmakes use ofavoluminousliteraturefamiliartospecialiststhroughouttheworld,thereisan undeniablelogicinthefactthatitemergedfromthecountrythathasundergone(andisundergoing)theharshestandmostprolongedsocialistexperienceinmodernhistory. Norisitatallincongruousthatwithinthatcountrythisbookshouldnothavebeenproducedbyahumanist,forscholarsinthehumanitieshavebeenthemostmethodically crushedofallsocialstrataintheSovietUnioneversincetheOctoberRevolution.Itwaswrittenbyamathematicianofworldrenown:intheCommunistworld, practitionersoftheexactsciencesmuststandinfortheirannihilatedbrethren. Butthiscircumstancehasitscompensations.Itprovidesuswitharareopportunityofreceivingasystematicanalysisofthetheoryandpracticeofsocialismfromthepenof anoutstandingmathematicalthinkerversedintherigorousmethodologyofhisscience.(Onecanattachparticularweight,forinstance,tohisjudgmentthatMarxismlacks eventheclimate ofscientificinquiry.) Worldsocialismasawhole,andallthefiguresassociatedwithit,areshroudedinlegenditscontradictionsareforgottenorconcealeditdoesnotrespondtoarguments butcontinuallyignoresthemallthisstemsfromthemistofirrationalitythatsurroundssocialismandfromits instinctive aversiontoscientificanalysis,featureswhichthe [vii] authorofthisvolumepointsoutrepeatedlyandinmanycontexts.Thedoctrinesofsocialismseethewithcontradictions,itstheoriesareatconstantoddswithitspractice, yetduetoapowerful instinctalsolaidbarebyShafarevichthesecontradictionsdonotintheleasthindertheunendingpropagandaofsocialism.Indeed,noprecise, distinctsocialismevenexistsinsteadthereisonlyavague,rosynotionofsomethingnobleandgood,ofequality,communalownership,andjustice:theadventofthese thingswillbringinstanteuphoriaandasocialorderbeyondreproach. Thetwentiethcenturymarksoneofthegreatestupsurgesinthesuccessofsocialism,andconcomitantlyofitsrepulsivepracticalmanifestations.Yetduetothesame passionateirrationality,attemptstoexaminetheseresultsarerepelled:theyareeitherignoredcompletely,orimplausiblyexplainedawayintermsofcertain"Asiatic"or "Russian"aberrationsorthepersonalityofaparticulardictator,orelsetheyareascribedto"statecapitalism."Thepresentbookencompassesvaststretchesoftimeand space.Bycarefullydescribingandanalyzingdozensofsocialistdoctrinesandnumerousstatesbuiltonsocialistprinciples,theauthorleavesnoroomforevasivearguments basedonsocalled"insignificantexceptions"(allegedlybearingnoresemblancetothegloriousfuture).WhetheritisthecentralizationofChinainthefirstmillenniumB.C., thebloodyEuropeanexperimentsofthetimeoftheReformation,thechilling(thoughuniversallyesteemed)utopiasofEuropeanthinkers,theintriguesofMarxandEngels, ortheradicalCommunistmeasuresoftheLeninperiod(nowitmorehumanethanStalin'sheavyhandedmethods)theauthorinallhisdozensofexamplesdemonstrates theundeviatingconsistencyofthephenomenonunderconsideration. Shafarevichhassingledouttheinvariantsofsocialism,itsfundamentalandunchangingelements,whichdependneitherontimenorplace,andwhich,alas,arelooming ominouslyovertoday'stotteringworld.Ifoneconsidershumanhistoryinitsentirety,socialismcanboastofagreaterlongevityanddurability,ofwiderdiffusionandof controloverlargermassesofpeople,thancancontemporaryWesterncivilization.Itisthereforedifficulttoshakeoffgloomypresentimentswhencontemplatingthatmaw intowhichbeforethecenturyisoutwemayallplunge:that"Asiaticformation"whichMarxhastenedtocircumventinhisclassification,andbeforewhichcontemporary Marxistthoughtstandsbaffled,havingdiscerneditsownhideouscountenance [viii] inthemirrorofthemillennia.Itcouldprobablybesaidthatthemajorityofstatesinthehistoryofmankindhavebeen"socialist."Butitisalsotruethatthesewereinno

    controloverlargermassesofpeople,thancancontemporaryWesterncivilization.Itisthereforedifficulttoshakeoffgloomypresentimentswhencontemplatingthatmaw intowhichbeforethecenturyisoutwemayallplunge:that"Asiaticformation"whichMarxhastenedtocircumventinhisclassification,andbeforewhichcontemporary Marxistthoughtstandsbaffled,havingdiscerneditsownhideouscountenance [viii] inthemirrorofthemillennia.Itcouldprobablybesaidthatthemajorityofstatesinthehistoryofmankindhavebeen"socialist."Butitisalsotruethatthesewereinno senseperiodsorplacesofhumanhappinessorcreativity. Shafarevichpointsoutwithgreatprecisionboththecauseandthegenesisofthefirstsocialistdoctrines,whichhecharacterizesas reactions: PlatoasareactiontoGreek culture,andtheGnosticsasareactiontoChristianity.Theysoughttocounteracttheendeavorofthehumanspirittostanderect,andstrovetoreturntotheearthbound existenceoftheprimitivestatesofantiquity.Theauthoralsoconvincinglydemonstratesthediametricaloppositionbetweentheconceptsofmanheldbyreligionandby socialism.Socialismseekstoreducehumanpersonalitytoitsmostprimitivelevelsandtoextinguishthehighest,mostcomplex,and"Godlike"aspectsofhuman individuality.Andevenequality itself,thatpowerfulappealandgreatpromiseofsocialiststhroughouttheages,turnsouttosignifynotequalityofrights,ofopportunities, andofexternalconditions,butequality qua identity,equalityseenasthemovementofvarietytowarduniformity. Eventhough,asthisbookshows,socialismhasalwayssuccessfullyavoidedtrulyscientificanalysesofitsessence,Shafarevich'sstudychallengespresentdaytheoreticians ofsocialismtodemonstratetheirargumentsinabusinesslikepublicdiscussion. ALEKSANDRI.SOLZHENITSYN

    [ix]

    Preface
    Thisbookisinspiredbytheconvictionthatthecataclysmswhichhumanityhasexperiencedinthetwentiethcenturyareonlythebeginningofamuchmoreprofoundcrisis ofaradicalshiftinthecourseofhistory.Tocharacterizethescopeofthiscrisis,Ihadthoughtofcomparingittotheendofancientcivilizationortothetransitionfromthe MiddleAgestothemodernperiod.ButlaterIbecameacquaintedwithabolderand,itseemstome,morepenetratingapproach.Forexample,F.Heichelheiminhis fascinatingAnAncientEconomicHistory expressesthesuppositionthatthepresentperiodofhistory,whichhaslastedoverthreethousandyears,iscomingtoanend.It haditsbeginningsintheIronAge,whentendenciesrootedinthefreedevelopmentofpersonalityledtothecreationofthespiritualandculturalvaluesuponwhich contemporarylifeisbased: Itisquitepossiblethattheeconomicstatecontrolsofthelastdecades,producedbyimmanenttrendsofourLateCapitalistAgeofthetwentiethcentury, meantheendandconclusionofthelongdevelopmentinthedirectionofeconomicindividualism,andthebeginningsofanovelorganizationoflaborwhichis closertotheAncientOrientalmodelsoffivethousandyearsagothantotheidealsforwhichthefoundationswerelaidatthebeginningoftheIronAge.(90: pp.115116)* Itishardlynecessarytodemonstratethatoneofthebasicforcesinfluencingthedevelopingcrisisofmankindissocialism.Itbothpromotes

    *Throughoutthiswork,Arabicnumberswithinparenthesesrefertoentriesinthebibliographybeginningonpage301.Romannumeralsindicatevolumenumbers.

    [xi] thiscrisis,asaforcedestroyingthe"oldworld,"andundertakestoshowawayout.Thereforetheattempttocomprehendsocialismitsorigins,itsdrivingforces,thegoal towardwhichitleadsisdictatedquitesimplybytheinstinctforselfpreservation.Wefearthepossibilityoffindingourselvesatthecrossroadswithblinderson,atatime whenchoosingwhichroadtotakemaydeterminethewholeofmankind'sfuture. Butitispreciselysuchattemptstounderstandwhichseemtocurtailalldiscussion.Thefactthattheadherentsofsocialismthemselveshaveexpressedsomany contradictoryviewsoughttoputusonguard.Inaddition,notionsaboutthenatureofsocialismareasarulestrikinglyvague,andyettheydonotelicitdoubtandare perceivedastruthneedingnoverification.Thisisespeciallyapparentinattemptstomakecriticalevaluationsofsocialism.Pointingoutthetragicfactsthatsofrequently haveaccompaniedthesocialistexperimentsofthetwentiethcenturyusuallyevokestheobjectionthatanideacannotbejudgedbytheunsuccessfulattemptsatits implementation.Thetaskofrebuildingsocietyissoimmeasurablycomplicated,itissaid,thatintheinitialstageserrorsareinevitabletheyare,however,duetothe shortcomingsofcertainindividualsortheheritageofthepastinnosensedotheyfollowfromthefineprinciplesenunciatedbythefoundersofthedoctrine.Thefactthat evenintheearliestdeclarationsofsocialistdoctrinethereareschemeswhichintheircrueltyfarexceedanyrealsystemisdismissedasinsignificant.Itisarguedthatthe determiningfactorisreallifeandhardlytheconstructionsoftheoreticiansorthefantasyofutopianthinkers.Life,itissaid,hasitsownlaws.Itwilltemperandsmoothout theextremesofthefanaticsandcreateasocialstructurewhich,evenifitdoesnotquitecorrespondtotheiroriginalplans,willbeatleastviable,andinanycasecloserto perfectionthanthatwhichnowexists. Inattemptingtobreakoutofthisviciouscircle,itisusefultocomparesocialismtosomeotherphenomenonwhichhashadaninfluenceofsimilarmagnitudeonlifefor example,religion.Religionmayhaveasocialfunction,supportingordestroyingsocialinstitutionsitmayhaveaneconomicfunction(asthetemplesoftheancientEastdid withtheirlandholdings,orasinthecaseoftheCatholicChurchintheMiddleAges)oritmayhaveapoliticalrole,andsoon.Butthisispossibleonlybecausethereare peoplewhobelieveinGodandbecausethereisastrivingforaunionwithGodwhichreligioncreates. [xii] Withouttakingthisfundamentalfunctionofreligionintoaccount,itisimpossibletounderstandhowitinfluenceslifegenerally.Itisthisaspectthatmustbeclarifiedbefore onecanexaminethequestionofhowitinteractswithotherspheresoflife. Itisnaturaltosupposethatsocialism,too,containsafundamentaltendencywhichmakespossibleitsphenomenalinfluenceonlife.Butitisunlikelytobeidentifiedby studying,forexample,theWesternsocialistparties,inwhichbasicsocialisttendenciesarehopelesslyentangledwithpracticalpolitics.Itisnecessary,first,tostudythis phenomenonoverasufficientlylongtimespaninordertoascertainitsbasiccharacteristicsand,second,toexamineitsmoststrikingandconsistentmanifestations. Inpursuingthismethodweshallbeastonishedtofindthatsocialism(atleastatfirstsight)turnsouttobeaglaringcontradiction.Proceedingfromacritiqueofagiven society,accusingitofinjustice,inequalityandlackoffreedom,socialismproclaimsinthesystemswhereitisexpressedwiththegreatestconsistencyafargreater injustice,inequalityandslavery!NobleUtopiasandgoldendreamsabouttheCityoftheSunusuallyevokenothingmorethanareproachfortheir"utopian"nature,for

    Itisnaturaltosupposethatsocialism,too,containsafundamentaltendencywhichmakespossibleitsphenomenalinfluenceonlife.Butitisunlikelytobeidentifiedby studying,forexample,theWesternsocialistparties,inwhichbasicsocialisttendenciesarehopelesslyentangledwithpracticalpolitics.Itisnecessary,first,tostudythis phenomenonoverasufficientlylongtimespaninordertoascertainitsbasiccharacteristicsand,second,toexamineitsmoststrikingandconsistentmanifestations. Inpursuingthismethodweshallbeastonishedtofindthatsocialism(atleastatfirstsight)turnsouttobeaglaringcontradiction.Proceedingfromacritiqueofagiven society,accusingitofinjustice,inequalityandlackoffreedom,socialismproclaimsinthesystemswhereitisexpressedwiththegreatestconsistencyafargreater injustice,inequalityandslavery!NobleUtopiasandgoldendreamsabouttheCityoftheSunusuallyevokenothingmorethanareproachfortheir"utopian"nature,for theiridealsthataretoohighformankindatpresent.Butitisenoughmerelytoopenthesebookstobeastonishedbythescene:disobedientcitizensturnedintoslaves informersworkandlifeinparamilitarydetachmentsandunderclosesupervisionpassesthatareneededevenforasimplestroll,andespeciallythedetailsofgeneral leveling,depictedastheyarewithgreatrelish(identicalclothing,identicalhouses,evenidenticalcities).Aworkentitled"TheLawof Freedom" describesanidealsociety whereineachsmallcommunethereisahangmanandanyonewhohasbeenremissordisobedientisfloggedorturnedintoaslaveandwhereeachcitizenisconsidereda soldier.Therevolutionarieswhodrewupthe"Conspiracyof Equals" understoodequalityinsuchawaythattheyaloneformedthegovernment,whileothersweretoobey implicitlyandthosewhodidnotweretobeexiledtocertainislandsforforcedlabor.InthemostpopularworkofMarxism,the CommunistManifesto, oneofthefirst measuresofthenewsocialistsystemtobeproposedistheintroductionof compulsorylabor. Anditispredictedthatthiswillleadtoasocietyinwhich"thefree developmentofeachwillbetheconditionofthefreedevelopmentofall"! Attemptstoestablishthehappysocietyofthefuturebymeansof [xii] executionsmayperhapsbeexplainedbythediscrepancybetweenvisionandreality,bythedistortionthattheideaundergoesinbeingputintopractice.Buthowto understandateachingwhichinitsideal versionincludesbothanappealtofreedomandaprogramfortheestablishmentofslavery? Orhowtoreconciletheimpassionedcondemnationoftheoldorderandquitejustifiedindignationatthesufferingofthepoorandtheoppressedwiththefactthatthesame teachingsenvisagenolesssufferingfortheseoppressedmassesasthelotofwholegenerationspriortothetriumphofsocialjustice?ThusMarxforeseesfifteen,perhaps evenf ifty yearsofcivilwarfortheproletariat,andMaoTsetungisreadytoacceptthelossof half ofhumanityinanuclearwarforthesakeofestablishingasocialist structureintheworld.Acallforsacrificesonthisscalemightsoundconvincingonthelipsofareligiousleaderappealingtoatruthbeyondthisworld.Butnotfrom convincedatheists. Itwouldseemthatsocialismlacksthatfeaturewhich,inmathematics,forexample,isconsideredtheminimalconditionfortheexistenceofaconcept:adefinitionfreeof contradictions. Perhapssocialismisonlyameansofpropaganda,asetofseveralcontradictoryconceptions,eachofwhichappealstoagivengroup?Theentirehistory ofsocialismspeaksagainstsuchaview.Themonumentalinfluenceithashadonmankindprovesthatsocialismisinessenceaninternallyconsistentviewoftheworld.One needsonlytouncoverthetruelogicofsocialismandtofindthatvantagepointfromwhichitcanbeseenasaphenomenonwithoutcontradiction.Thepresentbookisan attempttoaccomplishsuchatask. Inthesearchforthisvantagepoint,Iproposetotreattheworksofsocialistideologynotasthewritingsofsupermentowhomthepastandthefutureofmankindare known,norasmerejournalisticpropaganda.Oneoughtnotacceptalltheirpretensionsastruth,butontheotherhand,oneneednotdenytheaccuracyoftheirviewsin areaswheretheymaywellbecompetentfirstofall,inpronouncementsbearingonthemselves.If,forexample,Marxrepeatedlyexpressesthethoughtthatmanexists onlyasarepresentativeoftheinterestsofadefiniteclassandhasnoexistenceasanindividual,ofcoursewearenotobligedtobelievethattheessenceofmanwas revealedtoMarx.Butwhynotacceptthatheisdescribingaviewoftheworldinherentincertainpeople,himselfinparticular,whoregardmannotasapersonalityhaving anindependentsignificanceinthe [xiv] worldbutmerelyasa tool offorcesoutsidehiscontrol?Ifwereadthatsociety(andtheworld)mustbedestroyed,"razedtotheground,"thatlifecannotbeimprovedor correctedandthathistorymaybeassistedonlybyitsmidwifeViolence,itwouldbeincautioustotrustthepropheticgiftoftheauthorsofsuchpredictions.Butitisquite possiblethattheyareconveyingaviewoflifeinwhichtheentireworldevokesmalevolence,loathingandnausea(asinSartre'sfirstnovel, Nausea). Lifereeksofdeath andbyforceofastrangedualismisjustasloathsomeasdeathanddecayundernormalcircumstances. Theperceptionoftheworldthatmaybeinferredinthiswayfromthestudyofsocialistideologyappearstobeaccurateandtruetolife.AnditisnaturaltoaSsumethatthis ispreciselywhatmovestheadherentsofsocialistideology.Furthermore,sincesocialismiscapableofinspiringmassmovements,itfollowsthatmanyaresubjecttothe influence ofsuchaworldview,perhapsevenallpeoplearetoagreaterorlesserdegree.Ifsocialismisviewedastheultimatetruthaboutman,thenitunquestionably disintegratesintocontradictoryelements.Butifweconsiderittobeamanifestationofonlyoneofthetendenciesinmanandmankind,thenitappearspossibletoremove thecontradictionsandtounderstandsocialismasabasicallycohesiveandconsistentphenomenon.Onlythenmaythequestionberaisedastotheroleofsocialismin history.Theconsiderationssetforthinthelastparagraphsofthisbookdonotconstituteadefinitiveanswertothisquestion.Rather,theyindicatethedirectioninwhich,so itseemstome,theanswershouldbesought. Inthepresentwork,theproblemisconsideredinitsmostabstractform:Whatarethosebasicfeaturesofsocialismwhich,interwovenasineachcasetheyarewiththe individualpeculiaritiesofvariouscountriesandepochs,engenderthemultiplicityofitsmanifestations?Therefore,althoughaconsiderablenumberoffactsandconcrete historicalsituationsareexamined,weshallabstractfromthespecificnatureofthesesituationsinordertodelineatebasicfeaturescommontoallofthem.Asaresult,the conclusionstowhichthisdiscussionleadsarenotdirectlyapplicabletoanyconcretesituationnotuntilsocialistidealsfindtheirabsoluteandunconstrainedrealization.In allexistinghistoricalrealizationsofthesocialistideal,wearedealingnotwithapurephenomenonbutwithafusionofsocialistandmanyothertendencies.Therefore,in ordertoapplyourviewstoaspecifichistoricalsituation,itwouldbenecessarytotaketheoppositeapproach: [xv] toelucidatehowthegeneraltendenciesofsocialismsingledoutbyusarereflectedinthepeculiaritiesofhistoricalepochsandnationaltraditions.Suchisnotthepurposeof thisbook.However,itseemstomethatwithoutmakingadistinctionbetweenthephenomenoninitsgeneralaspectandthespecificsgeneratedbyconcretehistorical conditions,allattemptsatunderstandingarehopeless. PartsOneandTwoofthebookareanexpositionofconcretefactsfromthehistoryofsocialistteachingsandsocialiststates.OnlyinPartThreeisthereanattemptto analyzethesefactsandtodrawcertainconclusions.Thisstructureentailsanumberofdifficultiesforthereader.Ifhedoesnotwishtogointothedetailsofthevarious historicalepochs,hemaysimplyskimPartsOneandTwoandmovequicklyintoPartThree.Fortheconvenienceofsuchareader,severalsummariesreviewthose conclusionsfromthehistoricalsectionswhichareofspecialimportanceforthesubsequentdiscussion. Workingonthisbookwithoutofficialpermission,undertheconditionsprevailinginourcountry,Iencounteredconstantdifficultiesinobtainingthenecessaryliterature. Giventhissituation,Iamawareofthelikelihood(andperhapseventheinevitability)oferrorincertainspecificquestionsandoftheshortcomingsofmyarguments,which mayhavebeenpresentedearlierandmoreeffectivelybyothers.Myonlyjustificationistheurgencyofthethemeandthespecialhistoricalexperienceofourcountry. Thelattercircumstancewasthebasicstimulusformywork,inspiringmewithacertainhopeofsuccess.Russia'sexperienceinthetwentiethcenturyhasbeenunique amongmodernnationsperhapstherearefewprecedentsinthewholeofworldhistory.Webecamewitnessestoeventsandchangeswhichwewouldhardlyhavethought

    conclusionsfromthehistoricalsectionswhichareofspecialimportanceforthesubsequentdiscussion. Workingonthisbookwithoutofficialpermission,undertheconditionsprevailinginourcountry,Iencounteredconstantdifficultiesinobtainingthenecessaryliterature. Giventhissituation,Iamawareofthelikelihood(andperhapseventheinevitability)oferrorincertainspecificquestionsandoftheshortcomingsofmyarguments,which mayhavebeenpresentedearlierandmoreeffectivelybyothers.Myonlyjustificationistheurgencyofthethemeandthespecialhistoricalexperienceofourcountry. Thelattercircumstancewasthebasicstimulusformywork,inspiringmewithacertainhopeofsuccess.Russia'sexperienceinthetwentiethcenturyhasbeenunique amongmodernnationsperhapstherearefewprecedentsinthewholeofworldhistory.Webecamewitnessestoeventsandchangeswhichwewouldhardlyhavethought possiblebeforethistime.Anewfieldofphenomena,formerlyattainableonlythroughartisticormysticalintuition,nowbecameopentorationalinvestigation,basedona studyoffactsandtheirlogicalanalysis.Wehavehadtheopportunityofseeinghistoryinanewaspectanadvantagethatcanoutweighmanydifficulties. Thisbookwouldneverhavebeenwrittenwereitnotfortheassistancerenderedmebynumerouspeople.Atthemoment,itisnotpossibleformetonamethemallandto expresstoeachmydebtofgratitude.ButIcanthanktwoofthemhere:A.I.Solzhenitsyn,underwhoseinfluenceIundertooktowritethisbook,andV.M.Borisov, whosecriticismwasinvaluable. [xvi]

    PARTONE CHILIASTICSOCIALISM
    [1]

    Introduction
    Theword"socialism"oftenimpliestwoquitedifferentphenomena: 1. Adoctrineandanappealbasedonit,aprogramforchanginglife,and 2. Asocialstructurethatexistsintimeandspace. ThemostobviousexamplesincludeMarxismascontainedinthe"classic"writingsofMarxandothersandthesocialstructurethatexistsintheU.S.S.R.andthePeople's RepublicofChina.Amongthefundamentalprinciplesofthestatedoctrineinthesecountriesistheassertionthattheconnectionbetweenthetwophenomenaisvery simple.Ontheonehand,itisasserted,thereisascientifictheorywhichprovesthatafterachievingadefinitelevelinthedevelopmentofproductiveforces,mankindwill passovertoanewhistoricformationthistheorypointsthewaytothemostrationalpathsforsuchatransition.Andontheotherhand,weareassured,thereisthe embodimentofthisscientificprognosis,itsconfirmation.AsanexampleofquiteadifferentpointofviewweciteH.G.Wells,whovisitedRussiain1920and,though infectedbytheworshipofsocialism,fashionablethenasnow,neverthelessalmostinstinctivelyrefusedtoacceptMarxism,inthissensereflectingtheantipathytowardall scholastictheoriestypicalofanEnglishman.InhisbookRussiaintheShadows, Wellswrites:"MarxistCommunismhasalwaysbeenatheoryofrevolution,atheorynot merelylackingincreativeandconstructiveideasbuthostiletocreativeandconstructiveideas."(1:p.60)HedescribesthecommunismthatgovernedRussiaas"...inso manymatterslikeaconjurerwhohaslefthis [2] pigeonandhisrabbitbehindhimandcanproducenothingwhateverfromthehat."(1:p.64) Fromthispointofview,Marxismdoesnotsetitselfanygoalotherthanthatofpreparingfortheseizureofpower.Thestatesystemestablishedasaresultistherefore definedandshapedbythenecessityofholdingpower.Sincethesetasksareentirelydifferent,theofficialtheoryandtheactualimplementationhavenothingincommon. Itwouldbeincautioustotakeeitheroftheseassertionsonfaith.Onthecontrary,itwouldbedesirable,first,tostudyboth"socialisms"independently,withoutanyapriori hypotheses,andonlythenattempttocometoconclusionsabouttheconnectionsthatexistbetweenthem. Weshallbeginwithsocialismunderstoodasadoctrine,asanappeal. Allsuchdoctrines(andasweshallsee,thereweremanyofthem)haveacommoncoretheyarebasedonthecompleterejectionoftheexistingsocialstructure.Theycall foritsdestructionandpaintapictureofamorejustandhappysocietyinwhichthesolutiontoallthefundamentalproblemsofthetimeswouldbefound.Furthermore,they proposeconcretewaysofachievingthisgoal.InreligiousliteraturesuchasystemofviewsisreferredtoasbeliefinthethousandyearKingdomofGodonearthchiliasm. Borrowingthisterminology,weshalldesignatethesocialistdoctrinesofthistypeas"chiliasticsocialism." Inordertogivesomesenseofthescaleofthisphenomenonandoftheplaceitoccupiesinthehistoryofmankind,weshallexaminetwodoctrinesthatfitthecategoryof chiliasticsocialism,astheyaredescribedbytheircontemporaries.Indoingso,weshallattempttoextractapictureofthefuturesocietyenvisaged,leavingtoonesidefor themomentthemotivationaswellastheconcretemeansrecommendedforachievingtheideal. ThefirstexampletakesustoAthensin392B.C.duringthegreaturbanDionysia,whenAristophanespresentedhiscomedyEcclesiazusae or TheCongresswomen. HerehedepictsateachingfashionableintheAthensofthetime.Theplotisasfollows:Thewomenofthecity,wearingbeardsanddressedinmen'sclothing,cometothe assemblyandbyamajorityvotepassaresolutiontransferringallpowerinthestatetowomen.Theyusethispowertointroduceaseriesofmeasures,whichare expoundedinadialoguebetweenPraxagora,theleaderofthewomen,andherhusband,Blepyros.Hereareseveralquotations. [3] PRAXAGORA: CompulsoryUniversalCommunityPropertyiswhatIproposetoproposeacrosstheboardEconomicEquality,tofillthosefissuresthatscaroursociety'sface. NomorethedivisionbetweenRichandPoor.... ...We'llwearthesameclothes,andsharethesamefood.... ...Myinitialmovewillbetocommunalizeland,andmoney,andallotherproperty,personalandreal. BLEPYROS: Buttakethelandlessmanwho'sinvisiblywealthy...becausehehideshissilverandgoldinhispockets.Whatabouthim? PRAXAGORA:

    CompulsoryUniversalCommunityPropertyiswhatIproposetoproposeacrosstheboardEconomicEquality,tofillthosefissuresthatscaroursociety'sface. NomorethedivisionbetweenRichandPoor.... ...We'llwearthesameclothes,andsharethesamefood.... ...Myinitialmovewillbetocommunalizeland,andmoney,andallotherproperty,personalandreal. BLEPYROS: Buttakethelandlessmanwho'sinvisiblywealthy...becausehehideshissilverandgoldinhispockets.Whatabouthim? PRAXAGORA: He'lldeposititallintheFund.... ...I'llknockoutwallsandremodeltheCityintoonebighappyhousehold,whereallcancomeandgoastheychoose.... ...I'mpoolingthewomen,creatingapublichoardfortheuseofeverymanwhowishestotakethemtobedandmakebabies. BLEPYROS: Asystemlikethisrequiresaprettywisefathertoknowhisownchildren. PRAXAGORA: Butwhydoesheneedto?Ageisthenewcriterion:Childrenwillhenceforthtracetheirdescentfromallmenwhomight havebegotthem.... BLEPYROS: Who'sgoingtoworkthelandandproducethefood? PRAXAGORA: Theslaves.Thisleavesyoujustonecivicfunction:Whentheshadesofnightdrawon,slipsleeklydowntodinner.... ...TheState'snotgoingtostint.Itshandisfullandopen,itsheartislarge,it'llstuffitsmenfolkfreeofcharge,thenissuethemtorcheswhendinner'sdoneandsend themouttohuntforfun. (2:pp.4351) Thereaderwillofcoursealreadyhavenoticedmanyofthefeaturesofafamiliardoctrine.Letusattempttospecifytheassociationsthatarisebyconsideringasecond exampletheclassicstatementoftheMarxistprogramcontainedintheCommunistManifesto. Herearesomequotationscharacterizingthefuturesocietyastheauthors imagineit:"...thetheoryoftheCommunistsmaybesummedupinthesinglesentence:Abolitionofprivateproperty...."(3:V:p.496)"Abolitionofthefamily!Eventhe mostradicalHareupatthisinfamousproposaloftheCommunists....Onwhatfoundationisthepresent [4] family,thebourgeoisfamilybased?Oncapital,onprivategain.Initscompletelydevelopedform,thisfamilyexistsonlyamongthebourgeoisie.Butthisstateofthingsfinds itscomplementinthepracticalabsenceofthefamilyamongtheproletarians,andinpublicprostitution. "Thebourgeoisfamilywillvanishasamatterofcoursewhenitscomplementvanishes,andbothwillvanishwiththevanishingofcapital. "But,youwillsay,wedestroythemosthallowedofrelationswhenwereplacehomeeducationbysocial. "Andyoureducation!Isnotthatalsosocial,anddeterminedbythesocialconditionsunderwhichyoueducate?..."(3:V:p.499) Thatlastthoughtissomewhatclarifiedin"PrinciplesofCommunism,"adocumentwrittenbyEngelsinthecourseofpreparingtheCommunistManifesto. Amongthefirstmeasurestobetakenaftertherevolution,wefind: "8.Theeducationofallchildren,fromthemomentthattheycangetalongwithoutamother'scare,shallbeatstateinstitutionsandatstateexpense."(3:V:p.475) TheCommunistManifesto again: "ButyouCommunistswouldintroducecommunalityofwomen,screamsthewholebourgeoisieinchorus."(3:V:p.499) Answeredby:"TheCommunistshavenoneedofintroducingcommunalityofwomenithasexistedalmostfromtimeimmemorial. "Ourbourgeois,notcontentwithhavingthewivesanddaughtersofproletariansathisdisposal,nottospeakofCommonprostitutes,takesthegreatestpleasurein seducingeachother'swives. "BourgeoismarriageisinrealityasystemofwivesinCommonandthus,attheworst,whattheCommunistsmightpossiblybereproachedwithisthattheydesireto introduce,intheplaceofahypocriticallyconcealed,anopenlylegalizedcommunalityofwomen."(3:V:p.500) IntheCommunistManifesto thereisnoreferencetotheothermaterialaspectsoflife.In"PrinciplesofCommunism"wefind: "9.ThebuildingoflargepalacesinthenationalestatesascommondwellingsfortheCommunes,whosecitizenswillbebusyinindustry,agriculturethesestructureswill combinethemeritsofurbanandrurallifeandavoidtheirdefects."(3:V:p.475) [5] WeseeconcealedinMarx'sHegelianphraseologyandAristophanes'buffooneryalmostthesameprogram: 1.Abolitionofprivateproperty. 2.Abolitionofthefamilyi.e.,communalityofwivesanddisruptionofthebondsbetweenparentsandchildren. 3.Purelymaterialprosperity. Itwouldevenbepossibletosaythatbothprogramscoincideperfectly,wereitnotforoneplaceinthe Ecclesiazusae. InanswertoBlepyros'squestionastowhowilldo theplowing,Praxagorareplies:"Slaves!"Heresheproclaimsthefourthpointoftheprogram,andamostsignificantoneliberationfromthenecessityofwork. Interestinglyenough,onthispointHerbertMarcuse,thebestknownoftheneoMarxistsandoneoftheleadersoftheNewLeftintheU.S.A.,differsfromMarx. Forinstance,inhisessay"TheEndofUtopia,"Marcusesaysthat"itisnoaccidentthatformodernavantgardeleftintellectualstheworksofFourierhavebecomerelevant again.FourierdidnotflinchwhereMarxwasinsufficientlybold.Hespokeofasocietywhereworkwouldbecomeplay."Andelsewhereinthesameessay:"New technicalpotentialitiesleadtooppressionunlesstheredevelopsavitalneedfortheabolitionofalienatingwork."(4:pp.75,77) Supplementingtheprogramofthe CommunistManifesto inthisfashion,weobtainadescriptionoftheidealwhichfullycoincideswithwhathadbeentheobjectof Aristophanes'derisiononthestageoftheAtheniantheaterin392B.C.

    Forinstance,inhisessay"TheEndofUtopia,"Marcusesaysthat"itisnoaccidentthatformodernavantgardeleftintellectualstheworksofFourierhavebecomerelevant again.FourierdidnotflinchwhereMarxwasinsufficientlybold.Hespokeofasocietywhereworkwouldbecomeplay."Andelsewhereinthesameessay:"New technicalpotentialitiesleadtooppressionunlesstheredevelopsavitalneedfortheabolitionofalienatingwork."(4:pp.75,77) Supplementingtheprogramofthe CommunistManifesto inthisfashion,weobtainadescriptionoftheidealwhichfullycoincideswithwhathadbeentheobjectof Aristophanes'derisiononthestageoftheAtheniantheaterin392B.C. Weareconfrontedbyasetofideaswithcertainstrikinglydurablefeatureswhichhaveremainedalmostunchangedfromantiquitytoourday.Theterm"chiliasticsocialism" willbeappliedtosuchideas.Below,weshallattempttooutlinethisconceptmoreprecisely,topointoutthemainstagesofitshistoricaldevelopmentandtotakenoteof thebroaderideologicalframeworkwithinwhichthedoctrinesofchiliasticsocialismcameintobeing. [6]

    I. TheSocialism ofAntiquity
    InclassicalGreeceweencountertheconceptofchiliasticsocialisminitsfullfledged,onemightevensayideal,form.Plato'senunciationofthisconceptinitselfhadan enormousinfluenceonthesubsequenthistoryofchiliasticsocialism.TwoofPlato'sdialoguesaredevotedtothistheme:TheRepublic andLaws. Intheformer,Plato depictswhatheconsidersanidealstatestructure,whilethelattershowsthebestpracticalapproximationofthisideal.TheRepublic waswrittenduringthemiddleyearsof Plato'slife, Laws inhisoldage.ItseemspossiblethatthefailuresPlatoexperiencedtryingtoputhisviewsintopracticearereflectedintheseworks. WebeginwithanoverviewofthepictureoftheidealsocietythatisgiveninTheRepublic, aworkthatSergiusBulgakovcalls"wondrousandperplexing."Indeed,theten booksofthisdialoguereflectalmostallaspectsofPlato'sphilosophyhisconceptionofbeing(theworldofideas),cognition(thevisualworld,theworldaccessibletothe mind),thesoul,justice,artandsociety.TheRepublic mayatfirstsightseemtoonarrowatitleforsuchawork.Nevertheless,itisfullyjustified,sincethequestionofthe structureofsocietyisthecenteraroundwhichPlato'smanysidedphilosophyrevolves,aswellasservingastheprincipalillustrationofhisteaching.Understandingthe conceptsofGoodandBeautyisessentialforrulingastate.Thedoctrinesoftheimmortalityofthesoulandofretributionafterdeathpromotethedevelopmentofthe spiritualqualitiesessentialforrulers,thestatemustbefoundedonjustice,andartisoneofthemajorinstrumentsfortheeducationofcitizens. [7] Platoexpoundsonthepossibleformsofastate(henamesfivestructures)andspeaksaboutthecorrespondingspiritualqualities.Allthestatesthatexistedcontemporary tohimheclassifiesasbelongingtofourcorrupt types.Division,hostility,discord,willfulnessandstrivingforrichesreigninthesestates. "...suchacityshouldofnecessitybenotone,buttwo,acityoftherichandacityofthepoor,dwellingtogether,andalwaysplottingagainstoneanother."(5:551d)* Thefifthformofstatestructureis,accordingtoPlato,theperfectstate. Itsbasicqualityisjustice,whichpermitsittopartakeofvirtue.Inanswertothequestionwhat constitutesjusticeinastate,Platosays: "...whatwelaiddowninthebeginningasauniversalrequirementwhenwewerefoundingourcity,thisIthink,orsomeformofthis,isjustice.Andwhatwedidlaydown, andoftensaid,ifyourecall,wasthateachonemanmustperformonesocialserviceinthestateforwhichhisnaturewasbestadapted."(433a) Onthebasisofthisproposition,thepopulationofthestateisdividedintothreesocialgroupswemayevencallthemcastes.Theyare:philosophers,guardiansorsoldiers, artisansandpeasants.Thechildrenofartisansandpeasantsbelongtothesamegroupastheirparentsandmayneverbecomeguardians.Thechildrenofguardiansasa ruleinherittheirfathers'occupation,butiftheyshownegativeinclinationstheyaremadeintoeitherartisansorpeasants.Butthephilosophersmaysupplementtheir numbersfromthebestoftheguardians,butnotuntilthelatterreachtheageoffifty. Plato'sconceptionisnotatallmaterialistic:hisconcernisnotwiththemannerinwhichproductionisorganizedinhisstate.Thushespeaksverylittleaboutthedailylifeof theartisansandpeasants.Hebelievesthatthelifeofthestateisdeterminedbyitslaws,henceheisconcernedaboveallwiththelifeofthosecastesthatcreateandguard thelaw. Thephilosophershaveunlimitedpowerinthestate.(Bulgakovevensuggeststhattheword"philosophers"shouldbetranslated"therighteousmen"or"saints.") Theyarethepeople"...enamoredofthekindofknowledgewhichrevealstothemsomethingofthatessencewhichiseternal,andisnotwanderingbetweenthetwopoles ofgenerationanddecay."(485b)

    *InsubsequentreferencestoPlato's Republic, onlythemarginalsiglawillbequoted.

    [8] Aphilosopherpossesses"...amindhabituatedtothoughtsofgrandeurandthecontemplationofalltimeandallexistence....suchamanwillnotsupposedeathtobe terrible."(486b) Oncethephilosophershaveunderstoodtheirhighmission,theywillstructuretheirlivesinaccordancewithit,"...devotingthegreaterpartoftheirtimetothestudyof philosophy,butwhentheturncomesforeach,toilingintheserviceofthestateandholdingofficeforthecity'ssake,regardingthetasknotasafinethingbutanecessity. Andso,wheneachgenerationhaseducatedotherslikethemselvestotaketheirplaceasguardiansofthestate,theyshalldeparttotheIslandsoftheBlessedandthere dwell."(540a,b) Theguardiansareunderthephilosophers'command.Plato'sfavoriteimageindescribingtheguardiansisthatofthedog.Thus,aswithpurebredcanines,theguardians' "...naturaldispositionistobemostgentletotheirfamiliarsandthosewhomtheyrecognize,butthecontrarytothosewhomtheydonotknow."(375e)Theirchildren shouldbetakenoncampaignsinordertoaccustomthemtowar..."givethematasteofbloodaswedowithwhelps."(537a)Youthfulguardianspossessthequalitiesof purebredpups:"...eachofthemmustbekeenofperception,quickinpursuitofwhatithasapprehended,andstrongtooifithastofightitoutwithitscaptive."(375a) Womenaretoenjoyequalrightswithmenandaretohavethesameobligations,allowingonlyforthefactthattheyhavelessphysicalstrengththanmen.Platoarguesby analogy:"Doweexpectthefemalesofwatchdogstojoininguardingwhatthemalesguardandtohuntwiththemandsharealltheirpursuits,ordoweexpectthefemales

    dwell."(540a,b) Theguardiansareunderthephilosophers'command.Plato'sfavoriteimageindescribingtheguardiansisthatofthedog.Thus,aswithpurebredcanines,theguardians' "...naturaldispositionistobemostgentletotheirfamiliarsandthosewhomtheyrecognize,butthecontrarytothosewhomtheydonotknow."(375e)Theirchildren shouldbetakenoncampaignsinordertoaccustomthemtowar..."givethematasteofbloodaswedowithwhelps."(537a)Youthfulguardianspossessthequalitiesof purebredpups:"...eachofthemmustbekeenofperception,quickinpursuitofwhatithasapprehended,andstrongtooifithastofightitoutwithitscaptive."(375a) Womenaretoenjoyequalrightswithmenandaretohavethesameobligations,allowingonlyforthefactthattheyhavelessphysicalstrengththanmen.Platoarguesby analogy:"Doweexpectthefemalesofwatchdogstojoininguardingwhatthemalesguardandtohuntwiththemandsharealltheirpursuits,ordoweexpectthefemales tostayindoors....?"(451d)Thewholeoftheguardiancasteiscomparedwithapackofhardandwiryhounds.(422d) Butaguardianshouldalsopossessother,higherqualities:"Anddoesitseemtoyouthatourguardiantobewillalsoneed,inadditiontobeinghighspirited,thefurther qualityofhavingtheloveofwisdominhisnature?"(375e)And:"...neverbysorcerynorbyforcecanbebroughttoexpelfromtheirsouls...thisconvictionthattheymust dowhatisbestforthestate."(412e) Thesequalitiesareattainedbymeansofacarefullythoughtoutsystemofeducationguidedbythephilosophersandlastinguntilagethirtyfive.Afundamentalrolein educationisreservedforart,which,forthebenefitofthestate,issubjectedtostrictcensorship."Wemustbegin,then,itseems,byacensorshipoverourstorymakers, andwhat [9] theydowellwemustpassandwhatnot,reject."(377c)"Whattheydowell"appliesherenottotheestheticqualitiesofstoriesandmythsbuttotheireducationalfunction, Badstoriesarethose"thatHesiodandHomerandtheotherpoetsrelatetous,"(377d)Furthermore,"Shallwe,then,thuslightlysufferourchildrentolistentoanychance storiesfashionedbyanychanceteachersandsototakeintotheirmindsopinionsforthemostpartcontrarytothosethatweshallthinkitdesirableforthemtoholdwhen theyaregrownup?"(377b) Allstoriesthatmightinspireafalseimpressionofdivinityareforbidden,aswellasthosethatdescribethecrueltyofthegods,theirquarrelsorloveadventures,andstories whichsuggestthatgodsmaybethecauseofmisfortune."...wemustcontendineverywaythatneithershouldanyoneassertthisinhisowncityifitistobewellgoverned, noranyonehearit,neitheryoungernorolder,neithertellingastoryinmeterorwithoutmeter."(380b)Allpoeticworksthatspeakaboutthehorrorsofthenetherworld andofdeatharetobeeliminated,aswellasthosethatinvolveanymanifestationoffearorsorrowallthathindersthedevelopmentofcourage.Guardiansshouldsee nothingfrighteningaboutdeath.Itisforbiddentospeakabouttheinjusticeoffatethatrighteouspeoplecansuffermisfortuneandunrighteousonescanleadhappylives.It isforbiddentocriticizetheleadersortowriteaboutanymanifestationoffear,grief,famineordeath."WewillbegHomerandtheotherpoetsnottobeangryifwecancel thoseandallsimilarpassages,notthattheyarenotpoeticandpleasingtomosthearers,butbecausethemorepoetictheyare,thelessaretheysuitedtotheears,"(387b) Otherartsarealsotobekeptundersurveillance."Itishere,then,Isaid,inmusic,asitseems,thatourguardiansmustbuildtheirguardhouseandpostawatch."(424d) Polyphonyandthecombiningofvariousscalesareforbidden.Therearetobenoflutesormakersofflutesinthestateonlythelyreandthekitharaarepermitted.Plato expandsontheseprinciples:"Isit,then,onlythepoetsthatwemustsuperviseandcompeltoembodyintheirpoemsthesemblanceofthegoodcharacterorelsenotwrite poetryamongus,ormustwekeepwatchovertheothercraftsmen,andforbidthemtorepresenttheevildisposition,thelicentious,theilliberal,thegraceless,eitherinthe likenessoflivingcreaturesorinbuildingsorinanyotherproductoftheirart,onpenalty,ifunabletoobey,ofbeingforbiddentopracticetheirartamongus?..."(401b) TheanswerisobviousforPlato. [10] Ontheotherhand,newmythsarecreated,withthepurposeofinstillingintheguardiansaspiritnecessarytothestate,Forinstance,toinculcateinthemloveforone anotherandthestate,theyaretoldthattheyareallbrothers,sonsofthesinglemotherearthoftheirland.Buttoreinforcetheideaofcastes,itisstressedthatinthe processphilosophersreceivedanadmixtureofgold,guardiansofsilver,peasantsandartisansofiron. Theentireeducationoftheguardians,beginningwithchildren'sgames,issupervisedbythephilosophers,whosubjectthemtovarioustests,checkingtheirmemory, endurance,moderationandcourage.Adults,aswellaschildren,areseverelypunishedforlying.Butlyingispermittedthephilosophers."Itseemslikelythatourrulerswill havetomakeconsiderableuseoffalsehoodanddeceptionforthebenefitoftheirsubjects."(459d) IthasalreadybeennotedthatPlatoperceivesthemajordefectoffaultystatesintheabsenceofunityamongcitizens,inanimosityanddiscord.Heseekstofindthecause ofthesephenomena, "Andthechiefcauseofthisiswhenthecitizensdonotutterinunisonsuchwordsas'mine'and'notmine,'andsimilarlywithregardtotheword'alien'? "Preciselyso," "Thatcity,then,isbestorderedinwhichthegreatestnumberusetheexpression'mine'and'notmine'ofthesamethingsinthesameway."(462c) Theguardians'lifeisregulatedaccordingly.Theypossess"nothinginprivatepossessionbuttheirbodies,butallelseincommon."(464e) "Secondly,nonemusthaveanyhabitationortreasurehousewhichisnotopenforalltoenteratwill.Theirfood,insuchquantitiesasareneedfulforathletesofwarsober andbrave,theymustreceiveasanagreedstipendfromtheothercitizensasthewagesoftheirguardianship,someasuredthatthereshallbeneithersuperfluityattheendof theyearnoranylack,Andresortingtoacommonmesslikesoldiersoncampaigntheywilllivetogether."(416d) "...fortheseonlyofallthedwellersinthecityitisnotlawfultohandlegoldandsilverandtotouchthemnoryettocomeunderthesameroofwiththem,nortohangthem asornamentsontheirlimbsnortodrinkfromsilverandgold,"(417a) Guardiansliveintheirownstateashiredguarddetachments."...andwhatismore,theyserveforboardwagesanddonotevenreceive [11] payinadditiontotheirfoodasothersdo,sothattheywillnotevenbeabletotakeajourneyontheirownaccount,iftheywishto,ormakepresentstotheirmistresses,or spendmoneyinotherdirectionsaccordingtotheirdesireslikethemenwhoarethoughttobehappy."(420a) Property,however,isonlyoneofthethingsbywhichprivateinterestsmaydistracttheguardiansfromtheirduty.Anotherfactorthatcouldsetthemapartisthefamily thereforeitisalsoeliminated. "Thesewomenshallallbecommontoallthesemen,andthatnoneshallcohabitwithanyprivately,andthatthechildrenshallbecommon,andthatnoparentshallknowits ownoffspringnoranychilditsparent."(457d)Marriageisreplacedbyatemporaryunionofsexesforpurelyphysiologicalsatisfactionandpropagationofthespecies. Thisaspectoflifeiscarefullyregulatedbythephilosophers,whichpermitstheintroductionofaperfectsystemofsexselection.Theunionofcouplesisconductedsolemnly

    Property,however,isonlyoneofthethingsbywhichprivateinterestsmaydistracttheguardiansfromtheirduty.Anotherfactorthatcouldsetthemapartisthefamily thereforeitisalsoeliminated. "Thesewomenshallallbecommontoallthesemen,andthatnoneshallcohabitwithanyprivately,andthatthechildrenshallbecommon,andthatnoparentshallknowits ownoffspringnoranychilditsparent."(457d)Marriageisreplacedbyatemporaryunionofsexesforpurelyphysiologicalsatisfactionandpropagationofthespecies. Thisaspectoflifeiscarefullyregulatedbythephilosophers,whichpermitstheintroductionofaperfectsystemofsexselection.Theunionofcouplesisconductedsolemnly andisperformedtotheaccompanimentofsongscomposedbypoetsespeciallyfortheseoccasions.Whoistobejoinedtowhomisdecidedbylotsothatnoonecan blameanyonebutfate.Buttheleadersofthestatecarefullymanipulatetheprocesstoachievethedesiredresults. Ascouldbeexpected,theeducationofchildrenisinthehandsofthestate."...thechildren...willbetakenoverbytheofficialsappointedforthis...."(460b)"...butthe offspringoftheinferior,andanyofthoseoftheothersortwhoareborndefective,theywillproperlydisposeofinsecret,sothatnoonewillknowwhathasbecomeof them."(460c)Asforachildbornofunregulatedsexualunion,thefollowingisindicated:"...todisposeofitontheunderstandingthatwecannotrearsuchan offspring."(461c)Parentsoughtnotknowtheirchildren:"...conductingthemotherstothepenwhentheirbreastsarefull,butemployingeverydevicetopreventanyone fromrecognizingherowninfant."(460c)Astothequestionhowparentsandchildrenshallrecognizeoneanother,theanswerisasfollows:"Theywon't...exceptthata manwillcallallmaleoffspringbornbetweentheseventhandthetenthmonthafterhebecameabridegroomhissons,andallfemale,daughters,andtheywillcallhim father."(461d) Deprivedoffamily,childrenandallproperty,theguardiansliveexclusivelyforthebenefitofthestate.Anyviolationoftheinterestsofthestateispunished.Soldierswho showcowardiceareturnedinto [12] artisansorpeasantsprisonerstakenarenottoberansomedoutofslavery.Medicineisalsousedasameansofcontrol.Physiciansandjudges"...willcareforthebodies andsoulsofsuchofyourcitizensasaretrulywellborn,butthosewhoarenot,suchasaredefectiveinbody,theywillsuffertodie,andthosewhoareevilnaturedand incurableinsoultheywillthemselvesputtodeath."(410a) Whywouldtheguardiansundertakesuchalife?Oneoftheparticipantsinthedialoguesays:"Whatwillbeyourdefense,Socrates,ifanyoneobjectsthatyouarenot makingthesemenveryhappy,andthatthroughtheirownfault?Forthecityreallybelongstothemandyettheygetnoenjoymentoutofitasordinarymendo."(419a)

    However,fromPlato'spointofviewhappinessisnotdeterminedbymaterialwellbeing.II)dischargingtheirduties,theguardianswillachievetherespectandloveofother citizens,aswellasthehopeforrewardafterdeath.Hesays: "...theywillliveahappierlifethanthatmencountmosthappy,thelifeofthevictorsatOlympia. "Howso? "Thethingsforwhichthosearefelicitatedareasmallpartofwhatissecuredforthese.Theirvictoryisfairerandtheirpublicsupportmorecomplete.Fortheprizeof victorythattheywinisthesalvationoftheentirestate,thefilletthatbindstheirbrowsisthepublicsupportofthemselvesandtheirchildrentheyreceivehonorfromthe citywhiletheyliveandwhentheydieaworthyburial. "Afairguerdon,indeed,hesaid."(465e) Thoughgivingadetailedaccountofthelifeofthephilosophersandguardians,Platosaysalmostnothingabouttherestofthepopulationtheartisansandpeasants.Laws forthemaredeterminedbythephilosophersinaccordancewiththebasicprinciplesexpressedinthedialogue:"Nay,'twouldnotbefitting...todictatetogoodand honorablemen.Formostoftheenactmentsthatareneededaboutthesethingstheywilleasily,Ipresume,discover."(425d) Clearly,theentirepopulationissubjectedtothephilosophersandtheguardians.Theguardianssetuptheircampinthecity:"...apositionfromwhichtheycouldbesthold downrebellionagainstthelawsfromwithin."(415e) Everyoneisboundtohisprofession: "...wewereatpainstopreventthecobblerfromattemptingtobeatthesametimeafarmer,aweaver,orabuilderinsteadof [13] justacobbler,totheendthatwemighthavethecobbler'sbusinesswelldone,andsimilarlyassignedtoeachandeveryonemanoneoccupation,forwhichhewasfitand naturallyadaptedandatwhichhewastoworkallhisdays."(374c)Thelifeoftheartisansandthepeasantsisregulatedonthebasisofagreaterorlesserdegreeof leveling,sinceforthembothpovertyandrichesleadtodegradation,and"theworkthatheturnsoutwillbeworse,andhewillalsomakeinferiorworkmenofhissonsor anyotherswhomheteaches." (421e) Butitisnotcleartowhatextentthesocialistprinciplesthatgovernthelifeofthetwoothergroupsextendtoartisanandpeasant. Inconclusion,itisinterestingtonotethatreligiousproblemsaregivenagooddealofspaceinthedialogue,andareclearlyconnectedwiththequestionoftheidealstate. However,thislinkageistreatedinaquiterationalisticfashionreligiondoesnotsetthestateanygoals,butratherplaysaprotectiveandeducationalrole.Myths,manyof whicharespeciallyinvented,asPlatosays,withthispurposeinmind,facilitatethedevelopmentofcharacteristicsusefultothestate. AlmosteveryonewhohaswrittenonPlato's Republic hasremarkedontheambiguousimpressionproducedbythisdialogue.Plato'sschemeforthedestructionofthe subtlestandmostprofoundfeaturesofhumanpersonalityandthereductionofhumansocietytothelevelofananthillevokesrevulsion.Andatthesametimeonecannot helpbeingimpressedbythealmostreligiousimpulsetosacrificepersonalintereststoahighergoal.Plato'sentireprogramisfoundedonthedenialofpersonalitybuton thedenialofegoismaswell.Heunderstoodthatthefutureofmankindisnotdependentonthevictoryofthisorthatcontendinggroupinthestruggleformaterialinterests, butratheronthechangeswithinpeopleandonthedevelopmentofnewhumanqualities. ItisdifficulttodenythatPlato'sRepublic ismorally,ethicallyandinpurelyaesthetictermsfarsuperiortoothersystemsofchiliasticsocialism.Ifwecansupposethat Aristophanes' Ecclesiazusae isaparodyofideassuchasPlato'spresumablywidelydiscussedinAthensatthetimethenmodernsystemslikethatofMarcuseseem muchnearertothecaricaturethantotheoriginal.Marcuse's"turningworkintoplay,"his"sociosexualprotest,"thestruggleagainstthe"necessityofsuppressingone's instincts,"areshockinglyprimitiveincomparisonwiththeloftyasceticismdescribedbyPlato. Inspiteoftheiruniqueroleinthehistoryofsocialistideas,Plato's [14] Republic andhisLaws arebutoneofmanyexpressionsofancientchiliasticsocialism.Atticcomedyaboundswithreferencestoideasofthiskind.Forexample,outofthe

    instincts,"areshockinglyprimitiveincomparisonwiththeloftyasceticismdescribedbyPlato. Inspiteoftheiruniqueroleinthehistoryofsocialistideas,Plato's [14] Republic andhisLaws arebutoneofmanyexpressionsofancientchiliasticsocialism.Atticcomedyaboundswithreferencestoideasofthiskind.Forexample,outofthe elevensurvivingcomediesofAristophanes,two(Ecclesiazusae andPlutus) aredevotedtosocialistthemes. DuringtheHellenisticepochtherecameintobeinganextensiveutopiansocialistliterature,partiallyserious,inpartmeantasentertainment,wheretheasceticidealofthe PlatonicRepublic wasreplacedby"thelandofmilkandhoney"andbythehappystateoffreelove.Theplotsofanumberoftheseworksareknowntousfromthe HistoricalLibrary bythefirstcenturyB.C.writerDiodorus. Oneofthemostvividdescriptionstellsofatravelertoastatesituatedon"sunnyislands"(apparentlyintheIndianOcean).Thisstateconsistsofsocialistcommunesoffour hundredpeopleeach.Laborisobligatoryforallmembersofsociety,moreover,with"allservingtheothersinturn,fishing,engagingincrafts,artsorpublicservice."(6:p. 323)Foodisregimentedinasimilarmannerthemenuforeachdayisregulatedbylaw."Marriageisunknowntotheminsteadtheyenjoycommunalwiveschildrenare broughtupincommonastheybelongtothewholeofthecommunityandareequallylovedbyall.Frequently,itsohappensthatnursesexchangebabiestheyaresuckling sothatevenmothersdonotrecognizetheirchildren."(6:p.63)Duetotheexcellentclimate,theinhabitantsoftheislandsweremuchtallerthanordinarymortals.They livedtotheageof150.Allwhowereincurablyillorsufferedfromsomephysicaldefectweresupposedtocommitsuicide.Thosewhoreachedacertainagewerealsoto killthemselves. SocialistideasinoneoranotherformfrequentlyplayedaroleinthemovementsandsectsthatarosearoundemergingChristianity.EveninthefirstcenturyA.D.,thesect oftheNicolaitespreachedthecommunalityofpropertyandwives.TheChristianwriterEpiphanesconsidersthesect'sfoundertobeNicolasoneofthesevendeacons chosenbythecommunityofthedisciplesoftheApostlesinJerusalem(asrecountedinActsoftheApostles6:5). IrenaeusofLyonsandClementofAlexandriadescribethegnosticsectofCarpocratianswhichappearedinAlexandriainthesecondcenturyA.D.Thefounderofthis sect,Carpocrates,taughtthatfaithandlovebringsalvationandplacemanabovegoodandevil.TheseideaswereelaboratedbyhissonEpiphanes,whodiedattheageof seventeen,havingwrittenawork"OnJustice."AccordingtoClementof [15] Alexandria,hewaslaterworshipedasagodinSamos,whereasanctuarywaserectedtohim. SomequotationsfromEpiphanesfollow: "God'sjusticeconsistsincommunityandequality." "TheCreatorandFatherofallgaveeveryoneequallyeyestoseeandestablishedlawsinaccordancewithhisjusticewithoutdistinguishingfemalefrommale,wisefrom humbleandingeneralonethingfromanyother." "TheprivatecharacteroflawscutsandgnawsthecommunityestablishedbyGod'slaw.DoyounotunderstandthewordsoftheApostle:'ThroughlawIknew sin'(Romans7:7)?'Mine'and'thine'werespreadtothedetrimentofcommunitybyvirtueofthelaw." "Thus,Godmadeeverythingcommonformanaccordingtotheprinciplesofcommunality,hejoinsmanandwoman.Inthesameway,helinksalllivingbeingsinthishe hasrevealedjusticedemandingcommunalityinconjunctionwithequality.Butthosebegotteninthiswaydenythecommunitythathascreatedthem,saying:'Hewhotakes awife,lethimpossessher.'Buttheycanpossessallincommonastheanimalsdo." "Itisthereforelaughabletohearthegiveroflawssaying:'Donotcovet'andmorelaughablestilltheaddition:'thatwhichisyourneighbor's.'Forhehimselfinvesteduswith desires,whichmoreovermustbesafeguardedastheyarenecessaryforprocreation.Butevenmorelaughableisthephrase'yourneighbor'swife,'forinthiswaythat whichiscommonisforciblyturnedintoprivateproperty."(7:p.117) Themembersofthissect,whichextendedasfarasRome,followedprinciplesofcompletecommunality,includingcommunalityofwives. TheappearanceofManicheismgaverisetoagreatnumberofsectsthatprofesseddoctrinesofasocialistcharacter.St.Augustineinformsusoftheexistenceofsuchsects attheendofthethirdandthebeginningofthefourthcenturiesA.D. ThemovementinspiredbyMazdak,whichwaswidespreadatthebeginningofthefifthcenturyinPersia,wasalsoofManicheanorigin.Mazdaktaughtthatcontradictions, angerandviolenceareallrelatedtowomenandmaterialthings."Therefore,"inthewordsofthePersianhistorianMohammedIbnHarun,"hemadeallwomenaccessible andallmaterialwealthcommonandprescribedthateveryonehadanequalshare,justaseachhasanequalshareofwater,fireandpastures."(8:p.20) [16] Thismovementspreadovertheentirecountry,andforatimeevenKingKawadhIsupportedit.Anotherhistorian,Tabari,writes:"Frequently,amandidnotknowhisson northesonhisownfather,andnoonepossessedenoughtobeguaranteedlifeandlivelihood."(8:p.35)Inthedisturbancewhichsubsequentlyarose,thefollowersof Mazdakweredefeated. Theextentofsocialdislocationcausedbythismovementcanbeappreciatedfromtheinformation(8:pp.3233)thatKawadh'sheirissuedalawensuringthewelfareof fatherlesschildrenandlegislatingthereturnofabductedwomentotheirfamilies. Weencounterherethephenomenonofbroadmassesofpeopleaffectedbyasocialistdoctrine.Thiswasunknowninantiquity,althoughitistypicaloftheMiddleAges,to whichMazdak'smovementbringsuschronologically. [17]

    II. TheSocialism oftheHeresies


    DuringtheMiddleAgesandtheperiodoftheReformation,doctrinesofchiliasticsocialismoftenfomentedbroadpopularmovementsinWesternEurope.Suchasituation

    II. TheSocialism oftheHeresies


    DuringtheMiddleAgesandtheperiodoftheReformation,doctrinesofchiliasticsocialismoftenfomentedbroadpopularmovementsinWesternEurope.Suchasituation didnotobtaininantiquity,whentheseideaswereexpressedbyindividualthinkersorwithinnarrowgroups.Asaresultofthisevolution,thesocialistdoctrines,inturn, acquirednewandextremelyimportanttraits,whichtheyhavepreservedtothisday. Thesurveybelowprovidesaverygeneralandschematicoverviewofthedevelopmentofsocialistideasinthisepoch.Inordertocompensatesomewhatfortheabstract characterofthepresentationandtohelpmakemoreconcretetheatmosphereinwhichtheseideasarose,weintroduce(intheAppendixfollowingtheGeneralSurvey) threebiographiesofeminentrepresentativesofthechiliasticsocialismoftheperiod.Inthesubsequentsection,anattemptismadetodelineatetheideologicalframework withinwhichthedoctrinesofchiliasticsocialismdeveloped.

    1.GeneralSurvey
    BeginningwiththeMiddleAgesandtheReformation,doctrinesofchiliasticsocialisminWesternEuropeappearedunderreligiousguise.Asvariedastheywere,allthese doctrineshadincommonacharacteristictraittherejectionofnumerousaspectsoftheteachingsoftheCatholicChurchandafiercehatredfortheChurchitself.Asa result,theydevelopedlargelywithintheframeworkofthehereticalmovements.BelowweshallreviewseveralcharacteristicMedievalheresies. [18] Cathars. ThemovementoftheCathars(Greekfor"thepure")spreadinWesternandCentralEuropeintheeleventhcentury.ItseemstohaveoriginatedintheEast,arrivingfrom Bulgaria,thehomeofBogomilheresyintheprecedingcentury.Theultimateoriginsofboth,however,aremoreancient. AmongtheCatharsthereweremanydifferentgroups.PopeInnocentIIIcountedasmanyasfortyCatharsects.Inaddition,thereexistedothersectsthathadmany doctrinalpointsincommonwiththeCatharsamongthebestknownweretheAlbigenses.TheyareallusuallycategorizedasgnosticorManicheanheresies.Inorderto avoidunnecessarycomplexity,weshalldescribethebeliefsandnotionscommontoallgroups,withoutspecifyingtherelativeimportancethataparticularviewmighthave inagivensect.(Foramoredetailedaccount,see9[Vol.I],10,and11.) Thebasiccontentioninallbranchesofthemovementwasthebeliefintheirreconcilablecontradictionbetweenthephysicalworld,seenasthesourceofevil,andthe spiritualworld,seenastheessenceofgood.ThesocalleddualisticCatharsbelievedthistobecausedbytheexistenceoftwoGodsonegood,theotherevil.Itwasthe Godofevilwhohadcreatedthephysicalworldtheearthwitheverythingthatgrowsuponit,thesky,thesunandthestars,andhumanbodiesaswell.ThegoodGod,on theotherhand,wasseenasthecreatorofthespiritualworld,inwhichthereisanother,spiritualsky,otherstarsandanothersun.OtherCathars,calledmonarchian Cathars,believedinonebeneficentGod,thecreatoroftheuniverse,butassumedthatthephysicalworldwasthecreationofhiseldest,fallensonSatanorLucifer.All theCatharsheldthatthemutualhostilityoftherealmsofmatterandspiritallowedfornointermingling.TheythereforedeniedthebodilyincarnationofChrist(assertingthat hisbodywasaspiritualone,whichhadonlytheappearanceofphysicality)andtheresurrectionoftheflesh.Theysawareflectionoftheirdualisminthedivisionofthe HolyScripturesintoOldandNewTestaments.TheyidentifiedtheGodoftheOldTestament,thecreatorofthephysicalworld,withtheevilGodorwithLucifer.They professedtheNewTestamentastheteachingofthegoodGod. TheCatharsdidnotbelievethatGodhadcreatedtheworldfromnothingtheyheldthatmatterwaseternalandthattheworldwouldhavenoend.Sofaraspeoplewere concerned,theyconsideredtheirbodiestobethecreationoftheevilforce.Theirsouls,though,did [19] nothaveasinglesource.Thesoulsofthemajorityofmen,justliketheirbodies,werebegottenbyevilsuchpeoplehadnohopeforsalvationandweredoomedtoperish whentheentirematerialworldreturnedtoastateofprimevalchaos.ButthesoulsofsomemenhadbeencreatedbythegoodGodtheseweretheangelsledinto temptationbyLuciferandthusimprisonedinearthlybodies.Asaresultofchangingintoaseriesofbodies(Catharsbelievedinthetransmigrationofsouls),theywere destinedtoendupintheirsectsoastoreceiveliberationfromtheprisonofmatter.Theultimategoalandtheidealofallmankindwasinprincipleuniversalsuicide.This wasconceivedeitherasinthemostdirectsense(weshallencounterthepracticalrealizationofthis.viewlater)orthroughceasingtobearchildren. Theseviewsdeterminedtheattitudetowardbothsinandsalvation.TheCatharsdeniedtheexistenceoffreedomofwill.Thedoomedchildrenofevilcouldnotavoidtheir fate.Butthosewhowereinitiatedintothehighestrankofthesectcouldnolongersin.Thestringentrulestowhichmembershadtosubjectthemselveswerejustifiedbythe dangerofbeingdefiledbysinfulmatter.Nonobservanceoftheserulesmerelyindicatedthattheinitiationhadbeeninvalid,sinceeithertheinitiatesorthosewhohad initiatedthemdidnotpossessangelicsouls.Beforeinitiation,norestrictionsofanykindwereplacedonbehavior:theonlyrealsinwasthefalloftheangelsinheaven everythingelsewasconsideredtobeaninevitableconsequence.Afterinitiation,neitherrepentanceforsinscommittednortheirexpiationwasconsiderednecessary. TheCathars'attitudetowardlifefollowedconsistentlyfromtheirviewthatevilpermeatedthephysicalworld.PropagationofthespecieswasconsideredSatan'swork. Catharsbelievedthatapregnantwomanwasundertheinfluenceofdemonsandthateverychildbornwasaccompaniedbyademon.Hencetheprohibitionagainsteating meatandagainstanythingthatcamefromsexualunion.Thesametendencyledtoacompleteavoidanceofsocialinvolvement.Secularpowerwasconsideredtobethe creationoftheevilGodandhencenottobesubmittedto,norweretheytobecomeinvolvedinlegalproceedings,thetakingofoaths,orthecarryingofarms.Anyone usingforcewasconsideredamurderer,behesoldierorjudge.ItfollowsthatparticipationinmanyareasoflifewascompletelyclosedtotheCathars.Moreover,many consideredthatanycontactwhateverwithpeopleoutsidethesectwasasin,withtheexceptionofattemptstoproselytize.(12:p.654) [20] AllCatharswereunitedintheirhatredoftheCatholicChurch.TheyregardeditnotastheChurchofJesusChristbutasthechurchofsinners,theWhoreofBabylon.The Popewasheldtobethesourceofallerrorandpriestsconsideredsophistsandpharisees.IntheopinionoftheCathars,thefalloftheChurchhadtakenplaceinthetime ofConstantinetheGreatandPopeSylvester,whentheChurchhadviolatedthecommandmentsofChristbyencroachinguponsecularpower.Theydeniedthe sacraments,particularlythebaptismofchildren(sincetheyweretooyoungtobelieve),butmatrimonyandCommunionaswell.Somebranchesofthemovement systematicallyplunderedanddefiledchurches.In1225,CatharsburneddownaCatholicChruchinBresciain1235,theykilledtheBishopofMantua.AcertainEonde l'toile,headofaManicheansect(11431148),proclaimedhimselfthesonofGodandtheLordofeverythingonearth.Inthiscapacity,hecalleduponhisfollowersto plunderchurches. TheCatharshatedthecrossinparticular,consideringittobeasymboloftheevilGod.Asearlyasabout1000A.D.,acertainLeutard,preachingnearChlons,calledfor thesmashingofcrossesandreligiousimages.Inthetwelfthcentury,PierredeBruysmadebonfiresofbrokencrosses,untilfinallyhehimselfwasburnedbyanangrymob. TheCatharsconsideredchurchestobeheapsofstonesanddivineservicesmerepaganrites.Theyrejectedreligiousimages,deniedtheintercessionofthesaintsandthe

    systematicallyplunderedanddefiledchurches.In1225,CatharsburneddownaCatholicChruchinBresciain1235,theykilledtheBishopofMantua.AcertainEonde l'toile,headofaManicheansect(11431148),proclaimedhimselfthesonofGodandtheLordofeverythingonearth.Inthiscapacity,hecalleduponhisfollowersto plunderchurches. TheCatharshatedthecrossinparticular,consideringittobeasymboloftheevilGod.Asearlyasabout1000A.D.,acertainLeutard,preachingnearChlons,calledfor thesmashingofcrossesandreligiousimages.Inthetwelfthcentury,PierredeBruysmadebonfiresofbrokencrosses,untilfinallyhehimselfwasburnedbyanangrymob. TheCatharsconsideredchurchestobeheapsofstonesanddivineservicesmerepaganrites.Theyrejectedreligiousimages,deniedtheintercessionofthesaintsandthe efficacyofprayerforthedeparted.AbookbytheDominicaninquisitorRainierSacconi,himselfahereticforseventeenyears,statesthattheCatharswerenotforbidden toplunderchurches. AlthoughtheCatharsrejectedtheCatholichierarchyandthesacraments,theyhadahierarchyandsacramentsoftheirown.Thebasicdivisionofthesectwasintotwo groupsthe"perfect" (perfecti) andthe"faithful"(credenti). Theformerwerefewinnumber(Rainiercountedonlyfourthousandinall),buttheyconstitutedtheselect groupofthesectleaders.Theclergywasdrawnfromtheperfecti, andonlytheywereprivytoallthedoctrinesofthesectmanyextremeviewsthatwereradically opposedtoChristianitywereunknowntotheordinaryfaithful.Onlytheperfecti wereobligedtoobservethemanyprohibitions.Inparticular,theywerenotallowedto denytheirfaithunderanycircumstances.Incaseofpersecution,theyweretoacceptamartyr'sdeath.Thefaithful,ontheotherhand,wereallowedtogotoregularchurch forform'ssakeand,whenpersecuted,todisavowthefaith. [21] Incompensationfortherigorsimposedontheperfecti, theirpositionwasfarhigherthanthatoccupiedbyCatholicpriests.Incertainrespects,theperfecti wereasgods themselves,andthefaithfulworshipedthemaccordingly.Thefaithfulwereobligedtosupporttheperfecti. Oneoftheimportantritesofthesectwasthatof"submission," inwhichthefaithfulperformedathreefoldprostrationbeforetheperfecti. Theperfecti hadtorenouncemarriage,andtheyliterallydidnothavetherighttotoucha woman.Theycouldnotpossessanypropertyandwereobligedtodevotetheirwholelivestoserviceofthesect.Theywereforbiddentokeepapermanentdwellingof anykindandwererequiredtospendtheirlivesinconstanttravelortostayinspecialsecretsanctuaries.Theconsecrationoftheperfecti, the "consolation"(consolamentum), wasthecentralsacramentofthesect.ThisritecannotbecomparedtoanythingintheCatholicChurch.Itcombinedbaptism(or confirmation),ordination,confession,absolutionandsometimessupremeunctionaswell.Onlythosewhoreceiveditcouldcountonbeingfreedfromthecaptivityofthe bodyandhavingtheirsoulsreturnedtotheircelestialabode. ThemajorityoftheCatharshadnohopeoffulfillingthestrictcommandmentsthatwereobligatoryfortheperfecti andintended,rather,toreceive"consolation"ontheir deathbed.Thiswascalled"thegoodend."Theprayertogrant"thegoodend"underthecareof"thegoodpeople"(theperfecti) wasrecitedtogetherwiththeLord's Prayer. Sometimes,havingreceived"consolation,"asickpersonrecovered.Hewasthenusuallyadvisedtocommitsuicide(called"endura").Inmanycases,"endura"wasinfacta conditionforreceiving"consolation."Notinfrequently,theagedortheveryyoungwhohadreceived"consolation"weresubjectedto"endura"i.e.,ineffect,murdered. Therewerevariousformsof"endura."Mostfrequentlyitwasbystarvation(especiallyforchildren,whomthemotherssimplystoppedsuckling)bleeding,hotbaths followedbysuddenchilling,drinkingofliquidmixedwithgroundglassandstrangulationwerealsoused.I.Dollinger,whostudiedtheextantarchivesoftheInquisitionin ToulouseandCarcassonne,writes:"Whoeverexaminestherecordsoftheabovementionedcourtsattentivelywillhavenodoubtthatfarmorepeopleperishedfromthe 'endura'(somevoluntarily,someforcibly)thanasaresultoftheInquisition'sverdicts."(10:p.226) Thesebasicnotionswerethesourceofthesocialistdoctrinesdisseminated [22] amongtheCathars.Theyrejectedpropertyasbelongingtothematerialworld.Theperfecti wereforbiddentohaveanypersonalbelongings,butasagroupthey controlledtheholdingsofthesect,whichoftenwereconsiderable. Catharsenjoyedinfluenceinvarioussegmentsofsociety,includingthehigheststrata.ThusitissaidthatCountRaymondVIofToulousealwayskeptinhisretinueCathars disguisedinordinaryattire,sotheycouldblesshimincaseofimpendingdeath.Forthemostpart,however,thepreachingoftheCatharsapparentlywasdirectedtothe urbanlowerclasses,asindicatedinparticularbythenamesofvarioussects:populicani (i.e.,populists,althoughcertainhistoriansseethisnameasacorruptionof "Paulicians"),piphlers (derivedfrom"plebs"), texerants (weavers),etc.Intheirsermons,theCatharspreachedthatatrueChristianlifewaspossibleonlyonthecondition thatpropertywasheldincommon.(12:p.656)In1023,agroupofCatharswereputontrialinMonteforte,chargedwithpromulgatingcelibacyandcommunalityof propertyandwithattackingtheacceptedreligioustraditions. ItseemsthattheappealforcommunalityofpropertywasratherwidespreadamongtheCathars,sinceitismentionedincertainCatholicworksdirectedagainstthem.In oneofthese,forinstance,Catharsareaccusedofdemagogicallyproclaimingthisprinciplewhilenotadheringtoitthemselves:"Youdonothaveeverythingincommon. Somehavemore,othersless."(13:p.176) Celibacyamongtheperfecti andthegeneralcondemnationofmarriagearecommontoallCathars.Butinanumberofcases,onlymarriageisconsideredsinfulnot promiscuityoutsidemarriage.Itshouldberecalledthat"Thoushaltnotcommitadultery"wasconsideredtobeacommandmentoftheGodofevil.Bythesametoken, theseprohibitionshadastheiraimnotsomuchmortificationofthefleshasdestructionofthefamily.Inthewritingsofcontemporaries,theCatharsareconstantlyaccused of"free"or"holy"love,andofhavingwivesincommon. SaintBernardofClairvaux,between1130and1150,accusedtheCatharsofpreachingagainstmarriagewhilecohabitingwithwomenwhohadabandonedtheirfamilies. (10:p.16)Rainiersupportsthiscontention.(9:pp.7273)ThesameaccusationagainstaManicheansectthatwasmakinginroadsintoBrittanyaround1145canbe foundintheChronicleofHugod'Amiens,ArchbishopofRouen.Abook [23] againstheresiesbyAlaindeLille,whichwaspublishedinthetwelfthcentury,ascribedthefollowingviewtotheCathars:"Maritalbondsarecontrarytothelawsofnature, sincetheselawsdemandthateverythingbeheldincommon."(13:p.176) TheCatharheresysweptoverEuropewithextraordinaryswiftness.In1012,asectofCatharsisrecordedinMainz,in1018andagainin1028inAquitaine,in1022in Orleans,in1025inArras,in1028inMonteforte(nearTurin),in1030inBurgundy,in1051inGoslar,etc.Around1190,Bonacursus,whohadpreviouslybeenabishop withtheCathars,wroteofthesituationinItaly:"Arenotalltownships,citiesandcastlesoverrunwiththesepseudoprophets?"(12:p.651)Andin1166,theBishopof Milanassertedthatthereweremorehereticsthanfaithfulinhisdiocese.OneworkfromthethirteenthcenturyenumeratesseventytwoCatharbishops.RainierSacconi speaksofsixteenChurchesofCathars.TheywereallcloselyassociatedandapparentlyheadedupbyaCatharPope,whowaslocatedinBulgaria.Councilswerecalled, whichwereattendedbyrepresentativesfromnumerouscountries.Forexample,in1167,acouncilwasopenlyheldinSt.FelixnearToulouseitwassummonedbythe hereticalPopeNicetasandwasattendedbyahostofheretics,includingsomefromBulgariaandConstantinople. TheheresywasparticularlysuccessfulinthesouthofFrance,inLanguedocandProvence.Missionsforconversionofthehereticswererepeatedlysentthere,oneof whichincludedSt.BernardofClairvaux,whoreportedthatchurchesweredesertedandthatnoonetookcommunionorwasbaptized.Themissionariesandthelocal

    Milanassertedthatthereweremorehereticsthanfaithfulinhisdiocese.OneworkfromthethirteenthcenturyenumeratesseventytwoCatharbishops.RainierSacconi speaksofsixteenChurchesofCathars.TheywereallcloselyassociatedandapparentlyheadedupbyaCatharPope,whowaslocatedinBulgaria.Councilswerecalled, whichwereattendedbyrepresentativesfromnumerouscountries.Forexample,in1167,acouncilwasopenlyheldinSt.FelixnearToulouseitwassummonedbythe hereticalPopeNicetasandwasattendedbyahostofheretics,includingsomefromBulgariaandConstantinople. TheheresywasparticularlysuccessfulinthesouthofFrance,inLanguedocandProvence.Missionsforconversionofthehereticswererepeatedlysentthere,oneof whichincludedSt.BernardofClairvaux,whoreportedthatchurchesweredesertedandthatnoonetookcommunionorwasbaptized.Themissionariesandthelocal Catholicclergywereassaultedandsubjectedtothreatsandinsults. ThenoblesofsouthernFrancesupportedthesectactively,seeinganopportunitytoacquirechurchlands.FormorethanfiftyyearsLanguedocwasunderthecontrolof theCatharsandseemedlosttoRomeforever.Apapallegate,PierredeCastelnau,waskilledbyheretics.ThePopeannouncedseveralcrusadesagainsttheCathars.The firstofthesefailedbecauseofsupportgiventothehereticsbythelocalnobility.Itwasonlyinthethirteenthcentury,aftermorethanthirtyyearsoftheguerres albigeoises, thattheheresywassuppressed.However,theinfluenceofthesesectscontinuedtobefeltforseveralcenturies. BrethrenoftheFreeSpiritandtheApostolicBrethren. Inthecreationofthedoctrinesofthesesectsaspecialrolewasplayedbytwothinkers [24] whoseideasweredestinedtoexertacontinuousinfluenceonthehereticalmovementsoftheMiddleAgesandtheReformation:JoachimofFloreandAmalricofBena. Theybothlivedinthetwelfthcenturyanddiedsoonafter1200. Joachimwasamonkandanabbot.Hisdoctrine,asheclaimed,wasbasedpartlyonthestudyoftheHolyScripturesandpartlyonrevelation.Itisbasedontheviewthat thehistoryofmankindinvolvestheprogressivelygreatercomprehensionofGod.Joachimdividedhistoryintothreeepochs:theKingdomoftheFather,fromAdamto ChristtheKingdomoftheSon,fromChristuntil1260andtheKingdomoftheSpirit,whichwastobeginin1260.Thefirstwasanageofslavishsubmissionthesecond, anageoffilialobediencewhilethethirdwastobeanageoffreedom.ForinthewordsoftheApostle:"WheretheSpiritoftheLordis,thereisfreedom."Inthislast epoch,God'speoplewouldabideinpeace,freedfromlaborandsuffering.Thiswouldbeanageofthehumbleandthepoorpeoplewouldnotknowthewords"thine" and"mine."Monasterieswouldembracethewholeofmankind,andtheEternalGospelwouldbereadandunderstoodinitsmysticaldimension.Aneraofperfection wouldbeattainedwithintheframeworkofearthlylifeandhumanhistoryandbythehandofmortalhumanbeings.Thisepochwastobeprecededbyterriblewars,and theAntichristwouldappear.JoachimsawproofofthisinthedecayoftheChurchinhistime.TheLastJudgmentwouldbeginwiththeChurch,andtheAntichristwould becomePope.TheelectofGod,revertingtoapostolicpoverty,wouldmakeupthehostofChristinthisstruggle.TheywoulddefeattheAntichristandunitethewholeof mankindinChristianity. AcharacteristicfeatureofJoachim'sdoctrineistheviewofhistoryasapredeterminedprocesswhosecoursecanbeforeseenandcalculated.Hecalculates,forexample, thatthefirstepochinhisschemelastedfortytwogenerations,thesecondwouldlastfifty.... Duringhislife,JoachimwasafaithfulsonoftheChurchhefoundedamonasteryandwroteagainsttheCathars.Butacollectionofexcerptsfromhisworkswaslater condemnedasheretical,probablybecauseofhisinfluenceonthehereticalsects. AmalrictaughttheologyinParis.Hedidnotexpoundhissysteminfull,onlyitsmoreinoffensivepropositions.Nevertheless,acomplaintWaslodgedagainsthiminRome andthePopecondemnedhissystelnand,in1204,dismissedhimfromhischair.Amalricdiedsoonthereafter. [25] AmalricwasideologicallylinkedtoJoachimofFlore.Healsosawhistoryasaseriesofstagesindivinerevelation.Inthebeginning,therewasMoses'law,thenChrist's whichsupersededit.Nowthetimeofthethirdrevelationhadcome.ThiswasembodiedinAmalricandhisfollowers,aspreviouslyrevelationhadbeenembodiedin Christ.TheyhadnowbecomeasChrist.ThreebasicthesesofthisnewChristianityhavebeenpreserved.Firstofall:"Godisall."Second:"EverythingisOne,for everythingthatisisGod."Andthird:"Whoeverobservesthelawofloveisabovesin."Thesetheseswereinterpretedinsuchawaythatthosewhofollowedtheteachings ofAmalriccouldattainidentitywithGodthroughecstasy.Inthem,theHolySpiritbecameflesh,justasinChrist.Maninthisstateisincapableofsin,forhisdeeds coincidewiththewillofGod.Herisesabovethelaw. ThusthefollowersofAmalricperceivedtheKingdomoftheSpiritmoreintermsofaspiritualstateofthemembersofthesectthanintermsofaworldtobeactively transformed.Thesecondinterpretationwasnotentirelyforeigntothem,however. Inthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies,asectwithviewsverysimilartothoseofAmalricspreadoverFrance,Germany,SwitzerlandandAustria.Itsmemberscalled themselvestheBrothersandSistersoftheFreeSpiritorsimplythe"FreeSpirits." Thekeydoctrineofthissectwasbeliefinthepossibilityof"transfigurationintoGod."Sincethesoulofeachmanconsistsofdivinesubstance,anymaninprinciplecan achieveastateof"Godliness."Toattainthisendhemustpassthroughmanyyearsofnovitiateinthesect,renounceallproperty,family,will,andlivebybegging.Onlythen doesheattainthestateofGodlinessandbecomeoneofthe"FreeSpirits."Numerousdescriptionsofthesect'sworldviewhavebeenpreserved.Thereareaccountsby FreeSpiritsorbyFreeSpiritswholaterrepented,aswellasthoseinthearchivesoftheInquisition.(See14:p.5615:p.13616:pp.110,11917:p.160etc.)All sourcesagreeononepointthatGodlinessisnotatemporarystatebutacontinuousone.JohannHartmannfromatownnearErfurtcharacterizedthisecstasyas"a completedisappearanceofthepainfulstingofconscience."(15:p.136)Inotherwords,theFreeSpiritwasliberatedfromallmoralconstraints.HewashigherthanChrist, whowasamortalmanwhoattainedGodlinessonlyonthecross.TheFreeSpiritwasthecompleteequalofGod,"withoutdistinctions."HencehiswillisthewillofGod, andtohimthenotionofsinbecomesmeaningless. [26] Thissinlessnessandfreedomfrommoralrestrictionswascharacterizedinanumberofways.TheFreeSpiritisthekingandsovereignofallthatis.Everythingbelongsto him,andhemaydisposeofitatwill.Andwhoeverinterfereswiththismaybekilledbyhim,evenifitistheemperorhimself.Nothingperformedbythefleshofsuchaman caneitherdecreaseorincreasehisdivinity.Therefore,hemaygiveitcompletefreedom."Letthewholestateperishratherthanheabstainfromthedemandsofhisnature," saysHartmann.(15:p.141)Intimacywithanywoman,evenwithasisterorhismother,cannotstainhimandwillonlyincreaseherholiness.Numeroussourcesdating fromthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesreportonritualsofthesects,whichincludedindiscriminatesexualunion.InItaly,such"masses"werecalled barilotto. In Germany,therewerereportsofspecialsanctuariescalled"paradises"forthispurpose. ThecontemporaryscholarH.Grundmann(18)pointsoutinthisregardthatinthelateMiddleAgestherewasnoneedtobelongtoasectinordertoadheretoanysortof freeviewsinsexualmatters.Thebasisofthe"orgiasticmass"wasstrictlyideological.TheFreeSpirit,whohadattained"Godliness,"brokecompletelywithhisformerlife. Whathadbeenblasphemyforhiminthepast(andremainedsofor"rude"folk)nowbecameasignoftheendofonehistoricalepochandthebeginningofanother the newEon.InthiswayhewasabletocomprehendandtoexpresshisnewbirthandthebreakwiththeoldEon.

    fromthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesreportonritualsofthesects,whichincludedindiscriminatesexualunion.InItaly,such"masses"werecalled barilotto. In Germany,therewerereportsofspecialsanctuariescalled"paradises"forthispurpose. ThecontemporaryscholarH.Grundmann(18)pointsoutinthisregardthatinthelateMiddleAgestherewasnoneedtobelongtoasectinordertoadheretoanysortof freeviewsinsexualmatters.Thebasisofthe"orgiasticmass"wasstrictlyideological.TheFreeSpirit,whohadattained"Godliness,"brokecompletelywithhisformerlife. Whathadbeenblasphemyforhiminthepast(andremainedsofor"rude"folk)nowbecameasignoftheendofonehistoricalepochandthebeginningofanother the newEon.InthiswayhewasabletocomprehendandtoexpresshisnewbirthandthebreakwiththeoldEon. ItisclearthattheFreeSpiritshadnouseforthepathofsalvationproposedbytheCatholicChurchpenance,confession,absolutionofsins,communion.Moreover,they sawtheChurchasahostileorganization,sinceithadusurpedtherighttoexamineandtodecide,whichtheyconsideredsolelytheirownprerogative.Abitterlyanti ecclesiasticalsentimentpervadestheviewsoftheFreeSpiritsandfindsexpressionintheirfrequentworshipofLucifer. Inthecenterofthesect'sideologystoodnotGodbutmanmadedivine,freedfromthenotionofhisownsinfulnessandmadethecenteroftheuniverse.Asaresult,Adam playedacentralroleintheirteaching,notAdamthesinnerdepictedintheOldTestament,butAdamtheperfectman.ManyoftheFreeSpiritsreferredtothemselvesas the"NewAdams,"andKonradKanlerevencalledhimselfAntichrist("butnotinthebadsense").Itseemspossibletoarguethathere,withintheconfinesofthisrelatively smallsect,weencounterthefirstprototype [27] ofthehumanistideologywhichwouldlaterattainworldwidesignificance. TheuprisingagainstthePopeinUmbria,inthe1320s,servesasavividexampleoftheinfluencethesecthadonsociallife.TheteachingsoftheFreeSpiritswere widespreadamongthenobilityofthisregionandbecametheideologyoftheantipapalparty.InthestruggleagainstthePopeandtheurbancommunes,thedoctrine justifiedtheapplicationofallmeansandtherejectionofmercyofanykind.Theentirepopulationsofcapturedtownswereslaughtered,includingwomenandchildren.The headoftheuprising,CountMontefeltro,andhisfollowerspridedthemselvesonplunderingchurchesandviolatingnuns.TheirsupremedeitywasSatan.(17:p.130) Butthemostfarreachinginfluencethatthesecthadwasamongthepoor,especiallyamongtheBeghardsandtheBeguinesunionsofcelibatemenandwomenwho engagedincraftsorbegging.Theexternal,exotericcircleofparticipantsinthesectwasmadeupfromthesesocialelements,whiletheFreeSpirits,thosewhohadattained "Godliness,"formedanarrow,esotericcircle.ThedivisionintotwocategoriesrecallstheCatharswiththeirchosencircleoftheperfecti. Thebroadmassesthatformedtheexotericcircleofthesectwerepoorlyinformedabouttheradicalnatureofthedoctrine,asnumeroussurvivingrecordsofthe proceedingsoftheInquisitionmakeclear.TheordinaryfollowersfeltthatthedivinityoftheFreeSpiritsjustifiedtheirrighttobespiritualguides.Forthisgroup,themost significantaspectsofthedoctrinewerethosethatproclaimedtheideaofcommunalityinitsmostextremeformandrejectedthefundamentalinstitutionsofsociety:private property,thefamily,thechurchandthestate.Itisherethatwecanseethesect'ssocialistaspects.Theassertionthat"allpropertyoughttobeheldincommon"iscited frequentlyasoneoftheelementsofthedoctrine(e.g.,15:p.53).Appealsforsexualfreedomwereoftendirectedagainstmarriageindeed,sexualunioninmarriagewas consideredsinful.Suchviewswereexpressed,forexample,bythe"HominesIntelligentia"group,whichwasactiveinBrusselsin14101411.(9:II:p.528)Theequality proclaimedbetweenFreeSpiritsandChristhadtheaimofdestroyinghierarchy,notonlyonearthbutinheavenaswell.Alloftheseideaswerecommonmainlyamongthe mendicantBeghards,whomtheir"divine"leaderscalledtoacompleteliberationfromthisworld.Forinstance,AegidiusCantorisofBrusselstaught:"Iamtheliberatorof mankind.Through [28] meyouwillknowChrist,asthroughChristyouknowtheFather."(9:II:p.527) TheBrethrenoftheFreeSpiritexertedaninfluenceonasectthatemergedinItalyinthesecondhalfofthethirteenthcentury.ThemembersofthisItalianmovementcalled eachother"Apostolic Brethren."ThissecttaughtthatthecomingoftheAntichristforetoldbyJoachimwasdrawingnear.TheCatholicChurchhadfallenawayfromChrist'scommandmentsand hadbecometheWhoreofBabylon,thebeastofsevenheadsandtenhornsoftheApocalypse.ItsfalldatedfromthetimeofEmperorConstantineandPopeSylvester, whohadbeenpossessedbytheDevil.Thetimesoftroublewerecoming,whichwouldendinvictoryforanew,spiritualChurchthatoftheApostolicBrethren,a communityofsaints.Theworldwouldbegovernedbyasaint,aPopeelevatedbyGodandnotelectedbycardinals(allthecardinalswouldhavebeenkilledbythen,in anycase).AndthesectwasalreadythoughttobeheadedbyaGodappointedleader.Implicitobediencewasduehim.Everythingwaspermittedindefenseofthefaith, anyviolenceagainstenemies,while,atthesametime,thepersecutioninflictedbytheCatholicChurchontheApostolicBrethrenwasconsideredtobethegravestof crimes.Thesectpreachedcommunalityofpropertyandofwives. Thedoctrinewasspreadamongthepeoplebyitinerant"apostles."Thelettersoftheleaderofthesect,Dolcino,weredisseminatedbywayofproclamations.Finallyin 1404,anattemptwasmadetoputtheteachingintopractice.Gatheringsomefivethousandmembersofthesect,Dolcinofortifiedhimselfandhisarmyinamountainous areaofnorthernItaly,fromwherehesalliedforthtoplunderthesurroundingvillagesanddestroythechurchesandmonasteries.Warwentonforthreeyears,until Dolcino'scampwastakenandhewasexecuted. ThisepisodeisdescribedatgreaterlengthinthebiographyofDolcinointheAppendix. Taborites. TheburningofJanHusin1415gavetheimpetustotheantiCatholicHussitemovementinBohemia.ThemoreradicalfactionoftheHussiteswasconcentratedinawell protectedtownnearPrague.TheycalledtheplaceTabor.PreachersfromhereticalsectsgravitatedtherefromalloverEurope:Joachimites(followersofJoachimofFlore), Waldensians,Beghards.Chiliasticandsocialisttheorieswereprevalent [29] amongtheTaborites,andtherewerenumerousattemptstobringtheoryintopractice.WeshallgiveabriefoutlineoftheviewsoftheTaboritesbasedonthewritingsof theircontemporaries(thefuturePopeAeneasSylviusPiccolomini,Prbram,Vavinec,LaurenceofBezin). Theendoftheworldtheconsumatiosaeculiwas tooccurin1420.Theterm,however,coversonlytheendoftheoldworldandofthe"dominionofevil."Allthe "wicked"wouldberemovedforthwith."Thedayofvengeanceandtheyearofretribution"weredrawingnear."Theloftyandpowerfulmustbebentdownliketree branchesandcutoffandburnedinfurnaceslikestraw,leavingneitherrootnorbranch,theymustbethrashedlikesheavesofgrain,theirblooddrainedtothelastdrop, theyaretobeexterminatedwithscorpions,serpentsandwildbeasts,andputtodeatheverywhere."(19:p.78) Christ'slawofmercywastobeabolished,since"itsinterpretationandwrittentenetscontradictinmuchtheopinioncitedabove."(20:p.235)Onthecontrary,onewasto act"resolutelyandwithzealandwithjustretribution."Furthermore:"ItisnecessaryforeachofthefaithfultowashhishandsinthebloodoftheenemiesofChrist."(20:p. 231)Moreover:"AnyonewhoprotestsagainstthesheddingofthebloodofChrist'senemiesshallbecursedandpunishedjustastheseenemiesare.Allpeasantswho refusetojointheTaboritesshallbedestroyedtogetherwiththeirproperty."(19:p.81)

    branchesandcutoffandburnedinfurnaceslikestraw,leavingneitherrootnorbranch,theymustbethrashedlikesheavesofgrain,theirblooddrainedtothelastdrop, theyaretobeexterminatedwithscorpions,serpentsandwildbeasts,andputtodeatheverywhere."(19:p.78) Christ'slawofmercywastobeabolished,since"itsinterpretationandwrittentenetscontradictinmuchtheopinioncitedabove."(20:p.235)Onthecontrary,onewasto act"resolutelyandwithzealandwithjustretribution."Furthermore:"ItisnecessaryforeachofthefaithfultowashhishandsinthebloodoftheenemiesofChrist."(20:p. 231)Moreover:"AnyonewhoprotestsagainstthesheddingofthebloodofChrist'senemiesshallbecursedandpunishedjustastheseenemiesare.Allpeasantswho refusetojointheTaboritesshallbedestroyedtogetherwiththeirproperty."(19:p.81) God'sKingdomonearthwillbeestablished,butnotforallonlyforthe"elect.""Evil"willnotbeeliminatedfromtheworldbutwillbesubjectedtothecontrolofthose whoare"good."AllthefaithfulweretocongregateinfivecitiesthosewhoremainedoutsidewouldnotbesparedtheLastJudgment.Fromthesecitiesthefaithfulwereto ruletheworld,andthosecitiesandtownsopposingthemweretobe"destroyedandburntlikeSodom."(20:p.236)Inparticular:"Inthisyearofretribution,Praguemust bedestroyedandburntbythefaithfullikeBabylon."(19:p.82) TheperiodwastoculminateinthecomingofChrist.ThenthechosenofGodwould"reignwiththeLordvisiblyandphysicallyforathousandyears."(19:p.94)When Christhaddescendedtoearthwithhisangels,pioussoulswhohaddiedforChristweretoberesurrectedinordertojudgethesinnerswithHim.Wiveswouldconceive withoutknowingamanandgivebirthwithoutpain.Noonewouldsoworreap."Thefruitoftheearthshallnolongerbeconsumed."(19:pp.85) [30] Thecallwentoutfromthepreachers"todonowork,topulldowntreesanddestroyhouses,churchesandmonasteries."(19:p.85)"Allhumaninstitutionsandhuman lawsmustbeabolished,fornoneofthemwerecreatedbytheHeavenlyFather."(19:p.110)ItwastaughtthattheChurchwas"hereticalandunrighteousandthatallits wealthmustbetakenawayandgiventolaymen."And:"Thehousesofpriestsandallchurchpropertymustbedemolished,andthechurches,altarsandmonasteries destroyed."(19:p.83)"Churchbellsweretakendownandbrokentopiecesandthensoldawaytoforeignlands.Churchobjects,candlesticks,goldandsilverwere smashed."(19:p.84)"Everywherealtarsweresmashed,thesacramentscastout,God'stemplesdefiledandturnedintostallsandstables."(19:p.127)"Thesacrament wastroddenunderfoot....TheBloodofChristwaspouredout,chalicesstolenandsold."(19:p.139)OneoftheTaboritepreachersstatedthathe"wouldsoonerprayto theDevilthanbendhiskneebeforetheHolyEucharist."(19:p.153)"Agreatmultitudeofpriestswerekilled,burnedandslaughtered,andthegreatestjoyforthemwas toseizesomebodyandmurderhim."(19:p.84)ThefavoritesongofthcTaboriteswas:"Comeon,monks,let'sseeyoudanceforus!"(18:p.84)Itwassaidthatwhen theKingdomoftheRighteouscametherewouldbe"noneedforanyonetoteachanother.Therewouldbenoneedforbooksorscriptures,andallworldlywisdomwill perish."(19:p.159)InmonasteriestheTaboritesinvariablydestroyedthelibraries."AllbelongingsmustbetakenawayfromGod'senemiesandburnedorotherwise destroyed."(19:p.81) "Thiswinterandsummerthepreachersandelderheadmenhavebeenpersistentlydupingthepeasantstopourmoneyintotheirbarrels."(19:p.101)Inthismannerall moneyinthecommunitywassocialized.Supervisorsofthebarrelswereappointedtooverseethestrictdeliveryofmoneyandtodistributethecommunalfund."Inthe townofTaborthereisnothingwhichismineorthine,butallpossesseverythingincommonandnooneistohaveanythingapart,andwhoeverdoesisasinner."(19:pp. 99100)OnepointoftheTaboriteprogramstated:"Nooneshallpossessanything,buteverythingmustbecommunal."(19:p.106)Thepreacherstaught:"Everythingwill becommon,includingwives:therewillbefreesonsanddaughtersofGodandtherewillbenomarriageasunionoftwohusbandandwife."(19:p.113) AmongtheTaborites,aBeghardfromBelgiumfoundedasectofAdamiteswhoestablishedthemselvesonasmallislandintheLunice [31] river.HepronouncedhimselfAdamandtheSonofGod,calledupontoresurrectthedeadandtocarryoutwhatwasforeordainedintheApocalypse.TheAdamites consideredthemselvestobetheincarnationoftheomnipresentGod.Theyexpectedtheworldsoontobefloodedwithbloodashighasahorse'sbridle.Onthisearththey sawthemselvesasGod'sscythesenttotakevengeanceandtodestroyallthatisvileintheworld.Forgivenesswasasin.Theykilledandtheyburnedtownsandvillagesat night,citingthephrasefromtheBible:"Atmidnighttherewasacrymade."InthetownofPricthey"killedpeople,youngandold,andburnedthetown."(19:p.464)At theirgatheringstheyworenoclothing,believingthatonlyinthiswaywouldtheybecomepure.Theyhadnomarriageeverymancouldchoosewomenatwill.Itwas enoughtosayaboutawoman"Sheinflamesmyspirit"forAdamtogivehisblessing:"Goandgivefruitandmultiplyandpopulatetheearth."Accordingtocertainsources, theirsexualrelationswerecompletelyindiscriminate."TheskytheycallaroofandsaythereisnoGodonearthastherearenodevilsinhell."(19:p.478)Onordersfrom Janika,AdamiteswereexterminatedbymoremoderateTaborites. Foralongtime,thestoriesabouttheAdamites(aswellasmanyreportsabouttheTaborites)werethoughttobetheinventionsoftheirenemies.Suchaviewwasfirst positedbytheFrenchHuguenotIsaacdeBeausobre,arepresentativeoftheAgeofEnlightenment,andinitsmostextremeformitfindsexpressionintheworksofthe CzechMarxisthistorianJ.Macek.ThequestionoftheAdamiteshasrecentlybeensubjectedtothoroughcriticalreviewbytheMarxisthistoriansE.WernerandM. Erbstsser.(15,16,17)Theydemonstratetheexistenceofanearlier"Adamite"tradition,acultofAdam,withintheBrethrenoftheFreeSpirit.Ifwetakeintoaccount certainunavoidabledistortionsduetothehermeticnatureoftheteaching,informationabouttheBohemian"Adamites"isinfullaccordwiththepictureoftheEuropean movementof"FreeSpirits"whichwehavedrawnintheprecedingsection. Forexample,Macekconsidersthepassage"Allshallbeincommon,wivesaswell"(fromthe OldChronicle) tobe"theheightoffilthyslander."(19:p.113)Inhis opinion,thispassageiscontradictedbyanotherinPrbram,whoassertsthatinTaborintimacybetweenhusbandandwifewasprohibited:"Ifhusbandandwifewereseen togetherortheirmeetingbecameknown,theywerebeatentodeathothers [32] werethrownintotheriver."However,thesetwopassagesactuallyareinfullaccordwiththetraditionoftheFreeSpirits,whopreachedunlimitedsexuallibertyandthe sinfulnessofmarriageatoneandthesametime.Thiswasalsothepositionofthe"HominesIntelligentia"groupinBrusselsataboutthesameperiod.Wenoteinthis connectionthatEngelshadpointedout:"Itisacuriousfactthatineverylargerevolutionarymovementthequestionof'freelove'comestotheforeground."(3:XVI:p. 160) TheemperorandthePopeappealedforacrusadeagainsttheTaborites.Butthelatternotonlycrushedthecrusadersbutcarriedwaroverintoneighboringcountries. Theseraids,whichreceivedthename"TheSplendidCampaigns"intheHussitetradition,wereundertakenonayearlybasisbetween1427and1434.Somecountries weredevastatedandlootedinothersforexample,Silesiagarrisonswereestablished.Asongofthetimeruns:"MeissenandSaxonyaredestroyed,Silesiaand Lauschwitzlieinruins,Bavariahasbecnturnedintoadesert,Austriaisdevastated,Moraviastripped,Bohemiaturnedupsidedown." DetachmentsofTaboriteswentasfarastheBalticSea,thewallsofVienna,LeipzigandBerlinNurembergpaidtribute.Czechiawasravaged.IntheOldCollegiate Chronicle itissaid:"InthesecampaignsthemajorityofsoldierswereforeignerswhofeltnolovefortheKingdom."And:"Fires,robberies,murdersandactsofviolence areontheirconscience."(21:p.161)ThewholeofCentralEuropewassubjectedtoterribledevastation.ThePopewasforcedtomakeconcessions.AttheBasel Councilof1433,anagreementwiththeHussiteswasreached,asaresultofwhichtheyreturnedtotheCatholicChurch.Butthemoreradical,Taborite,factionof HussitesdidnotrecognizetheagreementandwasannihilatedinthebattleatLipany,in1434. Duringthewarsof14191434,theimpactoftheHussiteswentbeyondthedevastationofneighboringcountries.Theyalsocarriedtheirchiliasticandsocialistideas abroad.TheirmanifestoeswerereadinBarcelona,Paris,Cambridge.In1423and1430,thereweredisturbancesbyHussiteadherentsinFlanders.InGermanyand

    Chronicle itissaid:"InthesecampaignsthemajorityofsoldierswereforeignerswhofeltnolovefortheKingdom."And:"Fires,robberies,murdersandactsofviolence areontheirconscience."(21:p.161)ThewholeofCentralEuropewassubjectedtoterribledevastation.ThePopewasforcedtomakeconcessions.AttheBasel Councilof1433,anagreementwiththeHussiteswasreached,asaresultofwhichtheyreturnedtotheCatholicChurch.Butthemoreradical,Taborite,factionof HussitesdidnotrecognizetheagreementandwasannihilatedinthebattleatLipany,in1434. Duringthewarsof14191434,theimpactoftheHussiteswentbeyondthedevastationofneighboringcountries.Theyalsocarriedtheirchiliasticandsocialistideas abroad.TheirmanifestoeswerereadinBarcelona,Paris,Cambridge.In1423and1430,thereweredisturbancesbyHussiteadherentsinFlanders.InGermanyand Austria,Hussiteinfluencewasstillfeltacenturylater,duringtheperiodoftheReformation.InsideBohemiaitself,thedefeatedTaboritesgaverisetothesectof"Bohcmian Brethren"or"UnitasFratrum,"whocombinedthepreviousintolerantattitudetowardtheCatholicChurch [33] andsecularauthoritywithacompleterenunciationofviolenceevenforselfdefense.Weshallhaveoccasiontospeakofthissect,whichisstillinexistence,laterinthis work. Anabaptists. TheReformationcalledforthanewupsurgeofsocialistmovements.EveninpreReformationtimes,Germanywasfullofchiliasticsentiment.Wanderingpreachers exposedthesinsoftheworldandforetoldtheforthcomingvengeance.Astrologicalpredictionsofcalamitywerecommonfamine,rebellion,"whentheriverswillflowwith blood."Therewasasaying:"Whodoesnotdiein1523,isnotdrownedin1524,isnotkilledin1525,shallsaythatamiraclehashappenedtohim." Theinventionofprintingenormouslymagnifiedtheeffectoftheseideas.Anypeasantorartisancouldbeexposedtoleafletsshowingapeasantarmymarchingtowardthe futurerevolution,withafrightenedPope,princesandprelatesfleeingbeforeit. ThissentimentwasgivenespeciallystrongexpressionintheAnabaptistmovement,whichspreadtoGermany,Switzerland,Austria,Czechia,DenmarkandHollandand which,inthefollowingcentury,spilledoverintoEngland.Thesect'sname,assooftenhappened,wasgiventoitbyitsenemies.Itseemsthatthetermwascoinedby Zwingli.Themovementassuchhadexistedlongbefore,itsmemberscallingeachother"Brother."ThedesignationAnabaptist("therebaptized")istobeexplainedbythe factthatthesectrefusedtorecognizethebaptismofchildrenandoftenperformedasecondbaptismofadults.Inlatertimes,membersofthissectcametocallthemselves Baptists. Basically,thedoctrineoftheAnabaptists(see22,23,24,25,26)derivedfromthenotion,alreadyfamiliartous,ofthefallingawayoftheCatholicChurch,inEmperor Constantine'stime,fromthetrueteachingsofChrist.ThesesectariansconsideredthemselvesdirectsuccessorsoftheChristianityofApostolictimes.Theydeniedthe entiretraditionoftheCatholicChurchthatis,everyaspectofitsdoctrineandorganizationnotspecificallyidentifiedintheGospels.Theyrefusedtorecognizethe supremeauthorityofthePope,believedthatsalvationofthesoulwaspossibleoutsidetheChurchandprofessedauniversalpriesthood.OftheScriptures,theyrecognized onlytheGospelsassacredandonlythewordsspokenbyChristhimself,atthat.TheSermonontheMounthadparticularsignificanceforthem,andtheybelievedthatits commandmentsshouldbeobservedtotheletter.According [34] totheirdoctrine,themeaningoftheGospelsisrevealedthroughinspirationtoanyoneworthyofit,nowjustasinApostolictimes. Anabaptistsbelievedmurdertobeacardinalsinunderanycircumstancesandrejectedoathsofanykind.Forthisreason,theyrefusedtoparticipateinmanyaspectsof life.Ingeneral,theoppositionof"trueChristians"tothe"worldoffalseChristians"playedalargeroleintheirteachings.Thisledatcriticalperiodstomilitantappealsfor "exterminationoftheimpious." InorganizationtheAnabaptistslargelyresembledtheCathars.Themovementwasguidedentirelybyasocietyof"Apostles"who,havingrenouncedmarriageand property,ledthelifeofpilgrims.Theywanderedinpairs,theolderApostledevotinghimselftomattersoffaithandthesect'sorganization,withtheyoungerApostlehelping himwithpracticalmatters.TheApostleselectedbishopsfromamongtheirownranks,thelatterguidingtheactivityofthesectinvariousregions.Councilsofbishops, "synods"orcapituli, wereconvenedtodiscussquestionsofprinciple.Forexample,inhisinvitationtothesynodatWaldshutin1524,BalthazarHumbayerwrote:"The ancientcustomofApostolictimesissuchthat,incircumstanceshardforthefaith,thosetowhomGod'swordisentrustedgathertotakeaChristiandecision."(24:p.376) OftenbishopsfromthewholeofEuropecametogether.Forinstance,the capituli inBaselbetween1521and1523wereattendedbyBrethrenfromSwitzerland, Flanders(Beltin),Saxony(HeinrichvonEppendorf),Franconia(Stumpf),FrankfurtamMain(theKnightHartmutvonKronberg),Holland(Rode),England(Richard Crock,ThomasLipset),andotherplaces.(24:p.378f.)AttheAugsburgsynodof1526,morethansixty"elderBrethren"werepresent. ThesocialviewsoftheAnabaptistswerenotuniformthroughout.The Chronicle bySebastianFranck(sixteenthcentury)saysaboutthem:"Somebelievethemselvesto beholyandpuretheyhaveeverythingincommon....Otherspracticecommunalityonlytotheextentthattheydonotpermitneedtoariseamongthemselves....Among themasectappearedwhichwishedtomakewives,aswellasbelongings,communal."(25:p.306) ThereismuchdataonAnabaptiststobefoundinthebookbyBullinger,alsowritteninthesixteenthcentury.Indescribingthesectof"FreeBrethren"thatappearedinthe vicinityofZrich,hewrites:"TheFreeBrethren,whommanyAnabaptistscalled'crudeBrethren,' [35] werequitewidespreadintheearlydaysofthemovement.TheyunderstoodChristianfreedominacarnalsense.Fortheywishedtobefreeofalllaws,presumingthat Christhadliberatedthem.Therefore,theyregardedthemselvesasfreeoftithe,ofthecorveandofserfdom.Someofthem,desperatelibertines,seducedsillywomeninto believingthattheycouldnotbecomespiritualwithoutbreakingwedlock.Othersbelievedthatifallthingsmustbeincommon,thenalsowives.Stillotherssaidthatafterthe newbaptismtheyhadbeenbornanewandcouldnotsin:onlyfleshsins.Thesefalseteachingswerethesourceofshameandobscenity.Andyettheydaredtoteachthat suchwasthewilloftheFather."(40:p.129) ElsewhereBullingerreports:"Andtheysayinearnestthatnooneshouldhavepropertyandthatallwealthandpatrimonyshouldbeincommon,asitisimpossibletobe Christianandwealthyatthesametime....Theysetforthasanewmonasticorderrulesregardingclothingastothefabric,shapeandstyle,lengthandsize....Theysetforth rulesastoeating,drinking,sleeping,leisure,standingandwalkingabout."(25:p.284) Intheearly1520s,theAnabaptistsrenouncedtheconspiratorialcharacteroftheiractivitiesandenteredintoanopenstrugglewiththe"world"andtheCatholicChurch.In 1524,alargescalesecretconferencewasheldinNurembergandattendedbyDenck,oneofthemostinfluentialAnabaptistwriters,bythe"Picard"Hetzer,byHutofthe oldWaldensianBrethren,andbyotherBrethren.Manywereseized,butDenckfledtoSwitzerland.HereanewassemblyofBrethrenfromvariouscountriestookplace. Itwasdecidedtobegintopracticethesecondbaptismopenly.ThisdecisionwasputintoeffectinZurichandSt.Gall.Thiswasapparentlysymbolicoftheshifttooutright strugglepreciselythecoursetakenbytheCzechBrethreninthevillageofLota,in1457,whentheydecidedtodemonstrateopenlytheirsplitwithCatholicism. InSt.Gallin1525,auniformofcoarsegrayfabricandabroadgrayhatwereintroducedasobligatoryforallmembersofthecommunity.Allformsofparticipationin

    Intheearly1520s,theAnabaptistsrenouncedtheconspiratorialcharacteroftheiractivitiesandenteredintoanopenstrugglewiththe"world"andtheCatholicChurch.In 1524,alargescalesecretconferencewasheldinNurembergandattendedbyDenck,oneofthemostinfluentialAnabaptistwriters,bythe"Picard"Hetzer,byHutofthe oldWaldensianBrethren,andbyotherBrethren.Manywereseized,butDenckfledtoSwitzerland.HereanewassemblyofBrethrenfromvariouscountriestookplace. Itwasdecidedtobegintopracticethesecondbaptismopenly.ThisdecisionwasputintoeffectinZurichandSt.Gall.Thiswasapparentlysymbolicoftheshifttooutright strugglepreciselythecoursetakenbytheCzechBrethreninthevillageofLota,in1457,whentheydecidedtodemonstrateopenlytheirsplitwithCatholicism. InSt.Gallin1525,auniformofcoarsegrayfabricandabroadgrayhatwereintroducedasobligatoryforallmembersofthecommunity.Allformsofparticipationin publiclifeandentertainmentwereforbidden.Anabaptistswerecalled"monkswithouthoods."TheleadersoftheAnabaptistcommunityinZurichpreachedthat"all propertymustbeheldincommonandtogether."Theseeventswereaccompaniedbystrangehappenings.Membersofsomeofthegroupswentnakedattheirgatherings and,tobelikechildren,creptaroundontheground,playing.OthersburnedtheBible,andwithshoutsof"Here! [36] Here!"beatthemselvesonthebreasttoshowtheplacewherethelifegivingspiritdwells.Oneofthem,onordersfromhisfather,killedhisbrotherinimitationofChrist's sacrifice.(23:p.701) TheAnabaptistsdidnotsucceedintakingcontroloftheReformationmovementinSwitzerland(thanksinlargeparttoZwingli'soppositiontothem).ExiledSwiss AnabaptistsfledtoBohemiaandjoinedtheBohemianBrethrenthere.Largecombinedcommunitieswerefoundedoncollectivistprinciples. Communalpropertywasintroduced.EverythingearnedbytheBrethrenwashandedovertothecommontreasury,whichwassupervisedbyaspecial"distributor."The "goodpolice"controlledthewholeofthelifeofthecommunityclothing,lodging,upbringingofchildren,marriageandwork. Thetypeofmen'sandwomen'sclothing,thehourforgoingtobed,thetimeforworkandrestwereallstrictlyprescribed.ThelifeoftheBrethrentookplacebeforethe eyesofothers.Itwasforbiddentocookanythingforoneselfmealshadtobetakenincommon.Theunmarriedsleptincommonbedrooms,menandwomenseparately. Children(fromtheageoftwo)wereseparatedfromtheirparentsandbroughtupincommon"children'shouses."Marriageswerearrangedbytheelders.Theyalso assignedtoeveryonehisorheroccupation.Membersofthecommunityrefusedtohaveanycontactwiththestatetheydidnotserveinthearmy,neverwenttocourt. Theydid,however,retainapassivelyhostileattitudewhilerejectingviolenceofanykind.(See27,39.) InGermany,Anabaptismbegantotakeonanincreasinglyrevolutionarycharacter.InThuringia,neartheBohemianborder,thecityofZwickaubecamethecenterofthe movement.ThesocalledZwickauProphets,headedbytheAnabaptistApostleKlausStorch,believedthattheelectoftheLordcouldcommunicatewithHimdirectly,as theApostlesofoldcould,anddeniedthattheChurchwascapableofgivingsalvation.Theirteachingconsideredscienceandtheartsunnecessaryforman,foreverything essentialtohissalvationwasalreadygiventohimbyGod. InimitationofChrist,StorchsurroundedhimselfwithtwelveApostlesandseventydisciples.The"Prophets"predictedaninvasionbytheTurks,thereignoftheAntichrist, destructionoftheimpiousandfinallythearrivalofthethousandyearKingdomofGod,whentherewouldbeonebaptismandonefaith. AnexpositionofStorch'steachingshasbeenpreservedinawork [37] byWagnerpublishedinthelatesixteenthcenturyinErfurt.Itistitled"HowNiklausStorchInstigatedSeditioninThuringiaandtheNeighboringRegions"andwaswritten onthebasisofeyewitnessaccounts.Itcitesthefollowingpointsofhisdoctrine: 1.Thatnomatrimonialunion,whethersecretoropen,shouldbeobserved.... 3.Thatonthecontrary,eachmaytakewiveswheneverhisfleshdemandsitandhispassionrises,andmaylivewiththeminintimacyathiswill. 4.Thateverythingoughttobeheldincommon,forGodhassentallmenequallynakedintotheworld.Andlikewise,Hehasgiventhemequallyeverythingthatisonthe earth:thebirdsoftheairandthefishofthewater. 5.Thereforeitoughttobethatallauthorities,secularandclerical,bedeprivedoftheirofficesonceandforallorkilledbythesword,fortheyaloneliveastheywilland suckthebloodandsweatofthepoor,gluttingthemselvesanddrinkingdayandnight. "Henceeveryonemustriseup,thesoonerthebetter,armhimselfandattackthepriestsintheircozynests,massacreandexterminatethem.Foroncethesheepare deprivedofaleader,itwillgoeasywiththesheep.Nextitwillbenecessarytoattackalsothosewhofleeceothers,toseizetheirhouses,plundertheirproperty,andraze theircastlestotheground."(28:p.53) ThisfirstsurgeoftheAnabaptistmovementcoincidedwiththe1525PeasantWarinGermany.Thesocialistteachingsofthetimearemostvividlymirroredintheactivity ofThomasMntzer.HisbiographyispresentedatgreaterlengthintheAppendixweshallthereforelimitourselvestoabriefcommentonhisdoctrinehere.Mntzer taughtthattheonlyLordandKingoftheearthisChrist.Heassignedtoprincesafunctionverylikethatofhangmenandeventhisprerogativewastobeexercisedonlyon directordersfromtheelectoftheLord.Iftheprincesrefusedtoobey,theyweretobeexecuted.TheauthorityofChristwasseenastrulyembodiedinthesocietyofthe elect,anarrowunionsharplyseparatedfromtherestofthepopulation.Mntzerdidindeedattempttoorganizesuchaunion. HeseizedpowerinthetownofMhlhausen,whererebelliousinhabitantshaddrivenoutthemunicipalcouncil.Inthecityandthesurroundingarea,monasterieswerelaid waste,sacredimagesdestroyed,monksandpriestskilled.Mntzertaughtthatallproperty [38] wastobeheldincommon.Anidenticaldemandwaspartoftheprogramofhisunion.Achroniclewrittenatthetimerelatesthatapracticalattemptatimplementingthese principleswasundertakenatMhlhausen.However,anarmygatheredbythelocalprincessoonapproachedthetown.Mntzerandhisfollowerswereoverwhelmingly defeatedhewasexecuted.(Seethemoredetailedaccountin28andin39:pp.199253.) TheAnabaptists'participationinthePeasantWarcalledforththeparticularireoftheauthorities.AviolentandextremelycruelwaveofpersecutionofAnabaptistsswept acrosssouthandcentralGermany.Thistemporarilyweakenedmilitantandsocialistsentiments,butaround1530theysurfacedagain.InhisChronicle, SebastianFranck reportsthatabout1530(inSwitzerland),Brethrenwhobelievedinthepossibilityofselfdefenseandwarundercertaincircumstancesbegantogaintheupperhandinthe organization."SuchBrethrenwereinthemajority." AttheAnabaptistsynods,theinfluenceofthemoremoderate"Apostle"Denckwaned,whileaformerassociateofMntzer's,Hut,whopreachedcompletecommunality ofworldlygoods,cametotheforefront.Heproclaimed:"Thesaintsmustbejoyfulandmusttakeupdoubleedgedswordsinordertowreakvengeanceinthe nations."(23:p.703)Hutcreatedanewunionwhosegoalwas"slaughterofalloverlordsandpowersthatbe."Healsoproposed"establishingtheruleofHansHuton

    acrosssouthandcentralGermany.Thistemporarilyweakenedmilitantandsocialistsentiments,butaround1530theysurfacedagain.InhisChronicle, SebastianFranck reportsthatabout1530(inSwitzerland),Brethrenwhobelievedinthepossibilityofselfdefenseandwarundercertaincircumstancesbegantogaintheupperhandinthe organization."SuchBrethrenwereinthemajority." AttheAnabaptistsynods,theinfluenceofthemoremoderate"Apostle"Denckwaned,whileaformerassociateofMntzer's,Hut,whopreachedcompletecommunality ofworldlygoods,cametotheforefront.Heproclaimed:"Thesaintsmustbejoyfulandmusttakeupdoubleedgedswordsinordertowreakvengeanceinthe nations."(23:p.703)Hutcreatedanewunionwhosegoalwas"slaughterofalloverlordsandpowersthatbe."Healsoproposed"establishingtheruleofHansHuton earth"andmakingMhlhausenthecapital.Amajorityofthemembersoftheunionknewnothingofhisradicalplans.Onlyanarrowcircleofmembers,calledthe "knowers,"wasinitiatedintothesesecrets. In1535,counselorstoEmperorCharlesVsubmittedareportstatingthat"Anabaptists,whocallthemselvestrueChristians,wishtodivideallproperty...."(24:p.395) Theincreasinglyexplosivesituationfoundexpressioninsomepreposterousincidentswhichwere,however,destinedtobeoutstrippedbylaterevents.Forexample,the furrierAugustinBaderproclaimedhimselfkingoftheNewIsraelandmadehimselfacrownandkinglygarments.HewastriedinStuttgart.(23:p.703) In15341535,thisriseofAnabaptistmilitancyledtoanoutbreakofviolencewhichcanbeseenasanattempttobringaboutanAnabaptistrevolutioninnorthernEurope. ThemaineventswereplayedoutinnorthernGermanyAnabaptistshadgravitatedthereearlier,having [39] beendrivenoutofsouthernandcentralGermany.ThetownofMnsterbecamethecenteroftheseevents. TakingadvantageofthestrugglegoingonbetweenCatholicsandLutherans,theAnabaptistsgainedcontrolinthemunicipalcouncilandthencompletelysubjugatedthe town.Allwhorefusedtoacceptasecondbaptismwereexpelledafterbeingstrippedoftheirpossessions.Thereafterallpropertyinthecitywasappropriatedforthe commonlot,everyonebeingobligedtodeliverhispossessionsunderthesupervisionofspecialdeacons.Nextpolygamywasintroduced,andwomenofacertainagewere forbiddentostayunmarried. AnabaptistApostlesfannedoutfromMnsteracrossGermany,DenmarkandHolland,preachingthesecondbaptismandcallingthefaithfultocometotheaidofthecity. Revoltgrippedanumberoftowns,andAnabaptistsgatheredbylandandbyseatosupportMnster.TerrifiedbydevelopmentsBishopWaldeck,whosediocese includedMnster,calledupanarmytogetherwiththeneighboringprincesandsurroundedthetown.Thesiegelastedforoverayear.Withinthetowninthemeantime,one oftheAnabaptists,JanBokelson,alsocalledJohannofLeyden,wasproclaimedthekingofMnsterandofthewholeworld.Hesurroundedhimselfwithaluxurious courtandamultitudeofwives,andhepersonallybeheadedrecalcitrantsinthetownsquare.Atthesametime,uprisingsofAnabaptistsbrokeoutallovernorthern GermanyandinHolland,wheretheyevensucceededinseizingtheAmsterdamtownhallforashorttime. Theauthoritiesfinallybegantoregaincontrol.In1535,MnsterwastakenbyassaultandBokelsonandotherAnabaptistleaderswereexecuted.Amoredetailed descriptionofthisepisodeisgivenintheAppendix. SectsintheEnglishRevolutionof1648. AfterthefallofMnster,aschismagainappearedbetweenthemorepeaceableandthemorebelligerenttendenciesoftheAnabaptistmovement.In1536,asynodtook placeinthevicinityofthetownofBuchholzinWestphalia.Batenburg,aleaderofthemilitantfaction,supportedtheviewsoftheMnsterAnabaptistsonarmedstruggle, ontheapproachingKingdomofGod,andsoon.ThefollowersofUbboPhillipstooktheoppositeposition.Thislattergroupgainedtheupperhand,althoughitsadherents didnotcondemntheiropponentsinprinciple,sayingonlythatevenifBatenburgwasright,thetimeofthe"KingdomoftheElect"hadnotyetarrived,andthatitwas thereforenotyettimetoattempt [40] towrestpowerfromthegodless.ThisepisodemarksthebeginningofdecreasedpoliticalinvolvementofAnabaptistsontheContinent.Itsmoreextremerepresentatives, theFamilists,emigrated(viaHolland)toEngland.ItisworthnotingthatsomeEnglishmenhadattendedtheBuchholzsynod.Oneofthem,Henrybyname,tookanactive partinorganizingthesynodandpaidtravelingexpensesforthedelegates.(30:pp.7677) Atthebeginningoftheseventeenthcentury,theAnabaptistswhohadmigratedtoEnglandbegantomergewiththemovementoftheLollards,whichhadexistedtherefor alongtime.TheEnglishrevolutionof1648coincidedwithaflurryofactivitybyallthesesects.TheexampleofMnsterandJohannBokelsongrippedthepopular imaginationonceagain.AbookoriginatinginQuakercirclesstatedthefollowing,forexample:"NoFriendhasreasontobeashamedofhisAnabaptistorigins.Evenin MnstertheyrebelledmerelyagainstthecrueltyoftheGermantyrants,wholiterallylikedevilsoppressedthesoulsandthebodiesofthecommonfolk.Theywere defeatedandthereforedeclaredmutineers.Theiruprisingwasviolentbecausetheiroppressorswerestillmoreviolent."(33:p.25)AmongtheapologistsfortheM nster rebellionwasLilburne,ahighlypopularleaderoftheradicalwinginthePuritanarmy(seehispamphlet"TheBasicLawsofLiberty"). Inanotherpamphletoftheday(entitled"Heresiography"),thefollowingAnabaptistdoctrineiscited:"AChristianmaynotwithasafeconsciencepossessanythingproper tohimselfbutwhatsoeverhehathhemustmakecommon."(31:p.99) Inthemiddleoftheseventeenthcentury,thesectofRantersappearedinEnglanditsdoctrineisstrikinglyakintothatoftheBrethrenoftheFreeSpirit.TheRanters believedthatallwhichexistswasdivineandthatthedivisionbetweenGoodandEvilwasamanmadeconcept.Inmysticaltermsthiswasperceivedasanidentity:"The DevilisGod,HellisHeaven,SinHoliness,DamnationSalvation."(32:p.77) Thisledtoadenialofmoralsandtoostentatiousamorality.ThusClarksonsaysoftheperiodwhenhewasaRanter:"Theverymotionofmyheartwastoallmannerof theft,cheat,wrongorinjurythatprivatelycouldbeacted,thoughintongueIprofessedthecontrary,notconsideringIbrakethelawinallpoints(murderexcepted)andthe groundofthismyjudgmentwas,Godmadeallthingsgood,sonothingevilbutasmanjudgedit."(32:p.78) Inthesocialfield,theRantersrejectedpropertyandmarriage. [41] Inthepamphlet"TheRanters'LastSermon,"wefindtheteaching"thatitwasquitecontrarytotheendofCreationtoAppropriateanythingtoanyManorWomanbut thatthereoughttobeaCommunityofallthings....Theysaythatforonemantobetiedtoonewoman,oronewomantobetiedtooneman,isafruitofthecursebutthey saywearefreedfromthecursethereforeitisourlibertytomakeuseofwhomweplease."(32:p.90) Inhispamphlet"AWonder,"EdwardHideascribestotheRantersthefollowingview:"Thatallthewomenintheworldarebutoneman'swifeinunityandallthemenin theworldarebutonewoman'shusbandinunitysothatonemanmayliewithallthewomenintheworldinunity,andonewomanmayliewithallmenintheworld,for theyareallherhusbandinunity."(32:p.90) RanterswereaccusedofperformingritualswhichinvolvedaparodyofCommunionandindiscriminatesexualunion,similartothe barilotto andthe"paradise"ofthe

    saywearefreedfromthecursethereforeitisourlibertytomakeuseofwhomweplease."(32:p.90) Inhispamphlet"AWonder,"EdwardHideascribestotheRantersthefollowingview:"Thatallthewomenintheworldarebutoneman'swifeinunityandallthemenin theworldarebutonewoman'shusbandinunitysothatonemanmayliewithallthewomenintheworldinunity,andonewomanmayliewithallmenintheworld,for theyareallherhusbandinunity."(32:p.90) RanterswereaccusedofperformingritualswhichinvolvedaparodyofCommunionandindiscriminatesexualunion,similartothe barilotto andthe"paradise"ofthe BrethrenoftheFreeSpirit. AnactofParliamentwasdirectedagainsttheRanters.Itcondemnedthosewhopreached"thatsuchmenandwomenaremostperfectorliketoGodorEternitywhichdo committhegreatestsinswithleastremorseorsense."(32:p.103) Inthe1650s,themajorityofRantersjoinedtheQuakers,sothatitbecamedifficulttodrawadistinctlinebetweenthetwocurrents.Religiousupheavalsofthedaywere exacerbatedbytheindignationarousedbyCromwell'sforeignpolicytheconclusionofpeaceintheNetherlands,whichfrustratedthehopeofspreadingthereignofthe "saints"throughoutEurope. JamesNayler,aQuakerpreacher,acquiredaconsiderablefollowingevenwithinCromwell'sretinue.ItwasrumoredthathewasasecondChrist.Peoplewrotetohim, saying:"HenceforewardyournameisnotJamesbutJesus."WhenavisitbyhimwasannouncedinBristol,suchexcitementwasarousedthatcontemporariesconsideredit likelythatBristolwouldbecomea"NewJerusalem,"asecondMnster.WhenNaylerrodeintotownonhorseback,thousandsfollowedhim.Buthewasmetby Cromwell'ssoldiers,seasonedbytheirserviceintheCivilWar,andtheydispersedthecrowd,seizedNaylerandtookhimtojail.HiscasewasdebatedinParliamentfor severalmonths.Itseemstohavehadpoliticalimplications:itispossiblethatanuprisingofAnabaptistswasfeared.Nayler'sexecutionseemedimminent,buttherewere disturbancesandanoutpouringofpleasformercy.Cromwell [42] spokeinfavorofmitigatingthesentence.NaylerwaspubliclyRoggedandbranded.Acrowdofadherentssurroundedthescaffold,kissinghisfeet,handsandhair.(33: pp.264274,34:pp.256263) Interestingly,thenameRantersreappears150yearslater,inthe1820s,whenthetermwasappliedtoacertaingroupofMethodists.Fromtheirmidstcamethefirst organizersoftheEnglishtradeunionmovement,menwhohadacquiredtheskillsofpopularoratorsinthesect.(31:p.167) ThemovementwhosemembersbecameknownasDiggershadsharplydefinedsocialistcharacteristics.Externally,itexpresseditself(beginningin1649)intheseizureof communallandbysmallgroupsofpeopleforjointtillage.Thisattemptatorganizingcommunes,however,wasameregesture,whichledtonopracticalconsequences, anditwastheDiggers'literaryactivitythatprovedtohavelastingsignificance. GerrardWinstanleywasthemostimportantfigureamongthem.Inseveralpamphletsheproclaimedhisbasicideatheillegitimacyofprivateownershipofland.He reportedthathehadhadavision,"avoiceandarevelation,"andwaspreachingwhathadbeenrevealedtohim:"Andsolongasweoranyothermaintainthiscivil property,weconsentstilltoholdthecreationdownunderthatbondageitgroansunder,andsoweshouldhindertheworkofrestorationandsinagainstlightthatisgiven untous,andsothroughthefearoftheResh(man)loseourpeace.Andthatthiscivilpropertyisthecurseismanifestthus:thosethatbuyandsellland,andarelandlords, havegotiteitherbyoppressionormurderortheftandalllandlordsliveinthebreachoftheseventhandeighthcommandments, "Thoushaltnotstealnorkill. "("The TrueLevellers'StandardAdvanced:or,TheStateofCommunityopened,andPresentedtotheSonsofMen.")(35:p.85) Winstanleyviewedtradeandmoneyinequallynegativeterms:"Forbuyingandsellingisthegreatcheatthatrobsandstealstheearthonefromanother....Wehope,"he says,"thatpeopleshalllivefreelyintheenjoymentoftheearth,withoutbringingthemarkoftheBeastintheirhandsorintheirpromiseandthattheyshallbuywineand milkwithoutmoneyorwithoutprice,asIsaiahspeaks."("ADeclarationfromthePoorOppressedPeopleofEngland.")(35:p.101) ThesocialistdemandsofWinstanleywereconfinedtothedenialofprivateproperty,tradeandmoney.Hewasexplicitlyopposedto [43] moreextremeviews:"Likewisetheyreportthatwediggersholdwomentobecommon,andliveinthatbestialness.FormypartIdeclareagainstit.Iownthistobea truth,thattheearthoughttobeacommontreasurytoallbutasforwomen,Leteverymanhavehisownwife,andeverywomanherownhusbandandIknownoneof thediggersthatactinsuchanunrationalexcessoffemalecommunity.Ifanyshould,Iprofesstohavenothingtodowithsuchpeople,butleavethemtotheirownmaster, whowillpaythemwithtormentofmindanddiseasesintheirbodies."("ANewyear'sGiftfortheParliamentandArmy.")(35:p.177)Winstanleyconstantlydeclared himselfanenemyofviolenceaswell,persuadinghisreadersthattheDiggerswouldseektheirendsonlybypeaceablemeans.Buttheemotionalthrustofhismessage sometimescarriedhimbeyondthepoint,andheraisedhisvoiceagainstanykindofprivateproperty:"thecursedthing,calledprivateproperty,whichisthecauseofall wars,bloodshed,theftandenslavingwars,thatholdthepeopleundermisery."(32:p.108)Hesaystohisopponents:"Butnowthetimeofdeliveranceiscome,andthou proudEsauandstoutheartedcovetousness,thoumustcomedownandbelordofthecreationnolonger.FornowtheKingofrighteousnessisrisingtoruleinandover theearth.Therefore,ifthouwiltfindmercy,LetIsraelgofree breakinpiecesquicklythebondofparticularproperty."("TheTrueLevellers'StandardAdvanced...") (35:p.93) TheDiggerscompriseonlyasinglegroupinawidermovementduringtheperiodoftheEnglishrevolution.SupportersofthegeneralmovementwerecalledLevellers.One ofthem,theLondonmerchantWilliamWalwyn,asked"thatthroughoutthecountrytherebenofences,norhedges,normoats."Acontemporarypamphletascribesto Walwynthefollowingviews:"Itwouldneverbewelluntilallthingswerecommonanditbeingreplied,willthatbeever?answered,wemustendeavorititbeingsaid,that thiswoulddestroyallGovernment,answered,thatthentherewouldbenothieves,nocovetouspersons,nodeceivingandabusingofoneanothe,r,andsononeedof Government."(32:pp.185186)TheauthorinformsusthatWalwynneverdisprovedtheseassertions."Afewdiligentspiritsmayturntheworldupsidedownifthey observetheseasonsandshallwithlifeandcourageengageaccordingly,"Walwynproposes.(32:p.185) TheModerate, anewspaperespousingtheviewsoftheLevellers,wroteontheoccasionoftheexecutionofcertainrobbers:"Manyan [44] honestmantriestoprovethatitisonlyprivatepropertywhichgovernsthelivesofpeopleofsuchconditionandforcesthemtoviolatethelawinordertosustainlife. Further,theyexplainwithmuchconvictionthatpropertyistheprimecauseofallclashesbetweenparties."(36:p.62) Apamphletofthedaysays:"LetusestablishinregardtothosewhoarecalledLevellersthefollowing:Theywishthatnoonecallanythingwhatsoeverhisown,and,in theirwords,thepowerofmanoverlandistyranny,and,intheiropinion,privatepropertyistheworkofthedevil."(33:pp.168169) UnlikeWinstanley,whopreachedrenunciationofviolence,theextremeLevellergroupsagitatedforterror.Oneoftheirpamphletsisentitled"RemovalIsNotMurder." Theirefforttofomentrebellionwas,however,easilycrushedbyCromwell'stroops.

    Further,theyexplainwithmuchconvictionthatpropertyistheprimecauseofallclashesbetweenparties."(36:p.62) Apamphletofthedaysays:"LetusestablishinregardtothosewhoarecalledLevellersthefollowing:Theywishthatnoonecallanythingwhatsoeverhisown,and,in theirwords,thepowerofmanoverlandistyranny,and,intheiropinion,privatepropertyistheworkofthedevil."(33:pp.168169) UnlikeWinstanley,whopreachedrenunciationofviolence,theextremeLevellergroupsagitatedforterror.Oneoftheirpamphletsisentitled"RemovalIsNotMurder." Theirefforttofomentrebellionwas,however,easilycrushedbyCromwell'stroops. InalmostallLevellergroups,socialistaspirationswerecombinedwithsomeformofatheism.EvenWinstanley,whoreferredtovoicesandrevelationandwasfondof quotingtheprophets,wroteofChristianity:"Thisdivineteachingthatyoucall'spiritualandcelestial'isintruththethiefwhocomesandplundersthevineyardsofhuman peace....Thosewhopreachthisdivineteachingarethemurderersofmanypoorsouls."Overtonpublishedabookentitled:"Maniswhollymortal,oratreatisewherein'tis provedboththeologicallyandphilosophicallythataswholemansinned,sowholemandiescontrarytothatcommondisinclinationofsoulandbody."(31:p.94)His followersformedthesectofthe"SleepingSouls."Theybelievedthatthesoulfallsintothesleepofdeathalongwiththebody. TheperiodoftheEnglishrevolutionrepresentsthelastgreatsurgeinthefortunesofthesectarianmovement.Inlateryears,thecharacteristicfigureoftheprophet cum apostle*disappearsfromthehistoricalscene.Thesectsthemselvesalsovanish,afterhavingsopersistentlypreservedalltheirtypicaltraitsformorethansixhundredyears. Thesocialistcurrentsofthisperiodreflectthecharacteristicsofatimeoftransition.Ontheonehand,theyretaincleartracesoftheirsectarianorigin.Thisisexemplifiedby Winstanley'sreferencestovisions,revelationandvoicesandhisattemptstoderivehisviewsfrom

    *ThelastrepresentativeofthistypemaybeseeninWilhelmWeitling,whohadsuchagreatinfluenceonMarx,InWeitling'scareerweencounterthecharacteristicallyendless journeysalloverEurope(andtoAmerica)topreachhisdoctrine,andthephenomenonofaChristianvocabularyemployedtopropoundsocialismandviolence,includinga projectforarmingfortythousandbrigands.

    [45] theScriptures.DirecttieswiththesectarianmovementontheContinentcanalsobedemonstrated.SomeoftheroutesbywhichAnabaptismcametoEnglandhavebeen mentionedabove.Thesedirectcontactsweremaintainedthroughouttheperiodprecedingtherevolution.Forexample,itwasatthistimethatabishopoftheBohemian Brethren,JanKomensky(Comenius),settledinEngland.HewasexpelledfromEnglandin1642,buthisinfluencelingeredforalongtimeafterward.Theworksof KomenskyweretranslatedintoEnglishbytheinfluentialLevellerpamphleteerSamuelHartlib. Ontheotherhand,manyworksproducedbytheLevellersexhibitapurelyrationalistspiritandshownotraceofanyreligiousconsideration.Certainofthesewritings belongtothenewliterarygenreofsocialistutopias.SuchwasHartlib's"KingdomofMacaria,"whichpresentsapictureoflifewhollysubordinatedtothestate.Themost importantofWinstanley'sworks,"TheLawofFreedom,"isalsowritteninthisstyle.Forthisreasonitwillbemoreproperlydiscussedinthenextchapter. Appendix ThreeBiographies DolcinoandtheApostolicBrethren. ThesectofApostolicBrethrenwasfoundedbyayoungpeasantfromnearParma,GerardSegarelli.Contemporariesportrayhimascombiningthefeatures ofacraftypeasantandasimpleton,butjudgingbyhissuccess,hepossessedotherqualitiesaswell.Inanycasehewasin1248refusedadmittancetothe Franciscanorderbecauseofhis"simplicity."HethereuponenteredaneighboringchurchandremainedforalongtimecontemplatingpicturesoftheApostles. Fromthenon,hestoppedshavingandlethishairgrowlong,soastoresembletheApostlesinthedepictionsofthetime,anddressedaccordingly.Hesold hishouse,wentoutintothetownsquareandthrewthemoneyfromthesaleontheground,saying,"Takeit,whoeverwantsto."Heleftthetownandbegan toliveonalms,gatheringaroundhimasmallbandoffollowers,whodressedandlivedashedid. Thetimeswerefavorableforthebirthofnewsects.Theyear1260wasapproaching,thetimeJoachimofFlorehadpredictedwouldbringworldcataclysms andtheappearanceoftheAntichrist.Furthermore,in1259,aterribleplaguehadbefallenItaly,strengtheningthebeliefinJoachim'sprophecy.Crowdsof penitentsledbymonksandpriestsmovedhalfnakedalongtheroads,scourgingthemselvesandleavingabloodytrailbehind.Singinghymns,thepenitents wouldenteratownandaceremonyofpurgingwouldbegin.Everyonewastorepent,tomakepeacewithhis

    [46] enemiesandtogivebackanythinggainedbyunjustmeans.Amnestyforallexileswouldgenerallybeannounced.(38:pp.288289) Segarelli'ssectemergedfromthistroubledperiodwithaddedstrengthandinfluence.Itwassupportedbymanyrichandpowerfulmen.Segarellieven submittedarequesttothePopetorecognizehisorder,inthemanneroftheFranciscans.TheCuriarefused,butinanextremelybenevolenttone.Atthis point,SegarellisenthisApostlestoremotecornersofItalyandintoFrance.ItseemsthattheteachingoftheApostolicBrethrenatthetimedifferedlittlefrom thatofnumerousotherreligiousgroups.ThePopewasforcedtotoleratemostofthesesects,andSegarellihimselfcameundertheprotectionoftheBishop ofParma,inwhosepalaceheresidedfortwelveyears,playingtherole,ashisopponentsasserted,ofparasite,almostofajester. Littlebylittle,thesect'srelationswiththeCuriabegantosour.Thesectinsistedonexposingcorruptionamongpriestsandenumeratingthewaysinwhich theyhadstrayedfromApostolicideals.MeanwhiletheCuriapointedtothehereticaltrendsofthesect.Thisseemstohavecoincidedwithanincreased influenceoftheviewsoftheBrethrenoftheFreeSpiritupontheApostolicBrethren.Theimportancethesectattainedcanbejudgedbythefactthatitwas condemnedinEnglandbytheChichesterSynodin1286,andagaininWrzburg,in1289.(38:p.310)TheInquisitionfinallytookupthematter.In1294, Segarelliwasarrestedaftersixyearsofimprisonment,hewascondemnedandburnedatthestakein1300. Butbythistime,thesectwasheadedbyaleaderofanentirelydifferenttype.HisnamewasDolcino.Hewastheillegitimatesonofapriestandwasstudying forthepriesthoodwhenhewascaughtstealingmoneyfromhisteacherandforcedtoflee.HewasadmittedtoaFranciscanmonasteryasanovice,andit washerethatheapparentlybecameacquaintedwiththeteachingsoftheApostolicBrethren.HeleftthemonasteryandmetMargaret,anoviceintheSt. CatherineconventinTrento.Enteringtheconventasaworkman,Dolcinopersuadedhertorunawaywithhim.Thetwobecamewanderingpreachersofthe ApostolicBrethren.AcontemporarysaysthatDolcinotaughtthat"inloveeverythingmustbecommonpropertyandwives."Mosheimwrites:"Theycalled oneanotherbrothersandsisters,inthemannerofthefirstChristians.Theylivedinpovertyandcouldhaveneitherhousesnorprovisionsfortomorrowor anythingthatcouldserveasaconvenience.Whentheyexperiencedhunger,theyaskedforfoodofthefirstpersontheymetandatewhateverwasoffered. Welloffpeoplewhojoinedthemwereobligedtogivetheirpropertyovertobeusedbythesect....Brotherswhowentintotheworldtopreachpenitence

    forthepriesthoodwhenhewascaughtstealingmoneyfromhisteacherandforcedtoflee.HewasadmittedtoaFranciscanmonasteryasanovice,andit washerethatheapparentlybecameacquaintedwiththeteachingsoftheApostolicBrethren.HeleftthemonasteryandmetMargaret,anoviceintheSt. CatherineconventinTrento.Enteringtheconventasaworkman,Dolcinopersuadedhertorunawaywithhim.Thetwobecamewanderingpreachersofthe ApostolicBrethren.AcontemporarysaysthatDolcinotaughtthat"inloveeverythingmustbecommonpropertyandwives."Mosheimwrites:"Theycalled oneanotherbrothersandsisters,inthemannerofthefirstChristians.Theylivedinpovertyandcouldhaveneitherhousesnorprovisionsfortomorrowor anythingthatcouldserveasaconvenience.Whentheyexperiencedhunger,theyaskedforfoodofthefirstpersontheymetandatewhateverwasoffered. Welloffpeoplewhojoinedthemwereobligedtogivetheirpropertyovertobeusedbythesect....Brotherswhowentintotheworldtopreachpenitence wereallowedtotakewiththemasister,astheApostlesdid.Butnotasawife,onlyasanassistant.Theycalledtheirfemalecompanions'sistersinChrist'and deniedthattheylivedwiththeminmaritalorimpureintimacy,eventhoughtheyslepttogetherinonebed."(Quotedin37) Krone,whowroteahistoryoftheApostolicBrethrenusingcontemporary

    [47] sources,deniestheaccusationsofsacrilegiousviolationsofthecrossandofsexualexcesses,buthebelievesthatDolcino'spreachingdidincludeanappeal forcommunalityofpropertyandofwives.(37:p.224) AdescriptionoftheceremonyforadmissiontotherankofApostlehasbeenpreserved.Asatokenofhisrenunciationofhispreviouslife,theinitiatewould throwoffhisclothesandtakeanoaththathewouldalwaysliveinevangelicpoverty.Hewasforbiddentotouchmoneyandwastoliveexclusivelyonalms breadfromheaven.Anywork,anysubordinationtoothers,waslikewiseforbidden.LikethefirstApostles,hewastopayheedonlytoGod. ThenewApostlewasthensentoutintotheworldtospreadthesect'steachings,whichbythistimehadbecomevehementlyhostiletotheChurch.Thefalling awayoftheChurchfromthecommandmentsofChristandofthefirstApostleshadrenderedinvalidwhathadbeenprophesiedforit.TheRomanChurch, withitsPopeandcardinals,itsabbotsandmonks,wasnolongertheChurchofGodbuthadbecometheWhoreofBabylon.ThepowerthatChristhad giventotheChurchhadnowpassedovertotheApostolicBrethren.ThevalidityofChurchritualswasdenied.Aconsecratedchurchwasnobetterfor communionwithGodthanastableorapigsty.OathstakeninchurchorswornontheGospelneednotbebinding.Amanmighthidehisbeliefsorrenounce them,ifinhisheartheremainedfaithfultothem. ItisnotsurprisingthatsuchtenetsprovokedafiercepersecutiononthepartoftheInquisition.Duringhiswanderings,Dolcinofellintothehandsofthe Inquisitiononmorethanoneoccasion,buthealwaysdeniedhistieswiththesectandwasreleased.HefinallyfledfromItalyandtookrefugeinDalmatia. TherehewroteletterswhichhisfollowersdisseminatedinItaly.Threeoftheselettershavecomedowntousindetailedcitations.(37:p.32f.,38:p.342f.) Theletterscanbesummarizedasfollows:Dolcinoandhisfollowersarecalledtoproclaimthecomingofthefinaldaysandtourgerepentance.Inthisthey areopposedbythehostoftheAntichristthePope,thebishops,DominicansandFranciscans,allofthemservantsofSatan.Butthedayofvengeanceisat hand.ThePopeandtheprelateswillbekilled.Nomonk,nunorpriestwillsurviveexceptthosewhojointheBrethren.TheChurchwillbedeprivedofallits riches.ThewholelandwillbeconvertedtothenewfaithbytheApostolicBrethren,uponwhomtheLordwilllavishhisgrace.GodHimselfwillgivetothe worldanewandholyPopeinplaceofBonifaceVIII,whowillsurelybekilled.Inhisthirdletter,DolcinostatesthathehimselfwillbethisnewPope. VictoryinthewarswiththeAntichristPope,Dolcinoforetells,willbewonthankstotheinterferenceofaforeignmonarch.HepinshishopeonFrederick, theKingofAragonandSicily,whoatthetimewasengaginginafierceconflictwiththePope.(HehadjuststrungupallthemonksinSicilywhowere suspectedofsupportingthepapacy.) DolcinoderivedallthisfromhisinterpretationoftheBiblicalprophets

    [48] andoftheApocalypse,where,heclaimed,thepastandthefuturewererevealed.Heappliedtohistime,forinstance,textssuchasthese: "Whathastthouhere?andwhomhastthouhere,thatthouhasthewedtheeoutasepulchrehere?... "Behold,theLordwillcarrytheeawaywithamightycaptivity,andwillsurelycoverthee. "Hewillsurelyviolentlyturnandtosstheelikeaballintoalargecountry."(Isaiah22:16,17,18) "ForthyviolenceagainstthybrotherJacobshameshallcoverthee,andthoushaltbecutoffforever."(Obadiah1:10) "AndIwillpunishBelinBabylon,andIwillbringforthoutofhismouththatwhichhehathswallowedup:andthenationsshallnotflowtogetheranymore untohim:yea,thewellofBabylonshallfall."(Jeremiah51:44) FromthesepropheciesDolcinoalsoextractedthedatesfortheirfulfillment:in1304,FrederickofAragonwouldkillthePopeandthecardinals,andthe commonpriestswouldbeexterminatedin1305.Thispredictionwasbasedonthetext:"ButnowtheLordhathspoken,saying,Withinthreeyears,asthe yearsofanhireling,andthegloryofMoabshallbecontemned,withallthatgreatmultitudeandtheremnantshallbeverysmallandfeeble."(Isaiah16:14) In1303orearly1304,DolcinoandhisfollowersenteredItaly.Freshadherentscameflockingtohimfromallsidesrichandpoor,nobleopponentsofthe Pope,villagersandtownfolk.ApartfromItaly,theycamefromFranceandAustriaaswell.Severalthousandgatheredinhiscamp.Contemporariescalled Dolcino"thefatherofanewpeople,"anditwasrumoredthatheworkedmiracles.Themembersofthesectdecidedtoestablishanewsettlementtheysold theirpropertyandgatheredaroundDolcino. Acampwasestablishedinamountainvalley.Provisionswereobtainedfromtheneighboringvillages,moreandmorebymeansofforce.Soonthenearby regionswereinpanic.Thecitizensofonetownwrote:"Thegodlessheretics,theGazars[Cathars?],haveseizedtheupperreachesofthevalleyoftheriver, fortifiedthemselvesthereandaregodlesslyplunderingtheneighboringregions,devastatingthelandwithfireandsword,committingallkindsof impieties."(38:p.364)TheforcesofthecitizenswerefarfromsufficientfordefenseagainstDolcino'sarmyofsomefivethousandmen,alargeforceforthat time.Soontheareawasplunderedandburnedfordozensofmilesaround. ThetownfolkraisedanarmyandcollectedfundstohiresoldiersforprotectionagainstDolcino'stroops.Whenplanningtheircampaign,theybroughtina localpriestwhosenose,earsandhandshadbeencutoff:Dolcinohadpunishedhiminthiswayonsuspicionoftreason.Finally,thearmywasready,but

    regionswereinpanic.Thecitizensofonetownwrote:"Thegodlessheretics,theGazars[Cathars?],haveseizedtheupperreachesofthevalleyoftheriver, fortifiedthemselvesthereandaregodlesslyplunderingtheneighboringregions,devastatingthelandwithfireandsword,committingallkindsof impieties."(38:p.364)TheforcesofthecitizenswerefarfromsufficientfordefenseagainstDolcino'sarmyofsomefivethousandmen,alargeforceforthat time.Soontheareawasplunderedandburnedfordozensofmilesaround. ThetownfolkraisedanarmyandcollectedfundstohiresoldiersforprotectionagainstDolcino'stroops.Whenplanningtheircampaign,theybroughtina localpriestwhosenose,earsandhandshadbeencutoff:Dolcinohadpunishedhiminthiswayonsuspicionoftreason.Finally,thearmywasready,but Dolcino'sforcesdefeateditoverwhelmingly.Theyfellupontheneighboringtowns,plunderingthemandcarryingawaytheinhabitants.Theprisonerswere exchangedlaterforprovisions,buttortured

    [49] ifnooneagreedtoransomthem(accordingtoonecontemporary,evenchildrenweretreatedinthisfashion).(38:p.374) Atlast,thePopecalledforacampaignagainsttheheretics.Butthis,too,endedinfailure.TheriveronthebanksofwhichthePope'sarmywasannihilated flowedredwithblood.Othercampaignsfollowedandthewarwentonforthreeyears.Dolcinoarmedwomen,whofoughtsidebysidewithmen.He nurturedthefaithofhissupportersbyevernewpropheciesthatvictorywasathand.IncamphewasreveredasasaintandasthePope,andthecustomof kissinghisslipperwasintroduced. ContemporaryaccountstelloftheferocitywithwhichDolcino'smenpersecutedpriestsandmonks.Hissoldiersviewedthemselvesasthe"avengingangels" mentionedintheApocalypse.Theybelievedthattheyhadbeencalledtoexterminatethepriesthoodinitsentirety.Churchesweredefiled,sacredvesselsand vestmentsstolen,sacredimagessmashed,priests'housessetonfire,belltowerspulleddownandbellsdestroyed.Aneyewitnessreported:"Nowherecould youseeaMadonnawhosehandshadnotbeenbrokenofforapicturenotbesoiled."(38:p.374) Afteraprolongedstruggle,inwhichDolcinorepeatedlyeludedhispursuers,hewasfinallysurrounded.Faminesetininhiscamp.Dantehintsatthisepisode intheInferno (Canto28,5560).Amongthe"sowersofdiscord"DantemeetsMohammed,who,wishingtoperpetuatedissentonearth,passesthisadvice toDolcino:"TellFraDolcino,then,youwhoperhapswillseethesunbeforelong,ifhewouldnotsoonfollowmehere,sotoarmhimselfwithvictualsthat stressofsnowmaynotbringvictorytotheNovarese,whichotherwisewouldnotbeeasytoattain."* In1307,Dolcino'scampwasoverrunandamajorityofthedefendersmassacred.Dolcinowassubjectedtohorribletorture.Margaretwasburnedbeforehis eyes,buthewasparadedaroundtown,scourgedwitharedhotironateverycrossroadandfinallyburned. ThomasMntzer. Mntzerwasbornin1488or1489offairlywelltodoparentsandreceivedatheologicaleducation.Heledarestlesslife,changingworkseveraltimesa yearhewasatvarioustimesteacher,preacherandchaplain.Finallyin1520,hewasappointedpreacherinZwickau,wherehemetthe"ZwickauProphets." ThesermonsofStorchhadalifelongimpactonhim.ThenotionofthepossibilityofdirectcommunicationwithGod,whichwasheldtobefarmoreimportant thantheletteroftheScripturesthecondemnationofpriestsandmonks,oftherichandthenoblethebeliefinthecomingoftheKingdomofGodonearth andintheimminentreignoftheelectthesesubjectsformedthebasisofMntzer'sworldoutlook,InhissermonshesupportedStorchandattackedthe monksandotherpreachers.Disordersbeganinthetown,andtheauthoritiesbanishedthe"Prophets"andMntzer. MntzerthentransferredhisactivitiestoPrague.Wenotethathe

    *TranslationbyCharlesS.Singleton

    [50] gravitatedtothetraditionalseatsofthechiliasticmovementfirsttoZwickauandthentothehomelandoftheTaborites.AsermondeliveredbyMntzerin Praguehasbeenpreserved.InitheassertsthatafterthedeathofthedisciplesoftheApostles,theChurch,whichhadbeenpure,becamealecherouswhore. TheprieststeachtheexternalformsoftheScriptures,whichtheystealfromtheBible"likethievesandmurderers."(28:p.59)Hethenproceedstothecore ofhisteachinghisconceptoftheChurchoftheChosen."Neverwillithappen,andforthisglorytoGod,thatpriestlingsandapesshouldrepresentGod's Church,buttheChosenofGodshallpreachHisword....TopreachthisdoctrineIamreadytosacrificemylife....GodhaswroughtmiraclesforHisChosen, especiallyinthiscountry.ForhereanewChurchwillarise,andthispeoplewillbethemirrorofthewholeworld.Therefore,Iappealtoeveryonetoprotect thewordofGod....Ifyoufailtodothis,GodwillgivetheTurkstheforcetoannihilateyoueveninthisyear."(28:p.61) Mntzer'steachingdidnotmeetwithsuccessinPrague,however,andheagaintookupavagrantandhungrylife.Atlast,in1523,hewasappointed preacherinthesmalltownofAllstedt,andhereheentereduponthefirstmemorablephaseofhiscareer. Mntzerrapidlygainedinfluenceinthetown.HeintroducedtheGermanlanguageinthereligiousservice(oneofthefirsttodosoinGermany)andhe preachednotonlyfromtheGospelbutfromtheOldTestament.Crowdsofpeopleflockedtohissermons,fromAllstedtandfromtheneighboringtownsand villages.ThemunicipalofficialZeisswroteinareport:"Someofthelocalnobleshaveforbiddentheirsubjectstoattendthesermonsherebutthefolkdonot comply.Theyarethrownintojailand,whenreleased,runhitheragain."Mntzergreweverbolder,callingthelordswhohadforbiddentheirpeopletoattend hissermons"biggeese."HewrotetoZeiss:"Thepoweroftheprinceswillcometoanendandsoonitwillpasstothecommonfolk."(28:p.66)Hisattitude ischaracterizedbythephrase:"WhoeverwantstobecomeabuildingblockinthenewChurchoughttoriskhisneckorthebuilderswillthrowhim away."(28:p.67) Soonmatterswereoutofhand.InstigatedbyMntzer,amobburneddownachapelatMllerbach(nearAllstedt)whichhousedamiracleworkingimageof theVirgin.Whenoneoftheparticipantsintheriotwasarrested,armedcrowdsofpeopleappearedonthestreets.Moresupportersarrivedfromthe neighboringtowns.Zeiss,whorepresentedtheDukeofSaxony,reportedtothedukethatMntzer'spreachingwasatfault.HesuggestedthatMntzerbe summonedtocourtandbanishediffoundguilty."Otherwise,hispreaching,sopopularwiththesimplefolk,willcauseusmuchtoilandtrouble." Atthispoint,Luther,whohadbeendisturbedbytheactionsandpreachingofMntzerforsometime,spokeoutagainsthim.HereproachedMntzerfor usingthesuccessoftheReformationtoattackit.HeconcludedbychallengingMntzertoadebateinWittenberg.Mntzeragreedto

    neighboringtowns.Zeiss,whorepresentedtheDukeofSaxony,reportedtothedukethatMntzer'spreachingwasatfault.HesuggestedthatMntzerbe summonedtocourtandbanishediffoundguilty."Otherwise,hispreaching,sopopularwiththesimplefolk,willcauseusmuchtoilandtrouble." Atthispoint,Luther,whohadbeendisturbedbytheactionsandpreachingofMntzerforsometime,spokeoutagainsthim.HereproachedMntzerfor usingthesuccessoftheReformationtoattackit.HeconcludedbychallengingMntzertoadebateinWittenberg.Mntzeragreedto

    [51] takepartinthedisputeonlyifthewitnesseswouldbe"Turks,RomansandPagans."Atthesametime,heprintedtwoworksintheneighboringtownof Eilenburg,wherehehadhisownprintshop:"ProtestationofThomasMntzer"and"ExposureoftheContrivedFaith."Thesetractsbitterlyattacked numerousaspectsofLuther'steaching,aswellasthatof"scholarsanderudites"whoconcoctfalsefaith. Strangely,westillhearnothingaboutmeasuresonthepartoftheauthoritiesagainstMntzer,despitewritingsinwhich,forexample,hecharacterizedthe KurfrstofSaxonyas"abeardedfellowwithlessbrainsinhisheadthanI'vegotinmybehind."Healsocallsupontheinhabitantsoftheneighboringtownof Sangerhausentoriseupagainsttheauthorities.Inspiteofsuchactions,KrfurstFrederickofSaxonyandhisbrotherJohannthemselvesdecidedtolistento therenownedpreacheronatripthroughAllstedt. Mntzertookthistobeasignofreadinessonthepartoftheprincestobecomeatoolinhishandsandintheirpresencedeliveredasermoninwhichhe expoundedhisviewsopenly.HeattackedLuther,whomhecalled"BrotherSwine"and"BrotherSluggard,"andattemptedtowintheprincestohiscause. Hetoldthemthattheywerecalledupontoannihilatethefoesofthetruefaith,thefaithoftheChosenwhoareguidedbyGod."Dearestandbelovedrulers, knowyourdestinyfromthemouthofGod,anddonotlettheboastfulpriestscheatyoubyimaginarypatienceandkindness.Forthestonethathasbeencast downfromthemountainnotbyhandshasgrownbig.Poorpeasantsandlaymenseeitfarbetterthanyou...."Thedayofthelastreckoningapproaches,and "Oh,howgloriouslywilltheLordsmashtheoldpotswithanironrod."(28:p.158)Inthisterriblehouronecanlearnthetruewayandforeseethefutureby onemeansonly:throughdreamsandrevelation."ThisisinthetruespiritoftheApostles,thePatriarchs,andtheProphetstowaitforvisionsandtotrustin them."(28:p.156)MntzercitesexampleafterexamplefromtheBible.Thechiefdifficulty,however,istodistinguishwhetheravisionisfromGodorfrom theDevil.Forthis,theprincesoughttohavefaithinthenewDaniel,theChosenman."Therefore,anewDanielmustriseandsetforthrevelationandmust marchatthehead."(28:p.159) Mntzerurgesrelentlessexterminationoftheenemiesofthenewteaching."ForthegodlesshavenorighttoliveexceptwhentheChosengivetheir permission....Ifyouwanttobetruerulers,driveouttheenemyofChrist,foryouaretheinstrumenttoachievethisend....Letthewickedwhodivertusfrom Godlivenolonger."(28:p.160)"ItwasnotinvainthatGodcommandedthroughMoses:'Youaretheholypeopleandmustnotpitythegodless.Smash theiraltars,smashtopiecestheiridolsandburnthem,lestIbewrathfulwithyou."(28:p.161) Atthispoint,Mntzer'ssermonbeginstoshadeintothreats.Justasfoodanddrinkprovidethemeansofliving,heasserts,so,too,"istheswordneededfor exterminationofthegodless.Butforthistobedonetrue,itmustbedonebyourdearfathers,theprinces,whoprofessChrist

    [52] withus.Butiftheywillnotdoit,theirswordshallbetakenawayfromthem."(28:p.161)"IftheyfailtobelieveinGod'swords,theyoughttoberemoved, asPaulsaith:'Expelthedepravedfromamongstyou.'Andiftheybehaveincontraryfashion,killthemwithoutmercy....Notonlygodlessrulers,butpriests andmonksmustbekilledwhocallourHolyGospelaheresyandclaimtobethebestChristiansthemselves."(28:p.162) Itisaperplexingepisode.Howcouldaninsignificantpreacherundertaketolectureandthreatenthemostimportantprincesoftheempire?Someconsider thisproofofMntzer'sshortsightednessforothersittestifiestotheprinces'forbearance.Couldtherenotbeamoresubstantialexplanation?Mntzerwasa forcetobereckonedwithatthetime.Welearnthisfromothersourcesfromhislettersandfromthetestimonypresentedbeforehisexecution.Atthetime ofthesermontotheprinces,hehadorganizedaunion"fortheprotectionoftheGospel"and''asawarningtothegodless"inAllstedt.Hehadsome experienceatsuchactivities.Whilestillayoungman,MntzerhadfoundedasecretuniondirectedagainstthePrimateofGermany,ArchbishopErnst.Buthis newunionwasfarlargerinscope.Atonegatheringthreehundrednewmemberswereinductedatanother,fivehundred.Furthermore,Mntzeradvisedthe citizensofneighboringtownstoestablishsimilarunionsreportswerereceivedthatthisplanwasmeetingwithsuccess.Hiscontactswereveryextensive, reachingevenintoSwitzerland.LutheraccusedMntzerof"sendingtoallcountriesmessengerswhofearlight."Inhisletters,Mntzeremphasizedthepurely defensivenatureoftheunion"againsttheoppressorsoftheGospel."Butafterbeingcaptured,hetestifiedthathecausedthedisturbanceswiththeaimthat "allChristiansshouldbecomeequalandtheprincesandlordsreluctanttoservetheGospelbedrivenoutorputtodeath."(28:p.82)Themottoofthe Allstedtunionwas:Omniasuntcommunia (Everythingiscommon).Everyonewastosharewithothers''asmuchashecould."Andifaprinceoracount refusedtodoso,"hewastobebeheadedorhanged."(28:p.82)Mntzer'sunioncanbeseenastherealizationofhisdoctrineofthesupremacyofthe Chosen,ashecallsthemembersofhisunion. ThesituationinAllstedtgrewevermoreexplosive.TheneighboringknightvonWitzlebenforbadehissubjectstoattendMntzer'ssermonsanddisperseda crowdofthem,whoneverthelesssetoutforAllstedt.SomeofthemfledtoAllstedtandanorderwassentforthefugitivestobereturnedtotheirlord.Ina vehementsermon,MntzercalledWitzlebenan"archbrigand"andreferredtohisenemiesas"archJudases,"sayingthattheprinceswere"actingnotonly againstthefaithbutagainstnaturallaw,"andthatthey"mustbekilledlikedogs."CrowdsoflocalcitizensandnewarrivalsfilledthestreetsofAllstedt.The authoritieslostallcontroloverthetownandcouldonlyappealtoDukeJohannofSaxony,whosummonedMntzertoWeimarforquestioning. Theinterrogationtookplaceinthepresenceofthedukeandhis

    [53] counselors.Mntzerdeniedhavingassailedtheauthoritiesanddescribedhisunionaslegalandpurelydefensive.Numerouswitnesses,however,spoke againsthim.Asaresult,hewasorderedtoclosehisprintshop,andthecitizensofAllstedtwereforbiddentoformunions.Acontemporarysourcedescribes howMntzer,paleandtremblingaftertheinquest,cameoutand,inreplytoaquestionbyZeiss,answered:"ItseemsthatI'llhavetolookforanotherstate." ButuponreturningtoAllstedt,Mntzertookheart,refusedtoclosetheprintshopandstartedwritingprotests.KrfurstFrederickofSaxonyintervenedat thispointandsummonedMntzertoWeimarforthesecondtime.AtfirstMntzersurroundedhimselfwitharmedguards,apparentlythinkingtoputup resistance,butinthenightheclimbedoverthetownwallandslippedaway,leavingbehindaletterinwhichhesaidthathewasgoingtoavillagebutwouldbe backsoon.Afterhisflight,Mntzerwrotehiscompatriotsanotherletter,callingforthemtostandfirmandbebravehepromisedthathewouldbetogether withthemsoon"towashhandsinthebloodoftyrants."

    howMntzer,paleandtremblingaftertheinquest,cameoutand,inreplytoaquestionbyZeiss,answered:"ItseemsthatI'llhavetolookforanotherstate." ButuponreturningtoAllstedt,Mntzertookheart,refusedtoclosetheprintshopandstartedwritingprotests.KrfurstFrederickofSaxonyintervenedat thispointandsummonedMntzertoWeimarforthesecondtime.AtfirstMntzersurroundedhimselfwitharmedguards,apparentlythinkingtoputup resistance,butinthenightheclimbedoverthetownwallandslippedaway,leavingbehindaletterinwhichhesaidthathewasgoingtoavillagebutwouldbe backsoon.Afterhisflight,Mntzerwrotehiscompatriotsanotherletter,callingforthemtostandfirmandbebravehepromisedthathewouldbetogether withthemsoon"towashhandsinthebloodoftyrants." MntzerwentnexttoMhlhausen,atownincentralGermany.Thechoicewasnotaccidental.Forayearthisplacehadbeeninastateofparalysis,without authorityandonthevergeofrebellion.Acontemporaryaccountofwhatwascalledthe"MhlhausenDisturbances"isextant.(28:pp.85115)Itdescribes theeventspriortoMntzer'sarrivalandhisactivitiesthere.Thedisordersbeganwithassaultsonmonasteriesandchurches.Allthemonasterieswererobbed andreligiousobjectsinthechurchessmashed.Themovementwasheadedbyafugitivemonk,HeinrichPfeiffer,whourgedinhissermonsrejectionofthe authorityofthemunicipalcouncil.OnJuly3,1523,thealarmwassounded.Acrowdsurroundedthetownhallandshotswerefired.Thecouncilwas compelledtomakeconcessions,whichweresetforthinfiftythreepoints.Inparticular,completefreedomofpreachingwasannounced.Theinsurgentswere headedbya"councilofeight,"whichretaineditspoweronaparwiththemunicipalcouncilevenaftertheagreement.Dualauthorityruledinthetown peoplejailedbythemunicipalcouncilwerenotinfrequentlyreleasedbytheeight.Thesigningofthefiftythreepointsdidnot,however,pacifythetownin fact,itfurtheraggravatedthesituation.Manypriests'houseswererobbedleafletswerecirculatedtellingthatifthepriestsdidnotgetoutoftowntheirhouses wouldbeburned.Priestswhoventuredintothestreetswerekilled. SuchwasthesituationinMhlhausenwhenMntzerappearedthereonAugust24,1524.HejoinedwithPfeifferandtheiractivitytogethersoonbeganto bearfruit.Withinamonth,thetownwasinanuproar.Thistimetheinsurgents'demandsmirroredMntzer'sideasnoauthoritytobeobeyed,alltaxesand leviestobeabolished,prieststobeexiled.Theburgomasterandsomecouncillorsfledthetownandappealedforsupportfromthepeasantsofthe neighboringvillages.Atthistimefiressweptthevillages,inalllikelihoodsetbysupportersofMntzerandPfeiffer.Butthepeasantsstoodfirmonthesideof thecouncil.Promisesofsupport

    [54] alsocameinfromtownsroundabout.Theinsurgentswereforcedtoyield.TheauthorityofthecouncilwasrestoredandPfeifferandMntzerwerebanished fromMhlhausen. MntzersetoffforNuremberg,whereheprintedtwoofhisworks.Oneofthese,"AnInterpretationoftheFirstChapterofSt.Luke,"hadbeenwritten towardtheendofhisstayinAllstedtandrevisedinMhlhausen.Theother,"DiscourseforDefense,"waswritteninreplytoLuther.Shortlybefore,Luther hadwrittenhis"LettertothePrincesofSaxonyAgainstaRebelliousSpirit,"inwhichhedrewtheirattentiontothedangerouslyaggressivecharacterof Mntzer'steaching."Itbeginstoseemtomethattheywishtodestroyallauthoritysoastobecomethelordsoftheworld....Theysaythattheyareledbythe Spirit...butthisisanillspirit,onewhichismanifestedinthedestructionofchurchesandmonasteries."(28:p.204)"ChristandhisApostlesneverdestroyed asingletemplenorsmashedasingleholyimage."Letthempreach,arguesLuther,"butthosearenotgoodChristianswhopassfromwordstofists."(28:p. 209) Inhisreply,MntzerbroughtdownaveritablecascadeofabuseonLuther.Hecalledhimabasilisk,adragon,aviper,anarchpagan,anarchdevil,abashful WhoreofBabylonandfinally,inafitofcannibalisticfrenzy,hepredictedthatthedevilwouldboilLutherinhisownjuiceanddevourhim."Iwouldliketo smellyourfryingcarcass."(28:p.200) ButMntzer'sNurembergworksareespeciallyinterestinginthattheydemonstratehissocialideasintheirmostmatureform.His"DiscourseforDefense" beginswithadedication"TotheSerenest,FirstbornPrince,theMightyLordJesusChrist,theGraciousKingofKings,theMightyDukeofAllthe Faithful."(28:p.187)HereMntzerexpressesoneofhisbasicconceptionsthatpoweronthisearthcanbelongonlytoGod.Themessageendswiththe followingwords:"Thepeoplewillbefree,andGodwillbethesoleLordoverthem."(28:p.201)PrinceshadusurpedpowerbelongingtoGod."Whydo youcallthemsereneprinces?ThistitlebelongsnottothembuttoChrist."And:"Whydoyoucallthemhighborn?IthoughtyouwereaChristian,butyouare aPagan!"(28:p.197)Mntzerhadforgottenthatonlyafewmonthsbefore,hehadlookedtotheprincesforaid.Nowhesays:"Princesarenotlords,but servantsofthesword.Theymustnotdowhattheydeemwellbutratherimplementthetruth."(28:p.192)Theroleassignedtotheprinceswasnomorethan thatofexecutioner.ItwasnotfornothingthatPaulsaid.thatprinceswerenotforthegoodbutforthewicked.However,inMntzer'sview,theyfailtofulfill eventhisfunction."ThosewhooughttosetanexampleforChristians,towhichendtheybearthenameofprinces,provetothehighestdegreebyalltheir deedstheirunfaith."(28:p.183)"Theirheartsarevainand,therefore,allthesemightyandarrogantgodlessonesmustbethrowndownfromtheirthrone. ...GodgavetheprincesandlordstomeninHiswrathandinHisbitternessHewilldestroythem."(28:p.171) Mntzeralsodoesnotrecallthatshortlybefore,hesawinpoverty

    [55] andsufferingacrosssentfromabove.Nowthecalltoopposetheoppressorsbecomesoneofthechiefthemesinhisteaching:"Theverystuffofusury,theft androbberyareourlordsmadeof.Fishinthewater,birdsintheair,thefruitsoftheearththeywanttotakeeverything.Andbeyondthattheyorderthat God'swordbepreachedtothepoorthus:'Godhascommandedyounottosteal'...andifapoormantakesthesmallestthing,thenheishangedandDoctor Liarsays,'Amen.'Thelordsarethemselvesguiltyofmakingthepoortheirfoe.Theydonotwishtoremovethecauseoftheindignation.Howcanthematter besetright?SinceIspeakso,perhapsI,too,rebelwell,sobeit."(28:p.192)Byalltheirmisdeedstheprinceshavedeprivedthemselvesoftherighttothe sword."AtthesolicitationoftheChosen,Godwillnolongertoleratesuffering."(28:p.171)Inactuality,thepowerofGodonearthispicturedasthepower oftheChosen,whoareconceivedofasanarrow,closedunion."ItwouldbeawondrousChurchinwhichtheChosenwouldbeseparatedfromthe godless."(28:p.182)TheChosenreceiveGod'sbehestsdirectly,bywhichmeanstheyexecutehiswillonearth.(Invariousperiodsofhislife,Mntzer assertedthathehimselfcommunicateddirectlywithGod.) FromNuremberg,MntzersetoffforSwitzerlandandtheborderlandsofGermany,wherethePeasantWarwasalreadyraging.Whilehisroleofagitator seemstohavemetwithsuccess,hedidnotstaylonginthearea.Seidman,theauthorofoneofthemostcompletebiographiesofMntzer,suggeststhatsince disturbanceshadalreadybrokenout,Mntzerfearedthathewouldbeunabletogainanimportantenoughplaceforhimself.InFebruary1525,Mntzer returnedtoMhlhausen. Bythistime,thepeasantrebellionwasalreadyspreadingfromthesouthintocentralGermany,towardthetownofMhlhausen.Authorityhadbeguntoslip fromthehandsofthemunicipalcouncil.The"eight"demandedthekeystothecitygatesandthecouncilhadtocomply.AnyonewhodisagreedwithMntzer andPfeiffer'spartywasunderconstantthreatsofbeingbanished.Monasteriesandchurcheswererobbed,sacredobjectsdestroyedandmonksandnuns

    seemstohavemetwithsuccess,hedidnotstaylonginthearea.Seidman,theauthorofoneofthemostcompletebiographiesofMntzer,suggeststhatsince disturbanceshadalreadybrokenout,Mntzerfearedthathewouldbeunabletogainanimportantenoughplaceforhimself.InFebruary1525,Mntzer returnedtoMhlhausen. Bythistime,thepeasantrebellionwasalreadyspreadingfromthesouthintocentralGermany,towardthetownofMhlhausen.Authorityhadbeguntoslip fromthehandsofthemunicipalcouncil.The"eight"demandedthekeystothecitygatesandthecouncilhadtocomply.AnyonewhodisagreedwithMntzer andPfeiffer'spartywasunderconstantthreatsofbeingbanished.Monasteriesandchurcheswererobbed,sacredobjectsdestroyedandmonksandnuns assaulted.Finally,allCatholicclergyweredrivenfromthetown. ThesermonsofMntzerandPfeifferrevolvedaroundtheideasoutlinedearlier:princesandlordshavenorighttotheirpower,authoritymustpasstothe societyoftheChosen,menhavebeencreatedequalbynatureandsomustbeequalinlife,allwhodonotcomplymustbeputtothesword.Theypreached thattherichcannotattainsalvationwhoeverlovesbeautifulchambers,richornamentsand,aboveall,moneycannotreceivetheHolySpirit. Finally,afterthecouncilrefusedtoadmitMntzerandPfeifferintotheirnumber,itwasdecidedatahugegatheringthatthecouncilbedismissed.Anew, "eternal"councilwaselected. The"HistoryofThomasMntzer,"acontemporaryaccountlongattributedtoMelanchthon,describesthesituationasfollows:

    [56] ThiswasthebeginningofthenewKingdomofChrist.Firstofall,theydroveoutallmonks,tookoverthemonasteriesandalltheirproperty. TherewasamonasteryofJohanniteswithlargeholdings:itwastakenoverbyThomas. Andinordertotakepartinallproceedings,hecametothecouncilandannouncedthatallresolutionsmustbetakeninaccordancewithGod's revelationandonthebasisoftheBible.AndsowhateverhelikedwasdeemedjustandaspecialcommandmentofGod. Healsotaughtthatallpropertymustbecommon,asitiswrittenintheActsoftheApostles....Withthishesoaffectedthefolkthatnoone wantedtowork,butwhenanyoneneededfoodorclothinghewenttoarichmananddemandeditofhiminChrist'sname,forChristhad commandedthatallshouldsharewiththeneedy.Andwhatwasnotgivenfreelywastakenbyforce.Manyactedthus,includingthosewholived withThomasintheJohannitemonastery.Thomasinstigatedthisbrigandageandmultipliediteverydayandthreatenedalltheprinces.(28:p.42) Accordingtothesamedocument,Mntzer'steachingincludedthedestructionofauthorityandthecommunalityofproperty:"Accordingtotherequirements ofChristianlove,nooneoughttobesuperiortoanother,allmustbefreeandtheremustbecommunalityofallproperty."(28:p.38) LutherwrotethatMntzerhadbecomeakingandsovereignrulinginMhlhausen. Armswereproducedinthetown,thecitizensgivenmilitarytraining,andmercenaries(lansquenets)werehired.Bythistime,thepeasantrebellionhad envelopedalltheneighboringareas.LargegroupsofMhlhausencitizensandinhabitantsofnearbyvillagesassaultedcastlesroundabout.Thesetheyrobbed, burnedordestroyed.Mntzerorderedthat"allcastlesandhousesofnobilitybedestroyedandrazedtotheground."(20:p.519)Specialarsonunitswere organized.Bootywascarriedofftothetownbythecartload. Mntzersentoutmessengersandissueddetailedinstructionsonthetortureof"villains"apprehendedandthedestructionofmonasteriesandcastles.He calledonothertownstojointheuprising. HereiswhathewrotetothecitizensofAllstedt: DearBrethren,willyousleepevennow?Thetimeisripe.AllGerman,FrenchandItalianlandshaverisen....Bethereonlythreeofyou,butif youputyourhopeinthenameofGodfearnotahundredthousand....Forward,forward,forward!Itishightime.Letnotkindwordsofthese Esausarouseyoutomercy.Looknotuponthesufferingsofthegodless!Theywillentreatyoutouchingly,beggingyoulikechildren.Letnot mercyseizeyoursoul,asGodcommandedtoMosesHehasrevealedtousthesame....Forward,forward,whiletheironishot.Letyour swordsbeeverwarmwithblood!(28:pp.7475)

    [57] Thoughnot"allGerman,FrenchandItalianlands"hadrisen,thewholeofcentralGermanyThuringia,SaxonyandHessenwasinrebellion. TowardthebeginningofMay1525,theprincesbegantogatherinforce.AmajorpartherewasplayedbyLuther'scommunication"OnDisorderlyand MurderousPeasantGangs."BymidMay,twoarmiesbegantoassembleintheenvironsofFrankenhausen.Theywereofapproximatelyequalsizeabout eightthousandmeneach. Mntzerrodeoutattheheadofhisarmy,surroundedbythreehundredbodyguardsandholdingaloftanakedsword,whichsymbolizedthegoalofthe rebelsannihilationofthegodless.Somenobleshadjoinedhiscamp.Mntzerwrotetoothers,threateningthemandurgingthemtoallythemselveswithhim. HewrotetoCountErnstMansfeld:"Sothatyouknowthatwehavethepowertocommand,Ispeak:Theeternal,livingGodhathcommandedthatyoube thrownoffthethroneandhathgiventousthemighttoaccomplishthis.ItisaboutyouandthoselikeyouthatGodsaith,'Yournestmustbetorndownand troddenunderfoot.'"Theletterendswiththewords:"Iammarchingafter.MntzerwithGideon'ssword."(28:p.78) Nevertheless,panicbegantospreadthroughMntzer'sarmy.Therewereattemptsatnegotiatingwiththeenemy,andexecutionsofthosesuspectedof treasontookplace.Mntzersoughttoencouragehisfollowers:"SoonerwillthenatureoftheearthorofheavenbechangedthanGoddesertus."(28:p.45) Hepromisedthathewouldcatchbulletsinhissleeves.Butwhenthefirstshotswerefired,therebelarmybrokeandran.Thousandsofthemwere slaughteredonthefieldofbattle. Inhishourofdefeat,"MntzerwithGideon'ssword"lostallpresenceofmind.(Fordetails,see22:p.225.Heisthefirstofalonglistofrevolutionary leaderstoactinthisfashion.)Mntzerranforthecity,foundanemptyhouseandgotintobed,feigningillness.Alootingsoldiercameuponapacketofletters addressedtoMntzerthatthelatterhaddroppedinhishaste,andMntzerwasseized.Attheinquest,whenaskedaboutacertainexecutionoffourmen, Mntzerreplied:"ItwasnotIwhoexecutedthem,mydearbrothers,butGod'struth." Mntzerwassubjectedtotorture,andwhenhecriedout,theinterrogatortoldhimthatthosewhohadperishedbecauseofhimhadsufferedworse.Mntzer

    Inhishourofdefeat,"MntzerwithGideon'ssword"lostallpresenceofmind.(Fordetails,see22:p.225.Heisthefirstofalonglistofrevolutionary leaderstoactinthisfashion.)Mntzerranforthecity,foundanemptyhouseandgotintobed,feigningillness.Alootingsoldiercameuponapacketofletters addressedtoMntzerthatthelatterhaddroppedinhishaste,andMntzerwasseized.Attheinquest,whenaskedaboutacertainexecutionoffourmen, Mntzerreplied:"ItwasnotIwhoexecutedthem,mydearbrothers,butGod'struth." Mntzerwassubjectedtotorture,andwhenhecriedout,theinterrogatortoldhimthatthosewhohadperishedbecauseofhimhadsufferedworse.Mntzer burstoutlaughingandreplied:"Theywishedfornodifferentthemselves."HewassenttothecastleoftheveryCountMansfeldtowhomhehadwritten:"Iam marchingafter."Mntzerconfessedeverythingandbetrayedthenamesofhiscomradesinthesecretunion.Beforehisexecution,hewrotealettertothe citizensofMhlhausen,appealingtothemnottorebelagainstauthority,accordingtoChrist'scommandment."Iwishtosayinmyfarewelladdress,soasto unburdenmysoul,thatyoushouldavoidriot,lestinnocentbloodbeshedinvain....Helpmywifeifyoucan,andespeciallyavoidbloodshed,ofwhichIwarn yousincerely."(28:pp.8384)

    [58] MntzertookcommunionanddiedasasonoftheCatholicChurch.Hisheadwasputonastakeforshow. ContemporariesconsideredMntzertobethecentralfigureinthePeasantWar.LutherandMelanchthonbelievedhimtobeitsmostdangerousleader. SebastianFranckreferredtothewarasthe"MntzerUprising,"andDukeGeorgofSaxonywrotethatwithMntzer'sexecutionthewarcouldbe consideredfinished.(20:p.257)ThisappreciationofMntzer'srole,however,couldhardlyhavebeenmeanttodescribehisactivitiesasorganizerrather, thecommentatorsmostlikelyhadinmindhisfunctionastheoriginatorofanideologyofhatredanddestruction.Luthermusthavebeenthinkingalongthese lineswhenhewrotetoHansRgel:"WhoeverhasseenMntzercansaythathehasseenthedevilintheflesh,athismostferocious."(28:p.222) JohannofLeydenandthe"NewJerusalem"inMnster. In15341535,thepersecutedAnabaptistsinSwitzerlandandsouthernandcentralGermanyflednorth,tonorthernGermany,Holland,Swedenand Denmark.ThecenteroftheiractivitybecamethetownofMnster,wheretheyestablishedthemselvesatthetimeofthestrugglebetweentheCatholicsand theLutherans.TheygainedastrongpositioninthetownbyallyingthemselveswiththeLutherans. ButwhentheLutheranswon,theyfoundtheyhadtoreckonwiththe"Prophets,"astheleadersoftheAnabaptistsdescribedthemselves.Thelatterhadeven succeededinwinningovertheheadoftheLutheranparty. Atthistime,anewandstrikingfigureappearedamongtheAnabaptistsJanMatthijs,aDutchbakerfromHaarlem.Inhispreaching,thechiliasticand militanttendenciesinAnabaptismwereresurrectedwiththeirpreviousforce.Matthijscalledforarmedrebellionandtheuniversalexterminationofthe godless."Apostles"sentbyhimwentinpairstoalllandsandprovinces.Theytoldaboutthemiracleswroughtbythisnewprophetandpredictedthe annihilationofalltyrantsandgodlesspeopleintheworld.InGermanyandinHolland,peopleunderwentthesecondbaptismandfoundednewcommunities. InMnster,fourteenhundredpersonswerebaptizedineightdays.InkeepingwiththegrowingsuccessoftheAnabaptiststhere,adherentsfromother countries,especiallyfromHolland,streamedintoMnster.TheDutcharrivalswereheadedbytheMnstercitizenKnipperdolling. OneofMatthijs'sApostlestoarriveinMnsterwasJanBokelson(Beukels),who,underthenameJohannofLeyden,wastobecomeacentralfigureinlater developments.Beginningasatailor'sapprentice,Bokelsonmarriedarichwidowbutsoonlostherfortune.Hehadtraveledmuch,havingbeentoEngland, FlandersandPortugal,hadreadfairlyextensivelyandknewtheHolyScripturesaswellasMntzer'swritings.InMnsterhetookupwithKnipperdolling andsoonmarriedhisdaughter,therebybringingtheAnabaptistcommunityundertheinfluenceofMatthijs.Bythistime,leadershipoftheAnabaptist movementinMnsterhadpassed

    [59] overfromthelocalcitizensentirelyintothehandsoftheDutchProphets,preacherconspiratorswhohadbeenuprootedfromtheirhomeland. ClashesbetweenAnabaptistsandLutheransoccurredinMnster,andAnabaptistsraidedmonasteriesandchurches.Matthijs'sApostlesproclaimedthatthe thousandyearkingdomwasathandforthosewhohadacceptedthesecondbaptism:ahappylifewithcommunityofproperty,withoutauthority,lawsor maritalbonds.Asforthosewhoopposedthenewkingdom,theycouldexpectannihilationanddeathatthehandoftheChosen.TheChosenwereprohibited togreetthefaithlessortohaveanythingwhatevertodowiththem. ThemunicipalcouncilbanishedsomeAnabaptistpreachersfromthetownandarrestedonewhohadviolatedthebanimposedontheirsermons.Thiswas earlyin1534.CrowdsofAnabaptistsranthroughthecity,shouting:"RepentorGodwillpunishyou!Father,Father,annihilatethegodless."Ontheninthof February,armedmobsappearedinthetowntheyblockedoffstreetsandoccupiedpartofthecity.TheLutheransalsotookuparms,occupiedanotherpart oftownandbegantopushtheAnabaptistsback.TheirforcesprovedtobegreaterandtheysurroundedtheAnabaptistsandbroughtupcannon.Victory wasinthehandsoftheLutherans,buttheburgomasterTilbeck,whosympathizedwiththeAnabaptists,negotiatedanagreementonreligiouspeace:"Sothat everyonebefreeinhisfaithandeverymancomebacktohisownhouseandliveinpeace."(23:p.701)ThiswasthebeginningofAnabaptistruleinthe town.AnabaptistsflockedtoMnsterfromallsides.InanaccountthatoriginatedinAnabaptistcircles,weread:"ThefacesofChristiansagainblossomed forth.Everyoneinthemarketplace,evensevenyearoldchildren,beganprophesying.Thewomenmadeextraordinaryjumps.Butthegodlesssaidthatthey weredemented,thattheyweredrunkonsweetwine."(23:pp.707708) OnFebruary21,anewelectionwasheldforthemunicipalcouncil,inwhichtheAnabaptistswonamajority.Theytookoverthemunicipaladministrationand appointedtheiradherentsKnipperdollingandKibbenbrockasburgomasters. TheAnabaptistsmadeadisplayoftheirpoweralmostimmediatelyinaterribleoutburstofviolencethattookplaceonFebruary24,threedaysafterthe election.Monasteriesandchurchesweredestroyed,religiousobjectssmashedandsaints'relicsthrownintothestreets.Notonlyreligionbuteverything connectedwiththeoldcultureevokedtheirire.Statuesinthemarketsquareweresmashedtopieces.ApreciouscollectionofoldItalianmanuscriptswhich hadbeencollectedbyRudolfvonLangenwassolemnlyburnedinthesquare.PaintingsoftheWestphalianschool,famousatthetime,weredestroyedso thoroughlythatatpresentthisschoolofpaintingisknownonlybyreputation.Evenmusicalinstrumentsweresmashed. Threedayslater,onFebruary27,theAnabaptistsproceededtooneofthemajorpointsoftheirprogramtheexpulsionofthegodless,that

    connectedwiththeoldcultureevokedtheirire.Statuesinthemarketsquareweresmashedtopieces.ApreciouscollectionofoldItalianmanuscriptswhich hadbeencollectedbyRudolfvonLangenwassolemnlyburnedinthesquare.PaintingsoftheWestphalianschool,famousatthetime,weredestroyedso thoroughlythatatpresentthisschoolofpaintingisknownonlybyreputation.Evenmusicalinstrumentsweresmashed. Threedayslater,onFebruary27,theAnabaptistsproceededtooneofthemajorpointsoftheirprogramtheexpulsionofthegodless,that

    [60] is,ofthosecitizenswhorefusedtoaccepttheteachingsofthe"prophets."Matthijsinsistedthatallthegodlessbeputtodeath.ThemorewaryKnipperdolling objected:"Allpeopleswillthenuniteagainstustorevengethebloodofthosekilled."Finally,adecisionwastakentodriveoutoftownanyonewhorefused toacceptsecondbaptism.AmeetingofarmedAnabaptistswascalled.TheProphetsatinatrancewhileprayerswerebeingsaid.Atlast,Matthijsroseand calledfortheexpulsionofthefaithless:"DownwithEsau'soffspring!TheinheritancebelongstothechildrenofJacob."Ashoutof"Downwiththegodless!" rolledthroughthestreets.ArmedAnabaptistsbrokeintohousesanddroveouteveryonewhowasunwillingtoacceptsecondbaptism.Winterwasdrawing toacloseitwasastormydayandwetsnowwasfalling.Aneyewitnessaccountdescribescrowdsofexpelledcitizenswalkingthroughthekneedeepsnow. Theyhadnotbeenallowedeventotakewarmclothingwiththem,womencarryingchildrenintheirarms,oldmenleaningonstaffs.Atthecitygatetheywere robbedoncemore. Thenextactionwasthesocializationofallproperty.Achronicleofthetimereads:"Theydecidedunanimouslythatallpropertymustbeheldincommonand thateveryonemusthandinhissilver,goldandmoney.Intheendalldidso."(29:p.201)Itisknownthatthismeasurewasaccomplishedwithsomedifficulty andonlyinthecourseoftwomonths.Matthijsappointedsevendeaconstowatchoverthesocializedproperty. Tosuppressdiscontentarousedbythesemeasures,theAnabaptistsbegantoresorttoterroronaneverwiderscale.OnedayMatthijsgatheredallthemen inthetownsquareandorderedeveryonewhohadtakenbaptismonthelastday(massbaptismhadgoneonforthreedays)tostepforward.Therewere threehundredtheywereorderedtoputdowntheirarms.Matthijsspoke:"TheLordiswrathfulandcallsforsacrifice."Theaccusedmenprostrated themselvesbeforetheProphet,inthemanneroftheAnabaptists,andbeggedformercy.Buttheywerelockedinadesertedchurch,fromwhichtheirappeals formercycouldbeheardforhours.Finally,JanBokelsonappearedandannounced:"Mydearbrethren,theLordhastakenpityuponyou!"Andallwere released. Butthingsdidnotalwaysendsobenignly.Forexample,areportwasreceivedthattheblacksmithHubertRuscherhadspokenagainsttheactionsofthe Anabaptists.HewasbroughttoameetingMatthijsdemandedhisdeath.Someofthosepresentintercededforthemanandaskedthathebepardoned.But Bokelsonshouted:"TomethepoweroftheLordisgivensothatbymyhandeveryonewhoopposesthecommandsoftheLordbestruckdown."Andhe struckRuscherwithahalberd.Thewoundedmanwasledawaytojail.Disputationastohisfatecontinued.Finally,themanwasagainbroughttothetown square,whereMatthijskilledhimwithashotintheback. StreamsofincendiaryAnabaptistliteratureflowedfromMnster,callingthebrethrentocometogetherinthe"NewJerusalem."For:"Bedandshelterare readyforallChristians.Iftherewillbetoomanypeople,we

    [61] shallusethehousesandthepropertyofthefaithless....Hereyouwillhaveeverythinginabundance.Thepoorestamongus,whoearlierwerescornedas paupers,nowwearrichclothinglikethehighestandthenoblest.Thepoorhavebecome,byGod'sgrace,asrichasburgomasters."(29:p.147)Itwas reportedthatatEastertheworldwouldbestruckbyaterribleplagueandthat,outsideMnster,onlyeverytenthpersonwouldbespared."Letnoonethink eitherofhusbandorofwifeorofchild,iftheyarefaithless.DonottakethemwithyoutheyareuselesstoGod'scommunity....Ifanyoneremainsbehind,I aminnocentofhisblood."Thusendsaleafletsigned"Emmanuel."(29:p.148)ThebookRestitutionorRevivaloftheTrueChristianTeaching wassent farandwide.ItassertsthattruthhadbeenonlypartlyopentoErasmus,ZwingliandLuther,butthatitshoneforthinMatthijsandJohannofLeyden.Much importanceisattachedtotheOldTestament.TheKingdomofChristonearthisconceivedofinapurelyphysicalfashion.Itincludescommunalityof propertyandpolygamy.Thebookendswiththewords:"Inourtime,Christiansareallowedtoturntheswordagainstgodlessauthorities."TheBooklet ConcerningVengeance wasanotherpopularwork.Itisnothinglessthanacalltomurderandrevenge.Onlyaftervengeancehadbeencarriedoutwould thenewearthandthenewheavenappeartoGod'speople."Rememberwhattheyhavedoneuntousallthismustbevisitedupontheminalikemanner. Heedthisanddonotconsiderasinwhatisnosin."(29:p.149) ApostlesweresentfromMnstertopropagandizeinsurrectionandtodrumupsupportforthenewJerusalem.TheywereparticularlysuccessfulinHolland. ErasmusSchetwrotetoErasmusofRotterdam:"Hardlyisthereatownoracitywheretheashesofrebellionarenotsmoldering.Thecommunismthatthey preachattractsmassesfromallsides."(29:p.153)Inmanytownstherebaptizedwerecountedinthehundreds,amongthemmanyinfluentialpeople.In CologneitwasreportedthatsevenhundredhadbeennewlybaptizedandinEssen,twohundred.Turbulencegrewapace.Onedayfivenakedmen,with swordsinhand,ranthroughAmsterdamforetellingtheimminentendoftheworld.LargecrowdsofarmedAnabaptistsweremovingtowardMnster. SixteenhundredgatheredinVollenhove.ThirtyshipswitharmedAnabaptistsaboardleftAmsterdamandlandednearGenemuiden.Thiswasfollowedby twentyonemoreshipswiththreethousandmen,womenandchildren.TheDutchauthoritieswereabletodispersethesecrowdsonlywithgreatdifficulty.In thetownofWarenburg,anAnabaptistcommunitybeganaccumulatingweapons,andtheburgomasterbecamesofrightenedthathewouldappearonly accompaniedbyahundredguards.InMnstertheProphetJohannDusentschurcompiledalistoftownswhichweresoontobecontrolledbythe"Children ofGod."FirstonthelistwasSoest.AdelegationofProphetssetoutforthiscity.Theyenteredthetownopenlyandsolemnly,preachinginsurrection.The authoritiesmanagedtooustthemwithgreatdifficulty. ItisnotsurprisingthatthismovementalarmedBishopFranzvon

    [62] Waldeck,inwhosedomainMnsterwassituated,aswellastherulersoftheneighboringareas.SlowlyanarmywasraisedandMnsterbesieged.Thetown waswellfortifiedandhadlargestoresofprovisions.Thesiegewasahardone,lastingfourteenmonths.Oneofthefirstvictimsofthewarturnedouttobe theAnabaptistleaderMatthijs.Duringacommonmeal,heexclaimed:"LetThywillbedoneandnotmine!"Thenhebadetheothersfarewell,kissingthem.It appearsthathehadhadavisionthathewastochallengetheunfaithfultoafightinthemannerofSamson.Thenextdayheactuallywentoutsidethecitywall withasmallgroupofvolunteersandwashackedtopiecesbythelansquenets. HiscomradeinarmsBokelson(JohannofLeyden)thereupondeliveredasermon:"GodwillgiveyouanotherProphetwhowillbemorepowerful.God desiredthedeathofMatthijs,lestyoushouldbelieveinhimmorethaninGod."Withinseveraldays,BokelsonbecamethatnewProphet,theheirtoMatthijs.

    waswellfortifiedandhadlargestoresofprovisions.Thesiegewasahardone,lastingfourteenmonths.Oneofthefirstvictimsofthewarturnedouttobe theAnabaptistleaderMatthijs.Duringacommonmeal,heexclaimed:"LetThywillbedoneandnotmine!"Thenhebadetheothersfarewell,kissingthem.It appearsthathehadhadavisionthathewastochallengetheunfaithfultoafightinthemannerofSamson.Thenextdayheactuallywentoutsidethecitywall withasmallgroupofvolunteersandwashackedtopiecesbythelansquenets. HiscomradeinarmsBokelson(JohannofLeyden)thereupondeliveredasermon:"GodwillgiveyouanotherProphetwhowillbemorepowerful.God desiredthedeathofMatthijs,lestyoushouldbelieveinhimmorethaninGod."Withinseveraldays,BokelsonbecamethatnewProphet,theheirtoMatthijs. (29:p.207)OncetheLordclosedJohann'slipsforthreedays.Uponrecoveringhisspeech,heproclaimedthathehadhadarevelationaboutaneworder forthetown.Thepowerofthecouncilwastobeabolished,andtwelveeldersweretogovernundertheleadershipoftheProphet.Thenamesoftheelders wereannouncedtheyturnedouttobethemostinfluentialDutchProphets,andtheywereinstalledwithoutanyelection. Nextcamewhatwasperhapsthemostradicalinnovationestablishmentofpolygamy.IdeasofthissortareencounteredearlierinAnabaptistpreachings. TheyweresupportedbyreferencetothecustomsofthepatriarchsoftheOldTestament.Thenewlawwasfacilitatedbythefactthatafterbanishmentofthe godless,thereweretwoorthreetimesasmanywomeninMnsterasmen.Theintroductionofpolygamywasaccompaniedbyaregulationinaccordance withwhichallwomenwhoseagedidnotpreventitwereobligatedtohaveahusband.Thesharingoutofwomenbegan.Eyewitnessestellofviolenceand suicides.Theatmosphereinwhichthelawwasimplementedisintimatedbyanotherlaw,whichforbadementobreakintohousesingroupstochoosewives. Onecanonlyimaginewhatlifewaslikeinthenewfamilies.Theauthoritiesalsointerferedbystagingfrequentpublicpunishmentofrecalcitrantwives. Thesocializationofpropertyandpolygamyevokedconsiderableoppositioninthetown.ThedisaffectedseizedthechiefProphetsanddemandedabolitionof theseregulations.ButtheyweresurroundedbyAnabaptistsstillloyaltoBokelsonmostlyDutchmenandFrisiansandcompelledtosurrender.Theywere tiedtotreesandshot."WhoeverfiresthefirstshotdoesaservicetoGod,"Bokelsoncried. Thedefeatoftheoppositionwithincoincidedwithamajormilitaryvictoryalargeforceassaultingthetownhadbeenbeatenback.Thearmyofthe attackerswasbadlyorganized,andapparentlytherewereAnabaptistsinitsranks,forthetimesetfortheassaulthadbecomeknowninMnster.Thelosses ofthebesiegingarmyweresuchthatadaringsallycouldhavedestroyeditentirely.

    [63] TheseeventsstrengthenedJohann'spositionconsiderably.TheProphetDusentschurreportedthathehadhadavisionthatJohannwouldbecomekingofthe worldandtakethethroneandthescepterofhisfatherDaviduntilthecomingoftheLordHimself.Bokelsonconfirmedthathehadhadthesamevision.The electionofthekingculminatedinthesingingofpsalms. Bokelsonsurroundedhimselfwithasplendidcourt,createdcourtpostsofvariouskindsandadetachmentofbodyguards.Hetooknewwivesconstantly, amongwhomthefirstwas"themostlovelyofallwomen,"DivaraMatthijs'swidow.Twocrownsencrustedwithpreciousstonesoneroyal,theother imperialweremadeforBokelson.Hisemblemwastheglobewithtwoswordscrossed,asymbolofhispowerovertheworld. Thekingappearedwithafanfareandaccompaniedbyamountedguard.A Hofmeister marchedinfront,carryingawhitestaffsplendidlydressedpages followed,onebearingasword,theothertheOldTestament.Nextcamethecourt,dressedinsilk.Everyonetheymethadtokneel.Atthesametime,Johann hadavisionfromwhichhelearnedthatnooneshouldpossessmorethanonecoat,twopairsofstockings,threeshirtsandsoon.Everyoneoutsidetheroyal courtwasboundbythisrevelation. Oneday4,200citizenswerecalledtoaroyalbanquet.Thekingandqueenplayedhost,andeveryonesangthehymn"GlorytoGodintheHighest." SuddenlyJohannnoticedamongtheguestssomeonewhoseemedalientohim:"Hewasnotinnuptialdress."DecidingthatthismustbeJudas,thekingcutoff hisheadonthespot.Thereuponthebanquetresumed. Theatricalperformanceswerestagedforthetownspeoplesomeoftheseparodiedtheholyservice,otherstookasocialturnforinstance,thedialogueof therichmanwithLazarus. Streetsandallimportantbuildingsinthetownwererenamed.Babiesweregivennewlyinventednames. Meanwhileexecutionstookplacealmostdaily:forexample,onthethirdofJune,1535,fiftytwopersonswereexecutedonthefifthofJune,threeeighteen personsonboththesixthandtheseventh,etc.Obstinatewiveswereexecuted,aswellasawomanwhohadspokenagainsttheneworder.Onewomanwho refusedtobecometheking'swife,inspiteofhisseveralproposals,hadherheadchoppedoffinthetownsquarebytheking'sownhand,whilehisassembled wivessang"GlorytoGodintheHighest." Theentireepisodehastheappearanceofmasspathology,amadnesstowhichtheProphetsthemselveseventuallyfellvictim,whenwithblindfanaticismthey joinedtheirdestiniestoadoomedcause.Butwasitreally?TheMnsterepisodedemonstratesamultitudeoftraitstypicalofallrevolutionsbutwhere, confinedtoasingletownandcompressedintoasingleyear,tragedyturnsintoagrotesquefarce.TheSwiftiandeviceofattributingthevicesoftheworldto tinyLilliputianswashereemployedbyhistory.Inactualfact,themosteccentricofactionsprovetohavebeenentirelyconsistentwiththeinnerlogicofthe movement.ExtremefanaticismstirredtheAnabaptistmobandspreadtolargerandlargermasses

    [64] ofpeople.BehindtheabsurdposturingsofJanBokelsonwecanoftendiscernaslyandcalculatingmind,examplesofwhichweshallencounterlater. Apparently,bothheandtheotherProphetshadaveryconcretegoalinmind"universal"rebellionandtheestablishmentofthemselvesinpower,ifnotover the"entireworld,"thenatleastoveralargepartofEurope.Althoughthesehopeswerenotrealized,theyshouldnotbedismissedashavingbeenentirely groundless.UnrestwasrampantinthewholeofnorthwesternGermanyandinHolland.ItwaswidelythoughtatthetimethatifJohannwouldsucceedin breakingthroughthesiege,hewouldfosterachangeinthecourseofhistorycomparabletothegreatmigrationofpeoples.Anabaptistemissarieswereactive asfarawayasZrichandBerninMnstertheyenticedlansquenetstotheirsidewithlargesalaries.Thebesiegingforcewasonceseizedbypanicoverthe rumorthattheAnabaptistshadtakenLbeck.Thisturnedouttobeuntrue,butitissymptomaticoftheprevailingsentiment. Therewas,apparently,aplantoraiserebellioninfourplacessimultaneouslyitwaspartiallyimplemented.InFrisia,Anabaptistsseizedandfortifieda monastery,wheretheyheldoutagainstaprolongedsiege.Victorycosttheimperialarmyninehundredmenkilled.AsquadronofAnabaptistships approachedDeventerintentontakingthetown,butitwasinterceptedbytheDukeofHeldern'sfleet.OutsideGroningen,anAnabaptistforceofsomeone thousandmengathered,intendingtobreakthroughtoMnster.It,too,wasscatteredbytheduke'smen. ButtheAnabaptistswerestrongestinHolland,thehomelandofMatthijsandJanBokelson.In1535,severallargedetachmentsofAnabaptistsassembled

    rumorthattheAnabaptistshadtakenLbeck.Thisturnedouttobeuntrue,butitissymptomaticoftheprevailingsentiment. Therewas,apparently,aplantoraiserebellioninfourplacessimultaneouslyitwaspartiallyimplemented.InFrisia,Anabaptistsseizedandfortifieda monastery,wheretheyheldoutagainstaprolongedsiege.Victorycosttheimperialarmyninehundredmenkilled.AsquadronofAnabaptistships approachedDeventerintentontakingthetown,butitwasinterceptedbytheDukeofHeldern'sfleet.OutsideGroningen,anAnabaptistforceofsomeone thousandmengathered,intendingtobreakthroughtoMnster.It,too,wasscatteredbytheduke'smen. ButtheAnabaptistswerestrongestinHolland,thehomelandofMatthijsandJanBokelson.In1535,severallargedetachmentsofAnabaptistsassembled there.TheyevensucceededinseizingtheAmsterdamtownhallforatime,althoughtheauthoritiessoonhadthesituationinhand.Oneofthereasonsforthe movement'sfailurewasthatitsplansbecameknowntotheenemy.OneofJohann'sApostlesfellintothehandsofthebishopandpromisedtodisclosethe Anabaptists'battleplansinexchangeforhislife.HereturnedtoMnster,pretendingtohaveescaped,thensetoutagainonanApostolicmissionand informedthebishopofeverything. WecanconcludethatBokelson'saspirationswerefarfromillusory.Hehadamassedanarmyandwasreadytobreakthesiege,shouldtheDutchcometo hisaid.Hewasconstructingamobilebarricademadeofcarriages.Atnightheranaroundthetownbarefoot,wearingnothingbutashirtandshouting: "Rejoice,Israel,salvationisathand."Atonepointhesummonedtheentirearmytothesquareinordertomoveoutofthetown.Hethenappeared,wearing hiscrownandroyalgarments,anddeclaredthatthedayhadnotyetcomeandthathehadsimplywantedtocheckthereadinessofhisforces.Afeastwas preparedforthepopulacethereweresometwothousandmenandeightthousandwomenaltogether.AfterthemealJohannsuddenlyannouncedthathe wassteppingdown.ButtheProphetDusentschurproclaimedthatGodcalleduponhisbrotherJohannofLeydentoremainkingandtopunishtheiniquitous. Bokelsonwasreelected. Therewereapparentlyrealfrictionsbehindthismasquerade.On

    [65] anotheroccasion,forinstance,Knipperdollingstartedtoleapanddanceaboutstrangelyheevenstoodonhishead.Butinthemidstoftheseanticshe suddenlycriedout:"Johanniskingoftheflesh,butIshallbekingofthespirit."Bokelsonorderedhimlockedinthetower,asaresultofwhichKnipperdolling soonthoughtbetterofthingsandthetwowerereconciled.Anotherpoliticalmoveinasimilarlyfantasticguisewasthe"election"ofdukes.Asecretvotewas takeninthetwelvedistrictsintowhichthetownhadbeendivided.Thenamesofcandidateswereputintoahatanddrawnoutbyspeciallyappointedyoung boys.ThedukeselectedinthismannerallturnedouttobeProphetsclosetoBokelson.Eachreceivedadukedomoftheempire,thatis,oneofthetown districts,togetherwithcontrolofthetowngatelocatedinthecorrespondingdistrict.Thislastpointwastherealmeaningofthewholeenterprise,forthe lansquenets,whomJohanncouldnolongertrust,weretherebyremovedfromstrategicpositionsindefenseofthetown. Thesepoliticalmaneuversweresupplementedbythesightoftheroyalguardsengagingindailymilitaryexercisesonthemainsquare. Intheend,however,thelargestockpileofprovisionsranoutandfaminesetin.Thehorseswereeaten,andthisdestroyedanyhopeofbreakingthesiege. Thedeaconsconfiscatedallstores,andunderthreatofdeathitwasforbiddentobakebreadathome.Allhousesweresearchedandnoonehadtherightto lockhisdoor.ThecitizensbegantoeatgrassandrootS.Thekingpronouncedthatthiswas"noworsethanbread."Atthismoment,hecalledtogetherthe dukes,thecourtandallhiswivestoaluxuriousfeastinthepalace.Aneyewitnesswholaterescapedfromthetownreported:"Theybehavedasthoughthey wereplanningtorulefortherestoftheirlives."(29:p.237) Fanaticismservedasalightningrod.Thekingcommandedthat"allthatishighshallbedestroyed."Andthecitizensbegantodestroybelfriesandthetopsof towers.Repressionwaspracticedevermorewidely.Newconspiracieswererevealedconstantly.Oneofthoseaccusedwashackedintotwelveparts,anda Dutchmanatehisheartandliver. Thetownwasdoomed.Moreandmoreofthedefendersfled,despitethefactthattrial,tortureandpossibleexecutionawaitedtheminthebesiegers'camp. Finally,onJuly25,1535,Mnsterwastaken.ThereignoftheAnabaptists,whohadcometopowerFebruary21,1534,hadlastedforayearandahalf. Manyofthemweremassacredbythelansquenetsduringthefinalassaultothersweretriedandmanyexecuted.Mnsterwasnolongeranevangeliccityit hadreturnedtotherealmoftheCatholicbishop. JanBokelsonhidinthemostimpregnabletowerbutlatergavehimselfup.Undertorture,herenouncedhisfaithandacknowledgedthathe"deserveddeath tentimesover."HepromisedthatifhislifewassparedhewouldbringallAnabaptiststoobedience.Buttonoavail.Inthesquarewhereoncehehadsatona throne,hewastorturedwithhotirons,andthenhisheartwaspiercedwitharedhotdagger.

    [66]

    2.ChiliasticSocialismandtheIdeologyoftheHereticalMovements
    AbovewehavetriednottoyieldtothetemptationtoselectfromthesourcesonthehistoryofthehereticalmovementsoftheMiddleAgesandReformationonlythose passagesinwhichsocialistideasareexpoundedthecommunalityofproperty,thedestructionofthefamily,etc.Onthecontrary,wetriedtogiveafullreview,thougha necessarilyschematicone,ofthemajoraspectsofthehereticaldoctrines.Itwillnowbeourtasktodeterminethelinkbetweenthesetwophenomenai.e.,toascertainthe rolethattheideasofchiliasticsocialismplayedintheoverallideologyofthehereticalmovements. Todothis,itisfirstnecessarytodeterminewhetheritispossibletospeakofasingle,unifiedworldviewinthesemovements,whethertherearesufficientfeaturescommon tothechaoticmassofheresieswhichappearedoverthecourseofsomesevencenturies.Inotherwords,wearedealingwiththequestionoftheinterrelationshipamong differenthereticaldoctrines.Beginningwiththesecondhalfofthelastcentury,thisquestionbecametheobjectofmuchresearchwhichnotonlyshowedtheexistenceof closetiesbetweenvarioushereticalgro,upsbutalsogreatlyextendedthehistoryofheresiesintothepast.Itbecameclearthatthereisadirectcontinuitybetweenthe teachingsofthemedievalsectsandtheheresiesofthefirstcenturiesofChristianity. Inmostgeneralterms,itispossibletodividetheheresiesoftheMiddleAgesintothreegroups:(1)"Manichean"heresiestheCathars,Albigenses,Petrobrusians(from theeleventhtothefourteenthcenturies).(2)"Pantheistic"heresies:Amalricians,Ortliebarians,BrethrenandSistersoftheFreeSpirit,Adamites,theApostolicBrethren andtherelatedgroupsofBeghardsandBeguines(fromthethirteenthtothefifteenthcenturies).(3)Heresieswhich,longbeforetheReformation,developedideasthat wereclosetoProtestantismWaldensians,Anabaptists,MoravianBrethren(fromthetwelfthtotheseventeenthcenturies). ThemajorityofthesedoctrineshavethesamesourcethegnosticandManicheanheresieswhich,asearlyasthesecondcenturyA.D.,spreadthroughtheRomanEmpire andevenbeyonditsborders,forexample,intoPersia. [67]

    theeleventhtothefourteenthcenturies).(2)"Pantheistic"heresies:Amalricians,Ortliebarians,BrethrenandSistersoftheFreeSpirit,Adamites,theApostolicBrethren andtherelatedgroupsofBeghardsandBeguines(fromthethirteenthtothefifteenthcenturies).(3)Heresieswhich,longbeforetheReformation,developedideasthat wereclosetoProtestantismWaldensians,Anabaptists,MoravianBrethren(fromthetwelfthtotheseventeenthcenturies). ThemajorityofthesedoctrineshavethesamesourcethegnosticandManicheanheresieswhich,asearlyasthesecondcenturyA.D.,spreadthroughtheRomanEmpire andevenbeyonditsborders,forexample,intoPersia. [67] Theheresiesofthe"Manichean"groupenteredWesternEuropeprimarilyfromtheEast.Verysimilardoctrines(dualism,beliefintheconnectionoftheOldTestamentwith theevilGod,thedivisionintonarrowesotericandbroadexotericcircles)canbefoundinthegnosticsectsofthesecondcentury,forexampleamongtheMarcionites,but theseviewsachievedtheirfullexpressioninManicheanism. ThePaulicians,whoappearedintheEasternRomanEmpireinthefourthandfifthcenturies,servedasalinkbetweentheearlygnosticheresiesandthemedievalsects. Theyprofessedpuredualism,consideringoriginalsintobeaheroicdeed:arefusaltoobeytheevilGod.Thisledtoarejectionofmorallawandthedenialofthe differencebetweengoodandevil.Thisinturnwasmanifestedinthevariousexcessesofthesectarians,asdescribedbytheircontemporaries.(OneofthePaulicianleaders wascalledBaantheDirty,forinstance,andthereareaccountsofbrigandage.)Intheninthcentury,PauliciansoccupiedanareaofAsiaMinor,fromwhichtheycarriedout raidsonneighboringtowns,lootingandsellingcaptivesintoslaverytotheSaracens.In867,EphesuswascapturedandsackedthetempleofSt.JohnWaSturnedintoa stable.DefeatedinthetenthcenturybythearmiesoftheByzantineemperor,thePaulicianswereresettledwholesaleinBulgaria.Heretheycameintocontactwiththe Bogomils,whoderivedfromtheMessaliansect(mentionedasearlyasthefourthcentury).BogomilteachingwasclosetotheviewsofthemonarchicCatharsitheldthat thephysicalworldwascreatedbyGod'sapostateeldestson,Satanael.PauliciansandBogomilsalikerejectedthebaptismofchildren,hatedanddestroyedchurches, sacredimagesandcrosses. FromtheEasternRomanEmpire,thePaulicianandBogomildoctrinespenetratedintoWesternEurope.(See10and12foramoredetailedaccount.) Thedoctrinesofthe"pantheistic"trendcanalsobetracedtothegnosticheresies.Epiphanes,aChristianwriterofthefourthcentury,describessectswhicharestrikingly similartothemedievalAdamites.(Hehimselfbelongedatonetimetosuchagroup.)Onehundredyearslater,Hyppolitusreportsananalogousteachingamongthesectof Simonians.Inbothcases,blackmasseswerepracticed,accompaniedbyanostentatiousdisregardformoralnorms,allofwhichwasmeanttorevealthesuperhuman characterof"thepossessorofgnosis."(16:p.77) Thereisampleevidenceofnumerouslinksamongthedoctrines [68] ofthedifferentsects.Wehavealreadymentioned,forexample,thatthenotionofthe"divinity"oftheFreeSpiritswasadevelopmentoftheexclusivepositionofthe perfecti amongtheCathars.SomehistoriansbelievethattheFreeSpiritsactuallyoriginatedamongtheCathars.InthisconnectionwealsonoteJ.VanMierlo'sargument thatthetermsbeginus andbegine derivefrom"Albigensis."(15:p.24.TheBeghardsandBeguineswerethemainsourcefromwhichfollowersofthe"FreeSpirits"were drawn.) IthasfurthermorebeenestablishedthattheFreeSpiritsinfluencedtheWaldenses,specificallyintheorganizationofthelatterintoanarrowcircleofleadersorApostles (who,accordingtothedoctrineofthesect,receivedtheirauthorityfromtheangels,regularlyvisitedparadiseandcontemplatedGod).Theclosenessofthetwosectsis illustratedbytheexampleofNicholasofBasel,whoisvariouslyassigned,byscholarsthoroughlyversedinthematerial,toeithertheFreeSpiritsortheWaldenses. ThePetrobrusiansectisanotherlinkbetweentheCatharsandtheWaldenses.DllingerandRuncimanconsiderthemtobepartoftheCatharmovement,whileother historiansrefertothemaspredecessorsoftheWaldenses.Finally,therearenumerousindicationsthatWaldensesandAnabaptistsaretwonamesgivenatdifferent periodstopeopleinthesamemovement.LudwigKellerdevotedanumberofworkstoelucidatingtheconnectionsbetweentheWaldensesandtheAnabaptists.He bringsforwardnumerousargumentstoprovethattheyareinfactthesame.(See24and26.) Theimpressionofdiversitycreatedbythegreatvarietyofnamescannotbetakenasproofofthesects'distinctness.Theirnameswere,forthemostpart,coinedbytheir enemiesafteraninfluentialpreacheratagiventime(PetrobrusiansfromPeterofBruysHeinrichiansfromHeinrichofToulouseWaldensiansfromValdesOrtliebarians fromOrtlieb,etc.,justasthetermLutheranlaterderivedfromLuther).Themembersofthesectscalledoneanother"Brethren,""God'speople,""friendsofGod."Thelast termwasused,forinstance,byWaldensesandAnabaptistsinGermanyaslateasthesixteenthcentury Gottesfreunde, whichalsohappenstobeanexacttranslationof theWord"Bogomil." Astrikingfeaturethatcharacterizesalmostallthegroupsinthehereticalmovementistherejectionofbaptismoftheyoungandtherelatedintroductionofasecondbaptism foradults.TheJustinianCode [69] (sixthcentury)alreadycontainsclausesagainsthereticswhopreachasecondbaptism.SecondbaptismismentionedrepeatedlyintheproceedingsoftheInquisitionandin thewritingsdenouncingtheCatharsandtheWaldenses.ThepracticegivestheAnabaptiststheirnameandsurvivestodayamongtheBaptists. Thesectariansthemselvesinsistedonthecontinuityofthehereticalmovement.Inthefirstplace,theyassertedtheirancientoriginsfromthedisciplesoftheApostlesor fromtheChristianswhorefusedobediencetoPopeSylvesteranddidnotacceptthebequestofEmperorConstantine.IntheannalsoftheToulouseInquisitionfor1311, thereisthetestimonyofaWaldensianweaverwhopresentedsuchaversionofthesect'sorigin,quitetraditionalalreadyatthattime.(24:pp.1819)Accordingtothe Waldensiantradition,Valdeswasnotthefounderoftheirchurch.Forexample,theycalledPeterofBruys,wholivedinthefirsthalfofthetwelfthcentury,"oneof ours."(Valdespreachedinthesecondhalfofthecentury.)ThispointofviewistypicalnotonlyfortheWaldensesforinstance,theAnabaptistlistofmartyrs(whichwas alsoacceptedbytheMennonitesasearlyastheseventeenthcentury)beginswithdescriptionsofthepersecutionofWaldenseswhichtookplacecenturiesbeforethe Reformation.(24:p.364) Finally,theheretics'enemies,thosewhoassailedtheirdoctrines,aswellastherepresentativesoftheInquisitors,allemphasizedtheunityofthehereticalmovement.St. BernardofClairvaux(twelfthcentury),whowaswellversedinthecontemporaryheresies,declaredthattheteachingoftheCatharscontainednothingnewbutmerely repeatedancienterrors.IntheworkofaRomanInquisitorknownasthe"pseudoRaynier"(1250),wereadthefollowing:"Amongthesectsthereisnonemoredangerous totheChurchthantheLeonites.Andforthreereasons:First,itisthemostancientofsects.SomesaythatitgoesbacktothetimeofPopeSylvester,otherstothe Apostles.Further,thereisnocountrywheretheyarenotmetwith."(24:p.5)Bullinger,whowroteabouttheAnabaptistsin1560,says:"Manybasicandgraveerrorsof theirstheysharewiththeancientsectsofNovatians,Cathars,withAuxentiusandPelagius."(25:p.270)CardinalHosius(15041570),whofoughtthehereticsofhisday, wrote:"StillmoreharmfulisthesectofAnabaptists,ofwhichkindweretheWaldensianBrethrenalso,whostillrecentlypracticedthesecondbaptism.Itisnotyesterday northedaybeforeyesterdaythatthisheresygrewupithasexistedsinceAugustine'stime."(25:p.267)Inthe Substantial [70]

    totheChurchthantheLeonites.Andforthreereasons:First,itisthemostancientofsects.SomesaythatitgoesbacktothetimeofPopeSylvester,otherstothe Apostles.Further,thereisnocountrywheretheyarenotmetwith."(24:p.5)Bullinger,whowroteabouttheAnabaptistsin1560,says:"Manybasicandgraveerrorsof theirstheysharewiththeancientsectsofNovatians,Cathars,withAuxentiusandPelagius."(25:p.270)CardinalHosius(15041570),whofoughtthehereticsofhisday, wrote:"StillmoreharmfulisthesectofAnabaptists,ofwhichkindweretheWaldensianBrethrenalso,whostillrecentlypracticedthesecondbaptism.Itisnotyesterday northedaybeforeyesterdaythatthisheresygrewupithasexistedsinceAugustine'stime."(25:p.267)Inthe Substantial [70] andConciseHistoryoftheMnsterRebellion (1589),theAnabaptistsarereferredtobyseveralnames,includingCatharsandApostolicBrethren.(25:p.247)Inhis Chronicle (1531),SebastianFranckspeaksoftheconnectionamongtheBohemianBrethren,theWaldensesandtheAnabaptists:"Picards,whooriginatewithVaIdes, formaspecialChristianfolkorsectinBohemia....Theyaredividedintotwoorthreegroupsthelargest,asmalleroneandthesmallest.TheseresembleAnabaptistsin everything....Theynumberabouteightythousand."(26:p.57)Similarevidencecouldbecitedatlength. ThenotionofaunityamongorganizedhereticalmovementsisalsotemptinginthatitmakesmorecomprehensiblethemiracleoftheReformation,whenwithinafewyears organizations,leadersandwriterscropupallacrossEurope.LinksbetweentheleadersoftheReformation(initsearlyphase)andthehereticalmovementsarequite probable.ThiswasassertedbyopponentsoftheReformation.Forinstance,duringadisputationattheReichstaginWorms,thepapalnuncioreproachedLuther:"Mostof yourdoctrinesarethealreadydiscardedheresiesoftheBeghards,Waldensians,LyonsPaupers,WyclifitesandHussites."(25:pp.122123)Neitherdidtheleadersof theReformationdenytheseties.Forexample,intheepistle"TotheChristianNobilityoftheGermanNation"(1520)Lutherwrites:"Itishightimeforustotakeup seriouslyandfranklythecauseoftheBohemianssothatwecanunitewiththemandtheywithus."(25:p.126)AndZwingliwritestoLutherin1527:"Manypeople,even earlier,understoodtheessenceofevangelicreligionasclearlyasyoudo.ButofallIsraelnoonedaredtoenterthebattle,fortheyfearedthismightyGoliath."(26:p.9)It isthoughtlikelythatZwinglibelongedtothecommunityofBrethreninZrich,breakingwiththemaround1524.Lutherapparentlyalsohadcontactsinthesecircles.The firstimpetustohissubsequentrupturewiththeCatholicChurchwasgivenhimwhenhewasstillanunknownyoungmonk.JohannStaupitz,thegeneralvicarofthe AugustinianOrder,tooknoticeofhiminoneofhistoursofinspection.StaupitzwashighlyesteemedamongtheBrethren.Inaworkoftheday,forexample,itisevensaid thathemightbedestined"toleadtheNewIsraeloutofEgyptiancaptivity,"i.e.,tosavethesocietiesoftheBrethrenfrompersecution.Staupitz'sinfluenceonLutherwas exceptionalatthetime.Lutherlatersaidthatitwashewho"firstlitthelightoftheGospel"inhisheartandraisedhis"danderagainstthePope."LutherwrotetoStaupitz: "Youleaveme [71] toooften.Becauseofyou,Iwaslikeadesertedchildpiningforitsmother.Ibeseechyou,blesstheLord'screationinmealso,asinfulman."(25:p.133)Itwasonly beginningwith1522thatcertaindifferencesbetweenthetwocametolight,culminating,in15241525,inafinalbreak. AstrikingpictureemergesofamovementthatlastedforfifteencenturiesdespitepersecutionbythedominantChurchandbysecularauthorities.*Apreciselyfixedsetof religiousideasaffectingthegeneralattitudetowardlifewaspreservedvirtuallyunchanged,oftendowntothesmallestdetail.Throughoutthisperiod,thetraditionofsecret ordinationofbishopswasunbrokengeneralquestionsofimporttothemovementweredecidedat"synods,"andwanderingApostlestookthedecreestodistantsocieties. Onadmittancetothesect,theinitiatesweregivennewnamesknownonlytotheirclosedgroup.Secretsignswereused(forinstance,whenshakinghands)sothebrethren couldrecognizeoneanother.Houseswerealsomarkedbysecretsignssothattravelingmemberscouldfindaccommodationswiththeirkind.Amongthesectariansitwas saidthatyoucouldtravelfromEnglandtoRome,stayingonlyathousesoffellowsectariansalongtheway.Therewereclosetiesamongthenationalbranchesofthe movement.SynodswereattendedbyrepresentativesfromalloverWesternarIdCentralEuropeliteraturewassentfromcountrytocountry.Therewasmutualfinancial assistanceduringtimesofcalamitypeoplewouldstreaminfromothercountriestohelptheirbrethren. Thustherearegroundsforattemptingtoestablishacommonideologicalunderpinningfortheentiremovementinordertodeterminetheplaceoftheideasofchiliastic socialisminthesedoctrines. Oneofthefundamentaltraitsobservedthroughoutthehistoryofthesectswastheirhostilitytowardsecularauthoritythe"world"andespeciallytowardtheCatholic Church.Thiscouldbeactiveorpassive,andcouldfindexpressionincallsto"exterminatethegodless,"tokillthePopeorannihilatetheWhoreofBabylon(theChurch), orinprohibitionsofanykindofintercoursewiththeoutsideworld. ThiswastheissuethatledtothebreakbetweentheleadersoftheReformation,LutherandZwingli,andthe"Brethren."TheAnabaptist

    *Ouraimistodeterminethefundamentalprinciplesthatrelatethedoctrinesofthevarioussects.Wemust,therefore,leavetoonesidetheinterestingquestionofpreciselyhow theresemblancecameintobeing:whereitwasamatterofdirectsuccession,whereofliteraryinfluenceandinwhatcasesitwasengenderedbysimilarityofhistorical circumstance.

    [72] "Chronicles"for1525read:"TheChurch,longsuppressed,hasbeguntoraiseitshead....Asthoughtheyhadusedthunderbolts,Luther,Zwingliandtheirfollowershave destroyedeverything,buttheydidnotcreateanythingbetter....Theyletinalittlelight,buttheydidnotgoontotheendbutjoinedthesecularpowers....Andtherefore, althoughtherehadbeenagoodbeginningbyGod'swill,thelightofthetruthwasagainextinguishedinthem."(29:p.364) Thehereticalmovement,thoroughlyhostiletothesurroundingworld,flaresupfromtimetotimewithanallconsumingblazeofhatred.Suchoutbreaksareseparatedby intervalsofalittlemorethanacentury:themovementfosteredbyDolcinoaround1300,theHussitemovementthatstartedafterHuswasburnedatthestakein1415,the aggressiveformthatAnabaptismassumedinthe1520s,andtheEnglishrevolutionof16401660.Intheseperiodswealsoobservesocialistideasintheirstarkestforms. Atothertimesthesetendenciesaremuffled,andweencountersectsthatrejectviolenceandteachingsthatcontainnosocialistambitionswhatsoever.(TheWaldensian doctrineisanextremeexample.)Itisinteresting,however,thatthetwoextremesofthehereticalmovementwerecloselyinterwoventheycannotbeclearlydistinguished. Attimes,infact,asectswitchedfromoneextremetotheotherovernight.ThuswelearnthattheCathars,whosedoctrineforbadeanyviolence,in1174attemptedacoup inFlorence.Merelytouchingaweapon,evenforselfdefense,wasconsideredasin,yetatthesametimethereweregroupsamongtheCatharswhopermittedplunder andexpropriationofchurches.HistoriansexplaineventsforeshadowingtheAlbigensianwarsintermsofthissortofabruptreversal,asmorepeacefulgroupscomeunder theinfluenceofmoreaggressiveones:theCathars,whohadbeenforbiddeneventokillananimal,suddenlyeruptedinamilitantspiritthatsweptthemintoawarlasting morethanthirtyyears.Atcertainperiods,theWaldenses,consideredthemostpeacefulgroup,burnedthehousesofpriestswhopreachedagainsttheirdoctrine.They alsokilledindividualswholefttheranks,ortheyplacedpricesontheirheads.AsimilarabruptshiftcanbeseenintheApostolicBrethren.Amongtheteachingsascribed tothemisaprohibitionagainstviolencekillingamanWasconsideredamortalsin.Thisprinciplewassoontransformedsothatpersecutionofthesectwasthecapitalsin, whileanykindofactionagainstthefoesofthetruefaithwaspermitted.Andacallfor [73] thedestructionofthegodlesswasraisedaswell.(9:II:p.397)ThesameabruptshiftoccurredwiththeAnabaptistsinSwitzerlandandinsouthernGermanyatthe beginningoftheReformation.Apparentlyitwaspossibleforasecttoexistintwostates,"militant"and"peaceful,"andthetransitionfromonestatetotheothercould

    tothemisaprohibitionagainstviolencekillingamanWasconsideredamortalsin.Thisprinciplewassoontransformedsothatpersecutionofthesectwasthecapitalsin, whileanykindofactionagainstthefoesofthetruefaithwaspermitted.Andacallfor [73] thedestructionofthegodlesswasraisedaswell.(9:II:p.397)ThesameabruptshiftoccurredwiththeAnabaptistsinSwitzerlandandinsouthernGermanyatthe beginningoftheReformation.Apparentlyitwaspossibleforasecttoexistintwostates,"militant"and"peaceful,"andthetransitionfromonestatetotheothercould happensuddenly,andforallpracticalpurposesinstantaneously. Thehereticalworldview,initshatredfortheChurchandthewayoflifeitengendered,canbeunderstoodultimatelyasanantithesistotheideologyofmedieval Catholicism.TheMiddleAgesrepresentastupendouseffortonthepartofWesternEuropeanhumanitytobuilditslifeonthebasisofloftyspiritualvalues,tocomprehend lifeasawaytowardachievingtheidealsofChristianity.Itwasaquestionofreforminghumansocietyandtheworld,withtheaimoftheirtransfigurationintoahigherstate. ThereligiousprinciplethatunderlaythisworldviewwasthedoctrineoftheincarnationofChrist,aneventthatilluminatedthephysicalworldbymeansofaunionofthe divineandthematerial.Inthisway,thecourseofhumanactionwasindicated.ActualdirectionwasinthehandsoftheCatholicChurchandresteduponthedoctrineofthe Churchasamysticalunionofthefaithful,embracingthelivingandthedead.Prayersforthedeadwerebasedonthisteaching,aswereappealsfortheintercessionofthe saints,sinceallthiswasseenasvariousformsofcommunicationbetweenmembersofoneChurch. ThegoalsWesternmanhadsetforhimselfwerenotachieved.Undoubtedly,inthiscaseaswithanyphenomenonofsuchscope,the basic causeoffailurewasinternal, a resultoffreechoice,ofthatwhichinrelationtotheCatholicChurchmaybecalleditssin.Muchhasbeensaidonthissubject,andweshallonlymentionthefrequently encounteredpointofviewaccordingtowhichthefatefuldecisionfortheChurchhadbeeninchoosingthe means forachievingthegoal.Theforcesoftheworldbecame suchmeanspower,wealth,coerciveauthority.Butitmustnotbeforgottenthatthischoicewasmadeinanatmosphereofunceasingstruggleagainstforceshostileto Catholicism.Furthermore,theseforceswere external, andservedasasubstantialthoughnotamaincauseofthefailurethathadovertakentheCatholicChurch.Among suchforces,nottheleastwerethehereticalmovements.Theiractivitiesbelongtothatborderareawhereitissodifficulttodistinguishbetweenthefreeseekingafter spiritualtruthandaconspiracyhavingasitsaimtheforciblediversion [74] ofmankindfromitschosenpath.Wehaveseeninstancesofthewaythatabstractmysticalteachingscouldbeinterpreted,evenasinglegenerationlater,asabasisforthe destructionofchurchesandcrucifixes,asalicenseforthekillingofmonksandpriests.Thecommonpeople,inturn,respondedtohereticalteachingwithoutbreaksof violenceagainsttheheretics.ThesewereatfirstcondemnedbytheChurch,butgraduallymutualbitterness,fearoftheheretics'growinginfluenceand,aboveall,the temptationofworldlypowerledtocampaignsagainstthehereticsandtheinstitutionoftheInquisition.Thecoursethatmedievalsocietyhadsetforitselfbecamemoreand moretwistedandtheidealsitheldbecameevermoreblurred. ThereisnodoubtthattheMiddleAgesprovidednolessreasonthanotherperiodsofhistoryfordissatisfactionwithlifeandforprotestagainstitsdarkeraspects.Buteven thoughcriticismofsocietyandoftheChurchplayedagreatroleintheheretics'message,itseemsimpossibletoregardtheheresiesasmerereactionstoinjusticeandthe imperfectionoflife.Inanycase,theheresiesthatwehavediscusseddidnotcallforthereformoftheChurchoranimprovementinworldlylife.TheAnabaptists,for example,didnotallythemselveseitherwiththeProtestantReformationortheCatholicCounterReformation(th'elatterwasquiteeffective).Instead,thedoctrineofthese sectscalledforthecompletedestructionoftheCatholicChurch,forthedestructionofsocietyasitwasknown,and,untilthisendcouldbeaccomplished,forwithdrawal fromtheworld. Itwasagainstthefundamental ideasoftheMiddleAges,whichwehaveoutlinedabove,thatalltheheresieswerecast.Theirteachingsamountedtoadownrightdenialof thepropositionsenumeratedabove,occasionallypresentedinmysticalform.TheCathardoctrineofthecreationofthematerialworldbyawickedGodorafallenspirit wasdesignedtodestroythebeliefthattheincarnationofChristhadblessedthefleshandtheworld.Theeffectwastocreateagapbetweenmaterialandspirituallifeand totearthemembersofthesectawayfromparticipationinlifeasitwasguidedbytheChurch.Inamoresymbolicform,thisjuxtapositionofGodandworldwas expressedinhatredformaterialrepresentationsofChristandGodtheFather.ItisinterestingthatoneofthemostancientoftheknownheresiesofWesternEuropeis connectedwiththis.Claudius,BishopofTurin(814839),orderedcrucifixesandsacredimagestoberemovedfromchurches.(9:II:p.50)Agobard,theBishopof Lyons,whodiedinA.D.842, [75] alsocalledforthedestructionofsacredobjects.(9:II:pp.4346)Undoubtedly,theiconoclastmovementwhichspreadthroughouttheByzantineEmpireintheeighth centurywasofthesameorigin.WementiononlyinpassingthataleadingroleinthismovementwasplayedbyPaulicians,theimmediatepredecessorsoftheCathars.The sametendencytoseverthetiesbetweenGodandtheworld,betweenspiritandmatter,ledtothedenialofresurrectionofthefleshtypicaloftheCathars.TheWaldensian hostilitytograveyardsandtheirtraditionofburyingtheirdeadinwastelandsorcourtyardsarealsorelevant. TheCathardoctrinethatgoodactsdonotleadtosalvationand,asasourceofpride,arepositivelyharmfulwasdirectedagainstindividualparticipationinlife.The prohibitionsagainstcarryingarms,takingoathsandgoingtocourt,whichwerecommonamongCatharsandWaldenses,hadasimilarfunction.Catharsofsomegroups wereforbiddenallcontactwithlaymen,exceptforattemptstoconvertthem. TheideasoftheFreeSpiritsandtheAdamiteswereevenmoreradicaldenialofproperty,family,stateandallmoralnorms.The"divine"leadersofthesectclearly pretendedtoamuchhigherpositioninlifethandidtheCatholicclergy.Atthesametime,theirideologydeniedallhierarchy,notonlyonearth,butinheavenaswell.The polemicaldeclarationsthattheywereequaltoGodinallthings,thattheycouldperformmiraclesandthatChristhadachievedastateof"godliness"onlyonthecrossareto betakeninpreciselythissense. Thedenialofbaptismforyoungchildren,commontoalmostallthesects,wasbasedontheirrejectioninprincipleoftheChurchasamysticunion.Initsplacetheyset theirownsect,admissionintowhichwasaccompaniedbybaptismpermittedsolelytoadultswhoconsciouslyaccepteditsprinciples.Thus,incontrasttotheCatholic Church,thesectwasaconsciousunionoflikemindedpeople. Alltheseindividualthesescanbereducedtooneaim:overcomingtheconjunctionofGodandtheworld,GodandMan,whichhadbeenaccomplishedthroughChrist's incarnation(thefundamentalprincipleofChristianity,atleastinitstraditionalinterpretation).Thereweretwowaystoachievethis:denialoftheworldordenialofGod.The firstpathwastakenbytheManicheansandthegnosticsects,whoseteachingsconcededtheworldtothedomainofanevilGodandrecognizedasthesolegoaloflifethe liberationfrommatter(forthosecapableofit).Thepantheisticsects,onthecontrary,notonlydidnotrenouncetheworld,butproclaimedtheidealofthedominion [76] overit(again,forachosenfew,whileothers,the"rude"folk,wereincludedinthecategoryoftheworld).Intheirteachingsitispossibletofindtheprototypeoftheideaof "subjugatingnature"whichbecamesopopularinsubsequentperiods.ThedominionovertheworldwasconsideredpossiblenotthroughthecarryingoutofGod'swill but bydenyingGodandbytransformationofthe"FreeSpirits"themselvesintogods.Thesocialmanifestationofthisideologycanbeseenintheextremetrendsofthe Taboritemovement.Finally,theAnabaptistsapparentlytriedtofindasynthesisofthesetendencies.Intheir"militant"phase,theypreachedthedominionoftheelectover theworldmoreover,theideasofdominioncompletelyovershadowedtheChristianfeaturesoftheirworldview(forexample,Mntzerwrotethathisteachingswere equallycomprehensibletoChristians,Jews,Turksandheathens).Intheir"peaceful"phase,ascanbeseenintheexampleoftheMoravianBrethren,withdrawalfromthe

    overit(again,forachosenfew,whileothers,the"rude"folk,wereincludedinthecategoryoftheworld).Intheirteachingsitispossibletofindtheprototypeoftheideaof "subjugatingnature"whichbecamesopopularinsubsequentperiods.ThedominionovertheworldwasconsideredpossiblenotthroughthecarryingoutofGod'swill but bydenyingGodandbytransformationofthe"FreeSpirits"themselvesintogods.Thesocialmanifestationofthisideologycanbeseenintheextremetrendsofthe Taboritemovement.Finally,theAnabaptistsapparentlytriedtofindasynthesisofthesetendencies.Intheir"militant"phase,theypreachedthedominionoftheelectover theworldmoreover,theideasofdominioncompletelyovershadowedtheChristianfeaturesoftheirworldview(forexample,Mntzerwrotethathisteachingswere equallycomprehensibletoChristians,Jews,Turksandheathens).Intheir"peaceful"phase,ascanbeseenintheexampleoftheMoravianBrethren,withdrawalfromthe worldwaspredominant:acondemnationoftheworldandabreakingofalltieswithit. Theideasofchiliasticsocialismconstitutedanorganicpartofthisoutlook.Thedemandstoabolishprivateproperty,family,stateandallhierarchiesinthesocietyofthe timeaimedtoexcludetheparticipantsofthemovementfromthesurroundinglife.Thishadtheeffectofplacingtheminahostile,antagonisticrelationshipwiththe"world." Inspiteofthefactthatthesedemandsdidnotoccupyaquantitativelylargeplaceintheoverallideologyofthehereticalsects,theyweresocharacteristicofitthatthey couldservetoagreatextentasaninherentdistinguishingfeatureofthewholemovement.ThusDllinger,whomwehavealreadycited,characterizestheattitudeofthe sectstowardlifeasfollows:"EachhereticaldoctrinethatappearedintheMiddleAgesbore,inopenorconcealedform,arevolutionarycharacterinotherwords,hadit cometopower,itwouldhavebeenobligedtodestroytheexistingstatestructureandimplementapoliticalandsocialrevolution.Thegnosticsects,Catharsand Albigenses,whoprovokedthesevereandimplacablemedievallawsagainstheresiesbytheiractivities,andwithwhomabloodystrugglewascarriedon,Weresocialist andcommunist.Theyattackedmarriage,thefamilyandproperty.Hadtheybeenvictorious,theresultwouldhavebeenatraumaticsocialdislocationandarelapseinto barbarism.ItisobvioustoanyonefamiliarwiththeperiodthattheWaldenseswiththeirdoctrinaldenialofoathsandcriminallawcouldalsonothavefoundaplacefor themselvesintheEuropeansocietyoftheday."(41:pp.5051) [77] Intheperiodwhensocialistideasweredevelopingwithintheframeworkoftheideologyofthehereticalmovements,theyacquiredaseriesofnewfeatureswhichcannot befoundinantiquity.Inthisepoch,socialismturnedfromatheoretical,scholasticdoctrineintoarallyingpointandamotivatingforcebehindbroadpopularmovements. Antiquityknewharshnationalcatastrophesthatculminatedintheruinationofstates.Themostimpoverishedgroupsofthepopulationdidonoccasionseizepower,killthe richoroustthemfromtownspropertywastakenanddivided:inKerkirain427B.C.,inSamosin412andinSyracusein317.InSparta,KingNabis,in206B.C., dividedamonghisfollowersnotonlythepropertybutalsothewivesoftherich.However,thepopularmovementsofantiquitydidnotknowtheslogansof communality ofproperty, communality ofwives,andtheywerenotdirectedagainstreligion.AllthesetraitsemergeintheMiddleAges. Socialistdoctrinesthemselveschange,acquiringanintolerant,embitteredanddestructivecharacter. Theideaofdividingmankindintothe"doomed"andthe"elect"makesitsappearance,followedbycallstodestroythe"godless"orthe"enemiesofChrist,"i.e.,the opponentsofthemovement. Socialistideologyisimbuedwiththenotionofacomingfundamentalbreak,oftheendanddestructionoftheoldworldandthebeginningofaneworder.Thisconceptis interwovenwiththeideaof"imprisonment"and"liberation,"which,beginningwiththeCathars,isunderstoodasimprisonmentofthesoulinmatterandasliberationinthe otherworld.Later,theAmalriciansandtheFreeSpiritssawtheideaasspiritualliberationthroughtheachievementof"godliness"inthisworld.Andfinally,theTaborites andtheAnabaptistsconceivedofitasmaterialliberationfromthepowerofthe"evilones"andastheestablishmentofthedominionofthe"elect." Furthermore,socialistideasinthisepochmergewiththeconceptofuniversalhistoryderivedprincipallyfromJoachimofFlore.Therealizationofthesocialistidealis connectednotwiththedecisionofawiseruler,asinPlato'sconception,butisunderstoodastheresultofapredeterminedprocessencompassingallhistoryand independentofthewillofindividuals. Aneworganizationalstructureisevolvedaswellsocialistideasdevelopwithinitandattemptsaremadetoimplementthem.Thisisasectwiththestandard"concentric" structureanarrowcircleof [78] leaderswhoareinitiatedintoallaspectsofthedoctrineandawidecircleofsympathizerswhoareacquaintedonlywithsomeofitsaspects.Thelattergrouptendstobe linkedwiththesectbytiesofanemotionalcharacterwhicharedifficulttodescribeprecisely. Theleadingroleinthedevelopmentofsocialismpassestoanewtypeofindividual.Thehermeticthinkerandphilosopherisreplacedbytheferventandtirelesspublicist andorganizer,anexpertinthetheoryandpracticeofdestruction.Thisstrangeandcontradictoryfigurewillreappearinsubsequenthistoricalepochs.Heisamanof seeminglyinexhaustibleenergywhensuccessful,butapitifulandterrifiednonentitythemomenthisluckturnsagainsthim. Inclosingthischapter,weturnourattentiontoaninterestingandapparentlyessentialmattersomethingthereaderhasundoubtedlynoted:theprofounddependenceof socialistideology(intheformsitattainedintheMiddleAges)onChristianity.Inalmostallsocialistmovements,theideaofequalitywasfoundedontheequalityofall peoplebeforeGod.ItwasstandardpracticetorefertothecommunityofApostlesinJerusalemasamodelfoundedontheprinciplesofcommunality.ItistoChristianity thatsocialismowesitsconceptofahistoricgoal,theideaofthesinfulnessoftheworld,itscomingendandtheLastJudgment.Suchacloselinkcanhardlybeexplained bythedesiretobeinaccordwithacceptedauthorityor(asEngelshasargued)bythefactthatthelanguageofreligionwastheonlyavailableidiominwhichtoexpress generalhistoricalconceptions.ThefactthatsocialismborrowedsomeofitsfundamentalideasfromChristianityshowsthatthiswasamatternotofmeretransferencebut ofadeeperinteraction.TheexistenceofcertainrelatedelementsinChristianityandsocialismisindicated,forexample,bythephenomenonofthemonastery,whichseems torealizesocialistprincipleswithinChristianity(e.g.,theabolitionofprivatepropertyandofmarriage).Itwouldbeextremelyimportanttodiscerntheaspectssharedby Christianityandsocialism,totracehowtheChristianconceptsareredirectedwithinsocialismandultimatelyturnintoadenialofthefundamentalprinciplesofChristianity (forexample,whenGod'sjudgmentovertheworldisreinterpretedasthejudgmentofthe"elect"overtheirenemies,orwhentheresurrectionofthedeadistranslatedinto "deification"inthesectofFreeSpirits).Suchananalysiswouldundoubtedlyexplainagreatdealaboutsocialistideology. [79]

    III. TheSocialism ofthePhilosophers


    1.TheGreatUtopias
    TheEnglishrevolutionoftheseventeenthcenturywasthelastoccasionwhenthehereticalmovementappearedasoneofthemajorforcesshapingthecourseofhistory. Inlateryears,thechiliasticsectsthathadshakenEuropebecametransformedintosuchpeaceablemovementsasthoseoftheMennonites,theBaptistsandtheQuakers. Thesocialistideasofthemedievalsectsliveon,albeitinpeacefulform,intheirsuccessors.ThemostgraphicmanifestationoftheseideasarethenumerouScommunist

    ofthePhilosophers
    1.TheGreatUtopias
    TheEnglishrevolutionoftheseventeenthcenturywasthelastoccasionwhenthehereticalmovementappearedasoneofthemajorforcesshapingthecourseofhistory. Inlateryears,thechiliasticsectsthathadshakenEuropebecametransformedintosuchpeaceablemovementsasthoseoftheMennonites,theBaptistsandtheQuakers. Thesocialistideasofthemedievalsectsliveon,albeitinpeacefulform,intheirsuccessors.ThemostgraphicmanifestationoftheseideasarethenumerouScommunist settlementsfoundedbythesesectsinAmericaduringtheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies.Hereweencounterattemptstoimplementfamiliarsocialistideals: communalityofproperty,thebanonmarriageandfamily(expressedeitherascelibacyorascommunalityofwivesandcommunalupbringingofchildren).Butthesocialist ideasthemselvesacquireanewcolorationtheylosetheiraggressiveness.Alesserroleisassignedtopropagandizingthedoctrine,andthecenterofgravityistransferred tothelifeoftheisolatedcommunity.Thankstothis,theinfluenceofthesocialistdoctrinedoesnotinthesecasesextendbeyondthelimitsofthecommunitiesthatprofess them.Inthisform,socialistideaslosetheirincendiaryforceandceasetoinspiremassivepopularmovements. Thedevelopmentofsocialistideasdidnotcease,ofcourse.Onthecontrary,intheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,socialistwritingsliterallyfloodedEurope.But theseideaswereproducedby [80] differentcircumstancesandbymenofadifferentmentality.ThepreacherandthewanderingApostlegavewaytoapublicistandphilosopher.Religiousexaltationand referencestorevelationwerereplacedbyappealstoreason.Theliteratureofsocialismacquiredapurelysecularandrationalisticcharacternewmeansofpopularization weredevised:worksonthisthemenowfrequentlyappearundertheguiseofvoyagestounknownlands,interlardedwithfrivolousepisodes.Bythesametoken,the audiencetowhomthemessageisaddressedisalsodifferent.Itisnolongerpitchedtopeasantsorcraftsmenbuttothewellreadandeducatedpublic.Thussocialism renouncesforatimeadirectinfluenceonthebroadmasses.ItisasifafterfailinginitsdirectassaultonChristiancivilization,themovementlaunchesanevasivemaneuver whichlastsforseveralcenturies.Itisonlyattheveryendoftheeighteenthcenturythatsocialismonceagaincomesoutintothestreet,andwemeetwithafreshattemptto createapopularmovementbasedonitsideology.* ThisbreakinthedevelopmentofsocialistideashadbeguntotakeshapefarearlierthantheEnglishrevolutionoftheseventeenthcentury.Inthebeginningofthesixteenth century,atthetimeofthefirsttentativestepsoftheReformation,aworkappearedthatexhibitednumerousfeaturesofthenewsocialistliteratureThomasMore's Utopia. Inthisworkwefirstmeettheliterarydevicesthatarelatertobecomestandarde.g.,adescriptionoftraveltoafarofflandandthediscoveryofapreviously unknown,exoticplacewheretheidealsofsocialismhavebeenrealized.Notsurprisingly,thetitleofthisworkhasbecomeoneofthetermsdenotingtheteachingasa whole"utopiansocialism."

    *Itwouldbeinterestingtoinvestigatetherelationbetweenthesetwoperiodsinthedevelopmentofsocialistideaswithinthehereticalmovementandwithintheframeworkof Enlightenmentliterature.Whatistheinfluenceoftheformerperiodonthelatter?Throughwhatchannelswasthetraditiontransmitted?Theauthorisawareofonlyonehistorian whohasstudiedthisquestionLudwigKeller,whodevotedaseriesofworkstoit.Kellerpointsouttwoavenuesbywhichthisoccurredthefirstbeingtheguildsand workshops,whichwerecloselytiedtothehereticalmovementsthroughouttheMiddleAgesandprovidedarefugeforpersecutedheretics.Thischannelofinfluenceleadstothe MasonicmovementandthroughittothewritersandphilosophersoftheEnlightenment.Thesecondinvolvestheacademiesof"poets"and"philosophers"oftheRenaissance andHumanism.OfparticularinterestarethecausesofsuchasharpandsuddenbreakinthecharacterofchiliasticsocialismandthedeclineofhereticalmOvementsingeneral. Asoneobviousexplanation,wecanpointtothevictoryoftheReformation,whichhadachievedmuchofthatwhichthesectshaddemanded(inparticular,itsatisfiedthose sectsthathadnotsetthemselvesthegoalofdestroyingtheentiresocialstructure)andtherebydecreasedthedestructiveforceofthesectarianmovement.

    [81] Utopia byThomasMore. Thisbookwasfirstpublished(inLatin)in1516,anditscompletetitleis:"ATrulyGoldenHandbook,NoLessBeneficialthanEntertaining,AbouttheBestStateofthe CommonwealthandtheNewIslandofUtopia."Atthetime,itsauthorwasaninfluentialEnglishstatesmanwithabrilliantcareer.In1529,MorebecameLordChancellor ofEngland,thefirstofficebelowtheking.Butin1534heemergedasastrongopponentoftheChurchreformthatwasbeingcarriedoutbyHenryVIII.Herefusedto swearallegiancetothekingasheadofthenewlycreatedAnglicanChurch,wasaccusedofhightreasonandbeheadedin1535.Fourcenturieslater,in1935,hewas canonizedbytheCatholicChurch. Utopia iswrittenintheformofaconversationamongtheauthor,hisfriendPeterGiles,andthetravelerRaphaelHythloday(Hythlodaeus).Hythlodayhadseentheworld andwasakeenobserveroflife.TakingpartinthevoyageofAmerigoVespucci,hewasleft,athisownrequest,withafewcompanions"nearthelimitsofthelast voyage."Afterwanderingoverseasandwastelands,HythlodaycameupontheislandofUtopia,wherehefoundastateorganizedaccordingtothejustlawsestablished longagobythewiselegislatorUtopus.InordertoappraisecorrectlytheimpressionmadebyUtopia oncontemporaries,weoughttobearinmindthatitwaswrittenin theverybeginningoftheageofdiscovery,beforeDefoe'sandSwift'sgreatnovels. ThewholeofUtopia relatesonewayoranothertotwosubjects:criticismofcontemporaryEuropeansocietyandadescriptionoftheidealstateontheislandofUtopia. Thiscorrespondsroughlytothedivisionoftheworkintotwoparts.ThecentralthesisofthefirstsectionisthatcontemporaryEuropeanstatesaretoolsofthemercenary interestsoftherich: "WhenIweighinmymindalltheotherstateswhichflourishtoday,sohelpmeGod,Icandiscovernothingbutaconspiracyoftherich,whopursuetheirown aggrandizementunderthenameandtitleoftheCommonwealth."(42:p.138)* Thetruesourceofthissituationisprivatepropertyandmoney: "But,MasterMore,tospeakplainlywhatisinmymind,aslongasthereisprivatepropertyandwhilemoneyisthestandardofallthings,Idonotthinkthatanationcan begovernedeitherjustlyor

    *QuotationsfromMorearebasedprimarilyontheEnglishtranslationofH.V.S.Ogden.PagereferencesaretotheRussianedition.

    [82] happily."(42:p.73)"Aslongasprivatepropertyremains,thelargestandbyfarthebestpartofmankindwillbeoppressedwithaninescapableloadofcaresand

    *QuotationsfromMorearebasedprimarilyontheEnglishtranslationofH.V.S.Ogden.PagereferencesaretotheRussianedition.

    [82] happily."(42:p.73)"Aslongasprivatepropertyremains,thelargestandbyfarthebestpartofmankindwillbeoppressedwithaninescapableloadofcaresand anxieties."(42:p.74) Bywayofanexample,criminalbehaviorisdiscusseditisattributedentirelytoflawsinthesocialsystem."Whatelseisthis,Iask,butfirstmakingthemthievesandthen punishingthemforit?"(42:p.57)Thelawsofthedaywhichpunishedthieveswithdeathareconsideredtobenotonlyunjustbutineffectiveaswell.Instead,Hythloday offersthecustomshehadobservedamongpeoplelivinginthemountainsofPersia,thePolylerites."Icanfindnobettersysteminanycountry."(42:p.59)Thecustom callsforathieftobeturnedintoastateslave.Asasignofhisstatus,athief'searlobesarenotched.Thelazy"aresoonerpromptedwithblowsthanpunishmentwith fetters."(42:p.60)Finally,asameasureagainsttheescapeofslaves,informingisencouragedandrewardedbyliberty(forslaves)ormoney(forafreeman).Arunaway slavewhoiscaughtisexecutedandanyfreemanwhohelpedhimisturnedintoaslave."Youcaneasilyseehowhumaneandadvantageoustheselawsare,"concludesthe narrator.(42:p.61) ThegloomydepictionofcontemporaryEuropeiscontrastedwiththeidealstateontheislandofUtopia.More's Utopia isnodrytreatiseonpoliticalsystems,butavivid pictureoflife.Theclothingwornbytheinhabitantsisdescribed,asaretheiroccupationsandamusements,theappearanceoftheirtowns,housesandtemples.This enablesustodiscernthosetraitstheauthorwishestosingleoutasessential. Utopiaisarepublicgovernedbyelectedofficialswhoarecalled"Fathers"bytheirsubjects.Alloflifeisregulatedbythestate.Thereisnoprivatepropertyandnomoney. Theeconomyisbasedonuniversallaborconscription.Inthefirstplace,everyone(oralmostso)isobligedtoworkforacertainperiodoftimeinagriculture:"Forallmen andwomenthereisonecommonoccupationagriculture,fromwhichnooneisexempted."(42:p.83)Uponreachingacertainage,citizensaresenttoworkinthe countryside,wheretheylaborfortwoyearsbeforebeingtransferredbacktothecity.Apartfromthis,everyonelearnssomecraft,whichhepracticeswhenheisnotathis assignedwork.Workisdoneunderthesupervisionofofficialscalled"syphogrants.""Themainandsoleoccupationofthesyphograntsiscareandobservationlestanyone sitidle."(42:p.84)Thestatealsoregulatesthedistributionofthepopulationbymeansofmassresettlements. [83] "Eachcommunityconsistsofhouseholdsforthemostpartmadeupofkinsfolk....Inorderthattheircitiesmaynothavetoomanyortoofewinhabitants,theyallownocity tohaveoversixthousandhouseholds....Ifthepopulationofanyoftheircitieshappenstodeclinesomuchthatitcannotbemadegoodfromotherpartsoftheisland...the populationisbuiltupwithcitizensfromthecolonies.Thishashappenedonlytwiceinalltheirhistory,bothtimestheresultofadevastatingplague."(42:p.88) Thenarratornotesenthusiasticallytheuniformityandstandardizationofdressandwayoflife."Peoplewearthesamesortofclothesthroughouttheisland,exceptforthe distinctionswhichmarkthedifferencebetweenthemarriedandtheunmarried.Thefashionoftheclothingneverchanges."(42:p.83)"Thecolorofthecloakisthesame throughouttheisland.Furthermore,itisthenaturalcolorofwool."(42:p.87)Thereisuniformityinotherthingsaswell."Therearefiftyfourcitiesontheisland,alllarge andwellbuilt,andwiththesamelanguage,customs,institutions,andlaws.Allofthemarebuiltonthesameplan,asfarasthelocationpermits."(42:p.77)"Whoever knowsoneofthecities,willknowthemall,sincetheyareexactlyalikeinsofarastheterrainpermits."(42:p.80) Allproductsforconsumptionaredistributedatpublicstorehousesmoreover,everyonemaytakeasmuchasheneeds.Mealsaretakenincentralizedfacilities."Itisnot forbiddentoeatathome,thoughitisnotthoughtproper.Besidesnoonewouldbesofoolishastoprepareapoormealathomewhenthereisasumptuousonereadyfor himsonearathand."(42:p.90)Thedescriptionofthesecommonmealsrecallsfoodrationingmorethansimpledistribution."Thebestofeachkindoffoodisfirstserved totheelders,whoseplacesaredistinguishedbysomemark.Thentherestareservedalike.Theeldersdividethechoicebits,ofwhichthereisnotenoughtogoaround,as theywish.Thusduerespectispaidthem,yetalltherestfareaswellasthey."(42:p.91) CommonmealsaretypicalofthegeneraltendencyofthewholeoflifefortheUtopians."Soyouseenoloafingistolerated,andtherearenopretextsforlaziness,or opportunities.TherearenotavernSoralehouses,nobrothels,nochancesforcorruption,nohidingplaces,nosecretmeetings.Becausetheyliveinfullviewofall,they mustdotheiraccustomedlaborandspendtheirleisurehonorably."(42:p.92) [84] Everyhomehasfoldingdoorswhich,"easilyopenedbyhandandthenclosingofthemselves,giveadmissiontoanyone.Asaresult,nothingisprivatepropertyanywhere. Everytenyearstheyactuallyexchangetheirveryhomebylot."(42:p.81) Inordertotakeawalkoutsidethetown,itisnecessarytogetpermissionfromone'sfatherawifemustaskherhusbandandahusbandhiswife.Toleaveforanother town,permissionmustbeobtainedfromtheproperofficials."Severaltraveltogether,takingaletterfromtheprince,whichcertifiesthatpermissiontotravelhasbeen grantedandstatesthedayofreturn....Ifanymangoesoutsidehisdistrictwithoutleaveandiscaughtwithoutapassportfromtheprince,heistreatedscornfully,brought backasafugitiveandseverelypunished.Ifhedoesitagain,heismadeaslave."(42:p.93)(WeshallgivemoredetailsonslaveryinUtopiasomewhatlater.) InUtopiamarriageismonogamous,butthereisnothingtoindicatewhetheritiscontractedatthewillofthebrideandgroomorisdecidedbyparentsorofficials.Thestate doessupervisestrictlytheobservanceofchastitypriortomarriageandthefaithfulnessofthespousesafter.Anyoneguiltyofinfractionoftheserulesissoldintoslavery. Utopianscomparethecontractingofmarriagetothesellingofahorse,andforthisreason,priortoenteringintowedlock,thebrideisshowntothebridegroomnaked andhetoherfor,itisargued,isnottheblankettakenoffahorsebeforeitissold? Utopiansarenotburdenedwithheavyworktheyspendonlysixhoursadayonthejob,infact,devotingtherestofthetimetothesciences,theartsand"decent entertainment."Inspiteofthis,theyexperiencenomaterialneed.ThisisexplainedbythefactthatinEuropethelaborofthepoorcreatesricheswhichgotosupportthe idle,whileinUtopiaeveryoneworks.(TheenumerationofEuropeanidlefolkiscurious:"almostallthewomen"arefirstonthelist,nextcomepriestsandmonks,followed bylandlordsandtheirservants.) Utopiansseemtobeequalineverythinguniversalobligatorylabor,thecolorandcutofdress,housing.Butthisequalityisbynomeansabsolute.Officialsareexempted fromobligatorywork,aswellasthosewhohavebeenofficially"exemptedforprofoundstudyofthesciences."(42:p.86)Fromthisexemptedclassthescholars, ambassadors,priestsandhighofficials("tranibors")areselected.Yetelsewhereitisstatedthat"forthemostparteveryonegrowsuplearninghisfather'scraft."(42:p.83) Itseemstofollowthataclosedclass, [85] almostacaste,controlsthegovernment.Asfortherestofthecitizens,thenarratorhasthistosayofthem(speakingofthenecessityofmakinglawsthataresimpleand requirenocomplicatedinterpretation):"Thecommonfolkwiththeirslowwitsareunabletoarriveatsuchconclusions,andtheirwholelifewouldnotsufficeforit,asthey spenditearningtheirliving."(42:p.116)

    [85] almostacaste,controlsthegovernment.Asfortherestofthecitizens,thenarratorhasthistosayofthem(speakingofthenecessityofmakinglawsthataresimpleand requirenocomplicatedinterpretation):"Thecommonfolkwiththeirslowwitsareunabletoarriveatsuchconclusions,andtheirwholelifewouldnotsufficeforit,asthey spenditearningtheirliving."(42:p.116) AndthepictureofequalityisutterlydestroyedwhenwelearnthatlifeinUtopiaislargelybasedonslavery.Slavesdoallthedirtywork.Butslaveryseemstohavemore thanjustaneconomicfunction.Slavesareobtainedfromtwosources:"Theirslavesareeithertheirowncitizenswhohavebeensentencedtobondageforsomecrime,or menofothernationswhohavebeencondemnedtodeath.TheUtopiansbuythesemenatalowprice,ormoreoftenobtainthemfreeofchargeandbringthem home."(42:p.110)"Allkindsofslavesarekeptconstantlyatworkandarealwayschained.TheUtopianstreattheirnativeslavesmoreharshlythantheothers,thinking thembaseranddeservingofgreaterpunishment."(42:p.Ill)Itisthoughtthatthelaborofsuchpeoplebringsmoreusethantheirdeathwould.Atthesametime,their exampledetersothers."Ifevenafterthistreatmenttheystillrebelandputupresistance,theyareslaughteredlikewildbeasts."(42:p.114) TheaccountoftheUtopiansincludesadescriptionoftheprevailingphilosophicalviewsofthecitizens,basedastheyareonthenotionthatpleasureisthesupremegoalof life.Butpleasurecanberenounced:"Finally,theybelievewhatreligioneasilypersuadesawelldisposedmindtobelieve,thatGodrepaysthelossofashortandtransitory pleasurewithgreatandendlessjoy."(42:p.107) PerfectfreedomofconscienceprevailsinUtopia,withonlythisonereservationinstitutedbyUtopus:"Hemadeasolemnandseverelawagainstanywhosinksofarbelow thedignityofhumannatureastothinkthatthesouldieswiththebody,orthattheuniverseiscarriedalongbychancewithoutanoverrulingprovidence.TheUtopians believethatafterthislifetherearepunishmentsforwickednessandrewardsforvirtue."(42:p.128)SomeUtopiansconsiderthesuntobeagod,othersthemoon,and stillothers,certainancientheroes.Buttheyallrecognizesome"universaldeity,unknown,eternal,unfathomable,inexplicable,exceedinghumanintelligence,penetratingall thisworldnotbyitsbulkbutbyitsforce.HimtheycallTheFather."(42:p.126) [86] TheholyservicesoftheUtopiansareinkeepingwiththiskindofabstracttheism.Thetempleshavenoimagesofdeities.Theserviceconsistsofthefaithfuljoiningthe priestsinsingingpraisetoGod,tomusicalaccompaniment.Womenandmarriedmenmaybecomepriests,andpriestsmaymarry. Oflate,thenarratorinformsus,ChristianityhasbecomeknowninUtopiaandhasfoundmanyadherentsthere.Itistrue,however,thatapreacherwhohadcalledother religionspaganandthreatenedtheiradherentswitheternalfirewasarrestedandconvicted.Ofparticularinterestisthenarrator'sopinionthattherapidspreadof ChristianityinUtopiaisexplainedbytheresemblancebetweenthecommuniststructureoftheUtopianstateandthepracticesoftheancientApostoliccommunitywhich "areretainedevennowinthepurestofChristiancommunities."(42:p.127) ThereferencetothecommunistcharacterofthecommunitydescribedintheActsoftheApostleswasafavoriteargumentofthehereticalsects.Itisdifficulttoimagine whattheauthorcouldhavehadinmindwhenhespokeofthe"purestofChristiancommunities,"exceptoneoranotherofthehereticalsects. IfwelookuponMoreasamartyrwhogavehislifefortheidealsoftheCatholicChurch,itisstrikinghowremotehisUtopiaisfromanysuchideals.Inadditiontothe sympatheticdescriptionofahedonisticworldviewandofacolorlesstheisticreligion,itispossibletofinddirect,ifdiscreet,attacksonChristianityandthePope. Apparentlynoonehasyetsucceededinexplainingawaythisdisparity. ButifUtopia isconsideredasaworkofchiliasticsocialistliterature,itseemssurprisinglymoderate.Thereisnomentionofanyabolitionofthefamilyorofcommunalityof wivesthereisnopublicupbringingofchildren.Itseemsthatthenewandsecularmovementinsocialismdidnotatfirstbaseitselfontheextremebeliefsthathadbeen formulatedwithinthehereticalmovement. CityoftheSun byTommasoCampanella. Almostacenturypassedafterthefirst"Utopia"beforeUtopiansocialismwasabletoabsorbandassimilatethemoreradicalprinciplesdevelopedinantiquityandthe hereticalmovements.Campanella'scelebratedworkillustratesthenewsynthesis. Campanellalivedattheendofthesixteenthandthebeginningoftheseventeenthcenturies.Uptotheageofthirtyfour,hewasa [87] Dominicanmonkhewasthenarrestedandspentthenexttwentysevenyearsinprison.TheremainingyearsofhislifehespentinFrance. Campanellawasaphilosopher,areligiousthinkerandapoet.Heproclaimed(earlierthanBacon)theempiricalnatureofscience,advocatedtheindependenceofscience fromChurchauthorityanddefendedGalileo(whilehehimselfwasimprisonedbytheInquisition).Inthetheoryofknowledgehewasinterestedinthequestionofthe meansbywhichhumanconsciousness,basingitselfsolelyonsubjectivesensations,arrivesatobjectivetruth.Hisviewsonthissubjectareclosetothoselaterelaborated byKant.Hisreligiousviews,affirmingthatallthingsarewithGod,werepantheisticincharacter. InCalabriain1597,CampanellaorganizedaconspiracyagainsttheSpaniards,towhomthecountrybelongedatthattime.Theconspiracyfailed,andin1599Campanella wasarrestedandputtotorturein1602hewascondemnedtolifeimprisonment.In1602,whileinprison,hewrotehisbookCityoftheSun. Theverytitleofthework CivitasSoli recallsSt.Augustine'sCivitasDei CityofGod.Itiswritteninasparsestyle,withoutanyembellishmentslikeexoticadventures instrangelands.Thebooktakestheformofadialoguebetweentwospeakerswhosenamesarenotevengiven:theChiefHost(apparentlyareferencetothe GrandmasteroftheKnightsHospitalers)andtheSeafarer(ofwhomitisonlysaidthatheisacitizenofGenoa).Thedialoguebeginswithoutanyexplanationwiththe wordsoftheHost:"Pleasetellmeofallyouradventuresduringyourlastvoyage."Inreply,theSeafarerrecountsthatonanislandintheIndianOceanhevisitedtheCityof theSun,thelifeofwhichhethereuponbeginstodescribe. ThepoliticalsystemoftheCityoftheSunexternallyresemblesatheocracy."TheirsupremerulerisapriestwhoiscalledHoh,meaning'Sun'intheirlanguage,butinour tonguewewouldcallhimthe'Metaphysic.'"(43:p.146)ThiscurioustranslationMetaphysicforSunisnotaccidental.TheroleoftheSunpriestcouldprofitablybe comparedtotheheadofatechnocratichierarchy.Thepostisoccupiedbythemosteruditeinhabitantofthecity.Heknows"thehistoryofallnations,theircustoms, religiousritesandlaws"andiswellversedinallcrafts,physical,mathematicalandastrologicalsciences,andisespeciallyknowledgeableinmetaphysicsandtheology.He holdshisofficeuntil"anothermanisfoundwiserthanhispredecessorandbettercapabletogovern."(43:p.153) [88] TheMetaphysichasthreecorulersPon,SinandMor,meaningMight,WisdomandLove.Eachpresidesoverthecorrespondingaspectsoflife.Insomeofits unexpecteddetails,thisdivisionisreminiscentofOrwell.Forinstance,theareaofLove'sresponsibilityincludesnotonlythesupervisionoftherelationsbetweenmenand women(ofwhich,later)butalso"agriculture,stockbreedingand,ingeneral,everythingwhichpertainstofood,clothingandsexualrelations."(43:p.149)TheMetaphysic

    religiousritesandlaws"andiswellversedinallcrafts,physical,mathematicalandastrologicalsciences,andisespeciallyknowledgeableinmetaphysicsandtheology.He holdshisofficeuntil"anothermanisfoundwiserthanhispredecessorandbettercapabletogovern."(43:p.153) [88] TheMetaphysichasthreecorulersPon,SinandMor,meaningMight,WisdomandLove.Eachpresidesoverthecorrespondingaspectsoflife.Insomeofits unexpecteddetails,thisdivisionisreminiscentofOrwell.Forinstance,theareaofLove'sresponsibilityincludesnotonlythesupervisionoftherelationsbetweenmenand women(ofwhich,later)butalso"agriculture,stockbreedingand,ingeneral,everythingwhichpertainstofood,clothingandsexualrelations."(43:p.149)TheMetaphysic conferswithhisthreecorulers,butinmajorquestionshisdecisionisfinal.Numerousotherofficialsarealsomentionedtheyareappointedbythefourchiefrulersorother membersoftheadministration.ThereisalsoaCouncil,towhichallcitizensovertwentyyearsofagebelong,butitseemstopossessonlyanadvisoryfunction.Candidates forofficearenominatedbytheCouncilandconfirmedataconferenceofofficialsandfinallybythefourrulers.Inthisconnection,oneofCampanella'ssentencesremains unclear:"Officialsarereplacedaccordingtothewillofthepeople."(43p.175) Thesocialorganizationofthecityisbasedoncommunallife,theimplementationofwhichisdirectedbytheadministration. "Allthingsarecommonwiththem.Thedistributionofeverythingisinthehandsoftheofficials,butsinceknowledge,honorandpleasurearecommontoall,noonecan takeanythingforhimself.Theyassertthatamonguspropertyderivesfromandismaintainedbyoureachhavinganindividualdwellingandawifeandchildrenofhisown. Fromthisselflovearises."(43:p.149) Intheauthor'sopinion,thecommunalprincipleisatoddswithmanyotherrelationsbetweenmen:"Iampersuadedthatthefriarsandmonksandclergyofourcountry,if theywerenotseducedbylovefortheirkinandfriends,wouldbe...moreimbuedwiththespiritofcharity."IntheCityoftheSun,citizens"geteverythingtheyneedfrom thecommunity,andtheofficialstakecaretoseethatnooneshouldgetmorethanhedeservesandthatnooneberefusedanecessity."(43:p.150) "Houses,dormitories,bedsandallnecessitiestheyhaveincommon.Buteverysixmonthsthesuperiorsdecidewhoistosleepinwhatcircle,andwhointhefirst dormitory,whointhesecond..."(43:p.154) TheSolarians(citizensoftheCityoftheSun)taketheirmealstogether,asin"monasteryrefectories,"buttheofficialsget"largerandbetterportions."(43:p.155)The latterrewardthechildrenwho [89] excelinstudieswithpartofthemostdesirablerations. Productionisbasedonuniversalobligatorylabor."Therearenoslavesamongthem,"wereadinoneplace.Inanotherpassage,however,thereistheadditionalcomment that"slavestakenatwarareeithersoldawayorusedfordiggingditchesorotherheavyworkoutsidethecity."(43:p.169)Everyonehasthedutyofworkingfourhours perday.(LikeMore,theauthorbelievesthatwithuniversalobligatorylabor,thisamountofworkwouldsufficetoprovidethestatewithallthenecessities.)However,only meniallaborseemstobemeanthere,forlaterweread:"Theremaininghoursarespentinpleasantoccupationwiththesciences,indiscourseandinreading."(43:p.162) Thusscientificendeavorsarenotincludedinthefourobligatoryhoursof"work." Thatthislaboristrulyobligatorycanbeseenfromthefollowingdescription: "Butwhatisexcellentandworthyofimitationwiththemisthis:nobodilyflawcompelsthemtoidleness,exceptingadvancedage,when,however,theyarestillinvitedto consultations.Thelamestandonguardsincetheyhaveeyesight,theblindcardwoolandpluckfowlforcushionsandfeatherbedsthosewhoaredeprivedofbotheyes andhandsservethestatewiththeirears,voiceandsoon.Finally,ifsomeonepossessesbutasinglelimb,hemakesuseofitforworkinthecountryside,earningagood salaryandservingasaninformertoreporttothestateeverythingthathehears."(43:p.163) TheSolariansworkindetachmentsheadedbyacommander."Thecommandersofbothmen'sandwomen'sdetachments,thatis,theheadsoften,fiftyorahundred persons,"constitutetheadministrativebodyofthecityimmediatelybelowthefoursupremerulers.(43:p.175)Inthechapteronjudicialprocedures,wereadthatsince theSolarians"alwayswalkandworkindetachments,theremustbefivewitnessestoconvictacriminal."(43:p.177)Itseemstofollowthatdivisionintodetachments continuesevenafterwork.Atanyrate,thereisnoquestionthatSolarianlifeisregulatedafterworkaswell.Forinstance,duringhourssetasideforrest,evensedentary gamesareprohibited. Theuniformityoflifeiscarriedevenfurther.Menandwomenwearalmostidenticalattireonlythelengthofthecloakdiffersslightly.Theformandcolorofclothingis prescribed,whetherforwearinsideoroutofthecity.Eventhefrequencywithwhichclothesaretobe [90] changedisfixed.Violationofsuchprescriptionsisagravecrime:"Andtheywouldcertainlyputtodeathawomanwhoinordertoappearbeautifulstartedtorougeher faceorinordertoappeartallbegantowearshoeswithhighheels,ortooktowearinglongdressesinordertohideherunattractivelegs."(43:p.160) Theprescriptionsconcerningcelebrationoffeastsareequallydetailed,asarethosecoveringthearts.Atcelebrations,"poetshymnthegloriouscommandersandtheir victories,butifoneofthemaddssomethingofhisownevenifaddingtothegloryoftheheroheisliabletopenalty.Unworthyofthenameofpoetishewhoengagesin falsefabrications."(43:p.180) Therelationsofthesexesarekeptunderastillstrictercontrol."Theproductionofoffspringbearsdirectlyontheinterestsofthestate,andinvolvestheinterestsofprivate personsonlytotheextenttowhichtheyarepartofthestate.Andsinceindividualsforthemostpartbearoffspringwronglyandbringthemupbadly,totheperilofthe state,thesacreddutyofsupervisingthismatter,whichisconsideredthefundamentalprincipleofstatewelfare,isentrustedtostateofficials,foritisonlythecommunitythat canvouchsafethisandnotprivatepersons."(43:p.160) Theprocreationofchildreniscomparedtothebreedingoflivestock:"Andtheymockusinthatwezealouslycareforimprovedbreedsofdogsandhorsesbut,atthe sametime,neglectthehumanrace....Therefore,maleandfemalebreedersofthebestnaturalqualitiesarechoseninaccordancewiththerulesofphilosophy."(43:p.160)

    Aseriesofofficialstheheadsoflaborbrigades,anastrologerandaphysiciandecidewhichmanshouldsharethebedofwhichwomanandhowoften.Copulationitself takesplaceunderthesupervisionofaspecialofficial.Inthisconnectionanumberofrulesaresetforthwhichwewillrefrainfromquoting.Relationsbetweenthesexesare consideredtohaveapartfromprocreationonlyoneotherfunction:satisfactionofapurelyphysiologicalneed.Therefore,incasesofextremeneed,menarepermittedto copulatewithsterileorpregnantWomen.Thisis,however,possibleonlywiththepermissionofaspecialChiefofChildbearingandonapplicationfromlowerofficialsof thesameagency,whokeepthisaspectoflifeinthecityunderconstantSupervision.Therightsofawomanaredeterminedbysimilarconsiderations:"Ifawomandoesnot conceivefromonemansheisjoinedwithanotherifsheturnsouttobesterileinthiscasetoo,shepasses [91]

    consideredtohaveapartfromprocreationonlyoneotherfunction:satisfactionofapurelyphysiologicalneed.Therefore,incasesofextremeneed,menarepermittedto copulatewithsterileorpregnantWomen.Thisis,however,possibleonlywiththepermissionofaspecialChiefofChildbearingandonapplicationfromlowerofficialsof thesameagency,whokeepthisaspectoflifeinthecityunderconstantSupervision.Therightsofawomanaredeterminedbysimilarconsiderations:"Ifawomandoesnot conceivefromonemansheisjoinedwithanotherifsheturnsouttobesterileinthiscasetoo,shepasses [91] intocommonusebutnolongerenjoysrespect."(43:p.157) Itgoeswithoutsayingthattheupbringingofchildrenisalsointhehandsofthestate."Thechildren,onceweaned,areplacedinthechargeofthemistresses,iftheyare girls,orwiththemasters,iftheyareboys."(43:p.159)Childrenbeingeducatedarealsodividedintodetachments.Aftertheirseventhyeartheystartnaturalsciences, thenproceedtootherdisciplinesatthediscretionoftheadministration.Lesscapablechildrenaresenttothecountryside,butsomewhoprovetobemorecapableare acceptedbackinthecity.(43:p.152)Finally,educationendsandtheyoungindividualsarereadytoperformtheirbasicfunctiontobecomeofficialsinthestate: "Subsequently,theyallreceivepositionsintheareaofthosesciencesorcraftsforwhichtheyhavethegreatestaptitude,ineachcaseasadvisedbytheleaderor supervisor."(43:p.152) Inthissociety,naturally,therearenokinshiprelations."Allpersonsofthesameagecalloneanotherbrotherthosewhoaretwentytwoyearsoldertheycallfather,and thosewhoaretwentytwoyearsyounger,son.Andtheofficialsattendtoitcarefullythatnooneoffendsanotherinthisbrotherhood."(43:p.149) ThelastsentenceshowsthatinordertomaintaincommunallifeintheCityoftheSun,theabolitionoffamily,property,freedomofworkandcreativityareinsufficient. Campanellarealizesthisclearlyandgivesadetaileddescriptionofthesystemofpunishmentswhichguaranteethestabilityofthesocialstructure. Consideredascrimesare:"Ingratitude,malice,failuretogiveduerespecttoanother,sloth,despondency,anger,buffooneryandfalsehood,whichtheyhatemorethanthe plague.Andtheguiltyaredeprivedofthecommontable,orrelationswithwomen,orotherhonorsandadvantages."(43:p.151)Sodomyispunishedbyforcedwearing ofdisgracefulclothingand,ifrepeated,bydeath."Thoseguiltyofviolencearesubjecttoexecutionorpunishmentaccordingtotheprincipleofaneyeforaneye,atooth foratoothandsoon."(43:p.176) Thepunishmentsformilitarycrimesaresevere:"Thefirstmanwhotakesflightcanavoiddeathonlyiftheentirearmypleadsforhislifeandcertainsoldierstakeitupon themselvestosufferpunishmentfortheguiltyparty.Butthisindulgenceisgivenrarelyandonlywhenthereareextenuatingcircumstances.Amanwhofailedtobringhelp whenneededtoanallyoracompanionispunishedbytherod [92] forfailuretofolloworders,theculpritisthrownintoapit,tobetorntopiecesbywildbeastsheisgivenatruncheonandifhesucceedsinkillingthelionsandbearsthat attackhim,whichisalmostimpossible,heispardoned."(43:p.167)Particularlynoteworthyhereisthisearlyformulationoftheideathattheaccusedshouldbegranteda semblanceofrightsinordertogivetheappearanceofjusticetohissentence. Thereisnoseparationbetweenthejudicialandexecutivebranches:"Everyoneisjudgedbytheseniormasterofhisorhercraft.Thusalltheseniormastersarejudgesand cansentenceapersontoexile,flogging,reprimand,deprivationofthecommontableandexclusionfromthecompanyofwomen."(43:p.176)Therearenoprofessional executioners,either."Theyhavenohangmen...soasnottodefiletheirstate....Thedeathpenaltyiscarriedoutonlybythehandofthepeople,whokillorstonethe transgressor....Someareallowedtotaketheirownlives:suchpersonssurroundthemselveswithsmallbagsofpowderwhichtheysetonfireandburn,whilethosepresent encouragethemtodiewithdignity.AllcitizensmeanwhilelamentandbeseechGodtoappeaseHiswrath,grievingthattheyhavebeenbroughttothenecessityofcutting offarottenlimbofthestate.However,theypersuadeandcajolethetransgressoruntilhehimselfacquiescestohispunishmentandwishesforhisdeathotherwisehemay notbeexecuted.ButifthecrimeiscommittedeitheragainstthelibertyofthestateoragainstGodorthesupremeauthorities,thenthesentenceiscarriedoutwithoutdelay ormercy."(43:pp.176177) Punishmentisregardedasanelementintheeducationofcitizens."Thedefendantmakespeacewithhisaccusersandthewitnessesasthoughwithphysicianswhohad treatedhisdisease,embracingandkissingthem....Andthesentencesaregenuineandreliableremediesandareseenassomethingpleasantratherthanaspunishment."(43: pp.176,173) AreligionofthesunispracticedinCampanella'sstate:"AndintheSuntheyperceiveandrecognizeGod,callingtheSunanimage,alikenessandalivingeffigyofGod fromwhomproceedslight,warmth,vitalpowerandallthingsgood.Therefore,theyhaveerectedanaltarintheformoftheSunandtheirpriestsworshipGodintheSun andthestars,regardingtheseasHisaltarsandtheskyasHistemple."(43:p.182) Twospecificaspectsofthesereligiousbeliefscanbenoted.First [93] ofall,thisisastatereligion,andthegoverningofthestatecoincideswiththepriestlyfunction.Therefore,theheadofstateissimultaneouslythechiefpriest,andsinceheis called"Sun"heisapparentlyperceivedasanincarnationofGod."Oftheofficials,onlythesenioronesarepriests.Theirdutiesincludepurgingtheconsciencesofthe citizensthewholeCityinsecretconfession(whichisalsopracticedamongus)revealsitsoffensestotheauthorities,whothussimultaneouslypurifysoulsandcometo knowthesinstowhichthepeopleareparticularlygiven."(43:p.178)Henceadministrativeandpriestlyfunctionsareconcentratedinthesamehandswhich,aswehave seenearlier,possesstheauthoritytoimposeanykindofpenalty. Atthesametime,thereligionofthesuncanbeseenasvenerationoftheuniverse,rationalisticallyperceivedasanidealmechanism.Inotherwords,itisasynthesisof religionandnaturalscience(withanastrologicalbias).Thisaccordswithwhatwenotedearlier:thetitleofthechiefpriest,"Sun,"istranslatedas"Metaphysic,"andthe righttothispostisdeterminedbyvastscientificknowledge. AsimilarimpressionisproducedbythedescriptionoftheTempleoftheSun,whichoccupiesthecentralpositioninthecity.Itresemblesamuseumofnaturalhistoryfar morethanachurch."Atthealtaronlyalargegloberepresentingtheskyandanotherrepresentingtheearthareseen.Furthermore,onthevaultofthemaindomeall celestialstarsfromthefirsttothesixthmagnitudearedepicted,withtheirnamesandtheirpowertoinfluenceterrestrialeventsinscribedbeloweachinthreelinesof verse."(43:p.145)"Thesmallerdomeiscrownedonlybyakindofweathervaneshowingthedirectionsofthewind,ofwhichtheydistinguishuptothirtysix."(43:p. 146)Theword"only"seemstoemphasizethattheweathervaneoccupiestheplacegiventothecrossinChristianchurches.Ingeneral,onegetstheimpressionthat throughouthisworkCampanellascatteredremarksindicatinghostilitytotheCatholicChurchortoChristianitymoreover,theseseemcloseinspirittotheattitudeofsome hereticalsects.Thesehintsaretenderedobliquelyandcautiouslyandnecessarilyso,since CityoftheSun waswrittenintheprisonoftheInquisitionwhereCampanella wasbeingkeptinacagelikecell.Aveiledtauntofthistypeseemstohavebeenintendedbytheenumerationofstrangefishdepictedonthetownwalls:thelistbeginswith the"bishopfish"andendswiththe"malememberfish."Thefollowingpassageprobablyservesasimilarfunction:"Deadbodiesarenotburied,buttoprevent [94] pestilenceareburnedandturnedintofire,anobleandlivingelementthatcomesfromthesunandreturnstothesun.Bythismethodnochanceisgivenforidolatry."(43:p.

    hereticalsects.Thesehintsaretenderedobliquelyandcautiouslyandnecessarilyso,since CityoftheSun waswrittenintheprisonoftheInquisitionwhereCampanella wasbeingkeptinacagelikecell.Aveiledtauntofthistypeseemstohavebeenintendedbytheenumerationofstrangefishdepictedonthetownwalls:thelistbeginswith the"bishopfish"andendswiththe"malememberfish."Thefollowingpassageprobablyservesasimilarfunction:"Deadbodiesarenotburied,buttoprevent [94] pestilenceareburnedandturnedintofire,anobleandlivingelementthatcomesfromthesunandreturnstothesun.Bythismethodnochanceisgivenforidolatry."(43:p. 180)Thelastsentenceisclearlydirectedagainstthevenerationofrelics.ThisisanearlyattempttoreinforcetheideologicalobjectionstoChristianritesbypurelyutilitarian andhygienicarguments. ThefollowingironicsentenceisalsointendedasathrustatChristianity:"Afterallissaidanddone,theyrecognizethathappyistheChristiansatisfiedwiththebeliefthat suchgreatconfusion[theappearanceofevilintheworld]happenedbecauseofAdam'sfall."(43:p.186)Andagnosticconceptinconcealedformseemstobepresented inthefollowingsentence:"Theyalsoconsidereditpossiblethattheactsofthelowerworldaregovernedbysomelowerdeityattheconnivanceoftheprimarydeitybut nowsupposethisopiniontoberidiculous."(43:p.185) ItisundoubtedlynoaccidentthatJesusChristisdepictedonawallofthecity,inagallerytogetherwith"alltheinventorsofthesciencesandofarmamentandthe legislators."True,Christoccupies"amosthonorableplace"nexttoMoses,Osiris,Jupiter,Lycurgus,Solonandothers. Severalyearsafter CityoftheSun, Campanellawroteanotherwork, OntheBestState, inwhichheanalyzescertainobjectionstothesocialconceptexpressedinhis firstbook.Hejustifies,inparticular,thecommunalityofpropertybyreferencetotheApostoliccommunity,andcautiouslydefendsthecommunalityofwivesbyquoting variousFathersoftheChurch.Especiallyinterestingisthepassagewhereheassertsthatthepossibilityofsuchastateisconfirmedbyexperience:"Andthis,moreover,has beendemonstratedbymonksandlatelybytheAnabaptistswholiveincommunesiftheypossessedthetruedogmaofthefaith,theywouldhavesucceededinthiseven more.Oh,weretheynothereticsandshouldtheydojusticeaswepreachit,thentheywouldserveasanexemplarofthistruth." "TheLawofFreedom"byGerrardWinstanley. Inthepreviouschapter,wespokeaboutthesocialistmovementoftheDiggersofthetimeoftheEnglishrevolution.Wealsoquotedfrompamphletsbythemostimportant theoreticianofthismovement,GerrardWinstanley."TheLawofFreedom"isthemostsystematicandcompleteexpositionofhisideas.Thisworkbelongstoutopian literatureandcontainsadetailed [95] planofthenewsocietythatisbased,toasignificantdegree,onsocialistprinciples. "TheLawofFreedom"waspublishedin1652.Itbeginswithasalutationto"HisExcellencyOliverCromwell,GeneraloftheCommonwealth'sArmyinEngland,Scotland andIreland."WinstanleypointsouttoCromwellthatdespitethevictoryoftherevolutionandtheexecutionoftheking,thepositionofthecommonfolkhasnotimproved. Theycontinuetobeburdenedwithtaxesandtosufferundertheswayoftherich,thelawyersandthepriests.Thepromisethat"allpoperyandepiscopacyandtyranny shouldberootedout"hasnotbeenkeptthesoldiersnowaskwhattheywerefightingfor.AndWinstanleyappealstoCromwelltogivetruelibertytotheoppressed commonpeople. Themainpartoftheworkbeginswithanattempt"tofindoutwheretruefreedomlies."Winstanleybelievesthatitresidesinthefreeuseofthefruitsoftheearth."Aman hadbettertohavehadnobodythantohavenofoodforit."(35:pp.295)Morespecifically,truefreedomconsistsofthefreeuseofland.Forthesakeofland,kings declarewars,ministerspreach,andtherichoppressthepoor.Andthis"outerbondage"engenders"innerbondage":"theinwardbondagesofthemind,ascovetousness, pride,hypocrisy,envy,sorrow,fears,desperationandmadness,arealloccasionedbytheoutwardbondagethatonesortofpeoplelayuponanother."(35:p.295) Proceedingfromthismaterialistviewofsociety,Winstanleydevelopsaplanforanewsocialstructureinwhichprivatelanduseisabolishedandwhere"external"and "internal"bondagedisappearasaresult.Subordinationofprivateintereststocommoninterestsisputforwardasthebasicprincipleofsocialorganization."Thereisbut bondageandfreedom,particularinterestorcommoninterestandhewhopleadstobringinparticularinterestintoafreecommonwealthwillpresentlybeseenandcast out,asonebringinginkinglyslaveryagain."(35:p.342) Morespecifically,accordingtoWinstanley'sscheme,privatelandownership,tradeandmoneyaredoneawaywith.Landistilledbyindividuallargefamiliesunderthe supervisionandcontrolofstateofficials.Implementsarekeptineachfamilybutnotasprivatepossessions:theheadofthefamilyisresponsiblefortheircare,under penaltyoflaw.Horsesareallottedbythestate.Aftertheharvest,allproduceisbroughttoastatewarehouse. [96] Craftsmenareinthesamepositiontheygetrawmaterialsfromstatestorehousesanddelivertheirproductsthere.Theyworkeitherinfamiliesorincommunalworkshops. Citizensaretransferredbytheadministrationfromonefamilytoanother,dependingonthedemandformanpowerortheirskillsforaspecificjob. Besidesfreecitizens,thosewhohavebeendeprivedoftheirfreedombythecourtsalsowork.SometimesWinstanleyreferstothemasbondsmen.Theyworkatthesame jobsasthefreemenbutgenerallydothemoremenialtasks.Theyaresupervisedbyofficialscalledtaskmasters. "Iftheydotheirtasks,[thetaskmaster]istoallowthemsufficientvictualsandclothingtopreservethehealthoftheirbodies.Butiftheyprovedesperate,wantonoridle, andwillnotquietlysubmittothelaw,thetaskmasteristofeedthemwithshortdiet,andtowhipthem,forarodispreparedforthefool'sback, tillsuchtimeastheir proudheartsdobendtothelaw.... "Andifanyoftheseoffendersrunaway,thereshallbehueandcrysentafterhim,andheshalldiebythesentenceofthejudgewhentakenagain."(35:p.335) Thestatusofslavedoesnotautomaticallyextendtorelatives,iftheyhavedonenowrong.Thepurposeofslaveryistoreeducatecitizenswhohavestrayedinorderto"kill theirprideandunreasonableness,thattheymaybecomeusefulmeninthecommonwealth."(35:p.386) Allnecessitiesareobtainedfromstateshopsfreeofcharge.Here,adifficultyclearlyarises,for"covetous,proudandbeastlymindedmendesiremore,eithertolieby themtolookupon,orelsetowasteandspoilitupontheirlustswhileotherbrethrenliveinstraitsforwantoftheusethereof.Butthelawsandfaithfulofficersofafree commonwealthdoregulatetheunrationalpracticeofsuchmen."(35:p.369)Indeed,accordingtothelaw,theheadofafamilythatconsumesmorethanitneedsis punishedfirstbypublicreprimandandthenbybeingmadeabondsmanforafixedterm.Thesamesolutionisproposedforanotherdifficultyhowtoprovidemotivation foreveryonetoworkthenecessarytimeandwiththenecessaryproductivityintheabsenceofamaterialincentive.Acitizenwhorefusestocarryoutassignedworkora youthavoidingapprenticeshipinacraftisfirstpunishedbypublicreprimand.Ifthisdoesnothelp,heisthenwhipped,andshouldherepeathisoffenseoncemore,heis madeabondsman. [97]

    commonwealthdoregulatetheunrationalpracticeofsuchmen."(35:p.369)Indeed,accordingtothelaw,theheadofafamilythatconsumesmorethanitneedsis punishedfirstbypublicreprimandandthenbybeingmadeabondsmanforafixedterm.Thesamesolutionisproposedforanotherdifficultyhowtoprovidemotivation foreveryonetoworkthenecessarytimeandwiththenecessaryproductivityintheabsenceofamaterialincentive.Acitizenwhorefusestocarryoutassignedworkora youthavoidingapprenticeshipinacraftisfirstpunishedbypublicreprimand.Ifthisdoesnothelp,heisthenwhipped,andshouldherepeathisoffenseoncemore,heis madeabondsman. [97] Thebasiceconomicandadministrativeunitofthestateisthefamily.Itisheadedbya"father"or"master."Thelistoftheofficialsofthefreecommonwealthbeginsthus:"In aprivatefamily,afatherormasterisanofficer."(35:p.324)Regardinghisrelationshiptootherfamilymembers,heis"tocommandthemtheirworkandseetheydoit, andnotsufferthemtoliveidleheiseithertoreprovebywordsorwhipthosewhooffend,fortherodispreparedtobringtheunreasonableonestoexperienceand moderation."(35:p.325) Apparently,bloodrelationshipsdonotplayasubstantialrole.The"father"cangetdismissedforsomeoffenseandbereplacedbyanotherpersonfamilymemberscanbe transferredtoanotherfamilyifnecessary. Beginningwiththefamily,thestateisbuiltupofbiggerandbiggerunitsthatareadministeredbytheofficialslistedbyWinstanley.Thosewhogoverntheunitimmediately superiortothefamilyare:"apeacemaker,afourfoldofficeofoverseers,asoldier,ataskmaster,anexecutioner."Thepeacemakerisobligedtoappealtothe conscienceofoffendersortodispatchthemtoaprovinceorcountyatthediscretionofajudge.Thetaskmasterssuperviseproductionandconsumptionwithinthe families.Asforsoldiers,theauthorstatesthatinfact,"allofficialsaresoldiers."(35:p.333)Thefunctionofsoldiers(inthedirectsenseoftheword)istoofferassistance toofficialsandtoprovidedefenseforthemduringtimesofdisorder.Thetaskmasterisinchargeofthosesentencedtoforcedlabor.Theexecutionerisobligedto"cutoff thehead,hangorshoottodeath,orwhiptheoffenderaccordingtothesentenceoflaw."(35:p.335) Allposts,fromthelowesttothehighest,arefilledbyelectiononayearlybasis.Thecountryisgovernedbyaparliament,alsoreelectedannually.Allcitizensmayvote fromtheageoftwentyandareeligibleforelectionatforty.Manycitizens,however,aredeprivedofactiveparticipationingoverningsomeareevendisenfranchised."All uncivillivers,asdrunkards,quarrellers,fearfulignorantmen,whodarenotspeaktruthlesttheyangerothermenlikewiseallwhoarewhollygiventopleasureandsports, ofmenwhoarefulloftalkalltheseareemptyofsubstance,andcannotbeexperiencedmen,thereforenotfittobechosenofficersinacommonwealthyettheymayhave avoiceinthechoosing. "Secondly,allthosewhoareinterestedinthemonarchicalpowerandgovernmentoughtneithertochoosenorbechosenofficersto [98] managethecommonwealth'saffairs,forthesecannotbefriendstocommonfreedom."(35:p.321)Othersdeprivedofrightsinclude:"Allthosewhohavebeensohastyto buyandsellthecommonwealth'sland,andsotoentangleituponanewaccount....Thesearecovetousmen,notfearingGod,andtheirportionistobecastwithoutthe cityofpeaceamongstthedogs."(35:pp.322,323) Earlier,duringthefirstperiodoftheDiggermovement,Winstanleyhadbeenanopponentofallcoercionandstatepower.Hebelievedthatlawwasnecessaryforthose livingunderthecurseofpropertybutthatitbecomesunnecessaryforthosewholiveunderprinciplesofjusticeandcommunity.Inthepamphlet"LettertoLordFairfax," heassertsthatnoonewhoobeyedjustlawwoulddaretoarrestorenslaveaneighbor. Followingthelogicofallsuchmovements,however,Winstanley,inhis"LawofFreedom"(publishedjustthreeyearslater),readilygrantsthatinthestateheisplanningit willbepossibletoarrestand(literally)enslaveone'sneighbor.Hisworkcontainsadetailedaccountofthepunishmentstobeinvoked:"Hewhostrikeshisneighbourshall bestruckhimselfbytheexecutioner,blowforblow,andshallloseeyeforeye,toothfortooth,limbforlimb,lifeforlifeandthereasonisthatmenmaybetenderofone another'sbodies,doingastheywouldbedoneby."(35:pp.375380)Strikinganofficialispunishablebyayearofforcedlabor."Hewhoendeavourstostirup contentionamongneighbours,bytalebearingorfalsereport,"isatfirstreproved,thenwhippedthirdoffendersbecomeservantsforthreemonths,andiftheoffenseis reportedonceagain,"heshallbeaservantforever."(35:p.380)Forcedlaboristhepenaltyforfailingtorenderassistancetothetaskmasterorforattemptingtoengage inbuyingandselling.Anactualsaleorpurchaseoflandispunishablebydeath.Amanwhocallslandhisownistobe"setuponastool"andhelduptoridicule,andifhe becomesabusive,hecanbeexecuted. Thearmyisfundamentaltothestate.ItisdividedintotheofficersCorps,madeupofallofficials,andthesoldiers,madeupofthegeneralpopulation. "Theuseorworkofafightingarmyinacommonwealthistobeatdownallthatarisetoendeavortodestroythelibertiesofthecommonwealth."Itmustdefendthestate againstthosewho"seektheirowninterestandnotcommonfreedom,andthroughtreacherydoendeavortodestroythelawsofcommonfreedom,andtoenslaveboththe land [99] andpeopleofthecommonwealthtotheirparticularwillsandlusts."(35:p.357)Thearmyalsoopposesforeignenemiesithasonemorefunctiontheestablishmentofthe "LawofFreedom"inotherlands."IfalandbeconqueredandsoenslavedasEnglandwasunderthekingsandconqueringlaws,thenanarmyistoberaisedwithasmuch secrecyasmaybe,torestorethelandagainandsetitfree,thattheearthmaybecomeacommontreasurytoallherchildren."(35:p.358) Inmanyrespects,Winstanley'ssocialistconcepts,aswehaveseen,aremuchmoremoderatethanthoseofhispredecessorsMoreand,especially,Campanella.Only privateownershipofland,laborproductsand,partly,thatwhichlatercametobecalledthe"meansofproduction"areabolished.Thereisnomentionofcommunalwives orthecommunalupbringingofchildren.Infact,Winstanleyfrequentlyobjectstomoreextremeviews,obviouslyattackingothermoreradicaltrends.Inthesection"A shortdeclarationtotakeoffprejudice,"hewrites:"Some,hearingofthiscommonfreedom,thinktheremustbeacommunityofallthefruitsoftheearthwhethertheywork orno,thereforestrivetoliveidleuponothermen'slabor.Others,throughthesameunreasonablebeastlyignorance,thinktheremustbeacommunityofallmenand womenforcopulation,andsostrivetoliveabestiallife."(35:p.302)Theauthorassertsthat,onthecontrary,familieswillliveseparatelyandowntheirownfurnishingsin peace.(35:p.288)Lawsmustinsulatecitizensfromthosewhoholdsuch"falseopinions"andpunishsuch"ignorantandinsanebehavior." Inonearea,however,WinstanleywentmuchfurtherthanMoreandCampanellainhisattitudetowardreligion.ThelukewarmattitudetowardreligionandtheChurchof theearliertwowritersgoeshandinhandwiththeirslanttowardpantheismandtheirtendencytodeifythe"mechanismoftheUniverse."InWinstanley,ontheotherhand, wemeetwithanopenhostilitytotheChurchandacompletereplacementofreligionbyethicsandrationalscience.Heseesthechiefgoalofthereligionofhisdayas assistingtherichinexploitingthepoor."Thisdiviningdoctrine,whichyoucallspiritualandheavenlythings,isthethiefandtherobber."(35:p.351)"Thisdoctrineismade acloakofpolicybythesubtleelderbrother,tocheathissimpleyoungerbrotherofthefreedomsoftheearth."Winstanleyasserts:"Theywhopreachthisdiviningdoctrine aremurderersofmanyapoorheartwhoisbashfulandsimple."(35:p.352)"Sothatthisdiviningspiritualdoctrineisacheatforwhilemenaregazinguptoheaven, imagining [100] afterahappinessorfearingahellaftertheyaredead,theireyesareputout,thattheyseenotwhatistheirbirthright,andwhatistobedonebythemhereonearthwhile

    acloakofpolicybythesubtleelderbrother,tocheathissimpleyoungerbrotherofthefreedomsoftheearth."Winstanleyasserts:"Theywhopreachthisdiviningdoctrine aremurderersofmanyapoorheartwhoisbashfulandsimple."(35:p.352)"Sothatthisdiviningspiritualdoctrineisacheatforwhilemenaregazinguptoheaven, imagining [100] afterahappinessorfearingahellaftertheyaredead,theireyesareputout,thattheyseenotwhatistheirbirthright,andwhatistobedonebythemhereonearthwhile theyareliving."(35:p.353)Buttheendofthisdeceptionisnear,accordingtotheauthor: "Andallthepriestsandclergyandpreachersofthesespiritualandheavenlythings,astheycallthem,shalltakeupthelamentation,whichistheirportion,'Alas,alas,that greatcityBabylon,thatmightycitydivinity,whichhathfilledthewholeearthwithhersorceryanddeceivedallpeople,sothatthewholeworldwonderedafterthisBeast howisitfallen,andhowisherjudgmentcomeuponherinonehour?'Andfurther,asyoumayread,Rev.18:10."(35:p.354) InWinstanley'sfuturesociety,ministersofreligionwillbeelectedforoneyear,justasalltheofficialsare.Thedutiesofthecommonwealth'sclergyconsistofcarryingout functionsthat,fromtheusualpointofview,havenothingwhatevertodowithreligion.Theministerisobligedtogivesermonson"theaffairsofthewholeland,asitis broughtinbythepostmaster"andon"thelawofthecommonwealth,"andtocommenton"theactsandpassagesofformeragesandgovernments,settingforththebenefits offreedombywellorderedgovernments,"aswellason"allartsandsciences...physic,chirurgery,astrology,astronomy,navigation,husbandryandsuchlike."Finally, speeches"maybemadesometimesofthenatureofmankind,ofhisdarknessandofhislight,ofhisweaknessandofhisstrength,ofhisloveandofhisenvy."(35:pp. 345346)Moreover,anyexperiencedpersonmaydeliverasermon,notonlyaminister. Thus,underthenameofclergy,Winstanleyintendsaclassofpeopleengagedinpropagandizingtheofficialworldviewandfulfilling,toanextent,theroleofeducators.To theobjectionsofahypothetical"zealousbutignorantprofessor,"Winstanleyreplies:"ToknowthesecretsofnatureistoknowtheworksofGodandtoknowtheworks ofGodwithinthecreationistoknowGodhimself,forGoddwellsineveryvisibleworkorbody."(35:p.348)

    2.TheSocialistNovel
    Inthesixteenthcenturyandthefirsthalfoftheseventeenthcentury,Weencounterseveralworksofsocialistthoughtseparatedbylengthyintervalsofseveraldecadesor evenlonger.Towardtheendoftheseventeenthcenturyandintheeighteenth,thesituationchangesasteadystreamofsocialistliteraturecomesintobeing.Socialist ideology [101] comesintofashionandacquiresaninfluenceinoneformoranother,amajorityofthethinkersofthetimeareaffectedbyit. Wecandistinguishtwotrendsinthegeneralcourseofthings:entertainingsocialistnovelsintendedforabroadaudienceandthedriersocialistliteratureofaphilosophical andsociologicalcharacter.ThesourcesofbothtypesofwritingareinMoreandCampanella,butbythelateseventeenthcenturythedifferencesbecomesubstantialand thetwocurrentseachattainadistinctcharacter. HistoryoftheSevarites(L'HistoiredesSvarambes) byDenisVairassemaybeconsideredthefirstofthetypicalsocialistnovels.VolumeI,particularlyinterestingasa specimenofthisnewliterature,waspublishedin1675.Adventuresatseaarerecounted,ashipwreck,landingonallunknowncontinentandthestoryofthetravelers'life onshore.Finally,thetravelersmeettheinhabitantsofthecontinentandbecomeacquaintedwiththeirstrangelife.InsteadofthedrydescriptionsofMoreandCampanella wearegivenvividtravelimpressionsrenderedbythenarrator,CaptainSiden.Almosttheentirebookisdevotedtotheaccountofhistravelsacrossthelandofthe Sevaritesandwhathesawthere.Onlythelasttenpagescontainadescriptionofthestateandeconomicstructureoftheplace. ThestatewasfoundedbyaPersiannamedSevarias,whodiscoveredthecontinentandencounteredthesavagetribeslivingthereinconditionsofprimitivecommunism withcommunalityofpropertyandwives.Byaseriesofruses,heconvincesthemthathehasarrivedfromthesuntotellthemthelawsandthewilloftheGodoftheSun. Theselawswereacceptedbythepeopleandhaveshapedthestructureoftheirstate. ThereligionoftheSunisacceptedandtheSunitselfisproclaimedkingoftheland.TheSunappointsaviceroyfromamongtheinhabitants.Inpractice,thepostofviceroy isfilledbylotfromamongfourcandidatesproposedbythecouncilofhighofficials.Theviceroyhasabsolutepower,limitedonlybytherightofthecounciltodeclarehim mentallyincapacitated.Beneaththeviceroythereisacomplexhierarchyofofficials,partlyelectedbythepeopleandpartlyappointedfromabove.Theseofficialsenjoy numerousprivileges:theyhavemorewivesthanothercitizens,personalslaves,betterhouses,foodandclothing. Thegreatmassofthepopulation(allhandsomeandwellbuiltpeople)liveacarefreeandhappylifeinwellorganizedcitiesandmagnificent [102] communalabodes.Athirdpartofthedaytheyworkunderthesupervisionofofficialsandspendtherestofthetimesleepingorenjoyingthemselves. Beneaththemonthesocialladderarethestateandprivateslaves,whoareobtainedastributefromconquerednations.Theydotheheavyworkandtheirwomenserveas concubinestocitizensandforeignguests. Theeconomyisbasedoncompletestateownership:Sevarias"abolishedtherightofproperty,deprivedprivatepersonsofitandwilleditsothatalllandandwealthshould belongexclusivelytothestatetodisposeofitinsuchawaythatsubjectscouldreceiveonlywhatwasgrantedthembyofficials."(44:p.422)Theentirepopulationlives andworksincommunesofathousandpersonsthesearelocatedinlargesquarehouses.Thecommunesturnintheproductsoftheirworktothestatewarehouses,where theyalsoreceivealltheirnecessities.Inparticular,theyareallissuedstandardclothingitvariesonlyincolor,dependingontheagegroupoftheowner. "Thestatetakescareofallthis,demandingneithertaxesnortolls,andthewholepeopleunderthegovernmentofthemonarchlivesinhappyaffluenceandwithwell securedrest."Allcitizensareobligedtoworktomaintainthestatewarehousesand"forfearlesttheygrowrestiveinplentyandentertainmentorbesoftenedby idleness."(44:p.423) Allthecitizensofthelandarebeautifulandoffinebearing.Cripplesareexiledtoremotetowns,asaresterilewomen. Thegovernmentpainstakinglyseestothecompleteisolationofthecountryfromtheexternalworld,buttheSevaritesareawareofthelatestdevelopmentsinengineering andthesciencesinEuropeandAsia.Thisispossiblebecausepeoplearesentregularlytoforeignlandsinordertolearnlanguagesandallotherusefulknowledge.When abroad,citizensareforbiddentotellanythingatallabouttheircountry.Toguaranteethattheyreturnhome,theyarenotpermittedtoleavetheirnativelanduntiltheyare abletoputupatleastthreechildrenasapledge. HistoryoftheSevarites givesusanotionofthesocialistnovelsthatfollowedit.Weshallthereforeonlybrieflynoteafewotherexamplesthatillustratevariousaspectsof thisgenre.

    andthesciencesinEuropeandAsia.Thisispossiblebecausepeoplearesentregularlytoforeignlandsinordertolearnlanguagesandallotherusefulknowledge.When abroad,citizensareforbiddentotellanythingatallabouttheircountry.Toguaranteethattheyreturnhome,theyarenotpermittedtoleavetheirnativelanduntiltheyare abletoputupatleastthreechildrenasapledge. HistoryoftheSevarites givesusanotionofthesocialistnovelsthatfollowedit.Weshallthereforeonlybrieflynoteafewotherexamplesthatillustratevariousaspectsof thisgenre. TheSouthernLand(LaTerreaustraleconnue), ascribedbyBayletoGabrieldeFoigny,amonkfromLorraine,appearedin1676.Itis [103] thestoryofavoyagetothestillunknownfifthpartoftheglobe,intheSouthernHemisphere.Thelanddiscoveredbythetravelersisinhabitedbyanandrogynouspeople the"Australians."Theirlifeisfoundedoncompletefreedom.Everyoneactsashisreasondictates.Thereisonlyasinglelawaccordingtowhichallmustgivebirthtoat leastonechild. Theinhabitantsexistincompleteinnocence,knowingneitherclothingnorgovernmentnorthewords"thine"and"mine."Everyonereceivesanidenticalupbringing,which fromearlyinfancyinstillsintheinhabitanttheideathatallareequal.(45) TheAdventuresofTelemachus(LesAventuresdeTlmaque) byFenelonappearedin1699.Theinterestofthisbookliesinthefactthatitsurveysnotonlytheideal socialistsocietybutintermediateformsaswell.The"first"and"second"phasesofsocialismarediscussed.InquestofOdysseus,Telemachusvisitstwodifferent communities:BoeticaandSalentum.LandtenureinBoeticaiscommunal.AllpropertyIand,fruitoftheearthandtrees,cows'andgoats'milkisheldincommon.Most oftheinhabitantsaretillersorherdsmen.Theartsareconsideredharmfulandtherearealmostnocraftsmen.Thecitizensseetheirhappinessinsimplicity,thankstowhich noonefeelsanydeprivation.Theyliveinfamiliesinconditionsofperfectequality. SalentumhadbeenbroughttoeconomicruinbytheextravagantandproudKingIdomeneus.Mentor,thewiseoldmanwhoaccompaniesTelemachus,andwhoisin realitythegoddessMinervaindisguise,establishesanewregimewhichisanintermediatestageonthepathtocompletecommunality.Thepopulationisdividedintoseven classes,eachwithitsownprescribedtypeofdwelling,clothing,food,furnitureandparcelofland.Privateownershipispreserved,butinalimitedformnoonepossesses morelandthanisnecessaryforhissubsistence.Tradeisalsopermitted.(46) TheRepublicofPhilosophersortheHistoryoftheAjaoiens, attributedtoFontenelle,appearedin1768.Astormtossessometravelersontoanunknownshore,the islandofAjao.TheislandhadmanyyearsbeforebeenconqueredbytheAjaoiens,whoannihilatedalargepartoftheindigenouspopulationandmadeslavesoftherest. Productionisbasedonslavelabor.Theslavesliveinbarracks,wheretheyarelockedinatnight.Thenumberofslavesisstrictlycontrolledexcesschildren [104] wereoncekilled,butatpresenttheyaretakentotheshoreofChinaandabandonedthere. ThefreepopulationoftheislandtheAjaoiensliveincompletecommunality.Thewords"mine"and"thine"areunknowntothem.Theentirelandbelongstothestate, whichregulatesitscultivationanddistributesitsproducts.Everyoneisobligedtoworkinagricultureforacertainlengthoftime.Craftsareorganizedinthesameway. Itisthedutyofallcitizenstoenterintomarriagemoreover,everymanhastwowives.Childrenarebroughtupnotbytheirparentsbutinstateschools.TheAjaoienshave nocults,nopriestsorsacredbooks.Theyworshipnatureastheirgoodmother.Theyrecognizenosupremebeingbutbelievethateverythinglivinghasintelligence.They believethatthesoulismaterialandmortal.(47) TheSouthernDiscoverybyaFlyingManortheFrenchDaedalus:VeryPhilosophicalNovel byRestifdelaBretonneappearedin1781.Thecomplicatedplot(a lovestory,theinventionofameansofflyingwithartificialwings,thefoundingofanewstateintheSouthernHemisphere)leadstothediscoveryofMegapatagonia the antipodeofFrance.Thebasiclawofthiscountryiscommunality:"Withoutperfectequalitythereisneithervirtuenorhappiness....Leteverythingbeheldincommon amongequals....Leteveryoneworkforthecommongood."(48:p.133)Twelvehoursdailyaregivenovertoworkincommonandtheothertwelvetorelaxationand sleep.Mealsaretakenincommon.Allsocialdistinctionsaredeterminedsolelybyage:powerisinthehandsoftheoldmen. Marriageistemporary,contractedforoneyear.Emotionsarenotmuchtakenintoaccountonlyservicestothestateentitlesonetobeautifulgirls.Therightoffirstchoice thereforebelongstooldmenof150yearsormore. Whenthewifebecomespregnant,themarriageisdissolved.TheWomannursesherchildatfirst,thenhandsitovertoofficialtutors.Therelationsbetweenfathersand childrenare"essentiallythesameasbetweenpersonswhohardlyknowoneanother.Allchildrenarechildrenofthepeople."(48:p.138) Dramaticworksandpaintingareforbidden.TheMegapatagoniansassertthatthey"wishonlyrealthingsandonlyhavetimetoenjoythegenuinepleasures,neverthinking ofimaginaryones."However,thereismusicamongthem,andtheysingsongsglorifyinggreatmen, [105] pleasureandlove.Allothersubjectsarebannedfrompoeticexpression. Theethicsofthissocietyisbasedonobtainingthegreatestpossiblepleasure:"Getridofallunpleasantsensationsuseeverythingthatlegitimatelysuppliespleasure,but withoutweakeningoroverstrainingtheorgans."(48:p.149)"Whatespeciallystrengthenssoundmoralsamongusisthefactthatmoralquestionsarenotlefttothewhim ofprivatepersons.Thankstoourequalityandourcommunality,theacceptedmoralityisuniformandpublic."(48:p.151) Megapatagoniansdescribethecontentoftheirreligiousdoctrinethus:"Touseone'sorgansinaccordancewiththeintentionofnature,abusingnothingandneglecting nothing."(48:p.140)Inanswertothequestionoftemples,theypointtotheskyandtotheearth.Theyesteemthesunastheuniversalfatherandtheearthastheuniversal mother.

    3.TheAgeofEnlightenment
    Wenowturntosociologicalandphilosophicalsocialistliterature,onceagaintouchingonbutafewworkswhichexertedthegreatestinfluenceonthedevelopmentof chiliasticsocialism. JeanMeslier's Testament standsoutamongwritingsofthistypebymanyaspectsofitscomposition,byitsunusualfate,aswellasbytheastonishingfigureofitsauthor. Throughouthisadultlife,JeanMeslier(16641729)wasapriestinChampagne.His Testament becameknownincopiesandexcerptsonlyin1733,afterhisdeath. VoltaireandotherrepresentativesoftheEnlightenmentfoundthebookofgreatinterest,butsodangerousthattheyneverdaredtopublishitscompletetext.Thefirstfull editionappearedonlyin1864,inAmsterdam.

    Wenowturntosociologicalandphilosophicalsocialistliterature,onceagaintouchingonbutafewworkswhichexertedthegreatestinfluenceonthedevelopmentof chiliasticsocialism. JeanMeslier's Testament standsoutamongwritingsofthistypebymanyaspectsofitscomposition,byitsunusualfate,aswellasbytheastonishingfigureofitsauthor. Throughouthisadultlife,JeanMeslier(16641729)wasapriestinChampagne.His Testament becameknownincopiesandexcerptsonlyin1733,afterhisdeath. VoltaireandotherrepresentativesoftheEnlightenmentfoundthebookofgreatinterest,butsodangerousthattheyneverdaredtopublishitscompletetext.Thefirstfull editionappearedonlyin1864,inAmsterdam. ThemaindistinguishingfeatureoftheTestament isthatitssocialistconceptionismerelyanoutgrowthofthecentralideaofthework:thestrugglewithreligion.Meslier sawnothinginreligionotherthanasocialrole,whichconsists,inhisopinion,ofthefurtheranceofviolenceandsocialinequalitybymeansofdeceitandpropagationof superstitions: "Inshort,allthatyourtheologistsandpriestspreachtoyouwithsucheloquenceandfervor...allthisisinrealitynothingbutillusion,error,falsehood,fabricationand deception:thesethingswerefirstinvented [106] byslyandcunningpoliticians,repeatedbyimpostorsandcharlatans,thengivencredencebyignorantandbenightedmenfromthecommonfolk,andfinallysupportedby thepowerofmonarchsandthemightywhoconnivedatthedeceitanderror,superstitionsandfraudulence,andperpetuatedthembytheirlawssoastobridlethemasses inthiswayandmakethemdancetotheirtune."(49:I:pp.6769) ThesetwopassionshatredforGodandforanykindofinequalityorhierarchyarethedrivingforcesofthe Testament. Meslierconsidersreligiontoberesponsiblefor themajorityofhumanmisfortunes.Inparticular,itsowsdissentandpromotesreligiouswars.Butatthesametime,hehimselfcallswithsincereconvictionforanuprising, thekillingofkings,andtheannihilationofallwhocouldbeconsideredmorefortunateandprosperous. "Inthisconnection,Iamremindedofthewishofonemanwhoexpressedthedesirethat'allthemightyofthisworldandthenoblelordsbehangedandstrangledwith loopsmadeofpriests'bowels.'Thisjudgmentiscertainlysomewhatcoarseandharsh,butthereissomenaivefranknessaboutit.Itisbriefbuteloquentandinafew wordsexpresseswhatpeopleofthiskindreallydeserve."(49:I:p.71) ToMeslierreligionwasanabsurdsuperstitionthatcannotsurvivetheslightestbrushwithreason.Ofallthereligions,themostabsurdisthereligionoftheChristians,whom hecallsChristworshipers.Butitwouldbewrongtoseekthereasonforthisattitudeinanoverlyrationalisticturnofmindoftheauthor.RefutingChristianity,Meslierisat thesametimereadytobelievethewildestsuperstitionsandtorepeatthemostabsurdrumors.Forinstance,itseemsnonsensicaltohimthatGodcouldhavehadbuta singleSon,whilemuchlessercreaturesaremuchbetterendowed.Manyanimalsbeartenortwelveoffspringatonce. "TheysaythataPolishcountessnamedMargarethasgivenbirthtothirtysixbabiesatonce.AndaDutchcountess,alsoMargaret,whohadlaughedatapoorwoman burdenedwithchildren,gavebirthtoasmanychildrenastherearedaysintheyear,thatis,365,andallofthemlatergotmarried.(SeetheAnnalsofHollandand Poland.)"(49:II:p.19) ItisclearthatMeslier'spointofdepartureisahatredforGodandthathisargumentsaremerelyanattempttojustifythissentiment. [107] ThepersonofChristisespeciallyhatefultohim,andhereheliterallyrunsoutoftermsofabuse."AndwhatofourGodandChristworshipers?Towhomdothey ascribedivinity?Tothepaltrymanwhohadneithertalent,norintelligence,norknowledge,norskill,andwasutterlyscornedintheworld.Whomdotheyascribeitto? ShallIsay?IndeedIshall:theyascribeittothelunatic,demented,wretchedbigotandillstarredgallowsbird."(49:II:p.25)Thechampionoftherightsofthepoor perceivesirrefutableproofofChrist'steachinginthefactthat"hewasalwayspoor,andwasmerelythesonofacarpenter."(49:II:p.26) Religionisthesourceofmostsocialevilsand,inparticular,ofinequality,whichismaintainedsolelybyitsauthority.Meslierrecognizestheneedfor"somedependenceand subordination"ineverysociety.Butatpresent,powerisbasedonviolence,murderandcrime.InhisTestament thereisnothingsaidaboutconcretemeasuresfor improvingthepositionofthepoornorabouttherichdoingsomethingtohelp.Thebookmerelyfansthehatredoftheformerforthelatter. "Youaretold,dearfriends,aboutdevilstheyfrightenyouwiththedevil'snamealoneyouareforcedtobelievethatdevilsarethemostevilandrepulsiveofcreatures,that theyaretheworstenemiesofhumankind,thattheystriveonlytoruinpeopleandrenderthemunhappyinhellforever....Butknow,dearfriends,thatforyouthemostevil andtruedevils,thoseyououghttofear,arethosepeopleofwhomIspeakyouhavenoworseandnomoreevilenemiesthanthenobleandtherich."(49:II:p.166) Theessenceandtruecauseofinequalityisprivateproperty,whichalsoisjustifiedbyreligion. "Forthisreasonsomedrinkandstuffthemselves,wallowinginluxury,whileothersdiefromstarvation.Forthisreasonsomearealmostalwayshappyandgay,while othersareeternallysadandgrieving."(49:II:p.201) Meslier'sentiresocialprogramcomesdowntoafewlines: "Whatagreathappinessitwouldbeforpeopleiftheyusedalllife'sblessingstogether."(49:II:p.209) Inajustsociety,Meslierfeels,productionandconsumptionmustbeorganizedaccordingtoprinciplesofcommunality. "Peopleoughttopossessallwealthandrichesoftheearthtogether [108] andonequaltermsandalsousethemtogetherandequitably."(49:II:p.198) Food,clothing,educationforchildren,oughtnottodiffergreatlyindifferentfamilies.Everyoneoughttoworkundertheguidanceofwiseelders(inanotherpassage, Meslierspeaksaboutelectedofficials). Thesemeasureswouldleadtomiraculousresults.Noonewouldbeinneedeveryonewouldlovehisneighbor.Heavywork,deceit,vanity,wouldalldisappear.Then, Mesliersays,"nounhappypeoplewouldbeseenonearth,whereasatpresentwecomeacrossthemoneveryhand."(49:II:p.217) Familyrelationswouldalsochange,foragreatevilintroducedbythechurchwouldfallawaytheindissolubilityofmarriage."Itisnecessarytoprovidetheidentical freedomtomenandtowomentocometogetherwithouthindrance,followingtheirowninclination,andthefreedomalsotoseparateandleaveoneanotherwhenlife togetherbecomesintolerableorwhenanewattractionmovesthemtocontractinganewunion."(49:II:p.214)

    Thesemeasureswouldleadtomiraculousresults.Noonewouldbeinneedeveryonewouldlovehisneighbor.Heavywork,deceit,vanity,wouldalldisappear.Then, Mesliersays,"nounhappypeoplewouldbeseenonearth,whereasatpresentwecomeacrossthemoneveryhand."(49:II:p.217) Familyrelationswouldalsochange,foragreatevilintroducedbythechurchwouldfallawaytheindissolubilityofmarriage."Itisnecessarytoprovidetheidentical freedomtomenandtowomentocometogetherwithouthindrance,followingtheirowninclination,andthefreedomalsotoseparateandleaveoneanotherwhenlife togetherbecomesintolerableorwhenanewattractionmovesthemtocontractinganewunion."(49:II:p.214) Meslier's Testament leavestheimpressionofaprofoundlypersonalworkrevealingintimateaspectsofitsauthor'spersonality.Therefore,thepassagesthatbeardirectly onthispersonalityareespeciallyinteresting. ThebookopenswithMeslieraddressinghisparishioners: "Dearfriends,duringmylifetimeIwasunabletosayopenlywhatIhavethoughtabouttheorderandmethodofgoverningmen,oftheirreligionandtheirrights,forthis wouldhavebeenfraughtwithhighlydangerousandlamentableconsequences.Therefore,Idecidedtotellyouthisaftermydeath."(49:I:p.55)Mesliersaysofhimself:"I neverwassofoolishastoattachanysignificancetothesacramentsandabsurditiesofreligionIhaveneverfeltbenttotakepartinthemoreventospeakofthemwith respectandapproval."(49:II:p.73)"WithallmyheartIdetestedtheabsurddutiesofmyprofessionandespeciallytheidolatrousandsuperstitiousmassesand nonsensicalandridiculousholycommunionthatIwasobligedtoperform."(49:I:p.77) Thebookendswiththesewords: "AfterallIhavesaid,letpeoplethinkaboutme,letthemjudgemeandsayofmeanddowhatevertheyplease.Idonotcare.Letpeopleadaptthemselvesandgovern themselvesastheyplease,let [109] thembewiseormad,letthembekindorevil,letthemspeakofmeastheypleaseaftermydeath.Iwillhavenothingtodowithitatall.Ihavegivenupalmostany participationinthethingsoftheworld.ThedeadwithwhomIwilltravelthesameroadaretroubledbynothing,theycarefornothing.Andwiththis nothing Ishallend here.Imyselfamnotmorethannothingandsoonwillbe,inthefullsenseoftheword,nothing."(49:II:p.377) Thesewerenotidlewords:Mesliercommittedsuicideattheageofsixtyfive. ThehistoryoftheTestament iscurious.Itsfulltext(orperhapsaseriesofextracts)cameintothehandsofVoltaire,whowasgreatlyimpressed.Hewroteofthework: "Thisisacompositionofabsolutenecessityfordemons,anexcellentcatechismofBaalzebub.Knowthatitisararebook,aperfection."(49:III:p.405) Tothosehecalled"brethren,"Voltairewroterepeatedly,urgingthemtocirculateextractsfromtheTestament. "KnowthatGod'sblessingisonournascentchurch:Inoneoftheprovinces,threehundredcopiesofMeslierhavebeendistributed,whichhasproducedmanynew converts."(49:III:p.417) Theworkwasthoughttobedangerous.Inarguingforitspublication,Voltairewrote: "Isitimpossible,withoutcompromisinganyone,toturntothatgoodoldsoulMerlin?Iwouldnotwishforanyofourbrethrentotaketheslightestrisk."(49:III:p.416) "LetusthankthegoodpeoplewhodistributeitgratisandpraytotheLordtoblessthisusefulreading."(49:III:p.419) "Youhavecleverfriendswhowouldbenotunwillingtohavethisbookinasafeplacemoreover,itissuitablefortheedificationofyouth."(49:III:p.408) "JeanMesliermustconvincethewholeworld.WhyishisGospelsolittlecirculated?YouaretooretiringinParis!Youarehidingyourlamp."(49:III:p.410) "InaChristianfashion,IwishfortheTestament ofthepriesttobemultipliedlikethefiveloavestonourishfourorfivethousandsouls."(49:III:p.411) Later,in1793,whentheConventionwascarryingoutaprogramofdeChristianizationandintroducingthecultofReason,AnacharsisClootsproposedputtingupinthe templeofReasonastatueofthe [110] firstpriesttorejectreligiouserror"thebrave,magnanimousandgreatJeanMeslier." TheCodeofNatureortheTrueSpiritoftheLaw byMorellyappearedin1755.Almostnothingisknownabouttheauthorargumentsarestillgoingonastowhether heeverexistedorwhether"Morelly"issimplyapseudonym. AttherootofMorelly'ssystemisanotionaboutthenaturalstateorthe"codeofnature"towhichmankindshouldadhereinordertoliveamoralandhappylife.The breakingawayfromthenaturalstatewascausedbyprivateproperty,thecauseofallhumanmisery.Onlybyabolishingitwillmankindreturntoitsnaturalandhappystate. Partfouroftheworkcontainsasystemoflawswhich,accordingtoMorelly,oughttoserveasthefoundationofanidealsociety. Acentralplaceisoccupiedbythree"fundamentalandinviolablelaws."Thefirstabolishesprivateproperty.Anexceptionismadeonlyforthingswhichapersonuses"for hisneeds,hispleasures,orhisdailywork."Thesecondlawproclaimsallthecitizenstobepublicpersonswhomthestateprovideswithworkandmaintenance.Thethird lawproclaimsuniversalobligatoryservice"inconformitywiththeDistributiveLaws." Allcitizensfromtheageoftwentytotwentyfiveareobligedtobeengagedinagriculturetheyaretheneitherretainedintheirplaceormadeartisans.Attheageofforty, everyonehastherightoffreechoiceofprofession. Everythingproducedisdistributedthroughcommunalstorehouses.Tradeandbarterareforbiddenbythe"inviolablelaw." Thepopulationlivesintownsbrokenupintoequalblocks.Allbuildingsareofthesameshape.Everyonewearsclothingofthesamefabric. Onreachingacertainage,everyoneistomarry.Childrenarebroughtupinthefamilyuntiltheageoffive,thentheyareplacedininstitutionsdesignatedfortheirfurther upbringing.Thetraining(aswellasthefoodandclothing)ofallchildrenisabsolutelythesame.Attheageoften,childrenmovetoworkshopstocontinuetheirtraining.

    Everythingproducedisdistributedthroughcommunalstorehouses.Tradeandbarterareforbiddenbythe"inviolablelaw." Thepopulationlivesintownsbrokenupintoequalblocks.Allbuildingsareofthesameshape.Everyonewearsclothingofthesamefabric. Onreachingacertainage,everyoneistomarry.Childrenarebroughtupinthefamilyuntiltheageoffive,thentheyareplacedininstitutionsdesignatedfortheirfurther upbringing.Thetraining(aswellasthefoodandclothing)ofallchildrenisabsolutelythesame.Attheageoften,childrenmovetoworkshopstocontinuetheirtraining. Thenumberofpersonswhodevotethemselvestoscienceandtheartsisstrictlylimited"foreachtypeofoccupationandforeachtownaswell." [111] "Moralphilosophy"islimitedonceandforalltothepropositionsworkedoutinMorelly'streatise: "Nothingwillbeaddedbeyondthelimitsprescribedbylaw."(50:p.202) Ontheotherhand,unrestrictedfreedomofinvestigationisgrantedintheareaofnaturalscience. ThelawssetforthbyMorellyaretobeengravedoncolumnsorpyramidserectedinthemainsquareofeachtown. Anyoneattemptingtochangethesacredlawsistobedeclaredmadandimmuredinacaveforlife: "Hischildrenandallhisfamilywillrenouncehisname."(50:p.238) WehavealreadycomeacrossallthesepropositionsinMoreandCampanella.ButMorelly'ssystemisofinterestinthatitcontainstheideaofthedevelopmentofsociety fromaprimitivestatetosocialism. Mankindoncelivedinanaturalstate,theGoldenAge,thememoryofwhichispreservedamongallpeoples.Butthisstatewaslostduetothemistakenintroductionof privatepropertybylegislators.Areturntoaconditionwherenoprivatepropertyexistswilltakeplacethankstoprogress,whichMorellyconsiderstobethebasicdriving forceofhistory. "ThephenomenathatIobservedemonstrateeverywhere,eveninagnat'swing,thepresenceofaconsistentdevelopment.Iexperience,Ifeeltheprogressofreason.Iam justified,therefore,tosaythatbysomemiraculousanalogytherealsoexistfavorabletransformationsinthemoralfield,andthatdespitetheirpowerandpleasantness,the lawsofnaturedoonlygraduallygaincompletepowerovermankind."(50:p.159) Onlyafterhavingexperiencedvariousformsofrulewillthepeopleunderstandwhatistrulygood.ThesocietydescribedbyMorellywillariseultimately,asaninevitable triumphofreason,andmankindwillcometotheendofitsjourneyfromtheunconsciousGoldenAgetotheconsciousone. ThespreadofsocialistideasintheAgeofEnlightenmentmaybejudgedbytheopensympathywithwhichtheyarereferredtointhemostinfluentialworkoftheday the famousEncyclopdie. Inanarticleon"TheLegislator"(IX,1765),theauthorofwhichisapparentlyDiderot,thefundamentalgoalofeverylegislatorisdescribedasthe replacementofthe"spiritofproperty"bythe"spiritofcommunity." [112] Ifthespiritofcommunityisdominantinastate,itscitizensdonotregretthattheyhaverejectedtheirownwillforthesakeofthecommonwilllovefortheirhomeland becomestheironlypassion.ThesesomewhatvaguepronouncementsarerenderedmoreconcretebyreferencestothelawsofPeruasmodelsoflawsbasedonthespirit ofcommunity.* "ThelawsofPerustrovetounitethecitizensbybondsofhumanitywhilethelegislationofothercountriesforbiddoingharmtoanother,inPeruthelawsprescribe tirelesslydoinggood.Lawsestablishing(totheextentpossibleinthelimitationsofanaturalstate)thecommunalityofpropertyweakenedthespiritofpropertythesource ofallevil.ThemostfestivedaysinPeruwerethosedayswhenthecommonfieldwasbeingtilled,thefieldofanoldmanoranorphan.Hewhowaspunishedbynotbeing permittedtoworkinthecommonfieldconsideredhimselfamostunhappyman.Eachcitizenworkedforallthecitizensandbroughtthefruitsofhislabortostategranaries andreceivedthefruitofothercitizens'laborasreward."(Quotedin51:p.127) Later,in1772,Diderotreturnedtothoughtsonthesocialistformofstateorganization.InhisworkSupplementauvoyagedeBougainville, hedescribesthelifeofthe peopleofTahiti,whoseislandthetravelerissupposedtohavevisited. Thesavageshaveeverythingincommon.Theyworktheirfieldstogether.Marriagedoesnotexistandchildrenarebroughtupbythecommunity.Addressingthetraveler, anoldTahitiansays: "Here,everythingbelongstoall,whileyouhavepreachedadifferencebetween'mine'and'thine.'"(52:p.43)"Leaveusourmorals.Theyarewiserandmorevirtuous thanyours.Wedonotwanttoexchangewhatyoucallignoranceforyouruselessknowledge.Wehaveeverythingthatweneedandwhateverisusefultous.Dowe deservecontemptmerelybecausewedidnotinventsuperfluousnecessities?Don'tinspireinuseitheryourfalsenecessitiesoryourchimericalvirtues."(52:p.44) "Ourgirlsandwomenbelongtoall....AyoungTahitiangirlgivingherselfuptothedelightsofayoungTahitianboy'sembracewouldwaitimpatientlyforhermotherto undressherandbareher

    *Inthefirstchapterofthenextsectionofthisbook,thereaderwillfindinformationonthesocialandeconomicstructureoftheIncaempire,whichiswhatismeantherebyPeru.

    [113] breasts....Withoutshameorfearsheacceptsinourpresence,surroundedbyinnocentTahitians,tothesoundofflutesandthedance,thecaressesofhimwhowaschosen byheryouthfulheartandthesecretvoiceofherfeelings.Areyoucapableofreplacingwithamoreworthyandgreaterfeelingthefeelingthatweinstilledinthemandwhich inspiresthem?"(52:pp.4345) Diderot'sattitudetowardsocialisttheoriesmayalsobejudgedbythefactthatwhenMorelly'sCodeofNature wasincludedinvariouscollectionsofhisworks,hedidnot protest.ThistestifiesnotonlytoDiderot'smoralprinciplesbuttohissympathyforsocialistideasaswell.

    breasts....Withoutshameorfearsheacceptsinourpresence,surroundedbyinnocentTahitians,tothesoundofflutesandthedance,thecaressesofhimwhowaschosen byheryouthfulheartandthesecretvoiceofherfeelings.Areyoucapableofreplacingwithamoreworthyandgreaterfeelingthefeelingthatweinstilledinthemandwhich inspiresthem?"(52:pp.4345) Diderot'sattitudetowardsocialisttheoriesmayalsobejudgedbythefactthatwhenMorelly'sCodeofNature wasincludedinvariouscollectionsofhisworks,hedidnot protest.ThistestifiesnotonlytoDiderot'smoralprinciplesbuttohissympathyforsocialistideasaswell. Deschamps's TruthortheTrueSystem. Inconclusion,wewilltakenoteofoneofthetheoreticiansofsocialismintheeighteenthcentury,theBenedictinemonk Deschamps.Duringhislifetime,hepublishedLettersontheSpiritoftheTimes (1769)and TheVoiceofReasonAgainsttheVoiceofNature (1770),both anonymously.ButhismostoriginalideasarecontainedinhisTruthortheTrueSystem, whichremainedinmanuscriptandwaspublishedonlyinourcentury(andin completeformonlyinthelastfewyearssee53). Deschampsistheauthorofoneofthemoststrikingandinternallyconsistentsocialistsystems.Heisalsoaphilosopherofthehighestorder,andissometimesreferredtoas aprecursorofHegel.Thatisunquestionablycorrect,butwhilefollowingapathsimilartotheoneHegelwouldtakelater,Deschampsalsodevelopedmanyconcepts whichweretobeenunciatedbyHegel'sdisciplesoftheleftFeuerbach,Engels,andMarx.AndinhisconceptionofNothingnessheanticipatesinmanyrespectsthe contemporaryexistentialists. Deschamps'soutlookisveryclosetomaterialism,althoughitdoesnotcoincidewithmaterialismentirely.Heseesonlymatterintheworld,buthisunderstandingofitis unusual. "Theworldhasexistedalwaysandwillexisteternally."(53:p.317)Initthereisanunendingprocessgoingonoftheappearanceofcertainpartsoutofothersandtheir destruction."Allbeingsemergeoneoutoftheother,enteroneintotheother,andallthevariousspeciesareessentiallyonlyaspectsofauniversaltype....Allbeingshave lifeinthemnomatterhowdeadtheyseem,fordeathismerelyalessermanifestationoflifeandnotitsnegation."(53:p.127) LifeforDeschampsisequatedtovariousformsofmotion.Hesaysofnature:"Everythinginitpossessesacapacityforfeeling,life, [114] thought,reason,i.e.,motion.Forwhatdoallthesewordsmeanifnottheactionormotionoftheparticlesweconsistof?"(53:p.135) Thisdeterminesman'splaceintheuniverseand,inparticular,hisfreedomofaction:"Ifwebelievethatwepossessawillandfreedom,thatresults,first,fromtheabsurdity thatforcesustobelieveinaGodandconsequentlytobelievethatwehaveasoulwhichhasitsmeritsandfaultsbeforeGod,and,secondly,becausewecannotseethe innerspringsofourmechanism."(53:pp.136137) DeschampsconsidersGodtobeanideacreatedbymankind,aproductofdefinitesocialrelationsbasedonprivateproperty.Religiondidnotexistbeforetheserelations tookshape,anditwillnolongerexistwhentheyaredestroyed.Religionitselfisnotonlytheresultoftheoppressionofpeoplebutalsoameansfacilitatingthisoppression. Itisoneofthebasicobstaclestothetransitionofmankindtoahappiersocialcondition. Deschampssays:"Theword'God'mustbeeliminatedfromourlanguages."(53:p.133)Nevertheless,hewasapassionateopponentofatheism.Ofhissystemhehasthe followingtosay:"Atfirstglance,itmightbepossibletothinkthatitisaconciseformulationofatheism,forallreligionisdestroyedinit.Butuponconsideration,itis impossiblenottobeconvincedthatitisnotaformulationofatheismatall,forinplaceofarationalandmoralGod(whomIdosubjecttodestruction,forhemerely resemblesamanmorepowerfulthanothermen)Isetbeinginthemetaphysicalsense,whichisthebasisofmoralitythatisfarfromarbitrary."(53:p.154) Deschampshasinmindhisunderstandingoftheuniverse,towhichheascribedthreespecificaspects.Thefirstistotality[letout], thatis,theuniverseasaunityofallits parts.Thistotalityisthe"basiswhosemanifestationsareallvisiblebeings,"butwhichhasanother,nonphysicalnaturewhichisunlikeitsparts.Therefore,itcannotbeseen butcanbecomprehendedbyreason.Thesecondaspectis everything[tout], thatis,theuniverseasasingleconcept. "Totality presupposesthepresenceoftheparts. Everything doesnotpresupposethis....Iunderstand everything asexistenceinitself,existencebyitself...inother words...existencethroughnothingbutitself."(53:pp.8788) "Everything, notconsistingofparts,existsitisinseparablefrom totality, whichconsistsofpartsandof whicheverything issimultaneouslyaconfirmationandanegation."(53:p.124) ButperhapsthemoststrikingofDeschamps'sthreeaspectsofthe [115] universeisthethirditstressesthenegativecharacterofdefinitionsofeverything."Everything isnolongeramassofentitiesbutamasswithoutparts...notasingleentity existinginmanyentities...butasingularentitywhichdeniesanyexistenceapartfromitself...aboutwhichitispossibleonlytodenythatwhichisassertedintheother for itisnotsentientandnottheresultofsentiententitiesbut,rather, nothing[rien], nonbeingitself,whichalonecannotbeanythingbutthenegationofwhatissentient."(53: pp.125126) "Everything isnothing." (53:p.129)"Nodoubtnoonebeforemehaseverwrittenthateverything andnothing areoneandthesame."(53:p.130)For Deschamps,thisprincipleisbasictohisdoctrineonexistence:"Whatisthecauseofexistence?Answer:Itscauseresidesinthefactthatnothing issomething,inthatitis existence,inthatitiseverything." (53:p.321)HerehefindsaplaceforGodaswell:"Godis nothing, nonexistenceitself."(53:p.318)Apparently,theseprinciples, alongwiththedeductionsresultingfromthem,arewhatDeschampsopposestoatheism,whichhedeclaresapurelynegative,destructivedoctrine.Hecallsitthe"atheism ofcattle,"i.e.,ofbeingswhohavenotovercome religion,andwhohavenotevendevelopedtothelevelofreligion. Deschamps'sarrogantandscornfulattitudetowardcontemporaryphilosophersoftheEnlightenmentisconnectedwiththisview.Heaccusesthemofcreatingunscientific schemesbasedonfantasy. "LetourdestroyerphilosophersrealizehowfutileandworthlessweretheireffortsdirectedagainstGodandreligion.Thephilosopherswerepowerlesstocarryouttheir task,untiltheytouchedupontheexistenceofthecivilcondition,whichaloneisthecauseoftheappearanceoftheideaofamoralanduniversalbeingandofall religions."(53:p.107)"Theconditionofuniversalequalitydoesnotderivelogicallyfromthedoctrineofatheism.Italwaysseemed,toouratheistsaswellastothe majorityofpeople,tobeaproductoffantasy."(54:p.41) Andfantasiesofthissortarebynomeansharmless.Thereareonlytwowaysout:thepathproposedbyreligionandDeschamps'ssystem.Tounderminereligionbefore thegroundispreparedfortheauthor'ssystemistohastenthecomingofadestructiverevolution.In TheVoiceofReason, Deschampssays: "Thisrevolutionwillobviouslyhaveitssourceinthecontemporaryphilosophicaltrends,althoughthemajoritydoesnotsuspectthis.Itwillhavemuchmorelamentable consequencesandbringmuchmore [116]

    thegroundispreparedfortheauthor'ssystemistohastenthecomingofadestructiverevolution.In TheVoiceofReason, Deschampssays: "Thisrevolutionwillobviouslyhaveitssourceinthecontemporaryphilosophicaltrends,althoughthemajoritydoesnotsuspectthis.Itwillhavemuchmorelamentable consequencesandbringmuchmore [116] destructionthananyrevolutioncausedbyheresy.Butisthisrevolutionnotalreadybeginning?Hasdestructionnotalreadybefallenthefoundationsofreligion,aretheynot readytocollapse,andalltherestaswell?"(Quotedin54:p.6) Tothenegativecharacterofthephilosophes' atheismDeschampsopposeswhatheseesasthepositivecharacterofhisownsystem: "ThesystemIamproposingdeprivesusofthejoysofparadiseandtheterrorsofhelljustlikeatheismbut,incontrasttoatheism,itleavesnodoubtastotherightness ofthedestructionofhellandparadise.Beyondthat,itgivesusthesupremelyimportantconviction,whichatheismdoesnotandcannevergive,thatforusparadisecan existonlyinoneplace,namely,inthisworld."(53:p.154) Deschamps'ssocialandhistoricaldoctrineisbasedonmetaphysics.Itisderivedfromaconceptionoftheevolutionofmankindinthedirectionofthegreatest manifestationoftheideaofoneness,of totality: "Theideaoftotality isequivalenttotheideaoforder,harmony,unity,equality,perfection.Theconditionofunityorthesocialconditionderivesfromtheideaof totality, whichisitselfunityandunionforpurposesoftheirownwellbeing,peoplemustliveinasocialcondition."(53:p.335) ThemechanismofthisevolutionisthedevelopmentofthesocialinstitutionswhichdetermineallotheraspectsofhumanlifeIanguage,religion,morality....Forexample: "ItwouldbeabsurdtosupposethatmancamefromthehandsofGodalreadymature,moralandpossessingtheabilitytospeak:speechdevelopedalongwithsocietyasit becamewhatitistoday."(53:p.102) Deschampsconsidersvariousmanifestationsofeviltobetheresultofsocialconditionsheincludesevenhomosexuality,forexample. Thesocialinstitutionsthemselvestakeshapeundertheinfluenceofmaterialfactorssuchasthenecessityofhuntingingroupsandtheguardingofherds,aswellasthe advantagesofman'sphysicalstructureinparticular,thatofhishand. Deschampsdividestheentirehistoricalprocessintothreestagesorstatesthroughwhichmankindmustpass: "Formanthereexistonlythreestates:thesavagestateorthestateoftheanimalsintheforestthestateoflaw,*andthestateofmorals.Thefirstisastateofdisunity withoutunity,withoutsocietythesecond

    *ElsewhereDeschampscallsthisthecivilstate.

    [117] stateoursoneofextremedisunitywithinunity,andthethirdisthestateofunitywithoutdisunity.Thislastiswithoutdoubttheonlystatecapableofprovidingpeople, insofarasthisispossible,withstrengthandhappiness."(53:p.275) Inthesavagestatepeoplearemuchhappierthaninthestateoflaw,inwhichcontemporarycivilizedmankindlives: "Thestateoflawforus...isundoubtedlyfarworsethanthesavagestate."(53:p.184)Thisistruewithrespecttocontemporaryprimitivepeoples:"Wetreatthemwith disdain,yetthereisnodoubtthattheirconditionisfarlessirrationalthanours."(53:p.185)Butitisimpossibleforustoreturntothesavagestate,whichhadtocollapse andgivebirthtothestateoflawbyforceofobjectivecausesfirstandforemost,bytheappearanceofinequality,authorityandprivateproperty. Privatepropertyisthebasiccauseofallthevicesinherentinthestateoflaw:"Thenotionsofthine andmine inrelationtoearthlyblessingsandwomenexistonlyunder coverofourmorals,givingbirthtoalltheevilthatsanctionsthesemorals."(53:p.178) Thestateoflaw,inDeschamps'sopinion,isthestateofthegreatestmisfortuneforthegreatestnumberofpeople.Evilitselfisconsideredanoutgrowthofthisstate:"Evilin manispresentonlyduetotheexistingcivilstate,whichendlesslycontradictsman'snature.Therewasnosuchevilinmanwhenhewasinasavagestate."(53:p.166) Butthoseveryaspectsofthestateoflawthatmakeitespeciallyunbearablepreparethetransitiontothestateofmoralswhichseemstobethatparadiseonearthabout whichDeschampsspokeinapassagequotedearlier.Hisdescription,repletewithvividdetail,containsoneofthemostuniqueandconsistentofsocialistutopias. Alloflifeinthestateofmoralswillbecompletelysubordinatedtoonegoalthemaximumimplementationoftheideaofequalityandcommunality.Peoplewilllivewithout mine andthine, allspecializationwilldisappear,aswillthedivisionoflabor. "Womenwouldbethecommonpropertyofmen,asmenwouldbethecommonpossessionofwomen....Childrenwouldnotbelongtoanyparticularmanor woman."(53:p.206)"Womencapableofgivingsuckandwhowerenotpregnantwouldnurseallchildrenwithoutdistinction....Buthowisit,youwillobject,thata womanisnottohaveherownchildren?No,indeed!Whatwouldsheneedthatpropertyfor?"(53:p.212)Theauthorisnotalarmedbythefactthat [118] suchawayoflifewouldleadtoincest."Theysaythatincestgoesagainstnature.Butinfactitismerelyagainstthenatureofourmorals."Allpeople"wouldknowonly societyandwouldbelongonlytoit,thesoleproprietor."(53:pp.211212) Fortransitionintothisstate,muchthatisnowconsideredofvaluewouldhavetobedestroyed,including"everythingthatwecallbeautifulworksofart.Thissacrifice wouldundoubtedlybeagreatone,butitwouldbenecessarytomake."(53:p.202)Itisnotonlytheartspoetry,painting,architecturethatwouldhavetodisappear, butscienceandtechnologyaswell.Peoplewouldnolongerbuildshipsorstudytheglobe."AndwhyshouldtheyneedthelearningofaCopernicus,aNewtonanda Cassini?"(53:p.224) Languagewillbesimplifiedandmuchlessrich,andpeoplewillbegintospeakonestableandunchanginglanguage.Writingwilldisappear,togetherwiththetediouschore

    Fortransitionintothisstate,muchthatisnowconsideredofvaluewouldhavetobedestroyed,including"everythingthatwecallbeautifulworksofart.Thissacrifice wouldundoubtedlybeagreatone,butitwouldbenecessarytomake."(53:p.202)Itisnotonlytheartspoetry,painting,architecturethatwouldhavetodisappear, butscienceandtechnologyaswell.Peoplewouldnolongerbuildshipsorstudytheglobe."AndwhyshouldtheyneedthelearningofaCopernicus,aNewtonanda Cassini?"(53:p.224) Languagewillbesimplifiedandmuchlessrich,andpeoplewillbegintospeakonestableandunchanginglanguage.Writingwilldisappear,togetherwiththetediouschore oflearningtoreadandwrite.Childrenwillnotstudyatalland,instead,willlearneverythingtheyneedtoknowbyimitatingtheirelders. Thenecessityofthinkingwillalsofallaway:"Inthesavagestatenoonethoughtorreasoned,becausenooneneededto.Inthestateoflaw,onethinksandreasons becauseoneneedstointhestateofmorals,onewillneitherthinknorreasonbecausenoonewillhaveanyneedtodothisanylonger."(53:p.296)Oneofthemostvivid illustrationsofthischangeofconsciousnesswillbethedisappearanceofallbooks.Theywillfindauseintheonlythingthattheyareinrealitygoodforlightingstoves.All bookseverwrittenhadastheirgoalthepreparationforthebookwhichwouldprovetheiruselessnessDeschamps'sstudy.Itwilloutlivetherest,butfinallyit,too,willbe burned. People'sliveswillbesimplifiedandmadeeasier.Theywillscarcelyuseanymetalsinstead,almosteverythingwillbemadeofwood.Nolargehouseswillbebuiltand peoplewillliveinwoodenhuts."Theirfurniturewouldconsistonlyofbenches,shelvesandtables."(53:p.217)"Freshstraw,whichwouldlaterbeusedascattlelitter, wouldservethemasagoodbedonwhichtheywouldallresttogether,menandwomen,afterhavingputtobedtheagedandthechildren,whowouldsleep separately."(53:p.221)Foodwouldbeprimarilyvegetarianand,thus,easytoprepare."Intheirmodestexistencetheywouldneedtoknowveryfewthings,andthese wouldbejustthethingsthatareeasytolearn."(53:p.225)Thischangeoflifestyleisconnected [119] tofundamentalpsychicchanges,whichwouldtendtomake"theinclinationofeachatthesametimethecommoninclination."(53:p.210)Individualtiesbetweenpeople andintenseindividualfeelingswoulddisappear."Therewouldbenoneofthevividbutfleetingsensationsofthehappylover,thevictorioushero,theambitiousmanwho hadachievedhisgoal,orthelaureledartist."(53:p.205)"Alldayswouldbealike."(53:p.211)Andpeoplewouldevencometoresembleoneanother."Inthestateof morals,noonewouldweeporlaugh.Allfaceswouldbealmostidenticalandwouldexpresssatisfaction.Intheeyesofmen,allwomenwouldresembleallotherwomen andallmenwouldbelikeallothermenintheeyesofwomen!"(53:p.205)People'sheads"willbeasharmoniousastheynowaredissimilar."(53:p.214)"Muchmore thaninourcase,theywouldadheretoasimilarmodeofactionineverything,andtheywouldnotconcludethatthisdemonstratesalackofreasonorunderstanding,aswe thinkaboutanimals."(53:p.219) Thisnewsocietywillgiverisetoanewworldview."Andtheywouldnotdoubtandthiswouldnotfrightenthemintheleastthatpeople,too,existonlyasaresultofthe vicissitudesoflifeandsomedayaredestinedtoperishasaconsequenceofthesamevicissitudesand,perhaps,tobeeventuallyreproducedoncemorebymeansofa transformationfromoneaspecttoanother."(53:p.225)"Becausethey,likeus,wouldnottakeintoaccountthattheyweredeadearlier,thatis,thattheirconstituentparts didnotexistinthepastinhumanformtheywouldalso,beingmoreconsistentthanwe,notplaceanysignificanceontheterminationofthisexistenceinthisforminthe future."(53:p.228)"Theirburialswouldnotbedistinguishablefromthoseofcattle."(53:p.229)For:"theirdeadfellowswouldnotmeanmoretothemthandeadcattle. ...Theywouldnotbeattachedtoanyparticularpersonsufficientlysothattheywouldfeelhisdeathasapersonallossandmournit."(53:p.230)"Theywoulddieaquiet death,adeaththatwouldresembletheirlives."(53:p.228)

    4.TheFirstSteps
    WehaveseenhowsocialismwasnurturedbythephilosophyoftheEnlightenment.ThenewinfantcameintotheworldatthetimeoftheGreatRevolutionandwassuckled byMotherGuillotine.Butittookitsfirststepsdownlife'spathaftertheheroicepochoftheTerror [120] hadalreadypassed.Itistouchingtoseetraitsofthefutureshakerofkingdomsandshattererofthronesemergefromthecharminginfantileawkwardness. In1796,afterRobespierre'sfallandduringtheruleoftheDirectoire,asecretsocietywasfoundedinParis.Itplannedapoliticalcoupandworkedoutaprogramfora futuresocialistorganizationofthenation.ThesocietywasheadedbytheSecretDirectoryofPublicSalvation,whichreliedonanetworkofagents.Amongitsleading memberswerePhilippeBuonarrotiandFranoisEmile(wholatercalledhimselfCaiusGracchus)Babeuf.Amilitarycommitteewascreatedtopreparefortheuprising. Theconspiratorshopedforthesupportofthearmy.Accordingtotheircalculations,seventeenthousandmenwouldcometotheiractiveaid.Afteraninformer'stip,the leadersoftheconspiracywerearrestedtwoofthem,includingBabeuf,wereexiled. Whenhereturnedfromexile,Buonarroticontinuedtopropagandizehisviews.Themajorityofthesocialistrevolutionariesofthedaywereunderhisinfluence.In particular,hefoundedacircleinGenevawhichwastoexertagreatinfluenceonWeitling(whoseroleintheformationofMarx'sviewsiswellknown). Numerousdocumentsinwhichthesocietysetforthitsviewswerepublishedbythegovernmentimmediatelyaftertheconspiracywasuncovered.Adetaileddescriptionof theconspiracyanditsplanswaslatergivenbyBuonarrotiinhisbook ConspiracyofEquals. Thecentralprincipleofthissociety'sprogramwastheneedforequalityatanycost.Thiswasreflectedintheverytitleofthework.Theprincipleofequalitywaslaiddown intheir"Manifesto"withinvulnerableGalliclogic: "Allmenareequal,aretheynot?Thisprincipleisirrefutable,foronlyamanwhohaslosthisreasoncaninfullearnestnesscallnightday."(55:II:p.134) Havingestablishedthisunshakablefoundation,the"Manifesto"proceedstodrawconclusionsfromthisaxiom: "Wetrulywantequalityordeath.Thisiswhatwewant."(55:II:p.134)"Foritssake,wearereadyforanythingwearewillingtosweepeverythingaway.Letallthearts vanish,ifnecessary,aslongasgenuineequalityremainsforus."(55:II:p.135)"Lettherebeanend,atlast,totheoutrageousdifferencesbetweentherichandthepoor, thehighandthelow,thelordsandtheservants,thegovernorsandthegoverned."(55:II:p.136) [121] Thisleddirectlytothecommunalityofproperty: "Theagrarianlaw,thatis,thedivisionofarableland,wasatemporaryrequirementofunprincipledsoldiers,ofcertaintribes,whowerepromptedmorebyinstinctthanby reason.Weaspiretosomethingmoreloftyandjustthecommunityofproperty."(55:II:p.135) Therightofindividualpropertywastobeabolished.Thecountrywastobeturnedintoasingleeconomicunitbuiltexclusivelyonbureaucraticprinciples.Trade,exceptfor thesmallesttransactions,wastobestoppedandmoneywithdrawnfromcirculation.

    "Theagrarianlaw,thatis,thedivisionofarableland,wasatemporaryrequirementofunprincipledsoldiers,ofcertaintribes,whowerepromptedmorebyinstinctthanby reason.Weaspiretosomethingmoreloftyandjustthecommunityofproperty."(55:II:p.135) Therightofindividualpropertywastobeabolished.Thecountrywastobeturnedintoasingleeconomicunitbuiltexclusivelyonbureaucraticprinciples.Trade,exceptfor thesmallesttransactions,wastobestoppedandmoneywithdrawnfromcirculation. "Itisnecessarythateverythingproducedonthelandorinindustrybekeptingeneralstorehousesforequitabledistributionamongcitizensunderthesupervisionofthe appropriateofficials."(55:II:p.309) Simultaneously,universalobligatorylaborisintroduced. "IndividualswhodonothingforthefatherlandcannotenjoypoliticalrightsofanykindtheyareasforeignersaffordedthehospitalityoftheRepublic."(55:II:p.206) "Todonothingforthefatherlandmeansnottoserveitbyusefullabor....Thelawtreatsasusefullaborthefollowingendeavors:agriculture,stockraising,fishing, navigation,mechanicalandartisancrafts,pettytrade,transportationofmenandgoods,militaryarts,educationandscientificactivities....Personsengagedinteachingor sciencemustsubmitcertificatesofloyalty.Onlyinthiscaseistheirlaborconsidereduseful....Officialssuperviseworkandseetoitthatjobsareequitablydistributed. ...Foreignersareforbiddentotakepartinpublicgatherings.Theyareunderthedirectsupervisionofthesupremeadministration,whichcandeportthemtoaplaceof correctivelabor."(55:II:pp.296297)Underpainofdeaththeyareforbiddentopossessweapons. Thecreatorsofthisplanwereawarethatcarryingitoutwouldentailanunprecedentedgrowthinthenumberofofficials.Theyposethisquestioninbroadterms: "Indeed,neverbeforehasanationpossessedtheminsuchgreatnumbers.Apartfromthefactthatincertaincircumstanceseverycitizenwouldbeanofficialsupervising himselfandothers,itisbeyonddoubtthatpublicofficeswouldbeverynumerousandthenumberofofficialsverygreat."(55:I:p.372) Hereishowtheinterrelationshipofindividualswiththebureaucracyisconceived: "InthepublicstructuredevisedbytheCommittee,thefatherlandtakescontrolofanindividualfromhisbirthtillhisdeath." [122] Theauthoritiesbeginbyeducatingthechild: "Protecthimfromdangerousfalsetendernessandbythehandofhismotherleadhimtoastateinstitutionwherehewillacquirethevirtuesandknowledgenecessaryfor thetruecitizen."(55:I:p.380) Youthsaretransferredfromstateschoolstomilitarycampsonlylater,undertheguidanceofofficials,dotheyundertake"usefullabor." "Themunicipaladministrationistobekeptconstantlyawareofthepositionoftheworkingpeopleofeveryclassandoftheassignmentstheyarefulfilling.Itistoinformthe supremeadministrationinthisregard."(55:II:p.304)"Thesupremeadministrationwillsentencetoforcedlabor...personsofeithersexwhosetsocietyabadexampleby absenceofcivicmindedness,byidleness,aluxuriouswayoflife,licentiousness."(55:II:p.305) Thispunishmentisdescribedlovinglyandingreatdetail: "TheislandsofMargueriteandHonor,theHyres,OlronandRaretobeturnedintoplacesofcorrectivelabor,whereforeignerswhoaresuspiciousandpersons arrestedforaddressingproclamationstotheFrenchpeoplewillbesent.Therewillbenoaccesstotheseislands.Theywillbeadministeredbyanorganizationdirectly subordinatetothegovernment."(55:II:p.299) Afterthesedarkpictures,thesectioncalled"FreedomofthePress"isapositivejoy. "Itwillbenecessarytodevisemeansbywhichalltheassistancethatcanbeexpectedofthepresscanbeextractedfromit,withouttheriskofonceagainendangeringthe justiceofequalityandtherightsofthepeopleorofabandoningtheRepublictointerminableandfataldiscussions."(55:I:p.390) The"means"turnouttoverysimple: "Noonewillbeallowedtoutterviewsthatareindirectcontradictiontothesacredprinciplesofequalityandthesovereigntyofthepeople....Thepublicationofanywork havingapsuedocriticalcharacterisforbidden....Allworksaretobeprintedanddisseminatedonlyiftheguardiansofthewillofthenationconsiderthatitspublication maybenefittheRepublic."(55:I:p.391) OnecannotbutadmirehowthecreatorsofthissystemmanagedtoConcernthemselveswiththeslightestneedofthecitizenofthefutureRepublic. "Ineverycommune,publicmealswillbetaken,withcompulsoryattendanceforallcommunitymembers....Amemberofthenational [123] communitywillbeabletoobtainhisdailyrationonlyinthedistrictofhisresidence,exceptwhenheistravelingwiththepermissionoftheadministration."(55:II:pp.306 307) "Entertainmentthatisnotavailabletoeveryoneistobestrictlyforbidden."(55:I:p.299)Thisisexplainedinanotherpassage:"...forfearlestimagination,releasedfrom thesupervisionofastrictjudge,shouldengenderabominablevicessocontrarytothecommonweal."(55:I:p.348) The"Equals"informusthattheyarefriendsofallnations.Buttemporarily, aftertheirvictory,Franceistobestringentlyisolated. UntilothernationswouldadheretothepoliticalprinciplesofFrance,noclosecontactswiththemcanbemaintained.Untilthen,Francewillonlyseeamenaceforherselfin theircustoms,institutionsand,especially,theirgovernments."(55:I:p.357) ItappearsthattherewasdisagreementamongEqualsoveronequestion.Buonarrotifeltthatadivineprincipleandimmortalityofthesoulshouldberecognized,sincefora society"itisessentialthatcitizensrecognizeaninfalliblejudgeoftheirsecretthoughtsandacts,whichcannotbepersecutedbylaw,andthattheyshouldbelievethata naturalresultoffaithfulnesstohumanityandthefatherlandwillbeeternalbliss."(55:I:p.348)"Allsocalledrevelationoughttobebanishedbylaw,togetherwithmaladies thegermsofwhichoughttobegraduallyeradicated.Untilthatoccurs,allweretobefreetogiveventtowhims,solongasthesocialstructure,universalbrotherhoodand

    UntilothernationswouldadheretothepoliticalprinciplesofFrance,noclosecontactswiththemcanbemaintained.Untilthen,Francewillonlyseeamenaceforherselfin theircustoms,institutionsand,especially,theirgovernments."(55:I:p.357) ItappearsthattherewasdisagreementamongEqualsoveronequestion.Buonarrotifeltthatadivineprincipleandimmortalityofthesoulshouldberecognized,sincefora society"itisessentialthatcitizensrecognizeaninfalliblejudgeoftheirsecretthoughtsandacts,whichcannotbepersecutedbylaw,andthattheyshouldbelievethata naturalresultoffaithfulnesstohumanityandthefatherlandwillbeeternalbliss."(55:I:p.348)"Allsocalledrevelationoughttobebanishedbylaw,togetherwithmaladies thegermsofwhichoughttobegraduallyeradicated.Untilthatoccurs,allweretobefreetogiveventtowhims,solongasthesocialstructure,universalbrotherhoodand theforceofthelawwouldnotbedisrupted."(55:I:pp.348349)Buonarrotibelievedthat"theteachingofJesus,ifdepictedasflowingoutofthenaturalreligionfrom whichitdoesnotdiffer,couldbecomeasupportofareformbasedonreason."(55:I:p.168)ButBabeufheldamorenarrowview:"Iattackrelentlesslythemainidol, untilnowveneratedandfearedbyourphilosophers,whodaredtoattackonlyhisretinueandsurroundings....Christwasneithera sansculotte noranhonestJacobinnor awisemannoramoralistnoraphilosophernoralegislator."(55:II:p.398) AcademicianV.P.Volgin,aneminentspecialistontheliteratureofutopiansocialism,notestheimportantinnovationintroducedbyBabeufandtheEqualsincomparison withothersocialistthinkers.WhilepredecessorslikeMore,CampanellaandMorellyfocusedonapictureofafullyformedsocialistcommunity,Babeufponderedthe problemsofthetransitionalperiodaswell,suggestingmethodsfor [124] establishingandstrengtheningthenewlybornsocialistsystem.Indeed,therecordsoftheEqualsyieldmuchthatisfascinatingandinstructiveinthisconnection. Itgoeswithoutsayingthatinanalreadyestablishedsocialistsociety,legislativepoweristobeentirelyinthehandsofthepeople.Inalldistricts,"assembliesofpopular sovereignty"arecreatedeachismadeupofallthecitizensofagivendistrict.Delegatesappointeddirectlybythepeopleconstitutethe"CentralAssemblyof Legislators."(Theprocedurefor"appointment"isnotfurtherspecified.)Thelegislativepoweroftheseassembliesisrestricted,however,bycertainbasicprincipleswhich "thepeoplethemselvesarenotempoweredtoviolateortoalter."Inadditiontolegislativeassemblies,andparalleltothem,senatesconsistingofoldmenaretobe instituted.Supremepowerwastobegivenovertoacorporationof"GuardiansoftheNationalWill."Thiswasconceivedasakindof"tribunalresponsibleforoverseeing thelegislators,sothatthosewhoabusetherightofissuingdecreeswouldnotencroachuponlegislativepower."(55:I:p.359) Intheperiodimmediatelyfollowingtherevolution,however,adifferentstructureofgovernmentwasenvisaged."Whatkindofauthoritywouldthisbe? Suchwasthe delicatequestionthattheSecretDirectoryhassubjectedtothoroughscrutiny."(55:I:p.216)Theanswertothis"delicatequestion"couldbesummedupasfollows: powerwouldbeconcentratedinthehandsoftheconspiratorsorpartlysharedwithindividualsappointedbythem. "ItwillbeproposedtothepeopleofParistoinstituteaNationalAssemblyvestedwithsupremepowerandconsistingofdemocrats,onefromeverydepartment meanwhiletheSecretDirectorywillinvestigatethoroughlyastowhichofthedemocratsoughttobeputforwardaftertherevolutioniscompleted.TheDirectorywillnot ceasetoactbutwillcarryonsupervisionofthenewAssembly."(55:I:p.293)Afterprolongedhesitation,theconspiratorsalmostmadeuptheirmindsto"askthepeople foradecreewhichwouldentrustthelegislativeinitiativeandtheimplementationoflaws"tothemalone.(55:I:p.290) Inthesectionentitled"IntheInitialStageofReformtheAgenciesMustBeEntrustedOnlytoRevolutionaries,"weread: "AtrueRepublicshouldbefoundedonlybythoseselflessfriendsofhumanityandthefatherlandwhosewisdomandcourageexceedthewisdomandcourageoftheir contemporaries."(55:I:p.375) [125] Therefore,acommitteecomposedofthese"selflessfriendsofhumanity"wouldseetoitthat"publicinstitutionsconsistingsolelyofthebestrevolutionaries"shouldhave onlyaverygradualchangeofpersonnel.(55:I:p.375) Inmoreconcreteterms,sixtyeightdeputieschosenfromamongthoseservingintheConventionofthedayweredesignatedbytheCommitteetobeleftinplace.Tothese weretobeaddedanotheronehundreddeputies"selectedbyusjointlywiththepeople." Beginningwiththefirstdayoftherevolution,economicreformsweretobeundertaken,assetforthintheir"economicdecree."Howgoodtolearnthatimplementationwas tobeonapurelyvoluntarybasis.Allthosewhowouldrenouncetheirpropertyvoluntarilywouldmakeupalargenationalcommunity.Buteveryonewouldretaintheright nottojointhiscommunity.Thosewhodidnotwouldacquirethestatusof"foreigners"withalltheattendantrightsanddutiessketchedinabove.Theeconomicpositionof "foreigners"isdefinedinthe"DecreeonTaxation,"whichcontains,amongotherpoints,suchthingsas: "1.Thesoletaxpayersaretheindividualswhodonotjointhecommunity.... "4.Thesumoftaxpaymentsineachcurrentyearistwicetheamountoftheprecedingyear.... "6.Personsnotpartytothenationalcommunitymayberequired,incaseofnecessityandagainstpaymentoffuturetaxes,tosupplyproduceandmanufacturedgoodsto thestorehousesofthenationalcommunity."(55:II:pp.312313) Thedecree"OnDebts,"articlethree,statesthatdebtsowedby"anyFrenchmanwhohasbecomeamemberofthenationalcommunitytoanyotherFrenchmanare annulled."(55:II:p.313) Othermeasuresdesignedtostrengthenthenewlyestablishedregimeandtopromoteitsreformswereelaborated.Forinstance,"distributionofthepossessionsof emigrants,conspiratorsandenemiesofthepeopletodefendersofthefatherlandandtothepoor."(55:II:p.253) Itistemptingtothinkthatitwasprofoundknowledgeoflife,basedonpersonaltragicexperience,thatpromptedthe"selflessfriendsofhumanity"toplaninstitutingthe followinghighlyimportantreforms,ontheveryfirstdayoftherevolution: "Objectsbelongingtothepeople[!]andinhockwillbeimmediatelyreturnedwithoutcharge....Oncompletionoftheuprising,indigent [126] citizensnowresidinginpoorlodgingswillnotreturntotheirhabitualabodestheywillbeimmediatelyinstalledinthehousesoftheconspirators."(55:II:p.281)(The readershouldnotethattheparticipantsinthe"ConspiracyofEquals"usedtheterm"conspirator"nottorefertothemselvesbutrathertothegovernmentandto representativesofhostileclasses.) Unfortunately,thedisciplesoftheAgeofReasondidnotleaveamoredetailedaccountofthisoperation.Hadtheeconomyofthetimeattainedsohighalevelthatthe numberofindigentcitizensnolongersurpassedthatofthe"conspirators"?Or,ifthelodgingsofthe"conspirators"wouldnotsufficetoaccommodatealltheindigent,in whatwaywouldtheluckynewownersofapartmentsbechosen?Thedocumentsofthe"ConspiracyofEquals"areoflittlehelponthesepoints,*butwelearnsomeother

    citizensnowresidinginpoorlodgingswillnotreturntotheirhabitualabodestheywillbeimmediatelyinstalledinthehousesoftheconspirators."(55:II:p.281)(The readershouldnotethattheparticipantsinthe"ConspiracyofEquals"usedtheterm"conspirator"nottorefertothemselvesbutrathertothegovernmentandto representativesofhostileclasses.) Unfortunately,thedisciplesoftheAgeofReasondidnotleaveamoredetailedaccountofthisoperation.Hadtheeconomyofthetimeattainedsohighalevelthatthe numberofindigentcitizensnolongersurpassedthatofthe"conspirators"?Or,ifthelodgingsofthe"conspirators"wouldnotsufficetoaccommodatealltheindigent,in whatwaywouldtheluckynewownersofapartmentsbechosen?Thedocumentsofthe"ConspiracyofEquals"areoflittlehelponthesepoints,*butwelearnsomeother interestingdetails. "Thefurnitureoftheabovementionedrichwillbeconfiscatedasnecessaryfortheadequatefurnishingofthedwellingsofthesansculottes. "(55:II:p.282) Finally,terrorwasenvisagedasoneofthemeasuresofstrengtheningtheregime.ThetribunalswhichhadactedduringtheJacobinterroruntiltheninthofThermidor, 1794,weretoberestored.And:"Onpainofbeingheldoutsidethelaw,returntoprisonallpersonswhowereheldthereuntiltheninthofThermidorofyearII,ifthey havenotcompliedwiththecalltolimitthemselvestothenecessitiesforthebenefitofthepeople."(55:I:p.404)"Anyresistancemustbeimmediatelysuppressedby forcethepersonsinvolvedaretobeexterminated.Alsoliabletocapitalpunishmentarepersonssoundinganalarmthemselvesorcausingotherstodosoandforeigners, nomatterwhattheirnationality,whoareapprehendedonthestreet."(55:II:p.232)MembersoftheexistinggovernmentmembersofthetwoCouncilsandofthe ExecutiveDirectorateweretobeexecuted."Thecrimewasevidentandthepunishmenthadtobedeathagreatexamplewasessential."(55:I:p.283) "IntheInsurgentCommittee,viewswerecurrenttotheeffectthatthecondemnedweretobeburiedundertherubbleoftheirpalaces,whoseruinswouldservetoremind futuregenerationsofthejustpunishmentmetedouton.theenemiesofthepeople."(55:I:p.284) Inelaboratingtheirsystemofreformsandpracticalmeasures,the

    *Althoughthereisthefollowingremark:"Itwouldbeanerrortoconfusethesystematicdistributionoflodgingsandclotheswithpillage."(55:I:p.282)

    [127] activistsofthe"ConspiracyofEquals"didnotclosetheireyestoobjectionswhichtheymightencounter:"Disorganizers,rebels,theysaytous,allyouwantismassacre andplunder."Suchchargesaresweptaside,however:"Neverhassobroadaplanbeenconceivedandbroughtintoexistence."(55:II:p.136)"Letthemshowus,"they wouldexclaim,"anotherpoliticalsystemwithwhichsuchgreatresultscouldbeobtainedwithmoreeasilyimplementedmeans."(55:I:p.339) Wenotewithsorrowhowsuchaperfectlyconceivedsystemwasconstantlyhamperedinpracticebyahostofpettyandsqualiddifficulties.Firstofall,theconspirators didnotavoidwhatRabelaiscalled"theincomparablegrief,"thatis,lackofmoney.Inthesectionentitled"TheParticipantsintheConspiracyDespisedMoney,"Buonarotti says: "Certainstepswereundertakentoobtainmeans,butthegreatestsumthattheSecretDirectoryeverhadatitsdisposalwas240francsincash,contributedbythe ambassadorofanallied[?]republic."(55:I:251) WecannothelpbutsympathizewhenBuonarottilaments:"Howdifficultitistodogoodarmedonlywithmeansacknowledgedbyreason."(55:I:p.251) Andasecondmisfortunebefellourheroesinternaldiscordoverdividingpowernotyetseized.TheCommitteewasatfirstjoinedbyasmallgroupthatcalleditselfthe Montagnards.Butsoon,"theCommitteewasinformedthattheyhadsecretlyundertakenmaneuverstogetaroundtheconditionswhichhadbeenagreeduponsoasto guaranteethatsupremepowerintheRepublicwouldbeintheMontagnards'hands.TheCommitteewassothoroughlyconvincedtheycoulddonogoodthatitconsidered theslightestmovementwhichgavethemanypowertobeanunforgivablecrime."(55:I:p.286) Andfinally,athirdmisfortune:TheCommitteeturnedouttobeundertheinfluenceofan agentprovocateur. Grisel,amemberofthemilitarycommittee,"hurriedhis trustingcolleaguesalong,overcameobstacles,suggestednewmeasuresandneverforgottoencouragethosearoundhimwithexaggeratedpicturesoftheloyaltyofthe Grenelledemocraticcamp."(55:I:p.265)AnditwasthisGriselwhowasdenouncingtheCommitteetotheauthorities! TheInsurgentCommitteewasalreadyworkingoutthedetailsoftheuprising.Oneofitsmemberswaswritingaproclamationcalled:"TheInsurgentCommitteeof PublicSalvation. ..Thepeoplehavetriumphed,tyrannyisnomore...."(55:I:p.400) [128] "Atthispoint,thewriterwasinterruptedandseized,"saysBuonarotti,whoseemsnottohavelosthisFrenchwit.Thearmyandthepeoplehadnotsupportedthe conspirators:"Thestandingarmy,withweaponsinhand,helpedthecampaignagainstdemocracy,whilethepopulationofParis,persuadedthatthosearrestedwere thieves,remainedapassivewitness."(55:I:p.417) Thecircumstancesofthisastonishingepisodepromptedustoresorttoaformofpresentationthatperhapsseemsoutofplaceinournarrative.Butthisdissonancereflects acuriousobjectivepropertyofthephenomenonunderstudy.Atthemomentoftheirinception,socialistmovementsoftenstrikeonebytheirhelplessness,theirisolation fromreality,theirnaIvelyadventuristiccharacterandtheircomic,"Gogolian"features(asBerdyaevputit).Onegetstheimpressionthatthesehopelessfailureshaven'ta chanceofsuccess,andthatinfacttheydoeverythingintheirpowertocompromisetheideastheyareproclaiming.However,theyaremerelybidingtheirtime.Atsome point,almostunexpectedly,theseideasfindabroadpopularreception,andbecometheforcesthatdeterminethecourseofhistory,whiletheleadersofthesemovements cometorulethedestinyofnations.(InthiswayafrightenedMntzerclimbedovertheAllstedtcitywall,havingdeceivedhissupporters,onlytobecome,soonthereafter, oneoftheleadingfiguresinthePeasantWarwhichshookGermany.)ItwouldseemthattherewasnocontradictionwhenDostoyevskypeopledhisnovelThePossessed with"threeandahalf'nihilistsincapableofmakingaseriousdisturbanceinaprovincialtown,whileatthesametimepredictinganimminentrevolutionthatwouldcarry awayonehundredmillionlives.

    Summary
    WeshallattempttosumupthosenewfeaturesofsocialistideologythatwehaveencounteredinutopiansocialismandinworksoftheEnlightenment. 1.IfintheMiddleAgesandduringtheReformationsocialistideasdevelopedwithinmovementsthatwerereligious,atleastformally,utopiansocialismtendstobreakwith religiousformandgraduallyacquireacharacterhostiletoreligion.InMoreandCampanellawewereabletopointoutanalienatedandattimesironicattitudetoward Christianity.Winstanleyisopenlyhostiletocontemporaryreligions. [129]

    WeshallattempttosumupthosenewfeaturesofsocialistideologythatwehaveencounteredinutopiansocialismandinworksoftheEnlightenment. 1.IfintheMiddleAgesandduringtheReformationsocialistideasdevelopedwithinmovementsthatwerereligious,atleastformally,utopiansocialismtendstobreakwith religiousformandgraduallyacquireacharacterhostiletoreligion.InMoreandCampanellawewereabletopointoutanalienatedandattimesironicattitudetoward Christianity.Winstanleyisopenlyhostiletocontemporaryreligions. [129] Deschampsrejectsallreligion,declaringtheideaofGodtobeahumaninvention,theresultofmankind'soppressedstateandaninstrumentofoppression.Initsstead,he putsforwardtheenigmaticconceptionofGodwhoisNothing.Finally,MeslierbaseshisworldoutlookonahatredofreligionandChristianityandofChristinparticular. Thusonecanspeakofagradualmergingofsocialistideologyandatheism. 2.TheSocialismofthisepochborrowstheideaderivedfrommedievalmysticism(JoachimofFlore's,forinstance)thathistoryisanimmanentandorderlyevolutionary process.However,thegoalandthedrivingforceinvestedinthisprocessbythemysticsknowledgeofGodandmergingwithHimiseliminated.Instead,progress is recognizedasthemotivatingforceofhistory,andhumanreasonisseenasitssupremeproduct. 3.Socialistdoctrinespreservethenotionofthemedievalmysticsaboutthethreestages inthehistoricalprocess,aswellastheschemeofthefall ofmankindandits returntotheoriginalstateinamoreperfectform.Thesocialistdoctrinescontainthefollowingcomponents:
    a.The myth ofaprimordial"naturalstate"or"goldenage,"whichwasdestroyedbythatbearerofevilcalledprivateproperty. b.A castigation ofthewaythingsare.Contemporarysocietyispronouncedincurablydepraved,unjustandmeaningless,readyonlytobescrapped.Onlyonitsruinscananew socialstructurebebuilt,astructurethatwouldguaranteepeopleeveryhappinessofwhichtheyarecapable. c.Theprophecy ofanewsocietybuiltonsocialistprinciples,asocietyinwhichallpresentshortcomingswoulddisappear.Thisistheonlypathformankindtoreturntothe "naturalstate,"asMorellyputit:fromtheunconsciousGoldenAgetotheconsciousone.

    4.Theideaof"liberation,"whichwasunderstoodbythemedievalheresiestobeliberationofthespiritfromthepowerofmatter,istransformedintoanappealfor liberationfromthemoralityofcontemporarysociety,fromitssocialinstitutionsand,mostofall,fromprivateproperty. Atfirst,reasonisrecognizedtobethedrivingforceofthisliberation,butgraduallyitsplaceistakenoverbythepeople,thepoor.Intheworldviewoftheparticipantsin the"ConspiracyofEquals,"wecanseethisconceptioninfinishedform.Asaresult,newconcretefeaturesappearintheplanfortheestablishmentofthe"societyofthe future":terror,occupationoftheapartmentsoftherichbythepoor,confiscationoffurniture,abolitionofdebts,etc. [130]

    PARTTWO STATESOCIALISM
    [131]

    IV. SouthAmerica
    1.TheIncaEmpire
    Inthefirstpartofthisstudy,wehaveseenhowthestablesetofsocialideasthatwehavecalledchiliasticsocialismwasexpressedinvariousperiodsofhumanhistory, overthecourseofatleasttwoandahalfmillennia.Weshallnowtrytotracetheattemptstoimplementtheseideasinparticularsocialstructures.Ourprimarygoalisto showthathere,justasinthecaseofchiliasticsocialism,wearedealingwithauniversalphenomenon,onebynomeanslimitedtoourcentury.Weshallreviewseveral examplesofstateswhoselifewasbuilt,ingreatpart,onsocialistprinciples. WeencounterhereafarmoredifficulttaskthantheonethatoccupiedusinPartIofthisstudy.Afterall,anauthorofaworkinwhichsocialistprinciplesarepropounded mustproceedfromthenotionthattheseideasarenovelandunusualtohisreader.Heisthereforecompelledtoexplainthem.Butinthescanteconomicandpolitical documentationthathasbeenpreservedfromremoteepochs(andsometimescultureswithoutwrittenlanguagesareinvolved),themeaningsofthetermsusedarenot elucidatedforthereaderofthefuture.Suchdocumentswereintendedforpeopletowhomtheterminologywouldhavebeenunderstandable.Toreconstructfrom scatteredhintsthewayoflife,tocomprehendthelegalandeconomicrelationsofthemembersofasocietyfarremovedintime,isthereforeataskofextremedifficulty, muchmoredifficultthantoreconstructtheappearanceandbehaviorofaprehistoriccreaturefromthefossilremains.Inmostcases,we [132] seethehistoriansofferingaseriesofopinionsratherthananydefinitiveformulation. Ifthepresentepochisexcluded,itwasonlyoncethatEuropeanswereabletoobserveatfirsthandastateofthistype.Manyintelligentandobservanttravelersleft accountsofthisstate,andcertainofitsnativesacquiredEuropeancultureandleftnarrativesaboutthewayoflifeoftheirfathers.Thisphenomenon,whichisfarmore importantforthehistorianofsocialismthandescriptionsoftheappearanceandbehaviorofadinosaurwouldbeforapaleontologist,isTawantinsuyutheIncaempire conqueredbySpanishinvadersinthesixteenthcentury. TheSpaniardsdiscoveredtheIncastatein1531.Atthattime,ithadexistedforsometwohundredyearsandhadachieveditspeak,encompassingtheterritoryof contemporaryEcuador,Bolivia,Peru,thenorthernhalfofChileandthenorthwesternpartofArgentina.Accordingtoseveralsources,itspopulationwastwelvemillion. Theempire,astheSpaniardsfoundit,wasaswellorganizedasitwashuge.Accordingtotheiraccounts,thecapital,Cuzco,rivaledthebiggestEuropeancitiesofthat time.Ithadapopulationofabout200,000.TheSpaniardswerestruckbythemagnificentpalacesandtemples,withfaadesasmuchastwohundredmeterslong,the aqueductsandthepavedstreets.Thehouseswerebuiltoflargestonessofinelypolishedandfittedtogetherthattheyseemedtobeofonepiece.Outside,Cuzco,there wasafortressthatwasbuiltofstonesweighingtwelvetonseachitsoamazedtheSpaniardsthattheyrefusedtobelieveitcouldhavebeenmadebymen,withoutthehelp

    TheSpaniardsdiscoveredtheIncastatein1531.Atthattime,ithadexistedforsometwohundredyearsandhadachieveditspeak,encompassingtheterritoryof contemporaryEcuador,Bolivia,Peru,thenorthernhalfofChileandthenorthwesternpartofArgentina.Accordingtoseveralsources,itspopulationwastwelvemillion. Theempire,astheSpaniardsfoundit,wasaswellorganizedasitwashuge.Accordingtotheiraccounts,thecapital,Cuzco,rivaledthebiggestEuropeancitiesofthat time.Ithadapopulationofabout200,000.TheSpaniardswerestruckbythemagnificentpalacesandtemples,withfaadesasmuchastwohundredmeterslong,the aqueductsandthepavedstreets.Thehouseswerebuiltoflargestonessofinelypolishedandfittedtogetherthattheyseemedtobeofonepiece.Outside,Cuzco,there wasafortressthatwasbuiltofstonesweighingtwelvetonseachitsoamazedtheSpaniardsthattheyrefusedtobelieveitcouldhavebeenmadebymen,withoutthehelp ofdemons.(56:p.114,57:pp.7282) Thecapitalcitywasjoinedtotheoutlyingpartsoftheempirebyexcellentroadways,innowayinferiortoRomanroadsandfarbetterthantheonesinSpainatthetime. Theroadsranalongdikesinswampyterrain,cutthroughrockandcrossedgorgesbymeansofsuspensionbridges.(56:pp.106,113,57:pp.9396)Anefficiently organizedserviceoffootmessengersguaranteedcommunicationsbetweenthecapitalandtherestofthecountry.Aroundthecapitalandothertowns,aswellasalongthe roads,therewerestatestorehousesfullofproduce,clothing,utensilsandmilitaryequipment.(56:pp.6167,57:pp.100101,58:pp.6167) InstarkcontrasttothesuperborganizationoftheIncastate,itsleveloftechnicalknowledgewasastonishinglyprimitive.Mosttools [133] andweaponsweremadeofwoodandstone.Ironwasunknown,aswastheplow,andlandwastilledwithawoodenhoe.Theonlydomesticanimalwasthellama,from whichmeatandwoolwereobtainedbutwhichwasnotusedforfarmingortransportation.Allfarmworkwasperformedmanually,andtravelwaseitherbyfootorby palanquin.Finally,theIncashadnowritingsystem,althoughtheycouldtransmitgreatamountsofinformationbymeansofquipu,acomplexsystemofknottedstrings.* Hencethelowleveloftechnologyhadtobecompensatedforbyperfectorganizationofhugemassesofthepopulation.Asanaturalresult,privateinterestsweretoa considerableextentsubordinatedtothoseofthestate.Andso,aswemightexpect,weencountercertainsocialistfeaturesinIncasociety. Whatfollowsisabriefsketchofitsstructure.Fortunately,muchinformationisavailable.Theconquistadorsprovedtobemorethanmindlessmilitarymentheygrasped muchofwhattheysawandsomeoftheiraccountshavesurvived.IntheirwakecameCatholicpriests,whoalsoleftdetaileddescriptions.Finally,theconquistadors marriedgirlsfromtheIncarulingcircles,andthechildrenoftheseunions,whobelongedtotheSpanisharistocracy,atthesametimeretainedclosetieswiththelocal population.TothembelongthemostvaluabledescriptionsoflifeintheIncastatepriortotheSpanishconquest. ThepopulationoftheIncastatewasdividedintothreestrata:

    1.Incastherulingclass,descendantsofatribethatinthepasthadconqueredanancientstatenearLakeTiticaca.Variousauthorsrefertothemasaristocracy,theelite, thebureaucracy.Fromthisclasscametheadministrators,thearmyofficercorps,priestsandscholarsandofcourse,theabsoluterulerofthecountry,theInca.Thisclass washereditary,butchiefsofconqueredtribesandevensoldiersdistinguishedinwarmightoccasionallyenterit. 2.Thebulkofthepopulationpeasants,herdsmen,artisans.Theyhadtwotypesofobligationtothestate:militaryandlabor.Bothofthesewillbedescribedbelow. Sometimestheywereutilizedinotherwaysbythestate,forinstancetosettleanewlyconqueredterritory,ortoprovidematerial(women)forhumansacrifices. 3.Thestateslavesyanacuna.Accordingtolegend,theydescendedfromatribethathadoncerebelledagainstthestate,had


    *Cf.58:p.358.Accordingtolegend,writinghadbeenprohibitedbythefounderoftheIncaempire.

    [134] beencrushed,andhadbeensentencedtoextermination.Butinresponsetoapleabyhiswife,theIncachangedthesentencetoperpetualslavery.Thereafterthemembers ofthisgroupoccupiedthelowestpositioninthecountry.Theyworkedthestatelands,herdedthellamasbelongingtothestateandservedasservantsinthehousesofthe Incas.(57:pp.124125) ThebasicformofpropertyintheIncaempirewasland.Theoretically,alllandbelongedtotheIncaandwasdistributedbyhimtotheIncasandpeasantsfortheiruse.The landsreceivedbytheIncaswerehereditary,buttheywereapparentlymanagedbyadministrators,whiletheIncasthemselvesmerelymadeuseoftheproduce.These landswereworkedbypeasantsinamannerdescribedbelow.Peasantsalsoreceivedlandforusefromthestate.Thebasicunitwasthe tupuaplotlargeenoughto sustainoneperson.EveryIndianreceivedonetupuatmarriage,anotherforeachsonandhalfatupuforeachdaughter.Afterthedeathofatenant,thelandrevertedtothe state.(56:pp.6869,57:pp.126127,58:p.274)LandnotdividedintotupuwastreatedasbelongingtotheSunGodandservedtosupportthetemplesandthe priests.TheremaininglandbelongedtotheIncaclassordirectlytothestate.Alltheselandswereworkedbypeasantsaccordingtoadetailedschedule.Controloverall farmworkwasexercisedbyclerks.Forexample,theygavethedailysignalforthepeasantstobeginworkbysoundingaconchfromaspeciallyconstructedtower.(56: pp.7071,58:p.247) ThepeasantswereliabletomilitaryserviceandtoobligatorylabortillingthelandofthetemplesandtheIncas,buildingnewtemplesandpalacesfortheIncaortheIncas, mendingroads,buildingbridges,workinginthegoldandsilverminesownedbythestate,andsoon.Someofthesedutiesrequiredmovingthepeasantstodistantareasof theempire,inwhichcasethestateundertooktofeedthem.(56:p.8889) Therawmaterialsforcraftswereprovidedbythestatefinishedproductsweredeliveredtoit.Forexample,llamaswereshornbystateslaves,thewooldistributedby officialstopeasantsforspinningandthefinishedmaterialsubsequentlycollectedbyotherofficials. Thelawdividedthelifeofamalepeasantintotenperiodsandprescribedtheobligationsofeachagegroup.Thus,fromageninetosixteen,thepeasantwastobea herdsman,fromsixteentotwenty,amessengeroraservantinthehouseofanInca,etc.Evendutiesof [135] thelastagegroup(oversixty)werespecified:spinningrope,feedingducks,andsoon.Cripplesformedaspecialgroup,buttheytoo,asGuamnPomadeAyalareports, weredesignatedforcertainwork.Similarprescriptionsexistedforwomen.Thelawrequiredconstantactivityfromthepeasants.Awomanonherwaytoanotherhouse wastotakewoolwithherandtospinontheway.(56:p.80,57:pp.129131)AccordingtothechronicleofCiezadeLen,peasantsweresometimesmadetoperform completelyuselessworksimplysoasnottobeidleforexample,theywereforcedtomoveahillofdirtfromoneplacetoanother.(56:p.81,57:p.132)Garcilasodela Vegainformsusthatworkwasfoundforcripples.(58:p.300)Healsocitesalawagainstidlersamanwhotilledhisfieldbadlywashitseveraltimeswithastoneinthe shouldersorfloggedwitharod.(56:p.276)Thecompletelyincapacitatedandtheagedweremaintainedbythestateortheruralcommunity. Forwork,thepeasantswerejoinedintogroupsoftenfamilies,fivesuchgroupsintoalargergroup,etc.,uptotenthousandfamilies.Therewasanofficialheadforeach

    weredesignatedforcertainwork.Similarprescriptionsexistedforwomen.Thelawrequiredconstantactivityfromthepeasants.Awomanonherwaytoanotherhouse wastotakewoolwithherandtospinontheway.(56:p.80,57:pp.129131)AccordingtothechronicleofCiezadeLen,peasantsweresometimesmadetoperform completelyuselessworksimplysoasnottobeidleforexample,theywereforcedtomoveahillofdirtfromoneplacetoanother.(56:p.81,57:p.132)Garcilasodela Vegainformsusthatworkwasfoundforcripples.(58:p.300)Healsocitesalawagainstidlersamanwhotilledhisfieldbadlywashitseveraltimeswithastoneinthe shouldersorfloggedwitharod.(56:p.276)Thecompletelyincapacitatedandtheagedweremaintainedbythestateortheruralcommunity. Forwork,thepeasantswerejoinedintogroupsoftenfamilies,fivesuchgroupsintoalargergroup,etc.,uptotenthousandfamilies.Therewasanofficialheadforeach group.ThelowermembersofthishierarchywereappointedfromthepeasantryhigherpostswereoccupiedbyIncas.(57:pp.9697,59:p.77) Notonlyworkbutthewholelifeofthecitizenrywascontrolledbyofficials.Specialinspectorscontinuouslytraveledaboutthecountryobservingtheinhabitants.To facilitatesupervision,peasants,forinstance,wereobligedtokeeptheirdoorsopenduringmeals(thelawprescribedthetimeofmealsandrestrictedthemenu).(56:p.96, 57:p.132)Otheraspectsoflifewerealsostrictlyregimented.OfficialsissuedeveryIndiantwocloaksfromthestatestoresoneforworkandtheotherforfestivals. Withineachindividualprovince,thecloakswereindistinguishableinstyleandcoloranddifferedonlyaccordingtothesexoftheirbearers.Thecloakwastobeuseduntilit waswornout.Changesincutandcolorwereforbidden.Therewerelawsagainstotherextravagances:itwasforbiddentohavechairsinthehouse(onlybencheswere allowed),tobuildhousesofalargersizethanauthorized,etc.Eachprovincehadaspecialobligatoryhairstyle.(55:p.91,57:p.132)Suchprescriptionsextendedto otherclasses,forinstance,thequantityandsizeofgoldandsilvervesselsthatanofficialoflowerrankcouldpossesswerestrictlylimitedaccordingtohisstation.(56:pp. 9192) Theinhabitantsofnewlyconqueredareaswereunderespecially [136] severecontrol.Residentsfromcentralprovincesweredispatchedtonewregions,wheretheywereentitledtoenterthehousesofthesubjugatedpeopleatanytimeofday ornightandwereobligedtoreportonanysignofdiscontent. Peasantswerenotallowedtoleavetheirvillageswithoutspecialpermission.Controlwasmadeeasierbythedifferencesinthecolorofclothingandthevariedhairstyles. Specialofficialssupervisedtrafficonbridgesandatgates.Thestateitself,however,carriedoncompulsoryresettlementonalargescale.Resettlementsometimeswas occasionedbyeconomicfactorspeopleweremovedtoaprovincedevastatedbyanepidemicortransferredtoamorefertilearea.Occasionally,thereasonwas political,aswiththeresettlementofinhabitantsfromtheoriginalprovincesoftheempiretonewlyconqueredlandsor,onthecontrary,thedispersionofanewlyconquered tribethroughoutthemoreloyalpopulationoftheempire.(56:pp.99100,59:p.58) Familylifewasalsounderthecontrolofthestate.Allmenwereobligedtoenterintomarriageuponreachingacertainage.Onceeachyear,everyvillagewasvisitedbya specialofficialwhoconductedapublicmarriageceremony,inwhicheveryonewhohadcomeofagethepreviousyeartookpart.Spaniardswhodescribedthecustomsof theIncastateoftenassertedthatthepreferenceofthepersonbeingmarriedwasnotaskedfor.AndSantillan,writingattheendofthesixteenthcentury,reportsthat objectionswerepunishablebydeath.Ontheotherhand,FatherMorareportsthatamancouldindicatethathehadalreadypromisedtomarryanothergirl,andthe officialwouldthenreviewthematter.Itisclear,however,thattheopinionofthebridewasneversolicited.(57:pp.158,160) MembersofthetopsocialgrouptheIncashadtherighttoseveralwives,ormoreprecisely,concubines,sincethefirstwifehadaspecialpositionwhiletheotherswere relegatedtotheroleofservants.Marriagewiththefirstwifewasindissolubleconcubinescouldbedrivenoutandwouldthereafternotbeallowedtomarryagain.(57:p. 156)Thenumberofconcubinespermittedbylawdependedonthesocialstatusofthemanitcouldbetwenty,thirty,fifty,etc.(57:p.134)FortheIncaandhis immediatefamily,therewasnolimitationwhatever.Themultitudeofwivesandtheconsequentlylargenumberofoffspringresultedinaneverincreasingproportionof Incasinthegeneralpopulation. Therewasaspecialcategoryofwomenthesocalledelect.Each [137] year,officialsweresenttoallsectionsofthecountrytoselectgirlseightornineyearsold.Thesewerecalledthe"elect."Theywerebroughtupinspecialhouses(called "convents"insomeSpanishaccounts).Everyyearduringaspecialcelebration,thosewhohadreachedthirteenyearsofageweresenttothecapital,wheretheInca himselfdividedthemintothreecategories.Some,calledSolarMaidens,werereturnedtothe"convent,"wheretheyweretoengageinactivitiesassociatedwiththe worshipofthegodsofsun,moonandstars.Theyhadtoobservechastity,althoughtheIncacouldgivethemtohiscircleasconcubinesortakethemforhimself.Girlsfrom thesecondgroupweredistributedbytheIncaaswivesorconcubines.AgiftofthiskindfromtheIncawasregardedasahighdistinction.Finally,athirdgroupwas intendedforthehumansacrificesthattookplaceregularly,butonaparticularlylargescaleatthecoronationofanewInca.Thelawprovidedforthepunishmentofparents whoshowedtheirgriefwhentheirdaughterswerechosenforthe"elect."(57:pp.161162) Apartfromthe"elect,"allunmarriedwomenwerealsoatthedisposaloftheIncas,butnotasprivatepropertyrather,theywereallottedtothembygovernmentofficials foruseasconcubinesandservants.TheoppressedstatusofwomenintheIncastateisparticularlynotableagainstthebackgroundoftheneighboringIndiantribes,where womenenjoyedmuchindependenceandauthority.(57:p.159) Itisclearthatsuchtotalregulationoflifeandtheomnipresentstatecontrolwouldhavebeenimpossiblewithoutamultifacetedbureaucraticapparatus.Thebureaucracy wasbuiltonapurelyhierarchicalprinciple.Everyofficialhadcontactonlywithhissuperiorandhissubordinatesofficialsofthesamerankcouldcommunicateonlythrough theircommonchief.(56:p.96)Themainfunctionofthisbureaucracywasthekeepingofaccountsbymeansofthesophisticatedandasyetundecipheredsystemof knottedstrings. Theideaofthequipuwasacuriouslyaccuratereflectionofthehierarchicalstructureofthestatemachinery.Ahierarchywasintroducedintothematerialareaaswellfor instance,alltypesofarmswerearrangedby"seniority."Thelancewasconsideredtobeseniortootherweaponsnextcamethearrow,thenthebow,andsoon. Accordingtotheseniorityoftheseobjects,theyweredenotedbyknotstiedhigherorloweronastring.Learningtheartofquipubeganwithlearningtheprinciplesof "seniority"byrote. Informationencodedinthiswaywaspassedupthebureaucratic [138] laddertothecapital,whereitwasexaminedandpreservedbytypes:military,population,provisions,etc.IntheSpanishchroniclesitisassertedthateventhenumberof stonesforslings,thenumberofanimalskilledinhuntingandothersuchdatawerekept.GuamnPomadeAyalawrites:"Theykeepanaccountofeverythingthatoccursin theirstate,andineveryvillagetherearesecretariesandtreasurersforthat....Thestateisgovernedwiththehelpofquipu."(56:pp.9495) Thereareaccountsoftrulyremarkableadministrativeachievements,suchasthecreationofarmiesofworkersnumbering20,000menoranoperationinwhich100,000 bushelsofmaizearedistributedamongapopulationofalargeregionaccordingtostrictlyfixednorms.(56:p.102) TheworkersinthebureaucracyweretrainedinschoolsthatonlychildrenoftheIncaswerepermittedtoattend.(Thelawforbadeeducationforthelowerlevelsofthe

    stonesforslings,thenumberofanimalskilledinhuntingandothersuchdatawerekept.GuamnPomadeAyalawrites:"Theykeepanaccountofeverythingthatoccursin theirstate,andineveryvillagetherearesecretariesandtreasurersforthat....Thestateisgovernedwiththehelpofquipu."(56:pp.9495) Thereareaccountsoftrulyremarkableadministrativeachievements,suchasthecreationofarmiesofworkersnumbering20,000menoranoperationinwhich100,000 bushelsofmaizearedistributedamongapopulationofalargeregionaccordingtostrictlyfixednorms.(56:p.102) TheworkersinthebureaucracyweretrainedinschoolsthatonlychildrenoftheIncaswerepermittedtoattend.(Thelawforbadeeducationforthelowerlevelsofthe population.)Teachingwasperformedbythe amautas or"scholars."Theirdutiesincludedthewritingofhistoryintwoversions:one,objectiverecordsintheformof quipu,whichwerepreservedinthecapitalandintendedonlyforspecialauthorizedofficials,andtheotherintheformofhymnstobenarratedtothepeopleatfestivals.Ifa dignitarywasdeemedunworthy,hisnamewasremovedfromthe"festival"history.(56:pp.7576,78) ThelawsregulatinglifeintheIncastatereliedonasophisticatedsystemofpunishment.Penaltieswereseverealmostalwaysdeathortorture.Thisistobeexpected: whenalllifeisregulatedbythestate,anyinfringementofthelawisacrimeagainstthestateand,inturn,affectstheveryfoundationofthesocialsystem.Thusamanguilty ofcuttingdownatreeorstealingfruitinastateplantationwassubjecttothedeathpenalty.Abortionwaspunishedbydeathforthewomanandforanyonewhomayhave assistedher.(59:p.173) Thesystemprovidedforanextraordinaryvarietyofcapitalpunishments:thevictimcouldbehangedbythefeetorstonedorthrownintoagorgeorhangedbythehair overaclifforthrownintoapitwithjaguarsandpoisonoussnakes.(57:p.42)Forthemostseriousoffenses,therewereprovisionsfortheexecutionofallrelativesofthe accused.GuamnPomadeAyala'smanuscriptcontainsadrawingoftheslaughterofawholefamilywhosechiefmemberhadbeendeterminedtobeasorcerer.Burying thebodiesofexecutedcriminalscouldbeprohibitedasafurtherpunishment.Burialofthebodiesofmutineers [139] wasforbidden,forexample.Theirfleshwasthrowntowildbeasts,anddrumsweremadeoftheirskin,bowlsoftheskullsandflutesofthearmandlegbones.Finally,a victimcouldbeputtotorturebeforeexecution."Hewhokillsanothertorobhimwillbepunishedbydeath.Beforetheexecutionhewillbetorturedinjailsothatthe penaltyshouldbeharder.Thenhewillbeexecuted."(57:p.143) Manyformsofpunishmentdifferedlittlefromexecution.Forinstance,CiezadeLen,Cobo,MoraandGuamnPomadeAyaladescribejailsinundergroundcavesin whichjaguars,bears,venomoussnakesandscorpionswerekept.Incarcerationinthistypeofprisonwasusedasatestofguilt.Generally,thisformoftrialwasusedinthe caseofpeoplesuspectedofplottingrebellion.Personssentencedtolifeimprisonmentwerekeptinotherundergroundjails.(57:p.142)Apenaltyoffivehundredlashes (providedbylawasapunishmentfortheft)probablywastheequivalentofadeathsentence.Therewasapunishmentcalledthe"stoneexecution,"whereahugestonewas tossedontothevictim'sshoulders.AccordingtoGuamnPomadeAyala,thiskilledmanyandcrippledothersforlife. Otherpunishmentsconsistedofforcedlaborinstategoldandsilverminesoroncocaplantationsindifficulttropicalclimates.Forcedlaborcouldbeeitherforlifeorfora fixedterm.Finally,minoroffendersweresubjecttovariouscorporalpunishments.(57:p.144) Itgoeswithoutsayingthatequalitybeforethelawdidnotexist.Foroneandthesamecrimeapeasantmightbeexecuted,whileanIncawouldgetoffwithapublic reprimand.AsCoboreports:"ThepremiseherewasthatforanIncaofroyalblood(allIncasweretheoreticallyrelated),apublicreprimandwasaheavierpenaltythan deathforapleebeian."(56:p.79,57:p.143) Seductionofanother'swifewasaccordedcorporalpunishment.ButifapeasantseducedanIncawoman,bothwereexecutedasGuamnPomadeAyalarecounts,both werehangednakedbythehairoveracliffuntiltheydied.(57:p.146) Acrimeagainstpropertywasalsopunisheddifferentlydependingonwhethertheinterestsofthestateoraprivatepartywereinvolved.Someoneguiltyofpickingfruitona privateestatecouldavoidpunishment,ifhecouldprovethathehaddonesooutofhunger.ButiftheownerwasanInca,theguiltypartywassubjecttodeath.(57:p. 145) Thecompletesubjugationoflifetotheprescriptionsofthelaw [140] andtoofficialdomledtoextraordinarystandardization:identicalclothing,identicalhouses,identicalroads.Repetitionofthesamedescriptivedetailsischaracteristicofthe oldSpanishaccounts.Thecapitalcity,builtofidenticalhousesmadeofidenticalblockstoneanddividedintoidenticalblocks,undoubtedlycreatedtheimpressionofa prisontown.(56:p.117) Asaresultofthisspiritofstandardization,anythingtheleastbitdifferentwaslookeduponasdangerousandhostile,whetheritwasthebirthoftwinsorthediscoveryofa strangelyshapedrock.Suchthingswerebelievedtobeamanifestationofevilforceshostiletosociety.Eventsweretoshowthatthefearofunplannedphenomenawas quitejustified:thehugeempireprovedpowerlessagainstlessthantwohundredSpaniards.Neithertheirfirearmsnortheirhorses(animalsunknowntotheIndians)can explainthisextraordinaryturnofevents.ThesamedifferenceinarmamentswasafterallinvolvedinthesubjugationoftheZulus,buttheywereabletomountalongand successfulresistancetolargedetachmentsofEnglishforces.ThereasonforthecollapseoftheIncaempiremustapparentlybesoughtelsewhereinthecompleteatrophy ofindividualinitiative,intheingrainedhabitofactingonlyatthedirectionofofficials,inthespiritofstagnationandapathy. Ondegardo,aSpanishjudgewhoservedinPeruinthesixteenthcentury,notedasimilarphenomenon.Inhisbooks,heconstantlylamentsthecompleteregimentationof lifeandtheremovalofallpersonalstimuliwhichledtoaweakeningofand,sometimes,thecompletedestructionoffamilyrelationships.Grownchildren,forinstance,often refusedtotakecareoftheirparents.(56:p.127)Baudin,aFrenchstudentofLatinAmericanhistory,seesinmanytraitsofthecontemporaryIndianstheaftermathofInca ruleindifferencetothefateofthestate,lackofinitiative,apathy.(56:pp.124125) TowhatextentisitpossibletocalltheIncastatesocialist?Withoutanydoubt,itismuchmoreentitledtothisdesignationthananyofthecontemporarystatesthatregard themselvesasbelongingtothiscategory.SocialistprincipleswereclearlyexpressedinthestructureoftheIncastate:thealmostcompleteabsenceofprivateproperty,in particularofprivatelandabsenceofmoneyandtradethecompleteeliminationofprivateinitiativefromalleconomicactivitiesdetailedregulationofprivatelifemarriage byofficialdecreestatedistributionofwivesandconcubines.Ontheotherhand,wedonotencounter [141] eithercommunalwivesorcommunalupbringingofchildren.Awife,thoughgivenbythestatetothepeasant,washisalone,andchildrengrewupinthefamily(ifthespecial classofgirlschosentobe"elect"isexcluded).Nevertheless,theIncastateseemstohavebeenoneofthefullestincarnationsofsocialistidealsinhumanhistory. ThisisindicatedbythestrikingsimilaritybetweentheIncawayoflifeandnumeroussocialistutopias,sometimesdowntothesmallestdetail.Inhiswork TheIncasof Peru, BaudintellsthatduringareportontheIncastateattheParisAcademyofSciences,amemberaskedwhetheritwouldnotbepossibletoshowaninfluenceofthe IncasonThomasMore's Utopia. (56:p.165)Thiswouldhavebeenquiteimpossible,ofcourse:More's Utopia waswrittenin1516,whilePeruwasdiscoveredbythe Spaniardsin1531.Thesimilaritiesare,therefore,allthemorestrikingandshowhowsocialistprinciplesinevitablyledtothesameconclusionsinthecenturieslong

    eithercommunalwivesorcommunalupbringingofchildren.Awife,thoughgivenbythestatetothepeasant,washisalone,andchildrengrewupinthefamily(ifthespecial classofgirlschosentobe"elect"isexcluded).Nevertheless,theIncastateseemstohavebeenoneofthefullestincarnationsofsocialistidealsinhumanhistory. ThisisindicatedbythestrikingsimilaritybetweentheIncawayoflifeandnumeroussocialistutopias,sometimesdowntothesmallestdetail.Inhiswork TheIncasof Peru, BaudintellsthatduringareportontheIncastateattheParisAcademyofSciences,amemberaskedwhetheritwouldnotbepossibletoshowaninfluenceofthe IncasonThomasMore's Utopia. (56:p.165)Thiswouldhavebeenquiteimpossible,ofcourse:More's Utopia waswrittenin1516,whilePeruwasdiscoveredbythe Spaniardsin1531.Thesimilaritiesare,therefore,allthemorestrikingandshowhowsocialistprinciplesinevitablyledtothesameconclusionsinthecenturieslong practiceoftheIncaadministratorsandinthemindoftheEnglishphilosopher. Butlatersocialistwritersundoubtedlywereunderthestronginfluenceofwhattheyhadheardofthe"PeruvianEmpire."Inoneofhisworks,Morellydescribesasociety thatlivesin"naturalconditions"andwithoutdistinctionbetween"thine"and"mine,"andsaysthatthe"Peruvians"hadlawsofthiskind.Wehavealreadyquoted(inPartI) asimilarpassagefromthearticle"TheLegislator"inthe Encyclopdie, andweinvitethereadertocompareDiderot'sdescription(pp.112114above)withthehistorical facts.ItisquitepossiblethattheIncamodelprovidednumerousdetailsinthedepictionofthefuturesocietybythewritersoftheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies.Itis easyenoughtoimaginehowreadilytheyabsorbedthestoriesthencurrentinEuropeofarealsocietysocloseinspirittotheirideals.Thisleadstoageneralproblemof greatinterestthatoftheinfluenceexertedonthesocialistliterature,beginningwithPlato,bythe"socialistexperiment,"thatis,bythepracticalimplementationofsocialist idealsinEgypt,MesopotamiaandPeru.

    2.TheJesuitStateinParaguay
    AlthoughonewouldhavethoughtthattheSpanishconquistadorshadwrittenanendtosocialisminSouthAmerica,ithadacontinuationnevertheless.Someonehundred toonehundredfiftyyearslater,inanareanotfarfromtheformerIncastate,apoliticalsysteminthe [142] IncatraditionwasestablishedinParaguaybytheJesuits. ThehistoryofSpanishpenetrationintoParaguaybeginsin1516,whenDonJuanDazdeSolsdiscoveredthemouthoftheParanriverandconqueredthesurrounding territories.In1537,JuandeSalazardeEspinozafoundedAsuncin,thecapitalofthenewprovinceofParaguay. ThenativeinhabitantsofParaguaywereIndiansoftheGuaranitribe.MissionaryworkamongthemwasfirstundertakenbytheDominicanmonkLasCasas.TheJesuits tookpartinthiseffortlater.Withtherealisticapproachsotypicaloftheirorder,theydecidedtomakeacceptanceofChristianitypracticallyadvantageousandso attemptedtoprotecttheirconvertsfromtheIndians'mainenemy,theslavetraderscalledpaulistas(fromthestateofSaoPaulo,thecenteroftheslavetradeatthetime). SuppressionoftheslavetradehadbeenbeyondtheSpanishcrown'scapabilitiesforyears.YettheJesuitssucceededinprovidingsecurityagainstraidsforIndiansinlarge areasofParaguay.Toachievethis,theyaccustomedtheIndianstoasedentarylife,placingtheminlargesettlementscalledreductions.Thefirstreductionwassetupin 1609.ItseemsthataplanexistedatfirstforthecreationofagreatstatewithaccesstotheAtlanticOcean,butpaulistaraidsmadethisimpossible.Beginningin1640,the JesuitsarmedtheIndiansandfoughtthroughtoanareawheretheysettledtheirflock.Itwasalmostinaccessible,borderedononesidebytheAndesandontheotherby therapidsoftheriversParana,LaPlataandUruguay.Theentireterritorywascoveredwithanetworkofreductions.Asearlyas1654,theJesuitsMachetaand CataladinoobtainedfromtheSpanishcrownanexemptionoftherealmoftheSocietyofJesusfromsubordinationtotheSpanishcolonialforcesandfrompayingtithesto thelocalbishop.TheauthorizationtoarmtheIndianswasafurtherexceptiontotheabsolutebanintroducedbytheSpanishgovernmentinallpartsofSouthAmerica.The Jesuitssoonhadastrongfightingforceattheirdisposal. IntheirdealingswiththeSpanishgovernment,theJesuitssteadfastlydeniedthattheyhadcreatedanindependentstateinParaguay.Itistruethatcertainaccusationswere exaggerated,asforexamplethebookaboutthe"EmperorofParaguay,"whichincludedhisportrait,aswellascoinsallegedlymintedatcourt,bothbeingnothingbuta contrivanceoftheJesuits'enemies.ButitisalsoafactthattheareacontrolledbytheJesuitswassoisolatedfromtheexternalworldthat [143] itcouldinfactbeconsideredanindependentstateoradominionofSpain.JesuitsweretheonlyEuropeansintheregion.Theyprevailedonthegovernmenttopassalaw thatallowednoEuropeantoentertheterritoryofthereductionswithouttheJesuits'permission.Inanycase,novisitorwasallowedtostaylongerthanthreedays.The IndianswerenotabletoleavetheirreductionsexceptinthecompanyoftheFathers.Inspiteofnumerousgovernmentdemands,theJesuitsrefusedtoteachtheIndians theSpanishlanguagetheydevisedawritingsystemforthelocalGuaranilanguage.TheJesuitswholivedintheareawerenotSpaniardsforthemostpart,butincluded Germans,ItaliansandScots.Theterritoryhadanarmyofitsownandengagedinindependentforeigntrade.Allthisdoestendtojustifytheterm"Jesuitstate,"whichis usedbymostscholarswhohavewrittenonthesubject. ThepopulationoftheJesuitstateattheheightofitsdevelopmentwas150,000to200,000inhabitants.MostofthesewereIndiansinaddition,thereweresometwelve thousandblackslavesandbetweenonehundredfiftyandthreehundredJesuits.Thestatecametoanendin17671768,whentheJesuitsweredrivenoutofParaguayas partofthegeneralcampaignoftheSpanishgovernmentagainstthemovement.In1773,theSocietyofJesuswasabolishedaltogetherbyPopeClementXIV. ThemainorganizationalprinciplesofthereductionswereworkedoutbyFatherDiegodeTorres.ItissignificantthathebeganhismissionaryworkinPeru,wheretheInca statehadnotyetbeenentirelyforgotten.TheSpanishauthoritieswereexploitingtherichsilverminesinthearea,andtheywereconcernedaboutkeepingtheIndiansin oneplace.Tothisend,itwasproposedthatthesocialstructureoftheIncaperiodbemaintainedinitsessentials.AshecalledforthesettingupofreductionsinParaguay, DiegodeTorreswrotethat"thelocalitymustbegovernedbythesamesystemasinPeru."(61:p.117)ManyobservershavecometotheconclusionthattheJesuits consciouslycopiedthestructureoftheIncaempire. Asalreadymentioned,theentirepopulationofJesuitParaguaywasconcentratedinthereductions.TheseusuallynumberedsometwOthousandtothreethousandIndians, withthesmallestonescontainingaboutfivehundredinhabitantsandthebiggestmission(St.Javier)numberingthirtythousand.EachreductionwasrunbytwoJesuit Fathers,onebeingasarulemucholderthantheother.ThereweregenerallynootherEuropeansinthesettlement.TheseniorFather,or"confessor," [144] devotedhimselfprimarilytoreligiousfunctions,whiletheyoungeractedashisassistantanddirectedeconomicmatters.Togetherthetwopossessedabsolutepowerinthe reduction.AstheJesuitJuandeEscadnstates,inaletterwrittenin1760:"SecularpowerbelongstotallytotheFathers,asmuchasorevenmorethanspiritual power."(61:p.146) ThepriestsnormallyappearedbeforetheIndiansonlyatdivineservices.Atothertimes,theycommunicatedwiththemthroughintermediariesdrawnfromthelocal population.Theselocalofficials,calledcorregidorsandalcaldes,wereselectedannuallyfromalistcompiledbytheFathers.Electionwasbyashowofhands.The corregidorsandalcaldeswerecompletelysubordinatetotheFathers,whocouldabolishorchangeanyoftheformers'orders.DeEscadnwritesthatthecorregidorsand alcaldesreportedtooneoftheFatherseverymorningtogettheirdecisionsapprovedandtoreceiveinstructionsastotheworkorderoftheday."Thiswasaccomplished asinagoodfamily,wherethefathertellseveryonewhathemustdofortheday."(61:p.148)"ThelimitedintelligenceoftheIndianscompelledthemissionariestotake careofallaffairsandtoguidetheminsecularaswellasinspiritualmatters,"astheJesuitCharlevoix(in HistoryofParaguay) quoteshiscontemporaryAntoniodeUlloa.

    ThepriestsnormallyappearedbeforetheIndiansonlyatdivineservices.Atothertimes,theycommunicatedwiththemthroughintermediariesdrawnfromthelocal population.Theselocalofficials,calledcorregidorsandalcaldes,wereselectedannuallyfromalistcompiledbytheFathers.Electionwasbyashowofhands.The corregidorsandalcaldeswerecompletelysubordinatetotheFathers,whocouldabolishorchangeanyoftheformers'orders.DeEscadnwritesthatthecorregidorsand alcaldesreportedtooneoftheFatherseverymorningtogettheirdecisionsapprovedandtoreceiveinstructionsastotheworkorderoftheday."Thiswasaccomplished asinagoodfamily,wherethefathertellseveryonewhathemustdofortheday."(61:p.148)"ThelimitedintelligenceoftheIndianscompelledthemissionariestotake careofallaffairsandtoguidetheminsecularaswellasinspiritualmatters,"astheJesuitCharlevoix(in HistoryofParaguay) quoteshiscontemporaryAntoniodeUlloa. TherewerenolawsonlythedecisionsmadebytheFathers.Theyheardconfession,whichwasobligatoryfortheIndians,andassignedpenaltiesforalloffenses. Penaltiesincluded:facetofacereprimand,publicreprimand,flogging,imprisonment,andbanishmentfromthereduction.Manyauthorsassertthattherewasnocapital punishment,althoughCharlevoixwritesaboutacertainunsubmissivelocalofficialwhowasburnedupinafiresentbyGod.(62:p.13)Anoffenderwasfirstmadeto repentinchurch,wasdressedasaheretic,andwasthensubjectedtothepunishment.DeUlloawrites:"Theyhadsuchgreatconfidenceintheirpastorsthattheyregarded evenanunprovokedpenaltyasdeserved."(60:p.140,62:p.31) TheentirelifeofthereductionwasbasedontheprinciplethattheIndiansweretopossesspracticallynothingoftheirownneitherlandnorhousesnorrawmaterialsnor handicrafttools.TheIndiansdidnotevenbelongtothemselves.Thus,deEscadnwrites:"Theseplots,aswiththeotherlandsofthemission,belongtothecommunityand noinhabitanthasmorethantherighttousethem.Therefore,theyneversellanythingtooneanother.Thesameistrueofthehouses [145] inwhichtheylive....Thecommunitytakescareofallthehouses,makesrepairsandbuildsnewonesasneeded."(61:p.148) Thereductionwasdividedintotwoparts:tupamb(God'sland)andabamb(privateland).Thedifferencewasnotintheformoftenure,sincebothtypesbelongedtothe mission,butsimplythattupambwastilledcollectively,whileabambwasdividedintoplotsanddistributedamongindividualfamilies. Muratoriwritesthatabambwas lent totheIndiansforworking.(60:p.145)AplotoflandwasgrantedtoanIndianwhenhemarried.Itwasnothereditary,andifthe mandied,hiswidowandchildrendidnotretaintheplot.Thelandrevertedtoacommonfundandthedependentsbecamewardsofthemission.Charlevoixsaysthat workonindividualplotswasregulatedbytheadministrationinthesamewayasoncommonland.(60:p.145)InthemonthlyCatholicMissions, itwasreportedthat seedsandtoolsforworkingtheindividualplotswerelentbythecommunity.Inthemajorityofmissions,familieslivedoncropsharvestedfromtheirindividualplots. However,incertainreductionstheywererequiredtodeliverapartoftheirharvesttothemission,withrationslaterdispensedinreturn.Inanycase,workontheindividual plotsandthecropsproducedonthemwereunderstrictcontroleverywhere.Charlevoixwrites:"Itwasknownhowmuchaplotoflandyieldedandthecropsfromitwere underthesupervisionofthosewhowereparticularlyconcernedwithlookingafterit.AndiftherehadbeennostricthandovertheIndians,theywouldsoonhavefound themselveswithnomeansofsubsistence."(62:p.37) WorkonthecommunallandwasobligatoryforallIndians,includingadministratorsandartisans.Beforework,oneoftheFathersdeliveredasermon.TheIndiansthenset outforthefieldsincolumns,tothesoundofdrumandflute.Theyreturnedfromworksingingupliftingsongs.Workwassupervisedatalltimesbyinspectorsandspies whoapprehendedidlers."Culpritswereseverelypunished,"writesMuratori.(60:p.159) Allcropsessentialtothemission'seconomyweregrownoncommunalland.Eyewitnessesareunanimousinpointingoutdifferencesinthecultivationofindividualand communallands:whilecommunallandswerecarefullytilled,theindividualplotslookedneglected.TheJesuitsconstantlycomplainedoftheindifferenceoftheIndiansto working [146] theirownfieldstheypreferredtobepunishedforabadlycultivatedplotandtoliveonthecommunalstores.TheIndianswerecapableofeatingtheseedgraindistributed tothemandcomingbackformoreandasoundfloggingseveraltimesover.TheJesuitssawthereasonforthisnotinthepeculiaritiesofthesocialsystemtheyhad establishedbutinthe"childish"natureoftheIndians.FatherJ.Cardielwrotein1758:"For140yearswehavebeenfightingthis,buttherehashardlybeenany improvement.Andsolongastheyhavebutachild'sintelligence,thingswillnotgetbetter." Thecommunitiespossessedhugeherdsofhorsesandoxenthatwerepasturedinthepampas.CommunaloxenweregiventotheIndianstoworktheirplots."Sometimes theIndiankillsoneorbothoxentoeatmeatathispleasure.Helaterreportsthattheyhavebecomelostandpaysforthelosswithhisback."(Escadn,61:p.149) Themeatofcommunaloxenwasdistributedamongtheresidentstwoorthreetimesaweek.Ontheappointedday,theinhabitantscametothestorehouse,wherethe storekeepercalledeveryone'snameanddispensedastandardportionofmeat.Indiansalsoreceivedarationoflocaltea. Variouscraftswereencouragedinthereductions,andahighlevelofworkmanshipwasachieved.Woolwasdispensedtothewomentobespunathome,thefinished clothbeingcollectedonthefollowingday.Alltoolsandrawmaterialsbelongedtothereductionandnottotheindividualcraftsman.Moreover,alargepartofthe craftsmenworkedincommunalworkshops.JosCardielwrites:"Allcraftworkisdonenotinthehome,sincethatwouldbeveryineffectiveitisperformedinthe courtyardsofthecollegium."(61:p.164)Themissionshadstonemasons,brickmakers,armsmakers,millers,clockmakers,artists,jewelersandpotters.Construction includedbrickfactories,kilnsforproducingquicklime,millspoweredbyhorsesandbymen.Organsweremade,bellscast,booksprintedinforeignlanguages(for export).Bythebeginningoftheeighteenthcentury,everyreductionhadaSundialoramechanicalclockoflocalmanufacture,accordingtowhichtheworkdaywas regulated. Allproductsweredeliveredtothestorehouses,whereIndianswhocouldwriteandkeepaccountswereemployed.PartoftheproductionWasdistributedtothe population.Fabricsweredividedintoequalpiecesanddistributedbyname,onedaytogirls,thenexttoboys, [147] thentomenandfinallytowomen.Eachmanwasgiven5.5metersofcanvasforclothingayearandeachwoman,4.5meters.Eachreceivedaknifeandanaxoncea year. Themajorportionofthearticlesproducedinthereductionwasforexport.Giventhelargeherds,vastamountsoftannedskinswereproducedthereweretanningand shoemakingshopsinthemissions,withtheentireproductionbeingexportedIndianswerenotallowedtowearshoes. TheartisanskillsoftheIndiansamazedmanyobservers.CharlevoixwritesthattheGuaranisucceeded"asthoughinstinctivelyinanycrafttheyundertook....Forinstance, itwasenoughtoshowthemacrucifix,acandlestick,anamuletandtogivethemthenecessarymaterialforthemtomakeanidenticalcopy.Theirworkcouldbe distinguishedfromtheoriginalmodelonlywithdifficulty."(60:pp.115116)OtherobserversalsostresstheimitativecharacteroftheIndiancraftsmanship. Tradedidnotexisteitherwithinreductionsorbetweenthem.Therewasnomoney.EachIndianheldacoininhishandsonlyonceinhislifetimeduringthewedding ceremony,whenhehandeditasagifttohisbride,thecoinbeingreturnedimmediatelythereaftertothepriest.

    TheartisanskillsoftheIndiansamazedmanyobservers.CharlevoixwritesthattheGuaranisucceeded"asthoughinstinctivelyinanycrafttheyundertook....Forinstance, itwasenoughtoshowthemacrucifix,acandlestick,anamuletandtogivethemthenecessarymaterialforthemtomakeanidenticalcopy.Theirworkcouldbe distinguishedfromtheoriginalmodelonlywithdifficulty."(60:pp.115116)OtherobserversalsostresstheimitativecharacteroftheIndiancraftsmanship. Tradedidnotexisteitherwithinreductionsorbetweenthem.Therewasnomoney.EachIndianheldacoininhishandsonlyonceinhislifetimeduringthewedding ceremony,whenhehandeditasagifttohisbride,thecoinbeingreturnedimmediatelythereaftertothepriest. Ontheotherhand,foreigntradewasconductedonalargescale.Reductionsexported,forinstance,morelocalteathanalltherestofParaguay.TheJesuitstatewasalso compelledtoimportsomeitemsaboveall,saltandmetals(especiallyiron). Allreductionswerebuiltaccordingtooneplan.Inthecentertherewasasquareplazaonwhichachurchwassituated.Thesquarewasborderedbythejail,the workshops,storehouses,thearmory,aweavingshopinwhichwidowsandfemaleoffendersworked,ahospitalandaguesthouse.Therestoftheterritorywasbrokenup intoequalsquareblocksofhouses. ClayplasteredcanecabinsservedasdwellingsfortheIndians.Ahearthwaslocatedinthemiddleofthestructuresmokewasallowedtogooutthroughthedoor.People sleptwithoutbeds,eitheronthefloororinahammock.TheAustrianJesuitSepp,whocametoParaguayin1691,describesthesehousesasfollows:"Thedwellingsofthe nativesaresimpleoneroomcabinsmadeofearthandbrick.Theyhavelittletorecommendthem.Inside,father,mother,sistersandbrotherscrowdtogetherwiththedog, cats,mice,rats,etc.Therearecockroaches [148] everywhere.Thestenchisunbearabletosomeoneunaccustomedtoit."Funeswritesin TheCivilHistoryofParaguay that"thehouseshadneitherwindowsnorany meansofventilationtherewasalsonofurnitureallresidentsofthemissionssatonthegroundandateontheground."(63:p.26)Itwasonlyshortlybeforetheywere drivenoutofParaguaythattheJesuitsbegantobuildmoresuitablequartersfortheIndians.Thedwellingswerenotconsideredprivateproperty,andanIndianwasnot permittedtogivehishouseaway. IncontrasttotheIndiandwellings,thechurcheswereimpressiveintheirsplendor.Theywerebuiltofstoneandrichlydecorated.ThechurchinthemissionofSt.Javier accommodatedbetweenfourthousandandfivethousandpersonsitswallswereoverlaidwithshinyplatesofmica,thealtarswerecoveredwithgold. AtdawnabellwasrungtowakeuptheIndiansandtocallthemtoprayers(obligatoryforall).Theythenwenttoworktoanotherpealofthebells.Theyretiredtobedon signalalso,andafterdarkthesettlementwaspatrolledbydetachmentsofthemostreliableIndians.Specialpermissionwasrequiredtobeoutsideatnight.(61:p.176,62: p.29) Thereductionwassurroundedbyawallandamoat.Gateswereguardedcarefullyentryandexitwasforbiddenwithoutapass.ContactamongIndiansfromdifferent reductionswasnotpermitted.NoneoftheIndians,exceptforsoldiersandherdsmen,hadtherighttoridehorseback.Allmeansofconveyanceboats,canoes,carriages belongedtothecommunity.(63:p.44) AllIndiansworeidenticalclothingmadefrommaterialobtainedfromthecommunalstores.Onlyofficialsandofficersdresseddifferently,butonlywhenonduty.Atother times,theiruniformsandtheirarmswerekeptinastorehouse. Marriageswerecontractedtwiceayearatsolemnceremonies.Thechoiceofawifeorhusbandwasundercontrolofthepriests.Ifayouthtookalikingtoagirlorvice versa,thiswastakenintoaccountandthepartyconcernedwasinformed.ButtheFathers,apparently,alsofunctionedindependentlyanddecidedonmarriages themselves,regardlessoftheyoungpeople'spreferences.Inatleastonerecordedinstance,alargegroupofyoungmenandwomentookflightinprotestoverthese practices.Afterprolongednegotiations,theyreturnedtothereduction,buttheFatherswereforcedtosanctionthemarriagestheydemanded.(63:p.43) [149] Childrenbeganworkingatanearlyage.Charlevoixwritesthat"assoonasachildreachedtheageatwhichhecouldwork,hewasbroughttoaworkshopandassignedto acraft."(60:p.116)TheJesuitswereconcernedthatthepopulationofthereductionsgrewverylittle,despiteunusuallygoodconditionsfromtheIndianpointofview, suchasmedicalaidandsafeguardsagainstfamine.Tostimulatethebirthrate,theydidnotallowIndianmalestowearlonghair(asignofadulthood)untilthebirthofa child.Thesamepurposewassoughtbyringingabellatnightsummoningthemtoperformtheir"maritalduties."(64:p.31) TheJesuitsjustifiedtheircontroloverallaspectsoftheIndians'livesbyreferencetothelatter'slowdevelopment.ThefollowingjudgmentbyFunesistypical:"Never actingaccordingtoreason,theyoughttohaveseveralcenturiesofsocialchildhoodbeforereachingthatmaturitywhichisthepreliminaryconditionofthefullenjoymentof liberty."(62:p.371)Intheletterquotedearlier,theJesuitEscadnwrites:"Intruthandwithouttheslightestexaggeration,noneofthemhasgreaterfaculty,intelligenceand capacityofcommonsensethanasweobserveinEuropeinchildrenwhocanread,writeandlearn,butwhoareneverthelessinnoconditiontodecidefor themselves."(61:p.146)MeanwhiletheJesuitsthemselvesweredoingeverythingpossibletostifletheIndians'initiativeandinterestintheresultsoftheirlabor.Inthe Reglamentoof1689,wefindthefollowingadvice:"Itispermissibletogivethemsomethingtomakethemfeelsatisfied,butthisneedstobedoneinsuchawaythatthey donotdevelopasenseofinterest."OnlytowardtheendoftheirruledidtheJesuitstry(nodoubtforeconomicreasons)topromoteprivateinitiative,forinstance,by turningovercattletoindividuals.Buttheseexperimentsfailedtobringanyresults.Oneexception,recordedbyCardiel,wasacaseinwhichasmallherdwasbuiltup, thoughitsownerwasamulatto.(60:p.146) TheJesuits'enemies,theanticlericalwriterAsarainparticular,reproachedthemforhavingstarvedtheIndiansandburdenedthemwithwork.Buttheimpressiongained fromJesuitsourcesseemsmoreconvincingandlogical:hungerfreeexistence,resteverySunday,guaranteeddwellingandacloak....Yetthisalmostsuccessfulattemptat reducinghundredsofthousandsofpeopletoalifeaslivedinananthillseemsfarmoreterribleapicturethanthatofahardlaborcamp. [150] TheJesuitsinParaguay(andelsewhereintheworld)fellvictimtotheirownsuccess.Theybecametoodangerous:inthereductions,theyhadcreatedawellequipped armyofuptotwelvethousandmen,whichwasapparentlythepredominantmilitaryforceintheregion.TheyinterferedininternalconflictsandtookthecapitalofAsunci n byassaultonmorethanoneoccasion.TheydefeatedPortuguesetroopsanddeliveredBuenosAiresfromaBritishsiege.Duringamutiny,theviceroyofParaguay,Don JosdeAntequera,wasdefeatedbythem.SeveralthousandGuariniparticipatedinthebattles,equippedwithfirearmsandincludingsomecavalryunits.TheJesuitarmy begantoinspiremoreandmoreapprehensionintheSpanishgovernment. ThefalloftheJesuitswasgreatlyhastenedbythewidespreadrumorsoftheenormousrichestheyweresupposedtobeaccumulating.Therewastalkofgoldandsilver minesandoffabulousrevenuefromforeigntrade.ThelatterrumorseemedparticularlyplausibleinviewofcheapIndianlaborandtheunusualfertilityoftheland. AfterdrivingtheJesuitsout,governmentofficialsrushedintolookforhiddentreasureanddiscoverednothing.Thestorehousesinthereductionsprovedbitterly disappointingandcontainednoneoftherichesthattheyweresupposedtoyield:theeconomyhadnotbeenprofitable! AfterthecollapseoftheJesuitstate,mostoftheIndiansdriftedawayfromthereductionsandreturnedtotheirformerreligionandtheirnomadicwayoflife.

    ThefalloftheJesuitswasgreatlyhastenedbythewidespreadrumorsoftheenormousrichestheyweresupposedtobeaccumulating.Therewastalkofgoldandsilver minesandoffabulousrevenuefromforeigntrade.ThelatterrumorseemedparticularlyplausibleinviewofcheapIndianlaborandtheunusualfertilityoftheland. AfterdrivingtheJesuitsout,governmentofficialsrushedintolookforhiddentreasureanddiscoverednothing.Thestorehousesinthereductionsprovedbitterly disappointingandcontainednoneoftherichesthattheyweresupposedtoyield:theeconomyhadnotbeenprofitable! AfterthecollapseoftheJesuitstate,mostoftheIndiansdriftedawayfromthereductionsandreturnedtotheirformerreligionandtheirnomadicwayoflife. ItisinterestingtonotetheappraisalgiventoJesuitactivityinParaguaybythespokesmenoftheEnlightenment.AlthoughtheJesuitswereconsideredtheirgreatest enemies,thephi1osophes couldnotfindloftyenoughtermstocharacterizetheParaguayanstate.In TheSpiritoftheLaws (Book4,Chapter6),Montesquieuwrites: "TheSocietyofJesushadthehonor...ofproclaimingforthefirsttimeevertheideaofreligionincombinationwiththeideaofhumanity....TheSocietyattractedtribes scatteredinvillages,providedthemwithsecurelivelihoodandclothedthem.Itwillalwaysbeadmirabletogovernpeoplesoastomakethemhappy." AndVoltaire,inthiscasespeakingabout"l'infme," expressedevengreaterrespectinhis EssayonRights: "ThespreadofChristianityinParaguaybytheeffortsofthe Jesuitsalonewas,inacertainsense,atriumphofhumanity." [151]

    V. TheAncientOrient
    TheIncaempire(aswellastheotherstatesofpreColumbianAmerica,theAztecsandtheMayans)developedincompleteisolationfromtheOldWorldandexertedno appreciableinfluenceonourcivilization.Therefore,itismuchmoreimportantforustostudythemanifestationofsocialisttendenciesinthoseancientcivilizationswhichare directlylinkedtoourculturaltradition.Inthischapter,wepresentcertainfactsthatbearonancientMesopotamiaandEgypt.

    1.Mesopotamia
    ThestatestructureinMesopotamiadevelopedoutoftheholdingsofindividualtemplesthatwereabletogathertogethergreatnumbersoffarmersandartisansthanksto thewidespreaduseofirrigation.ThissocialpatterntookshapeinancientSumertowardtheendofthefourthandthebeginningofthethirdmillenniaB.C.Extant inscriptions(mostofthemwerepictographspredatingcuneiformwriting)providelittleinformationaboutthissociety.Itwasheadedbyapriestsanguwhilethemain workforceconsistedofpeasantswhoweretenantsonthelandaroundthetemple,whichprovidedthemwithdraftanimalsandseedgrain. TowardthemiddleofthethirdmillenniumB.C.,anewtypeofsocialorganizationemergedsmallregionscoalescedintoseparate"kingdoms"headedbyakingcalledensi orpatesi.Theeconomicsystemofthisperiodisusuallycalledroyalorensial.Insideeachkingdom,thetemplesremainedthebasiceconomicunits.Aclassicexample [152] ofaneconomiccenterofthiskindistheestateofthetempleofthegoddessBauinLagash(twentyfifthandtwentyfourthcenturiesB.C.).Detailedaccountsandrecords havebeenpreservedintheformofahugenumberofcuneiformtablets.Thedatapermitsareconstruction'ofmanyfeaturesoflifeinSumerduringthisepoch. ThereweretwomeansofprovidingforthepeopleemployedinthedomainofthegoddessBau:allowancesinkindandthegrantingoflandplotsfor"sustenance."The lesserpartofthetemple'slandwasgivenovertothelatterfunctionthebulkofthelandwastilledbypartiesofworkersunderthesupervisionofthetemple.These workerswerelookeduponaspartoftheestateandwerecalled"peopleoftheestateoftheBaugoddess."(65:p.142)Theyreceivedamonthlyallowanceinkindfrom thetemplestores.Inthetemple'srecordsnumerouslistsoftheseworkershavebeenpreservedsomelistswerereproducedyearafteryear.Herewemeetsuchgroupsas "porters"and"menwhodonotraisetheireyes"(interpretedasunskilledlaborers),"slavewomenandtheirchildren,""menwhoreceivetheirallowancesaccordingto separatetablets."Allreceivedapproximatelythesameallowance.Inthelists,workersfigureinpartiesheadedbyaforeman"thechieffarmer."Mendidnotreceive subsistencefortheirfamilies,butappearedonlyasindividuals.Womenandchildrenarementionedseparatelyorphansformedaspecialcategory.(65:p.166)The workersseemtohavehadnoprivateholdingstheycouldnotstoreprovisionsforthemselves,butneitherweretheyobligedtobuywhattheyneededelsewhere.The templestorehousesprovidedthemwithallthenecessities.Tabletsrecordthenamesofthepartychief,therecipientandthedispensingofficial.Evidently,workers(usually everymonth)cametothestorehousesinpartiestogettheirrations,whichconsistedprimarilyofgrain.(65:p.151) Anothergroupconsistedof"mengettingsustenance."Theyreceivedallowanceslessfrequently(threeorfourtimesayear),butasaruletheamountwasproportionally larger.Inaddition,theyreceivedplotsofland,whichinmostcasesweretiny.Theseplotswereredistributedfrequently.(65:p.174)Themostnumerouscategoryinthis groupconsistedof"shubIugal,"whoalsoworkedonthetempleestateunder"chieffarmers."Theycarriedoutirrigationworkandperformedmilitaryduties.They receivedplowsandgrainforworkingtheallottedplotsfromthetemplestorehouses.Theirpositionchangedfromtimetotime.Thus,forexample,the"reformerking" Urukaginagranted [153] themtherighttohavetheirownhousesandcattle.Thegroupof"mengettingsustenance"alsoincludedclerksandofficialswhosupervisedtheagriculturalworkinthe fields.Theirplotswerefrequentlymanytimeslarger(65:pp.154155) Acertainamountoflandwasrented.Howevermostofitwastilledbytheworkforceofthetempleestate.(65:p.175)Themanagementofagriculturalworkwasinthe handsoftheensialadministration.Workersdidnottillseparateplotsindividually,butworkedinpartiesunderthesupervisionofachieffarmer.Theplotsallottedto individualswerealsoworkedinthismanner.(65:pp.170171)WenotethatthesamesystemwasemployedintheIncastate.Workersdeliveredallproducetothe administration.Allimplementsofproduction,includingdraftanimals,wereissuedtotheforemenoftheworkingpartiesfromthestorehousesonadailybasis.Plows,hoes, flails,packs,collarsandyokesforoxenwereallkeptinthestores.Skinsofanimalsthathaddiedweredeliveredbythe"chieffarmers"tothestorehouse.Thecentralstore providedfodderfortheoxenanddonkeys.Allthesetransactionswererecordedingreatdetail.(65:pp.176177) Theharvestedgrainwasdeliveredbytheindividualchieftotheadministrationoftheestate,andaftermilling,itwasbroughttothestorehousefordistribution.Accounts werekeptofeverything,includingthesizeofthefieldsfromwhichthegrainhadbeenreceived. Dateplantationsandvineyardswerecultivatedinthesamemanner.Itseemsthatfixednormsexisted.Onedocumentlistsanamountofdatesreceivedinexcessofthe normas"arrears"fromthepreviousyear.(65:p.179)Theforesters,whogotsustenanceinkind,workedindetachmentsinwoodlots,fromwhichtimber(highlyvaluedin alightlyforestedcountry)wasbroughttothestorehouses.Livestockwasraisedinthesameway,herdsmenoftemplecattlereceivingfoodrationsforthemselvesand fodderfortheanimalsaccordingtofixednorms.(Fishermenalsoworkedinpartiesandhadnormstofillandtheobligationofdeliveringtheirentirecatchtothe storehouses.)(65:p.184)

    Dateplantationsandvineyardswerecultivatedinthesamemanner.Itseemsthatfixednormsexisted.Onedocumentlistsanamountofdatesreceivedinexcessofthe normas"arrears"fromthepreviousyear.(65:p.179)Theforesters,whogotsustenanceinkind,workedindetachmentsinwoodlots,fromwhichtimber(highlyvaluedin alightlyforestedcountry)wasbroughttothestorehouses.Livestockwasraisedinthesameway,herdsmenoftemplecattlereceivingfoodrationsforthemselvesand fodderfortheanimalsaccordingtofixednorms.(Fishermenalsoworkedinpartiesandhadnormstofillandtheobligationofdeliveringtheirentirecatchtothe storehouses.)(65:p.184) Artisansworkedinthesamefashion.Animalskins,metal(copperandbronze),andwoolwerereceivedfromthestoresmanufacturedarticleswereinturndeliveredthere. They,too,receivedfoodsuppliesfromtheestate.(65:p.187) AllworkersemployedbythetempleofthegoddessBauwereguaranteedclothingormaterialforclothing.(65:p.192) [154] Inthedocumentationonthetempleestates,prisonerofwarslavesarerarelymentioned.Inscriptionsspeakingofvictoriesinbattletellofenemieskilledbutnotof prisonerstaken.AndthenamesofthefarmworkersareofpurelySumerianorigin.Slavesareseldomtreatedasaseparategroup,andwhentheyare,womenare generallymeant. Apartfromworkerspermanentlyemployedonthetempleestate,therewasanothergroupofinhabitantswhowererecruitedforirrigationandfarmworkormilitaryservice onlyoccasionally.Itispossiblethattheseweresemiindependentfarmworkers.Sincethecharacteroftheirworkoutsidethetempleestateisnotrecorded,weknow nothingaboutit.Thenumberoftheseworkersisestimateddifferentlybyvarioushistorians.A.Deimel,whohastranslatedandcommenteduponagreatnumberof cuneiforminscriptionsfromthisperiod,believesthatthetempleeconomywastypicalofthe"entireeconomiclifeofthattime....Almostallpropertywasinthepossession ofthetemple....AlmosttheentirelittlekingdomofUrukagina*was,inalllikelihood,dividedamongtemples."(67:p.78)Manyhistorianstodaydonotsharethisview. (66,68,69)I.M.Diakonovcitesanumberofcalculationsestimatingtheamountoftemplelandintheentirestate.(66:Chapter1)Hebelievesthat"inthetimeof Urukagina,thetempleeconomycomprisedperhapshalfthetotalterritoryofthestate."(66:p.251)Thesizeofthepopulationsofthisepochcanalsonotbedetermined exactly.TheworkforceoftheBauestateisestimatedat1,200persons.(67:p.78)ButthiswasonlyasinglesmalltempleestateinthekingdomofLagash.Thekingof Lagash,Urukagina,washimselftheheadofafarlargertempleestatebelongingtothegodMingirsu.Usingdeliveriesasameasurement,itmaybeassumedthatthistemple alonehaddozensoftimesmoreworkersthanthetempleofthegoddessBau. TheepochofsmallstatesandroyalhouseholdsinMesopotamia(thetwentyfifthandtwentyfourthcenturiesB.C.)wasfollowedbyaperiodoffiercewarfarewhich endedintheconquestofMesopotamiabytheAkkadiankingSargon,whosubjugatedtheensioftheothercities.Itwasaboutthistime,apparently,thattheideaofa "worldempire"firstarose,somethingwhichlaterinspiredCyrus,AlexanderandCaesar.Sargon'sstatewastrulyhugeincomparisonwiththesmallcitystatesofthe precedingepoch.ItextendedfromthePersianGulf
    *ThetempleofthegoddessBauwaspartofthiskingdom.

    [155] totheMediterranean.Ahighpricehadtobepaidforthecreationofthisempirefaminespreadinthelandandtherewerenumerousrebellionswhichdidnotceaseeven underSargon'ssuccessors.ThestateultimatelydisintegratedundertheimpactofthemountaintribeofGutiyas,whoseizedpartofMesopotamia. Inthetwentysecondcentury,MesopotamiawasagainunitedunderUtuchegal,therulerofthecityofUruk,whotookthetitle"KingoftheFourLandsoftheWorld." Afterhisdeath,anewdynastywasestablishedbyKingUrNammuthisisreferredtoasthethirddynastyofUr.Mesopotamia,ElamandAssyriacameunderitsrulein thetwentysecondandtwentyfirstcenturies.Itwasacentralizedstatewithasingleeconomymanagedbyanimperialbureaucracy. Thekingheadedthestateasanabsolutesovereign.Hewassurroundedbyabureaucracyof"king'smen"or"slavestotheking,"amongwhomthehighestpostbelonged tothe"greatemissary."(66:pp.256,259,262)Inthisepoch,wenolongerencounteranobilityawareofitsgenealogyandtracingitsrootstoadeity.Thetopelementin thestateconsistedofbureaucrats,administrators,royalwarchiefs,priests,alllivingongovernmentallowances.Thegoverningbodyitselfdidnotreflecttheformercity states.Theensi,althoughretainingtheirtitle,weremergedwiththeroyalofficialstheywereappointedbytheking,sometimesonlyforalimitedperiod,andwereshunted aboutfromonetowntoanother.Theirprimarydutywastomanagetheroyalestatesandperformadministrative,judicialandreligiousfunctions.Templesbegantolose theireconomicindependenceandcameundertheprotectionoftheking.(65:pp.247,250) Productionwascentralizedtothesamedegreeastheadministrationofthecountry.Formerensialestatesenteredintothestateeconomyassubordinateunits.Partiesof workers,incasesofnecessity,wereshiftedfromonetowntoanother.Numerousrecordshavebeenpreservedconcerningthedistributionofallowancestosuchnewly arrivedparties(fromLagashtoUr,fromUrtoUruk,etc.)(65:pp.248,264)Alllinesofauthoritycametogetherinthecapital,Ur.Controlwasaccomplishedbymeans ofenvoys,inspectorsandmessengersofvariousranks.Theseobtainedsuppliesinthetownsthroughwhichtheypassed.Asmalltablet,forinstance,recordsaroutine transactioninwhichamessengerwassuppliedwithprovisions.Localrecordswerekeptbyscribes,whoaffixedtheirsignaturetoalmostallarchivaldocuments:"Scribeat theStorehouse,""ScribeattheGranary,"etc.(65:p.251) [156] Thesystemofaccountingdevelopedtothepointofvirtuosity.Thechiefsoflarge(formerensial)estatessubmittedannualreportstothecapital,whilecertainartisan workshopshadtopresentreportsseveraltimespermonth.Descriptionsofallfieldsandhouseholdswerekept,togetherwithmapscharacterizingindividualplots:stony, fertile,clayey,etc.Dateplantationswereregistered,withindicationsoftheyieldofeachtree.Therewereinventoriesofthegoodsinthestorehousesgrain,rawmaterials, finishedarticles.(65:p.249,pp.253254,255)Anequallydetailedrecordofmanpowerwaskept:therewereseparatelistsofworkersoffullstrength,oftwothirds strength,ofonesixthstrength.Normsfortheirallowanceswereadjustedaccordingly.Listsofthesick,thedeceasedandthoseabsentfromwork(includingthecauseof absence)weresubmittedregularly.(65:pp.256257) Stateagriculturewasbasedalmostexclusivelyoncultivationoflandbypartiesofworkersreceivingpermanentallowancesfromthestate.Rentalofplotsismetwithonly asanexception.(65:pp.339,312313)Thefactthatcertainfieldsareidentifiedwithaparticularpersonorgroupindicatesonlythatcropsharvestedfromthefieldsin questionsupportedthesepersonsnotthattheyweretheownersofthem.Thustherewerefieldsforsupplyinghighpriests,scribes,foremenofworkers,diviners(alower orderofpriests),craftsmen,herdsmen,etc.Alltheselands,aswellaslandintendedforsustainingfarmworkers,wereunderthedirectionofsupervisors.(65:pp.301, 316317,398,411) Groupsoftentotwentymenworkedinthefieldsallyearround.Theworkersweresometimestransferredfromonesupervisortoanotherorevenfromonecitytoanother orsenttotheworkshops.Withtheworkquotas,thenotionofa"manday"ofworkwasintroduced(itwasdeterminedbydividingtheworkdonebythenorms).These figureswerereportedinaccounts.Therationallowancedependedontheamountofworkperformed.Foremenreceivedseed,draftanimals,plows,hoesandothertools fromthecentralstores.(65:pp.271,273,274,275,299300,302)

    orderofpriests),craftsmen,herdsmen,etc.Alltheselands,aswellaslandintendedforsustainingfarmworkers,wereunderthedirectionofsupervisors.(65:pp.301, 316317,398,411) Groupsoftentotwentymenworkedinthefieldsallyearround.Theworkersweresometimestransferredfromonesupervisortoanotherorevenfromonecitytoanother orsenttotheworkshops.Withtheworkquotas,thenotionofa"manday"ofworkwasintroduced(itwasdeterminedbydividingtheworkdonebythenorms).These figureswerereportedinaccounts.Therationallowancedependedontheamountofworkperformed.Foremenreceivedseed,draftanimals,plows,hoesandothertools fromthecentralstores.(65:pp.271,273,274,275,299300,302) Thesamesystemexistedincattlebreeding.Dairyproducts,cattleandhidesdeliveredbyherdsmentothestorehouseswererecorded.Abasketoftabletshasbeen preservedthatcontainstherecordsonacertainestate'sanimalsthathaddiedorhadbeenslaughteredoveraperiodofthirteenyears.Feedforlivestockalsowas dispensedatthestorehouses. Inthecrafts,anewformoflargestateworkshopappeared.In [157] Ur,eightbigworkshopswereunitedunderthesupervisionofasingleperson.Thismanagerinscribedallaccounts(submittedseveraltimesamonth).Theproductsofthe workshop'swenttothestatestores,fromwhichthemanagerreceived,inturn,rawmaterialsandhalffinishedgoods,aswellasthecraftsmen'sprovisions.(65:p.286, 343)Forinstance,woolandlinenfabricsfromtheweaverswenttosewersforbordersandhems,thentofullersandfinallytothestorehouses.Plainclothingwasmadefor theworkersandabettersortofdressforadministrators.Reportsfromtheworkshopscontaindataontheoutput,expenditureonlinen,expenditureongrainforthe sustenanceofthecraftsmenandfiguresonnumbersabsentanddeceased.(65:pp.349,350) Fordispensingmetalsandreceiptofmetalarticlestherewerespecialofficialswhoweighedthegoodsandinscribedtherecords. Craftsmenweredividedintopartiesheadedbyforemen.Workerscouldbetransferredfromoneforemantoanother.Theallowanceacraftsmanreceiveddependedonhis production(relativetothenorm)andhisskill.Chiefsofworkshopscouldobtainmanpowerfromoutsideincaseofnecessity.Bythesametoken,craftsmenfromthestate workshopscouldbesenttoworkontheland,inrivertransportation,etc.Thesameterm(gurushi)wasoftenusedtodenotecraftsmenandfarmworkers.(65:pp.267, 299300,346) Theconstructionofshipswasorganizedonthesameprinciplesasthecrafts. Likethecrafts,tradewasamonopolyofthestate.(66:p.262)Inbothstateandtemplerecords,slavesarementionedbutslavewomenappearmuchmorefrequently. Atfirsttheseweremostlyweavers,butlatertheycametobeemployedinotherworkaswell.Maleslavesarementionedalmostexclusivelyinreferencetothecapital. Evidently,thechildrenofslavewomenwereabsorbedintothegeneralmassofunskilledlabor.(65:pp.279280) Asearlier(forexample,intheestateoftheBautemple),thereexistedworkerswhowerenotfullytiedtothestatebutwererecruitedonlyfortheheightoftheworking seasonandpaidingrain.Theirproportionintheoverallpopulationisunclear. A.I.Tiumenevcitesdataaccordingtowhichhiredworkersconstitutedfrom5to20percentoftheworkforce.(65:p.362)I.M.Diakonovbelievesthatthe"percentage ofthelandseizedfortheking'shousehold(includingthetemplehousehold)wasenormous."Forthethird [158] dynastyofUr,heargues,wemusttake60percentasaminimumfigure.(66:p.151)Diakonovdoesnot,however,substantiatethiscalculation. Aseriesofextantdocumentstestifiestothefactthatprivatepropertyplayedacertainroleineconomiclife:forexample,certainbillsofsaleforchildrensoldintoslavery. Butinthemainsphereofeconomiclife,agriculture,thesignificanceofprivatepropertycouldnothavebeengreat.Amongthehugenumberofsurvivingrecordsofbusiness transactionsofthatepoch,thereisnotasingleoneextantthatdealswithlandsales.(66:p.250)Specializedhandicraftexistedonlywithintheking'shouseholdI.M. Diakonovassertsthatthereexistednotradeworkshopsotherthanthoseofthestate.(66:p.262) DuringthethirddynastyofUr,materialinequalityreachedextraordinaryproportions.Theallowancesforadministratorsexceededthoseoftheworkersbyafactoroften ortwenty.(65:p.405)Thedifficultexistenceledbythelowersegmentsofthepopulationisreflectedinthegreatnumberofrecordsdealingwithescapes.Wehave reports(withanindicationofthenamesoftherelativesoftheescapee)ontheflightofagardener,afisherman'sson,aherdsman'sson,abarber,apriest'sson,apriest, etc.(65:pp.367368) Anotherindexoftheconditionsisthestrikingmortalityfigurespreservedinthearchives.Inconnectionwiththeapportioningofgrain,itisrecordedthat,inoneparty,10 percentofallworkersdiedinoneyear'stimeinanotherparty,14percentinathird,28percent.Onetabletstatesthattwowomenoutofseventeendiedduringacertain month,andinayear'stime,eighteenof134.Inonelistthedeathofmorethan100womenoutof150isreported.Stillhigherwasthemortalityrateforchildren,who (togetherwithwomen)wereemployedinheavywork,suchasbargehauling.Ingeneral,thenotation"deceased"isencounteredwithextraordinaryfrequency.Thegeneral mortalityrateisestimatedat20to25percent,andinfieldworkitisthoughttohavebeenevenhigherupto35percent.(65:pp.365367) Thissystemofexploitationunderminedthefoundationsofthestate,whichabruptlybegantodisintegrateundertheonslaughtoftheAmoritetribes.ThefallofUrisdated 2007B.C.Ahymndescribingthiseventwaslaterincorporatedintoaliturgyittellsofcorpsesrottinginthestreets,ofguttedstorehouses,oftownsturnedtoruins,andof womenabductedtoforeigncities.ThedestructionoftemplesinNippur, [159] Kish,Uruk,Isin,Eridu,LagashandUmmaisalsomentioned.Thecatastrophewasallinclusive.Thestatecrumbledintosmallprincipalities,andtherefollowedaperiodof internecineconflictwhichcametoanendonlyin1760B.C.withtheaccessiontothethroneofHammurabiinBabylon.(65:pp.269271) ThequestionofthesocialstructureinancientSumerandofthesocialpositionofitsruralpopulationhaslonginterestedhistorians.TheviewofSovietscholarsthatSumer belongedtoaslaveowningtypeofsystemisnotgenerallyacceptedelsewhere,noristheusualSovietdesignationofSumerasakindofpatriarchal slavestatewithtwo economicsectors(astatesector,whereslavesbelongedtothestate,andanindependentsectorbasedonfamilymembership).(See,forexample,69.)Themostwidely acceptedpointofviewassignsthemainpartoftheworkforcetothestatusofthehalffreegurushi.AccordingtoI.J.Gelb,thesewerenativeinhabitantswhowere "undoubtedlyfreeatfirstbutgraduallylosttheirmeansofsustenanceforsomereasonorotherandasaresultofdirectorindirectforcewerecompelledtowork continuallyorperiodicallyinotherhouseholds."(69:p.84)Theywerenotslavesandcouldnotbesoldtheyhadfamiliesoftheirown.Buttheyhadnorighttomovefreely fromplacetoplaceandwereobligedtoworkonstatelands,fortemplesorforthearistocracy(inthelatter'scapacityasstateofficials).Alongwiththese,therewas anothercategoryofworkers(mentionedinthe"gemduma"texts),whoapparentlyhadnofamiliesandwerepermanentlyemployedintemplehouseholds.Thegreat majorityofwarprisonerscouldnothavebeeneffectivelyutilizedintheeconomy.Thegapbetweenthelargefiguresreportedforprisonerstakenandthesmallnumberof suchpersonsinthehouseholdrecordsleadsGelbtotheconclusionthatmost capturedenemysoldierswerekilled.Onthebasisofacertaintext,I.J.Gelbevenargues thatwarprisonersweredriventospecial"deathcamps"andkilledlater.(70:p.74)Thosewhomanagedtosurvivewereturnedintostateslaves,buttheirstatusgradually

    "undoubtedlyfreeatfirstbutgraduallylosttheirmeansofsustenanceforsomereasonorotherandasaresultofdirectorindirectforcewerecompelledtowork continuallyorperiodicallyinotherhouseholds."(69:p.84)Theywerenotslavesandcouldnotbesoldtheyhadfamiliesoftheirown.Buttheyhadnorighttomovefreely fromplacetoplaceandwereobligedtoworkonstatelands,fortemplesorforthearistocracy(inthelatter'scapacityasstateofficials).Alongwiththese,therewas anothercategoryofworkers(mentionedinthe"gemduma"texts),whoapparentlyhadnofamiliesandwerepermanentlyemployedintemplehouseholds.Thegreat majorityofwarprisonerscouldnothavebeeneffectivelyutilizedintheeconomy.Thegapbetweenthelargefiguresreportedforprisonerstakenandthesmallnumberof suchpersonsinthehouseholdrecordsleadsGelbtotheconclusionthatmost capturedenemysoldierswerekilled.Onthebasisofacertaintext,I.J.Gelbevenargues thatwarprisonersweredriventospecial"deathcamps"andkilledlater.(70:p.74)Thosewhomanagedtosurvivewereturnedintostateslaves,buttheirstatusgradually changedfromthatofslavestothatofthesemifreeworkers.(70:pp.9596)McAdamsalsobelievesthattheeconomyofancientSumerwasakindofamalgamof severalkindsofdependencefromanobligationtoworkonstatefieldspermanentlytoadependencebasedonallowancesofwater,grainandtoolswithonlyasmall contingentofactualslaves. [160] Therewerefewslavesintheserviceoftheelite,andtheirconditiondidnotdiffersubstantiallyfromthenumerousotherformsofdependence.(68:p.117)Thebulkofthe workforce,atleastinthelargerestates,consistedofthesemifreegurushi.Eventhesmallplotsoflandnotbelongingtothetempleortothestatewerenevertheless subjecttocontrols.Purchaseshadtobesanctionedbytheadministrationcultivationdependedonobtaininggrainandplowsfromthecentralstorehouses.(68:pp.105 106)Themajorityofrecordsdealingwithlandtransactionsconsistsofnotationsoftransferofsmallplotsoflandtothelargeestatesbelongingtorepresentativesofruling families.(68:p.106)

    2.AncientEgypt
    Theperiodofhistorytowhichtheprecedingsectionisdevotedwasnotananomalyoraparadoxdiscontinuouswiththebasicdevelopmentofhistory.Onthecontrary, wehaveseenanexample,perhapsthemoststrikingone,ofastyleoflife typical ofthethirdandsecondmillenniaB.C.intheregionthattakesinCrete,Greece,Egypt andAsiaMinor.Thesewerethemostdevelopedcountriesoftheancientworld.Toagreatextent,thesametendencieswereapparentinthestatesoftheIndusbasin. Thisepochmarkstheriseofa newsocialstructure whichwasdestinedtoplayadecisiveroleinthefuturehistoryofmankind:the state. Thebasicsocialunitofthe earlierperiodwasasettlementaroundatempleoravillagecloselytiedtoterritoryfamiliartothefathersandgrandfathersoftheinhabitants.Allthiswasnowreplacedby thestate,whichfrequentlyunitedheterogeneousethnicgroupsandcontrolledvastterritories,whichitconstantlystrovetoincreasestillfurther."Worldempires"appeared, pretendingtohegemonyoverthe"whole"worldandactuallysucceedingingainingcontroloveraconsiderablepartofthecivilizedworldofthetime. ThefirstsuchempirewasthatofSargon.Insteadofcomparativelysmallgroupsinwhichmostmemberskneweachotherpersonally,asocietyappearedforthefirsttime inhistorythatunitedhundredsofthousandsormillionsofindividualswhowereruledfromasinglecenter. Thisupheavalinthecourseofhistorycannotbeexplainedbytechnologicalorculturalprogress,despitesuchachievementsastheinvention [161] ofwriting,thewidespreaduseofirrigation,theconstructionofcities,theuseoftheplowandthepotter'swheel,andthesystematicuseofmetals.Inspiteofthese advances,thenewepochwasbasedchieflyonthemassapplicationoftheachievementsoftheneolithicandbronzeages.Theforcethatprovokedthechangesmustbe soughtelsewhere:itresultedfromtheunitingofhumanmassesonanunprecedentedscaleandthesubjugationofthesemassestothewillofacentralpower.The "technologyofpower"andnotthe"technologyofproduction"wasthefoundationuponwhichthenewtypeofsocietywasbased.(68:p.12)Thestate,bymeansofits bureaucracyofscribesandclerks,tookcontrolofthefundamentalaspectsofeconomicandspirituallife,justifyingthisbytheideaoftheking'sabsolutepoweroverhis subjectsandoverallsourcesofincome. Toillustratethegeneraltendenciesofthisepoch,weshallcitesomedataontwoperiodsinthehistoryofancientEgypt. TheAncientKingdom(FirstSixthDynasties).* Alllandwasconsideredtobethepharaoh's.Partwastransferredtotemporaryindividualuse,butmostofitmadeup theking'sdomaini.e.,itwasuseddirectlybythestate.Thepeasantswerelookeduponforthemostpartasfruitoftheearthandweretransferredtogetherwithland. Actsoftransfertypicallycontainformulationslike"thelandwithmenisgiven,"or"landwithmenandcattle."Peasantsworkedunderthesupervisionofofficials.The officialsdeterminedthenormsfordelivery(calculatedaneweachyear,dependingontheharvestandtheannualflood).Moreover,thepeasantsweresubjectedto obligatorylabor("thehours")forbuildingandotherstatework,mostnotablyforconstructionofthepyramids.AccordingtoHerodotus(laterconfirmedbyF.Petri's research),thescaleofbuildingwassuchthattoconstructtheCheopspyramid,100,000menworkedfortwentyyears.Thepeasantsdidmandatoryworkfortheking's relativesaswell,andforthenobility.Allthese"hours"andnormswereregulatedandrecordedineachregionbyfourdepartments,whichwereinturnsubordinatedtothe centralstorehousesandcentraloffices. Itseemsthatthecategoryofagriculturalworker,denotedbythewordmrt, wasespeciallycommon.PharaohPepiIIdecreedtheremovaloftheseworkerstoother regionstoprovideforthefulfillment
    *Asurveyoftheperiodcanbefoundin71,whichisthesourceofmostofourinformation.

    [162] oftheirstateduties.Accordingtosomesources,theselaborerslivedinspecialworkers'houses. Thecraftswereconcentrated,forthemostpart,instateandtempleworkshops,wheretheworkersweresuppliedwithtoolsandrawmaterial,whilethefinishedproducts wereturnedovertostorehouses.Shipbuilders,carpenters,joiners,masons,potters,metalworkers,glassandceramicsworkers,eitherworkedinpalaceandtemple shopsordependedonthemforrawmaterialsandorders.Highlyskilledartisanswiththestatusofhiredfreeworkerswereintheminority.Anumberofimportant branchesofcraftproductionweremonopolizedbyroyalandtempleworkshops.Forexample,thetemplesmanufacturedpapyrusforwritingmaterialaswellasformats, ropes,footwearandshipbuilding. WhileMeyer(72)considersitpossiblethattheAncientKingdomhadanumberofindependentartisansandtraders,Kees(73:p.164)thinkstherewasnosuchcategory. Tradewasexclusivelyintheformofbarter.Gold,copperandgrainwereusedsometimesasameasureofvalue,buttheentireprocessofexchangewasbasedonreal value.Exchangeofthissortisdepictedinnumeroustombfrescoes.Andamongtheobjectsdonatedtothecultforthereposeofthedead,noneseemstohaveamonetary character.Thefamous"PalermoStone"enumeratesthepharaoh'sdonationstothetemples.Theseincludeamostdiverselistofvaluables,includingland,people,rationsof beerandbread,cattleandfowl. Officialsalsowerepaidinproduce.Atcourt"theylivefromtheking'stable"intheprovinces,onthedeliveriesduetothem,inkeepingwiththeirrank.

    Tradewasexclusivelyintheformofbarter.Gold,copperandgrainwereusedsometimesasameasureofvalue,buttheentireprocessofexchangewasbasedonreal value.Exchangeofthissortisdepictedinnumeroustombfrescoes.Andamongtheobjectsdonatedtothecultforthereposeofthedead,noneseemstohaveamonetary character.Thefamous"PalermoStone"enumeratesthepharaoh'sdonationstothetemples.Theseincludeamostdiverselistofvaluables,includingland,people,rationsof beerandbread,cattleandfowl. Officialsalsowerepaidinproduce.Atcourt"theylivefromtheking'stable"intheprovinces,onthedeliveriesduetothem,inkeepingwiththeirrank. Certainpersonsofhighstandingreceivedgrantsofland.Butsuchlandsdidnotformsingleholdings(withtheexceptionofinstancesneartheendoftheperiod)theywere scatteredinvariouspartsofthecountry.Thepersonstowhomlandswereassignedhadnopoliticalrightswithintheseterritories. Thesocialstructurewasbuiltaroundthebureaucracy.BeginningwiththeSecondDynasty,aninventoryofallpropertyinthestatetookplaceeverytwoyears.(Itwas calledthe"inventoryofgoldandfields"orthe"inventoryoflargeandsmalllivestock.")Toaccomplishthistask,theking'sscribesweresentfromhousetohouse, accompaniedbyadetachmentofsoldiers.Normsfordeliveriesandtaxeswereestablishedonthebasisoftheinventory.Therepresentativesofcentral [163] authorityinthevillageswerethe"villagejudge"andthe"villagescribe." Themultitudeoftitlesfortheofficialsisanindicationofthedegreeofbureaucraticcontroloverlife:villagescribe,villagejudge,chiefofcanals,lakescribe,chiefofsea construction(thefleet),builderofpalaces,overseerofgrainsandgranaries,etc.BeginningwiththeFourthDynasty,theeconomiclifeofthecountrywasregulatedbytwo departments:oneforfields,theotherforpersonnel. Theofficialswhogovernedseparateregionswerenotitsrulersinthefeudalsense.Althoughtheyusuallycamefromthe"aristocracy"bybirth,andtheirofficialtitlewasnot infrequentlypassedfromfathertoson,neverthelessthepositionofanofficialwasdeterminednotbyhisbirthrightbutbytheking'sgraceinotherwords,bythegiven official'spositioninthebureaucratichierarchy.Noonepossessedtheautomaticrighttorulebybirth.Servicebeganusuallyinthelowerranks,andasuccessfulofficial movedfromoneprovincetoanotherfrequently,withoutacquiringstableconnectionsanywhere.Onofficialseals,thenameofanofficialwasneverindicatedonlyhis positionandthepharaoh'sname.Inscriptionsfoundintombsmakenoreferencetothesocialoriginofthedeceasedoreventohisfather'sname(exceptinthecaseof princesoftheblood).Anofficial'scareerandmaterialwelfaredependedentirelyonthestateaspersonifiedbythepharaoh,whocouldevengrantimmortality(byallowing constructionofatombnearhisownburialplace).AsMeyersays:"EgyptbythetimeofMena[creatorofaunitedstatecomprisingUpperandLowerEgypt]wasnotan aristocraticstatebutabureaucraticstate."(72:p.156)Furthermore:"TheAncientKingdomisanextremeexampleofacentralizedabsolutemonarchyruledbya bureaucracythatdependedonlyontheroyalcourtandwaseducatedinstateschoolsforthetrainingofofficials."(72:p.193) TheEighteenthDynasty(SixteenthFourteenthCenturiesB.C.) *Morethanamillenniumlater,weobserveasystemofeconomicrelationsbasedonalmostidentical principles.Thestate,inthepersonofthepharaoh,ownedallsourcesofincome,andanyonemakinguseofthemwasunderhispermanentcontrol.Periodiccensuseswere usedtokeeptrackofland,property,occupations,positions.Allactivitywastobesanctionedbythestateanychangeofoccupationcouldtakeplace
    *Basedonthesurveypresentedin74.

    [164] onlywithofficialauthorization.Withtheexceptionofthepriestsandthemilitarynobility,thepopulationbothurbanandruralwasunitedintocommunitiesorguilds controlledbystateofficials. LandrelationsduringthisepochwereshapedbytherecentwarfortheliberationofthecountryfromtheHyksosinvaders.Themilitarynobility,whicharoseduringthis struggle,possessedasmallportionoftheland.Theirholdingswerepasseddown,asarule,byrightofprimogeniturefromfathertoson,butultimatecontrolofeventhese landsbelongedtothepharaoh.Thusheirsassumedpossessionoflandonlyafterthiswasconfirmedbythecentralauthorities. Withtheexceptionoftheselandsandthetemplelands,otherlandbelongedtothestateinthepersonofthepharaohandwastilledbypeasantsunderstatecontrol.Inthe tombofVizierRekhmara,forexample,theagriculturalworkersareshownalongwiththeirwivesandchildrengettingsacksofgrainandreturningemptyonesinexchange, underthesupervisionofanofficial. ThenormsfordeliveryofagriculturalgoodsweredeterminedinadvanceonthebasisoftheNilefloods. Cattlebreedingwasalsosubordinatedtoabroadgovernmentaladministrationheadedbythe"overseerofhornedcattle,hoofedandfeatheredlivestock." Withtherareexceptionofindividualsinsomecraftsthatrequiredspecialskill,allartisanswereunitedinguildsandcontrolledbyofficials.Theheadsofagricultural communitiesandcraftworkshopswereresponsibleforthetimelyfulfillmentoftheplanforstatedeliveries.Iftheplanwasnotcarriedout,thoseresponsiblewerepunished bybeingsenttoagriculturalandconstructionwork. Merchantssentabroadactedasthestate'sagents.Allimportswerealsocontrolledbytheadministrationoftenforeignmerchantswereobligedtodealonlywithstate officials.Theadministrationcontrolledinternaltradeaswellallmarketswereunderitssupervision. Despitethefactthatalmosttheentirepopulationwastoagreatextentdirectlydependentonthestate,thesocietyofthetimecannotbecalledeitheraslavesystem,asin classicalantiquity,orafeudalsystem.Writtenrecordscontainnumeroustermsindicatingdependenceonthestatei.e.,peoplesenttocompulsoryworkorwarprisoners usedinbuildingandotherstateworks.However,notoneofthesetermscanbeinterpretedasslaveunderthepersonalcontrolofanotherindividualandemployedin economicactivity. [165] Appendix ReligioninAncientEgyptandMesopotamia WhilethereissomedocumentationthatthrowslightontheeconomicstructureoftheancientstatesofEgyptandMesopotamia,itismuchmoredifficultto formanideaoftheintellectuallifeandgeneraloutlookofthesesocieties.Theonlysourcesofinformationatourdisposalbearonreligion. CharacteristicofthereligionsoftheancientEastisthespecialrolethatthekingplayedbothinagivencultitselfandinallreligiousnotionsofthetime.Not onlywasheanearthlyincarnationofagod,butgodhoodwastheking'ssecond,heavenlynature,hissoul.Hence,religionwastoalargeextenttransformed

    ReligioninAncientEgyptandMesopotamia WhilethereissomedocumentationthatthrowslightontheeconomicstructureoftheancientstatesofEgyptandMesopotamia,itismuchmoredifficultto formanideaoftheintellectuallifeandgeneraloutlookofthesesocieties.Theonlysourcesofinformationatourdisposalbearonreligion. CharacteristicofthereligionsoftheancientEastisthespecialrolethatthekingplayedbothinagivencultitselfandinallreligiousnotionsofthetime.Not onlywasheanearthlyincarnationofagod,butgodhoodwastheking'ssecond,heavenlynature,hissoul.Hence,religionwastoalargeextenttransformed intoworshipofadeifiedking.* Hocart(75)hasamassedagreatamountofmaterialonthecultofkingworship.However,hisobservationsrefertomoreprimitivesocietieswhenthedeified kingplayedanalmostexclusivelycultrole.ItwascharacteristicofMesopotamiaandEgypttomergethisfunctionwiththeroleofanabsoluterulerofthe country. AgreatnumberoffactssupportingthispointofviewareavailableinJ.Engnell'sstudy(76),fromwhichweshallquoteseveralexamples. Egypt. Thekingisheldtobedivinefrombirthandevenbeforebirthheisconceivedbygodwhobecameincarnatedinhisearthlyfather.Thegodsformthe childinthemother'swomb.Hehasnoearthlyparents.Asonehymnreads:"Amongthepeoplethouhastnofatherthatconceivedthee,amongthepeople thouhastnomotherthatconceivedthee."(76:p.4) Themainfunctionofthekingistobethehighpriestallotherpriestsareonlyhissurrogates.Themaingoalofthecultistheidentificationofthekingwithgod. ThekingisidentifiedwithRatheSun.ThisidentificationisreflectedinthesocalledroyalnameHorus.Thatwhichischaracteristicofthesupremegodis relevanttothekingbythemightofhiswordshecreatestheworld,heisthesupportofworldlyorder,heisallseeingandallhearing."Thouartlikefather Raarisinginthefirmament.Thyraysoflightpenetratetocaves,andthereisnoplaceonearthnotlitbythybeauty."(76:p.6)Tothepharaohisattributed thedualnatureofthesupremegod,bothgoodandwrathful. ThekingisalsoidentifiedwithHorus,thesonofOsiris,hencewithOsirisaswell.HorusisthelivingkingOsirisisthedeadking.Osirisisthepersonification ofthefunctionoffecundityinthesupremegodandinthatcapacitywasincarnateinthepharaoh.ThedeathofOsiriswasdepictedinritualfestivitieshis passagethroughtheunderworldandhisresurrection,hisincarnationinHorus,theearthlyking.Thiswassimultaneouslythefestivityofthepharaoh's coronation.
    *Atleastthisistrueoftheofficialreligion.Touchinginscriptionsuncoveredinbarracksoccupiedbythebuildersofthepyramidsshowthattherealsoexisteda popularreligionbasedondeepfeelingsofpersonalmergingwiththedeity.

    [166] TheidentificationofthepharaohandOsirishasevengivenrisetospeculation(Sothe,Blackman)thatOsirisisthedeifiedimageofarealkingwhose archetypalactivitiesanddeathserveasthebasisofthecultofOsiris.(76:p.8) Thepharaoh'sfunctionasdefenderofthestateagainstitsenemiesisidentifiedwithamythicalstrugglebetweenRaandadragon.Thepharaoh'svictoriesare describedinvividmetaphors:heattackslikeastorm,likeadevouringflame,dismemberinghisenemies'bodiestheirbloodflowslikewaterduringtheflood, theirbodiesareheapedhigherthanthepyramids,etc.Thepharaoh'senemiesarecalledchildrenofdestruction,thecondemned,wolves,dogs.Theyare identifiedwiththedragonApopi. Inhisstateactivitiesthepharaohislikenedtoagoodshepherd,shelter,arock,afortress.Theverysameepithetsareappliedtothesupremegod. Hymnsaddressedtothepharaohincludesuchsentimentsas: "Hehathcometous,hehathmadethepeopleofEgypttolive,hehathopenedthethroatsofthepeople." "Rejoice,thouentireland:thegoodlytimehathcome,theLordhathappearedintheTwoLands."(76:p.13) "Thewaterstandeth,andfailethnot,theNileisrunninghigh. "Thedaysarelong,thenightshavehours,themonthscomearight. "Thegodsarecontentandhappyofheart,andlifeisspentinlaughterandwonder."(76:pp.1314) Mesopotamia. ThekingwasconsideredtobebornofagoddesshisfatherwasAnu,Enlilorsomeothergodwhowascalledthe"fatherconceiver."Inhis mother'swomb,theking'sbodyandsoulareendowedwithdivinequalities.(76:p.16) Duringtheritualcelebrationofthecoronation,thekingdiessymbolicallyandisrebornasagod. Itisinterestingthatthemoreancienttextsarethemoredefiniteaboutthedivinityoftheking.Invisualrepresentations,thekingoftencannotbedistinguished fromagodhemighthavethesamehairstyle,forinstance.Theking'snamehasadivinecharacterandisusedasanoath.(76:p.18)Inthegodkingidentity therearetwoaspects.Thekingisthesupremesungodand,atthesametime,thegodoffertility. ThusthekingPursinofUriscalledthe"truegod,"thesunoverhisland.Hammurabisays:"IamthesungodofBabylon,whocauseslighttoriseoverthe landofSumerandAkkad."(76:p.23)DuringritualceremoniesthekingactedasthegodofthesunMarduk.Thisidentificationwasproclaimedasdogma inrelationtotheroleofthekinginthecult,butinanearlierperioditevidentlywasseeninliteralterms. Ontheotherhand,thenotionofthekingasanembodimentofthegodoffertilityTammuzseemssofundamentalthatscholarslikeFeiginconsiderTammuza historicalkingwhosedeificationinitiatedthecult.(76:p.24) InthereligionofMesopotamia,theimageofatreeoflifethatgrants

    [167]

    historicalkingwhosedeificationinitiatedthecult.(76:p.24) InthereligionofMesopotamia,theimageofatreeoflifethatgrants

    [167] thewateroflifeplaysagreatrole.Thekingisoftenidentifiedwithit.ThusitissaidofKingShulgi:"ShepherdShulgi,thouwhohastthewater,shed water...GodShulgiistheseedoflife...thearomaticplantoflife."Thelivesofpeoplearefromtheking:"TheKinggiveslifetomen...lifeiswiththeKing."(76: p.28) Inacertainhymnthekingspeaks:"Iamtheking,myreignisendless....Iamhewhorulesoverallthings,themasterofthestars."(76:p.29) Identicalepithetsareusuallyappliedtokingandtogod:master,ruler,shepherd,lawfulshepherd,ruleroflands,ruleroftheuniverse. Wequoteseveralmorefragmentsfromthehymns: "Hethatoverfloweththefaceofthelandwiththeflood..."(76:p.39) "Hewhomthegreatgodslookuponwithbrightregard..."(76:p.42) "Whobringsbacklifetothosewhohavebeensickformanydays..."(76:p.44) Andinconnectionwithnature: "Thecorngrewfiveellshighinitsears."

    3.AncientChina
    ThehistoryofChinaisanextraordinarilyinterestingexampleofhowthetendenciesofstatesocialismfindexpressioninamultitudeofformsoveratremendousspanof time.BelowweshallcitesomedatabearingontheperiodbetweenthethirteenthandthethirdcenturiesB.C.Thisepochisdividedintotwoparts:theancient(theYinand theearlyChouofclassicalChinesehistoriography)andthelateChunChiuandCh'in.TheboundarybetweenthemliesinthefifthcenturyB.C. TheYineracomprisestheearliestnonmythicperiodinChinesehistory.Songsandchroniclessupplysomeinformationonit,inadditiontoarchaeologicalevidence.Some ofthemostimportantknowledgeabouttheYincomesfrominscriptionsonbonesandtortoiseshellsusedfordivining.TheseinscriptionsareassignedbyMaspero(77)to thetwelfthtoeleventhcenturiesB.C.andbyKuoMoJo(78)tothefourteenthtothirteenthcenturies.Thesourcespointtoasocietybasedonhuntingandagriculture. Cultivationwasbyandlargeconfinedtoriverbanksartificialirrigationwaslittleused.Themanufactureofbronzeutensilsandspinningandweavingachievedahighlevelof technicalproficiency.Awritingsystemhadbeendevelopedandthecalendarwasinuse. Powerbelongedtothekingorwang.Inalaterchroniclealegendary [168] king,PanKeng,inorderinghispeopletopopulatenewareas,says:"Youareallmycattleandpeople."(78:p.22)Hewarnsthatincaseofdisobediencetheywillhave theirnosescutoffandalltheirdescendantswillbedestroyed"sothatbadseedshouldnotgetintothecity."(78:p.22)Thecommentarytoanancientchronicle(sixth fifth centuriesB.C.)statesthat"Chou[thewangofYin]hadhundredsofthousands,millionsofpeople."(78:p.22)ThatthewangoccupiedacentralplaceinYinsocietyis indicatedbythehugenumberofhumansacrificesthataccompaniedhisburial.Thegraveofawangwassurroundedbyuptoonethousandcorpses.Ontheotherhand, suchmassslaughter,apparentlyofwarprisoners,madethespreadofslaveryratherimprobable. Inagriculturenotraceofindividuallandallotmenthasbeenfound.Controloverworkonthelandwasinthehandsofagriculturalofficials.Thebureaucraticnatureof agricultureissuggestedbyinscriptionsondiceusedinfortunetelling.Forexample,theaugurydirectsthewang"toorderthecommonfolktogotothefieldsforthe harvest."Or:"Thecommonfolkaretobeorderedtosowmillet."(79:p.125) TheconquestoftheYinempirebythenomadicChoutribetransformedthelatterintoaprivilegedclassofsociety,butlittlechangedinthegeneralstructureoflife.As before,workonthelandwascontrolledbyofficialssubordinatetotheking.Numeroussongsdescribeagriculturebasedontheuseoflargegroupsofpeasantsdirectedby officialswhoindicatewhere,whenandwhattosow.Forexample,landofficialswereinstructedasfollows:"ourrulersummonsusall...ordersyoutoleadtheplowmento sowgrain...quicklytakeyourinstrumentsandbegintoplow....Lettenthousandpairsgoout...thiswillbeenough."(79:p.125)Elsewhereasimilarsceneispictured:"A thousandpairsofpeopleontheplainandonthemountainslopeweedandplowthefield."(79:p.129)Oftheharvestitissaid:"Therearelargegranarieseverywhere. ...Inthem,millionsoftan ofgrain...Athousandgranariesmustbeprepared....Tenthousandgrainbasketsmustbeprepared."Finally,thewanggiveshisapprovalthe ultimategoaloflabor:"Allthefieldsarecompletelysown....Thegrainistrulygood....Thewangwasnotangryhesaid,'Youpeasantshavelaboredgloriously.'"(79:pp. 128,134) Thehistoricalbook HanShu, writteninthefirstcenturyA.D.,describestheorganizationofagriculturalworkthus:"Beforethepopulationwentouttowork,thevillage headtookuphisplaceontheright [169] oftheexit,theagriculturalofficialsonthelefttheylefttheirplacesaftereveryonehaddepartedforthefields.Intheevening,thesamethingwasrepeated."(78:p.31) Alineinasongruns:"Rainfallsonourcommonlandandonourownfields."(79:p.135)Thus,apartfromthefieldsinwhichthousandstoiledunderthesupervisionof officials,therewereindividualplotsanalogoustothosethatexistedinPeruandintheJesuitstate. Historicalsourcespointtothestatedistributionofland."Atdefinitetimesthepopulationwascountedandthelanddistributed."(80:p.149)And:"Theindividualattheage oftwentyreceivedafield,attheageofsixtyreturnedit,atanageoverseventylivedinstatedependency,uptotenyearsofagewasbroughtupbyelders,onreachingage elevenwasforcedtoworkbytheelders."(78:p.31) Alllandandallpeoplewereconsideredtobethewang'sproperty:"Undertheheavens,thereisnolandthatdoesnotbelongtothewang,inthewholeworldfromone endtotheothertherearenopeoplewhoarenotthewang'sunderlings."(78:p.29) Landandfolkweregrantedbythewangtothearistocracyfortemporaryuse,withouttherightofsaleortransferevenbyinheritance.Manycasesarerecordedofland

    Historicalsourcespointtothestatedistributionofland."Atdefinitetimesthepopulationwascountedandthelanddistributed."(80:p.149)And:"Theindividualattheage oftwentyreceivedafield,attheageofsixtyreturnedit,atanageoverseventylivedinstatedependency,uptotenyearsofagewasbroughtupbyelders,onreachingage elevenwasforcedtoworkbytheelders."(78:p.31) Alllandandallpeoplewereconsideredtobethewang'sproperty:"Undertheheavens,thereisnolandthatdoesnotbelongtothewang,inthewholeworldfromone endtotheothertherearenopeoplewhoarenotthewang'sunderlings."(78:p.29) Landandfolkweregrantedbythewangtothearistocracyfortemporaryuse,withouttherightofsaleortransferevenbyinheritance.Manycasesarerecordedofland beingconfiscatedandevenofaristocratsbeingreducedtotherankofthecommonpeople.Officials,scholarsandartisansgottheirsustenancefromspecificplotsofland tilledbythepeasantswholivedonthem. Besidestheirimmediateobligations,peasantshadanumberofotherduties.Incaseofwar,theywereto"putonarmorandtakepoleaxesinhand."(78:p.32)Theywere obligedtoworkonconstructionprojects.Inonesong,itissaid:"Tillers!...Thisyeartheharvestisalreadyin....Itistimetobuildapalace....Bydaymakereadyreeds. ...Intheeveningweaverope....Hurryandfinishthebuilding."(79:p.147) Thecraftswerepartlythepeasants'obligationaswell.Inthe HanShu itissaid:"Inwinter,whenthepopulationreturnedtothevillage,thewomengatheredtogetherinthe eveningsandwereengagedinspinning.Inonemonththeyfulfilledthenormsetforfortyfivedays."(78:p.31) Therewere,however,professionalartisansalso.Theybelongedtoaspecialorganizationinwhichtheartisansofsimilarspecialtiesformedclosedcorporationsdirectedby overseers.Artisansandoverseers,aswellasmerchants,receivedallowancesfromthestate. [170] Alltheessentialaspectsoflifewereunderthecontroloftheking'sadministration.Therewerethreebasicareasofsupervision:agriculture,warandpublicworks.The headsofthesethreedepartmentswerecalledthethreeeldersandwereregardedasthehighestrankingofficialsoftheempire.Allagriculturalproductionwas subordinatedtothedepartmentofagricultureor"plenty."*Itsofficialsscheduledtherotationofcrops,thetimeofsowingandofharvesting.Theyassignedthedutiesto groupsortoindividualpeasantsandsupervisedtheprivateexchangeofagriculturalproductsatthemarkets.Thelifeofthepeasantwasalsoundertheircontrol:marriage, villageholidaysandlitigation. Theprimarytaskofthemilitarydepartmentwasthesuppressionofuprisings.Alsoamongitsfunctionswererecruitingandtrainingandallquestionsoftheconductofand preparationforwarthearsenal,foodstores,horses.Thisdepartmentalsoorganizedthehugehuntingexpeditionsthattookplacefourtimeseachyear.Thedepartmentof publicworkshadauthorityovertheland(whilethepeoplewhoworkedthelandweremanagedbythedepartmentof"plenty").Itestablished"boundarylines,"thatis, undertooktheperiodicredistributionoflanditdirectedirrigationwork,thebuildingofroads,thecultivationofvirginlands.Artisans,architects,sculptorsandarmorers wereatitsdisposal.(77:pp.7375) Althoughtherewereobjects(shells,copperbars)thatwereusedasconvenientmeansofexchange,alldeliveriestothestateconsistedofproduce:grain,canvas,etc. Privatetransactions,inmostcases,alsohadthecharacterofexchangeinkind. Inmanyrespects,marriagehadnontraditionalforms.AmongtheinscriptionsfromtheYinperiod,wefindlistingsofwivesbelongingtotwohusbands.(81:p.12)Inthe Chouepoch,marriageamongthepeasantswastoalargeextentregulatedbythestate.Forexample,inonesourceweread:"Menareorderedtomarrybyagethirty, girls,byagetwenty.Thismeansthatthedeadlineformarriagebothformenandforwomencannotbeextended."(80:p.147)Ataspecifictimeinspring,theemperor announcedthedayforweddings.Aspecialofficialcalledamediatorinformedthepeasantsthatthetimefor"thejoiningofyouthsandgirls"hadcome.TheFrench SinologistMasperobelievesthatmarriageinthetruesenseexistedonlyforthearistocracy,forwhichithadtheeffectofsustainingthereligiouscult.Common
    *ThistranslationwassuggestedbyMaspero(77)in1927,longbeforeOrwell's1984.

    [171] folkdidnotestablishclansandthefamilydidnothaveareligiouscharacter.MarriagewasdenotedbydifferenttermsforthearistocracyandthepeasantryMaspero translatestheformertermas"marriage"andthelatteras"union."(77:p.117) Legalfunctionsweredividedbetweentheciviladministrationandthelegaldepartment.Civilauthoritiesassignedpenaltiesforminorcrimesaspecificnumberofblows withastick.Incasesofrepeatedoffense,theguiltypartywashandedovertothelawdepartment.Fivekindsofpunishmentwereprovidedforbylawforseriousoffenses: capitalpunishment,castration(or,forwomen,incarceration),cuttingoffoftheheel,cuttingoffofthenose,branding.AcodexattributedtoKingMuofthebeginningofthe Chouperiodcontainsalistofthreethousandoffenses,ofwhichtwohundredwerepunishablebydeath,threehundredbycastration,fivehundredbycuttingofftheheel, onethousandbycuttingoffthenoseandonethousandbybranding.Thecodexfromtheendofthisepochlists2,500offenses,fivehundredineachofthefivecategories ofpunishment.(77:p.77) Inmanyrespects,thesocietyoftheChouperiodresemblesthatoftheIncaempireatthetimeoftheSpanishinvasion.ButinChina,historymadepossibleafurther elaborationofthesocialstructure.TheChoustatedidnotfallvictimtoaforeigninvader,butratherdevelopedundertheinfluenceofinternalfactors.Andquiteunexpected featuresappeared.BythefifthcenturyB.C.,theempire,officiallyunderthedominionoftheChouking,brokeupintowhatwereinrealitysmallindependentstatesthat engagedinpermanentwarfare.(Thisageis,infact,calledthe"epochofthefightingkingdoms.")Butthecollapseofthemonolithicstatemechanismwascompensatedfor bythedevelopmentofindividualfactors.TheteachingsofConfuciusproclaimedman'sprimarygoaltobethemoralandethicalperfectionofhispersonalityandthe integrationofculturewithsuchspiritualqualitiesasjustice,loveofmankind,loyalty,nobility.Amultitudeofphilosophicalschoolscameintobeingvagrantscholarsbegan toplayagreatroleinthelifeofsociety. Thisisaperiodofrapidculturalandeconomicgrowth.Thelanguageandwritingsystemsofthedifferentkingdomswascodified.Thenumberofcitiesandtownsincreased rapidly,andtheybegantoplayagreaterroleinthelifeofthecountry.Thechroniclestellofcitiesinwhichcarriagescollidedinthestreetsandthecrowdsweresuchthat clothingputoninthemorninggotwornoutbyevening.Largeirrigationsystemswereconstructed.Anetworkofcanalswas [172] built,connectingallthekingdomsofChina.Implementsmadeofironcameintowideuse.Almostallagriculturalinstruments,suchashoes,spades,axes,sickles,were madeofiron.ThroughoutChinalargeirondepositswerebeingworkedtherewerehugesmeltingfurnacesrunbycrewsofhundredsofslaves.Citiesandwholeregions specializedinproducingdifferentarticles:silk,arms,salt.Undertheinfluenceofincreasingtradelinks,almostallkingdomsbegantomintidenticalcoins.(83:pp.24 32) Somewhatlater,however,anewtendencyappeared:thedesiretomakeuseofthehighertechnicalandintellectuallevelinordertocreateastrictlycentralizedsocietyin whichtheindividual,toafargreaterdegreethanbefore,wouldbeundercontrolofthestate.Itseemsthatthisisnottheonlytimeinhistorythatdevelopmentshavetaken suchaturn.Forexample,H.Frankfort(83)believesthatthefirststatesinMesopotamiaandEgyptaroseinananalogousfashion,i.e.,asaresultofsubjectingthe

    built,connectingallthekingdomsofChina.Implementsmadeofironcameintowideuse.Almostallagriculturalinstruments,suchashoes,spades,axes,sickles,were madeofiron.ThroughoutChinalargeirondepositswerebeingworkedtherewerehugesmeltingfurnacesrunbycrewsofhundredsofslaves.Citiesandwholeregions specializedinproducingdifferentarticles:silk,arms,salt.Undertheinfluenceofincreasingtradelinks,almostallkingdomsbegantomintidenticalcoins.(83:pp.24 32) Somewhatlater,however,anewtendencyappeared:thedesiretomakeuseofthehighertechnicalandintellectuallevelinordertocreateastrictlycentralizedsocietyin whichtheindividual,toafargreaterdegreethanbefore,wouldbeundercontrolofthestate.Itseemsthatthisisnottheonlytimeinhistorythatdevelopmentshavetaken suchaturn.Forexample,H.Frankfort(83)believesthatthefirststatesinMesopotamiaandEgyptaroseinananalogousfashion,i.e.,asaresultofsubjectingthe economicandintellectualachievementsofthetempleeconomiestothegoalsofacentralgovernment. AuniqueplaceinthethoughtandactivityoftheChinaofthe"fightingkingdoms"periodisoccupiedbyKungsunYang,betterknownasShangYang.Hewastherulerof ShangprovinceinthemiddleofthefourthcenturyB.C.andhistheoreticalviewsaresetforthinTheBookoftheRulerofShang. (84)Thisworkisbelievedtohavebeen writteninpartbyShang,inpartbyhisdisciples. AccordingtoShang'steaching,twoforcesdeterminethelifeofsociety.OneofthemShangcallstherulerorthestate,evidentlyregardingthemasdifferenttermsfor essentiallythesamething.Shangidentifieshimselfwiththisforce.Theaimofthewholetreatiseistopointoutthebestpathsandmeansforachievingthegoalsofthisforce inthemostperfectfashion.Thegoalconsistsessentiallyofincreasingtothemaximumdegreepossibletheruler'sinfluenceandpowerbothinsidethecountryandbeyond itsbordersthroughexpansion.Theidealisfulldominionundertheheavens.Theotherforceisthepeople.Theauthordescribestheinterrelationsbetweentherulerandthe peopleasanalogoustothosebetweentheartisanandhisrawmaterial.Thepeoplearelikenedtooreinthehandsofametalworkerortoclayinthehandsofapotter. Andevenmoretheaspirationsofthetwoforcesarediametricallyopposedtheyareenemies,theonegettingstrongeronlyattheexpenseoftheother."Onlyhewhohas conqueredhisownpeoplefirstcanconquerastrongenemy."(84:p.210)"Whenthepeopleareweakthestateisstrongwhenthestateisweakthe [173] peoplearestrong.Hencethestatethatfollowsatruecoursestrivestoweakenthepeople."(84:p.219)ThesectioninShang'sbookfromwhichthelastquotationistaken isinfactentitled:"HowtoWeakenthePeople." Inordertotransformhispeopleintoclayinhishands,therulerisadvisedtorenounceloveofman,ofjusticeandofthepeoplequalitiesthattheauthorcategorizes collectivelyasvirtue.Thesequalitiesshouldnotbeassumedamongthepeopleeithertheymustberuledlikeacollectionofpotentialcriminalswithanappealmadeonlyto fearandselfishadvantage."Ifthestateisgovernedbyvirtuousmethods,largenumbersofcriminalsaresuretoappear."(84:p.156)"Inastatewherethedepravedare treatedasiftheywerevirtuous,seditionisinevitable.Inastatewherethevirtuousaretreatedasiftheyweredepraved,ordershallreignandthestatesurelyshallbe powerful."(84:p.163)"Whenthepeoplederiveprofitfromthewaysinwhichtheyareused,theycanbemadetodoanythingtherulerwishes....However,shouldthe rulerturnawayfromthelawandbegintorelyuponhisloveforthepeople,therewillbeanoutbreakofcrimeintheland."(84:p.220) Thelawisatthebasisoflifeitrulesoverthepeoplethroughfearand,toalesserextent,throughtheprofitmotive:"Thelawisthebasisforthepeople....Asituationis consideredjustwhendignitariesareloyal,whensonsarerespectfultotheirparents,whenjuniorsareobservantoftheirseniors,whenthedistinctionbetweenmanand womanisestablished.Butallthisisachievednotthroughjusticebutbymeansofimmutablelaws.Andthen,evenastarvingmanwillnotstraintoreachforfood,justasa condemnedmanwillnotclingtolife.Hewhoisperfectlywisedoesnotvaluejustice,buthevalueslaws.Ifthelawsareabsolutelyclearanddecreesareabsolutely obeyed,nothingmoreisneeded."(84:pp.215216) Ofthetwokeyfactors,punishmentandreward,withthehelpofwhichthelawgovernsthepeople,considerablepreferenceisgiventothefirst:"Inastatestrivingfor dominionundertheheavens,thereareninepunishmentstoonereward,andinstatesdoomedtodisintegrate,thereareninerewardstoonepunishment."(84:p.165)Itis onlypunishmentthatbreedsmorality:"Virtueoriginatedwithpunishment."(84:p.165)Speakingofhowtoapplypunishment,theauthorseesonlythefollowing alternatives:masspunishmentappliedacrosstheboardorthelessfrequentlyusedbutparticularlyharshpunishment.Hedefinitelyrecommendsthesecondcourse:"People canbemade [174] worthywithoutmasspunishment,ifthepunishmentissevere."(84:p.212)Inthisheevendiscernsamarkoftheruler'sloveforhispeople:"Shouldpunishmentsbesevere andrewardsfew,therulerloveshispeopleandthepeoplearereadytogiveuptheirlivesfortheruler.Shouldrewardsbeconsiderableandpunishmentsmild,theruler doesnotlovehispeople,andthepeoplewillnotgiveuptheirlivesforhissake."(84:pp.158159) Theprimarygoalofpunishmentistoseverthetiesthatbindpeopletogethertherefore,awholesystemofinformersmustsupplementpunishment."Ifthepeopleareruled asvirtuous,theywilllovethoseclosesttothemiftheyareruledasdepraved,theywillbecomefondofthissystem.Unityamongpeopleandtheirmutualsupportspring fromthefactthattheyareruledasvirtuousestrangementamongthepeopleandmutualsurveillancespringfromtheirbeingruledasdepraved."(84:pp.162163)The ruler"shouldissuealawonmutualsurveillanceheshouldissueadecreethatthepeopleoughttocorrecteachother."(84:p.214)"Regardlessofwhethertheinformeris ofthenobilityorofloworigin,heinheritsfullythenobility,thefieldsandthesalaryoftheseniorofficialwhosemisconducthereportstotheruler."(84:p.207) Denunciationistiedtoasystemofextendedmutualliability."Afathersendinghissontowar,theeldersendinghisyoungerbrother,orthewifeseeingoffherhusband, shallallsay:'Don'tcomebackwithoutvictory!'Andtheywilladd'Shouldyoubreakthelawordisobeyanorder,weshallperishtogetherwithyou.'"(84:p.211)"Ina wellregulatedcountry,husband,wifeandtheirfriendswillnotbeabletoconcealacrimeonefromtheotherwithoutcourtingdisasterfortherelativesoftheculpritthe restwillnotbeabletocovereachothereither."(84:p.231) Theauthorpicturesthisentiresystemasamoreprofoundandsignificantformofhumanity,apathtowardthedyingawayofpunishment,executionanddenunciation, almostawitheringawayofthestatethroughitsmaximumincreaseinstrength."Ifpunishmentbemadesevereandasystemofmutualresponsibilityforcrimeis established,peoplewillnotdaretoexposethemselvestotheforceoflaw.Andwhenpeoplebegintofeartheresults,theverynecessityofpunishmentwilldisappear."(84: p.207)"Therefore,ifbywar,warcanbeabolished,thenevenwarispermissibleifbymurder,murdercanbeabolished,thenevenmurderispermissibleifby punishment,punishmentcanbeabolished,thenevenharshpunishmentispermissible."(84:p.210)"Suchismymethodofreturningtovirtue,bythepath [175] ofcapitalpunishmentandreconciliationofjusticeandviolence."(84:p.179) WhatisthesocialstructurethatShangYangproposestoachievebythesemeans?Hesinglesouttwoconcernsforthesakeofwhichotherhumaninterestsshouldbe suppressedandtowhicheverythingshouldbesubordinated:agricultureandwar.Heascribessuchexclusiveimportancetotheseentitiesthatheintroducesaspecialterm todefinethem,translatedas"concentrationontheOneThing"or"unification."Thewholefutureofthecountrydependsuponthisfactor:"Thecountrythatachieves unification,beitforoneyear,willbepowerfulfortenyearsthestatethatachievesunificationfortenyearswillbepowerfulforahundredyearsthestatethatachieves unificationforahundredyearswillbepowerfulforathousandyearsandwillachievedominionundertheheavens."(84:p.154)Onlythefollowingactivitiesmustbe encouragedbythestate:"Hewhowantsthefloweringofthestateshouldinspireinthepeopletheknowledgethatofficialpostsandranksofnobilitycanbeobtainedonly byengagingintheOneThing."(84:p.148) Alleconomicactivitywastohaveasinglegoalagriculture.Twoexplanationsaregivenforthis:inthefirstplace,"whenallthoughtsareturnedtoagriculture,peopleare

    todefinethem,translatedas"concentrationontheOneThing"or"unification."Thewholefutureofthecountrydependsuponthisfactor:"Thecountrythatachieves unification,beitforoneyear,willbepowerfulfortenyearsthestatethatachievesunificationfortenyearswillbepowerfulforahundredyearsthestatethatachieves unificationforahundredyearswillbepowerfulforathousandyearsandwillachievedominionundertheheavens."(84:p.154)Onlythefollowingactivitiesmustbe encouragedbythestate:"Hewhowantsthefloweringofthestateshouldinspireinthepeopletheknowledgethatofficialpostsandranksofnobilitycanbeobtainedonly byengagingintheOneThing."(84:p.148) Alleconomicactivitywastohaveasinglegoalagriculture.Twoexplanationsaregivenforthis:inthefirstplace,"whenallthoughtsareturnedtoagriculture,peopleare simpleandeasilygoverned."(84:p.153)Secondly,agriculturehelpsfeedthearmyduringprolongedwars.Colonizationandcultivationofvirginlandsisproposed peasantsaretobeattractedfromotherlandstothisendbypromisesofreleasefromlaborandmilitarydutiesforthreegenerations.Itseemsthatthepeasantswhosettled onvirginlandswereusuallyundergreatercontrolandbelongedtoa"royaldomain."Thustheproposaltobefreeforthreegenerationsmusthavesoundedespecially attractive.Overandover,proposingthisorthatofficialmeasure,ShangYangconcludesthepassagewiththewords:"Andthenthevirginlandsarecertaintobe cultivated." Forthenobility,theonlywaytorichesandacareermustbethroughmilitaryservice:"Allprivilegesandsalaries,officialpostsandranksofnobility,mustbegivenonlyfor serviceinthearmytheremustbenootherway.Foronlybythispathisitpossibletotakeaclevermanandafool,noblesandcommonfolk,bravemenandcowards, worthymenandthosegoodfornothing,andextractallthatisintheirheadsandtheirbacksandforcethemtorisktheirlivesforthesakeoftheruler."(84:p.204) Inmilitaryactivitythereisnoplaceformoralconsiderations.On [176] thecontrary:"Ifthearmycommitsactionsthattheenemywouldnotdaretocommit,thenthismeansthatthecountryisstrong.Ifinwarthecountrycommitsactionsthe enemywouldbeashamedofcommitting,thenitwillhavegainedanadvantage."(84:p.156) Theruler,too,isreleasedfrommoralobligationstowardhissoldiers.Herulesoverthem,asoverallpeoplebymeansofrewardsandpunishments.Threeenemyheads cutoffresultsinapromotiontotherankofnobility."Ifafterthreedaysacommanderhasnotconferredthistitleuponanyone,heissentencedtotwoyearshardlabor....A warriordisplayingcowardiceistorntopiecesbycarriages,awarriordaringtodisapproveofanorderisbranded,hisnoseiscutoffandheisthrowndownatthecity wall."(84:pp.218219)Aswiththegeneralpopulation,thewarriorisboundbyextendedresponsibility.Soldiersaredividedintofivesandforailoffensebyoneallare executed. Thus:"Itisnecessarytodrivepeopleintosuchastatethattheyshouldsufferifnotengagedinagriculture,thattheyshouldliveinfeariftheyarenotengagedinwar."(84: p.234)Therefore,all"external"occupations(thatis,notpartoftheOneThing)aresystematicallysuppressed.Asaresult,activitiesoutsidedirectstatecontrol,thosein whichpersonalinitiativeandindividualityweredisplayed,werethefirsttobecutoff.Hencetheabolitionofprivatetradeingrainisproposed.Thenmerchantswillbe compelledtoturntoworkingtheland,and"wastelandsarecertaintobecultivated."Taxesweretoberaisedsharplysoastomaketradeunprofitable.Andingeneralthe roleofgoldwastobediminishedsothatitshouldplaytheleastpossiblerole."Whengoldappears,graindisappearsandwhengrainappears,golddisappears."(84:p. 161)Merchantsandtheirpeopleshouldbedrawnintoperformingstatelaborduties.Thecraftsarealsonottobeencouraged:"Commonpeopleareengagedintradeand aremastersofvariouscraftssoastoavoidagricultureandwar.Ifsuchthingstakeplace,thestateisindanger."(84:p.148)Hiredlaborshouldbeabolishedsothat privatepersonswouldnotbeabletoundertakeconstructionwork.Miningandwatertransportationshouldbecomestatemonopolies:"Iftherightofownershipto mountainsandreservoirsisconcentratedinthesamehand,thenlandslyingfallowwillcertainlybecultivated."Andinhabitantsshouldbeattachedtotheland."Ifthe peoplearedeprivedoftherightoffreemigration,thenlandslyingfallowwillcertainlybecultivated."(84:pp.144145)Allthesemeasurescanbesummedupinone generalprinciple:"Undertheheavenstherehardlywaseveracasewhereastatedidnotperish [177] wheninfestedwithwormsorwhenacrackappeared.Thatiswhyawiserulermakeslawseliminatingprivateinterests,therebydeliveringthestatefromwormsand cracks."(84:p.198) Theimplementationoftheseprinciples,however,ispreventedbyaforcewhichthebookdealswithatlength.TodenotethisforceShangYangusesatermthatis translatedas"parasites"or(literally)"lice."Sometimessixparasitesareenumerated,sometimeseight,instillotherinstancesten.ThesearetheShihChing andthe Shu Ching(TheBookofSongs andTheBookofHistory, thesourcesofartisticandhistoricaleducation),music,virtue,venerationofoldcustoms,loveofmankind, selflessness,eloquence,wit,etc.Elsewhere,knowledge,talentandlearningareadded.Whatseemstobemeantiscultureinitsbroadestunderstandingandinvolvinga certainlevelofethicalandmoraldemands.Theexistenceofsuch"parasites"isincompatiblewiththeOneThingthattheauthorelaborates,aswellaswithhiswhole program."Iftherearetenparasitesinastate...therulerwillnotbeabletofindasinglemanwhomhemightusefordefenseortowagewar."(84:p.151)"Whereverthere existtheseeightparasitessimultaneously,theauthoritiesareweakerthantheirpeople."(84:p.162)Inthiscase,thestatewillbetornapart."Ifknowledgeisencouraged andnotnippedinthebud,itwillincrease,andwhenitwillhaveincreased,itwillbecomeimpossibletoruletheland."(84:p.182)"Iftheeloquentandtheintelligentare valued,ifvagrantscholarsarebroughtintotheserviceofthestate,ifamanbecomeswellknownthankstohislearningandpersonalglory,thenwaysareopenintheland totheunrighteous.Ifthesethreekindsofpersonsarenotcheckedintheirpath,itwillbeimpossibletoengagethepeopleinwar."(84:p.224)AndShangYangwarns darkly:"Thepeopleinthewholecountryhavechanged,theyhavetakentoeloquenceandfindpleasureinstudytheyhavestartedtoengageinvariouscraftsandtrade theyhavebeguntoneglectagricultureandwar.Ifthistrendcontinues,thehourofdeathisnearfortheland."(84:p.152)Inoldentimes,hesays,thingswerenotthisway: "Thegiftedwereofnouseandtheungiftedcoulddonoharm.Therefore,theartofrulingwellconsistspreciselyintheabilityofremovingthecleverandthegifted."(84:p. 231)Finally,thisideaisexpressedinitsmostnakedform:"Ifthepeoplearestupid,theycanbeeasilygoverned."(84:p.237) ShangYang'steachingisreminiscentofasocialutopia,adescriptionofan"idealstate,"inwhich"privateinterestsareeliminated,"love [178] forkindredbeingsisreplacedbyloveforstateorder,allaspirationsareconcentratedontheOneThingandtheentirestructureismaintainedbyasystemofinformers,guilt byassociationandharshpunishments.ButinonerespectShangYangoccupiesaspecialplaceamongauthorsofsuchtreatises.Manyofthemmadeattemptsto implementtheirideals.Plato,forinstance,soughtarulerwhowouldorganizeastateinthespiritofhisteaching.Plato'sattemptsendedwhentheSyracusetyrant Dionysius,uponwhomhehadsethishopes,soldhimintoslavery.ShangYang,however,foundhisrulerandhadtheopportunitytorealizehisideals.Theprinceofthe stateofCh'inmadehimfirstministerandShangYangsucceededincarryingoutanumberofreforms.HereiswhatisknownofShangYang'slegislation: 1.Farmers("thoseengagedintheessentialthing")werefreedfromobligatoryservice. 2.Thosediscoveredengagingin"nonessential"activitieswereturnedintoslaves. 3.Ranksofnobilitywereobtainableonlythroughmilitaryservice.Highpositionsinthegovernmentcouldbegivenonlytothosewhohadalreadyearnedtherankof nobility.Thosewithoutrankwereforbiddentodisplayluxuries.(Inthisway,therulingclasswastransformedfromahereditaryaristocracyintoofficialsdependentonthe favoroftheirsuperiorsandthemonarch.) 4.Thestatewasdividedintoprovincesruledbystateofficials.

    2.Thosediscoveredengagingin"nonessential"activitieswereturnedintoslaves. 3.Ranksofnobilitywereobtainableonlythroughmilitaryservice.Highpositionsinthegovernmentcouldbegivenonlytothosewhohadalreadyearnedtherankof nobility.Thosewithoutrankwereforbiddentodisplayluxuries.(Inthisway,therulingclasswastransformedfromahereditaryaristocracyintoofficialsdependentonthe favoroftheirsuperiorsandthemonarch.) 4.Thestatewasdividedintoprovincesruledbystateofficials. 5.Largefamiliesweresplitup,andgrownsonswereforbiddentolivewiththeirfathers.(Thismeasureisseenasanattempttodestroythevillagecommunity.) 6.Fieldsweremarkedoffwithboundarylines.Anumberofhistoriansseeinthisthedestructionofcommunityandthesubordinationofthepeasantrydirectlytoofficials othersviewitasindicativeofthefreedomtobuyandsellland.(ThespiritofShangYang'sbookwouldseemtorenderthelatterinterpretationquiteunlikely.) 7.Capitalpunishmentwasintroducedforthetheftofahorseoranox. 8.Everyfivehouseholdswereunitedintoaunitofsharedresponsibilityandlinkedtoanotherfive.Ifonememberofthegroupoftenhouseholdscommittedacrime,the othersweretoreporthimotherwisetheyweretobecutinhalf.Theinformerwastoberewardedinthesamemannerasonewhohadkilledanenemy. Theselawsmetwithgreatresistance,butShangYangmanaged [179] tocopewiththeopposition.Individualsexpressingtheirdiscontentwereremovedtothefrontierregions.Dangerstruckfromquiteadifferentquarter.Hispatrondiedand theheirtothekingdom,whohatedShangYang,executedhimalongwithhisentirefamily.ButShangYang'sreformswereleftineffectandled,ashehadasserted,tothe achievementofhegemonyundertheheavensbytheCh'inkingdom.InthethirdcenturyB.C.,ChinawasunitedinthehighlycentralizedCh'inempireinwhichtheideasof ShangYangwereimplementedevenmoreconsistentlyandonagreaterscale. Attheheadofthestatestoodtheruler,whotookthetitleHuangti,atermwhichexistedrightupuntil1912.Itistranslatedas"emperor,"althoughithasmoreelevated connotations,somethinglike"DivineSovereignoftheEarth."ThefirstemperorproclaimedthatheshouldbecalledShihHuangtihisheirsweretobecalledtheSecond shih,theThirdshih,andsoonuptotenthousandgenerations.(Infact,thedynastywasoverthrowninthereignofhisson.)Theemperorwasproclaimedthesolehigh priestofthestate.Inscribedonasteleerectedbytheemperorarethewords:"Withinthelimitsofthesixpoints[thefourdirections,plusupanddown]everywhereisthe landoftheEmperor.Whereverman'sfoothastroddentherearenopeoplewhodonotsubmittotheEmperor."(82:p.162) Ahistoricalconceptcurrentatthetimeheldthatthehistoryofundertheheavensconsistedofasuccessionoffiveepochs,correspondingtothefiveelements:earth, wood,metal,fireandwater.Blackwasdesignatedthestatecolor,correspondingtowater,andtheword"people"wasreplacedbytheterm"theblackheaded."The numbersix,whichindicatedwater,wasdeclaredtobesacred,andcountingwastobebasedonthisnumber.The"responsibleunit,"whichhadcontainedfivepeople,now includedsix. Thehistoricallyproduceddivisionofthecountrywasabolished.Instead,theempirewasdividedupintothirtysixregions,andthoseintheirturnintodistricts.Thecountry wasrunbyacentralizedbureaucracy.Inspectors,whoweredirectlyresponsibletotheemperor,supervisedtheworkofallofficialsandreportedonittothecapital. Duringcriticalperiodssuchinspectorswerealsoappointedtothearmy.Districtauthoritieswereinchargeoftheruralelders,ofthekeepersofpublicmorals,ofthe keepersofbarnsandgranaries,ofwatchmenandpostmasters.Cultsandritualswereunifiedandlocalobservancessuppressedtemplesdirectlysubordinatedtothestate werebuilt.Officials [180] ofspecialdepartmentswerechargedwithkeepingtrackoftheseactivities.Otherspecialofficialswereinchargeofmilitaryandeconomicaffairs,orofservicetothe personoftheemperor.Theoverwhelmingmajorityofofficialsreceivedregularallowancesingrain.Onlyhighofficialsandtheemperor'ssonsutilizedtheincomeofcertain regions,inwhich,however,theydidnotenjoyanypoliticalrights. InaccordancewithShangYang'steaching,agriculturewasproclaimedtobethe"essentialthing."Ontheemperor'ssteleitsaid:"Theemperor'smeritconsistsinhishaving forcedthepopulationtoengageintheessentialthing.Heencouragedagricultureanderadicatedthesecondary."(82:p.161) Theemperorwasconsideredtobetheownerofallland.ItseemsthatwhentheEmperorWangMangproclaimedalllandtobelongtothecrown(firstcenturyA.D.),he wasonlycallingtomindanalreadyestablishedtradition.Thisarrangementwasreflectedinobligatorydeliveriesandaseriesofmilitaryandlabordutiesthepeasants performed.Nevertheless,thereexistsinformationconcerningthebuyingandsellingoflandbyprivatepersons.Still,agriculturewasapparentlybasedonthecommune, whichwasusedasameansofsubordinatingthepeasantrytothestate.Communeofficialswereobligedtoseethatthepeasantswenttothefieldsontimeandwerenotto allowbackintothevillageapeasantwhohadnotfulfilledhisnorm.OnetreatiseofthedayrelatesthatduringanillnessofoneoftheCh'inkings,communesthatsacrificed oxenforhisrecoverywerepunished.Evidently,thecentralauthoritiesdidnotconsiderthatcommuneshadtherighttodisposeoflivestockinanyway.Ahistoricalrecord oflatertimestellsaboutaninscriptionsomeonecutonastone:"WhenEmperorCh'inShihHuangdies,thelandwillbedivided."Theguiltypartywasnotfound,butthe stonewasgroundtopowderandallinhabitantsofthevicinitywereexecuted.(82:p.180)ThisincidentsuggeststhatinCh'inShihHuang'sreigncertainmeasurestakento socializethelandprovokeddiscontentamongthepopulace. Animportantmeansbywhichsubordinationofagriculturetostatecontrolwasimplementedwastheemperor'smonopolyonwater.Aspecialdepartmentoversawsluices, dikesandirrigationcanals.(ItshouldbekeptinmindthatintheCh'inepoch,irrigationbegantoplayanextremelyimportantroleinagriculture.)Anothermeasurethat servedthepurposeofextendingtheauthorityofthestatewastheresettlementofgreatmassesofpeasantstonewlyconqueredterritories, [181] wheretheywereevidentlyundermoredirectcontrol. LittleinformationaboutprivatecraftsintheCh'inempirehassurvived.Therearereferencestoownersofironsmeltingworkshopswhobecameextremelyrich.Onthe otherhand,therearedescriptionsoflargestatearmsmanufacturingworks,whoseentireproductionwenttostatestorehouses.Itisknownthatthestateconfiscatediron armsfromthepopulace,anditisthereforelikelythatallproductionofarmswasconcentratedinthehandsofthestate.Animperialstelereads:"Allimplementsandarms weremadeafteronepattern."(82:p.161)Thestatehadamonopolyontheminingofsaltandore.Wholearmiesofworkerslaboredinstateworkshopsandonstate constructionsites.Itisknownthatsomeofthemwerestateslavesthestatusofothersisunclear.Thestatecarriedoutconstructionprojectsonanunprecedentedscale. Immenselylongroads,thesocalledimperialhighways,werebuilt,crisscrossingthecountryfromoneendtotheother.Thewidthoftheseroadsreachedfiftypaces,and therewasaraisedsectioninthemiddlesomesevenmeterswide.Thislatterwasintendedforusebytheemperorandhiscourt.Thefortificationserectedearlierbythe variousstatesweredemolishedandthecelebratedGreatWallofChinaconstructedtodefendthenorthernfrontier.TheregionoftheWallwasconnectedwiththecapital byaroadthatwentdirectlyfromnorthtosouthwithoutattemptingtobypassthenaturalobstacles.("Mountainsweredugthroughvalleysfilledin,andastraightroadwas built.")(82:p.171)Tremendousresourceswereexpendedonthebuildingofpalaces(inthevicinityofthecapital,270wereerected)andonconstructingtheemperor's

    armsfromthepopulace,anditisthereforelikelythatallproductionofarmswasconcentratedinthehandsofthestate.Animperialstelereads:"Allimplementsandarms weremadeafteronepattern."(82:p.161)Thestatehadamonopolyontheminingofsaltandore.Wholearmiesofworkerslaboredinstateworkshopsandonstate constructionsites.Itisknownthatsomeofthemwerestateslavesthestatusofothersisunclear.Thestatecarriedoutconstructionprojectsonanunprecedentedscale. Immenselylongroads,thesocalledimperialhighways,werebuilt,crisscrossingthecountryfromoneendtotheother.Thewidthoftheseroadsreachedfiftypaces,and therewasaraisedsectioninthemiddlesomesevenmeterswide.Thislatterwasintendedforusebytheemperorandhiscourt.Thefortificationserectedearlierbythe variousstatesweredemolishedandthecelebratedGreatWallofChinaconstructedtodefendthenorthernfrontier.TheregionoftheWallwasconnectedwiththecapital byaroadthatwentdirectlyfromnorthtosouthwithoutattemptingtobypassthenaturalobstacles.("Mountainsweredugthroughvalleysfilledin,andastraightroadwas built.")(82:p.171)Tremendousresourceswereexpendedonthebuildingofpalaces(inthevicinityofthecapital,270wereerected)andonconstructingtheemperor's mausoleum. Theseactivitiesofthestate,aswellasthewarsthatwerebeingconstantlywagedonthesouthernandnorthernfrontiers,requiredtheemploymentofcolossalmassesof people.ThestateresortedtoapolicyofresettlementonawidescaleunreliablesegmentsofthepopulationweremovedtotheformerCh'inkingdomandmorereliable groupssenttothenewlyconqueredregions.Theresettlementof120,000familiesisrecordedinoneplace50,000inanothercase,30,000elsewhere. Theentirepopulation,exceptofficialdom,wassubjecttoinnumerablemilitaryandlaborduties.Militaryserviceincludedanobligatorymonthoftrainingforallmenatage twentythree,oneyearofserviceintheregulararmy,andborderpatrolapartfrommobilization.Thenumberofmenemployedinmilitaryservicewasimmense:armies [182] of500,000and300,000arementioned.Evenmorepeoplewereinvolvedinlaborduties.Inthebuildingofasinglepalace,700,000wereemployed.Thebasiclabor obligationsincludedthebuildingofcanals,palaces,theGreatWall,etc.thetransportationofgoodsforthestate(mainlymilitarysupplies),transportationworkoncanals andrivers.Militaryandlabordutieswerenotalwaysdistinguishedonefromtheother.Inthesouth,thearmybuiltcanalsfortransportofsuppliesinthenorth,a300,000 manarmy,alongsidemobilizedinhabitantsandstateslaves,wereengagedinthebuildingoftheGreatWall.Onesourcegivesthefollowingpicture:"Menwhohadcomeof agewerebeingdriventowork....Alongtheroadstherelaysomanycorpsesthattheycouldhavefilledtheditches."(79:p.395) Suchmeasuresevokedmassflightofthepopulationtoforests,mountainsandmarshyregions.Othersjoinedthenorthernnomads,ormigratedtotheKoreanstate.Anew termappearsinthesourcesthecategoryof"peopleinhiding."Itwasnotonlythepoorwhofled.TheemperorwhocametopoweraftertheoverthrowoftheCh'in Dynastydecreedthatthosewhoreturnedtotheirdistrictswouldgetbacktheirfieldsandranks. TheCh'inpenalcodewasconsistentwiththeideasofShangYang.Itisbasedontheprincipleofguiltbyassociation.Sixrelativesansweredforeachperson.Thecriminal wasexecutedtheothersmadeintostateslaves.Officialswereboundbyanotherformofmutualliability:theofficialwhohadappointedaguiltypartyandanyotherswho knewofthecrimebutdidnotreportitweresubjectedtothesamepunishmentastheculprit.Inothercases,executionof"relativesofthethreebranches"couldbecarried outi.e.,relativesonthefather'sside,themother'sandthewife's.Thisedictreads:"First,brandallthecriminal'srelativesofthethreebranchesofrelationship,cutofftheir leftandrightheelsandbeatthemtodeathwithsticks.Theirheadsarethentobecutoffandtheirfleshandbonesthrownonthecitysquare.Ifthecriminalwasaslanderer oraconjurer,histongueisfirstcutout.Thisisknownasexecutionthroughthefivepunishments."(79:p.379)Amilderformofpunishmentwastheexterminationofthe criminal'simmediaterelativesonly. Thereexistedanextraordinaryvarietyofexecution:quartering,cuttingintohalves,cuttingintopieces,decapitationwithexhibitionoftheheadonthesquare,slow strangulation,buryingalive,boilinginacauldron,breakingofribs,smashingofthecrownofthehead. [183] Otherkindsofpunishmentincludedthecuttingoffofthekneecaporofthenose,castration,brandingandbeatingwithsticks.Convictiontohardlaborforfromseveral monthstoseveralyearswaswidelyused,aswasenslavement.Onechroniclerecounts:"Alltheroadswerecrowdedwiththecondemnedinscarletshirts.Andthejails werefilledtooverflowinglikemarketscrowdedwithpeople."(85:p.58) PerhapsthemostnotoriouseventinthereignofCh'inShihHuangisthesocalledbookburning.Theideawastosuppressanythoughtindependentofthestateandto obliteratehistoricalsourcesthatdifferedfromofficialones.Theemperor'schiefcounselorproposedtheformofthedecree.Inhisletterhewrote:"Atpresent,Your Majestyhasperformedgreatdeedswhoseglorywillspreadthroughtenthousandgenerations.This,ofcourse,cannotbeunderstoodbyfoolishscholars....Atpresent, whenYoutheEmperorhaveunitedthecountry,separatedblackfromwhiteandestablishedunity,theyhonortheirscienceandassociatewithpeoplewhodisapproveof lawsanddirectives.Whentheylearnofanedicttheydiscussitinaccordancewiththeirscholarlyprinciples.Whentheyenterthepalacetheydisapproveintheirsouls whentheycomeoutagaintheyengageinopendiscussion....Andifthisisnotforbidden,thentheconditionoftheruleratthetopwillbecomeworse,andatthebottomthe partieswillgainstrength.Itwouldbeusefultoforbidit."(81:pp.150152) Therefollowsuggestionsforconcretemeasuresthatwere,infact,acteduponbytheemperor.Theedictinquestionreads:"Allbookswhicharenotconcernedwiththe officialhistoryoftheCh'instate,exceptbookswhichareunderthekeepingofhighofficials,aretobeburned....Allwhostilldareundertheheavenstoconceal[books deemedseditious]aretobebroughttothechiefsandtheguardsandburnedtogetherwiththeirbooks.Allwhodiscusstheseworksaretobepubliclyexecuted.Allwho usetheexamplesofthepasttocondemnthepresentaretobeexecuted....Officialsseeingorknowinganythingaboutthehidingofbookswhodonottakemeasuresare tobetreatedlikethosewhoconcealbooks....Thosewhodonotturninbookswithinthirtydaysaftertheproclamationofthisedictaretobebrandedascriminalsand exiledtothebuildingoftheWall....Booksonmedicine,divinationandplantgrowingarenotsubjecttodestruction."(79:p.381) Thepointofthesemeasureswastodeprivethepopulationofthemeansofindependentstudy.Privatepersonshadnorighttopossessanybooksexceptthosedevotedto verynarrowutilitarianproblems. [184] Manybookswerepreservedinstatedepositoriestowhichonlyspecialofficialshadaccess.ButhistoricalworksonkingdomsotherthantheCh'inempirewere completelydestroyed. Bookswerenottheonlyvictimsofpersecution.Attheorderoftheemperor,460Confucianscholarswereburiedalive,andafargreaternumberwereexiledtofrontier regions. Subsequently,whenConfucianismbecametheofficialideologyoftheChineseempire,Ch'inShihHuang'spersecutionscametobeseenasanepitomeofbarbarism.But hostilitytowardConfucianteachingsonthepartofrulersmanifesteditselfinthelaterperiodsaswell.ItissaidofthefounderofadynastythatsucceededtheCh'inthathe "doesnotlikeConfucianscholars.Whenamanintheheaddressofa'guest'oraConfucianenters,hequicklytearstheheaddressoffandurinatesintoitonthespot."(79: p.389) Inourday,theCommunistPartyofChinahascalledthepeopletoastruggleagainstthe"followersofConfuciusandLinPiao."Andbackin1958,atthesecondplenary meetingoftheCentralCommitteeoftheChineseCommunistParty(EighthCongress),MaoTsetungsaidofEmperorCh'inShihHuang: Heissuedanorderthatread:"Thekinofhimwhoforthesakeofantiquityrejectsthepresentwillbeeradicatedtothethirdgeneration."Ifyouadhereto

    "doesnotlikeConfucianscholars.Whenamanintheheaddressofa'guest'oraConfucianenters,hequicklytearstheheaddressoffandurinatesintoitonthespot."(79: p.389) Inourday,theCommunistPartyofChinahascalledthepeopletoastruggleagainstthe"followersofConfuciusandLinPiao."Andbackin1958,atthesecondplenary meetingoftheCentralCommitteeoftheChineseCommunistParty(EighthCongress),MaoTsetungsaidofEmperorCh'inShihHuang: Heissuedanorderthatread:"Thekinofhimwhoforthesakeofantiquityrejectsthepresentwillbeeradicatedtothethirdgeneration."Ifyouadhereto antiquityanddonotrecognizethenew,allyourfamilywillbeslaughtered.Ch'inShihHuangburiedonly460Confuciansalive.However,hehasalongway togotocatchupwithus.Duringthepurge,wedidawaywithseveraltensofthousandsofpeople.WeactedliketenCh'inShihHuangs.Iassertthatweare betterthanCh'inShihHuang.Heburiedalive460people,andwe,46,000onehundredtimesmore.Indeed,tokill,thentodigagraveandburysomeone thisalsomeanstoburyalive.WeareabusedandcalledCh'inShihHuangsandusurpers.Weacceptthisandconsiderthatwehavestilldonelittleinthis respectmuchmorecanbedone. Appendix WasThereSuchaThingasan"AsiaticSocialFormation"? Everyonewhohaseverpassedanexaminationon"historicalmaterialism"isfamiliarwiththebasicoutlineofhumanhistory.Historyisseenasasequenceof socialformations:primitivecommunal,slaveowning,feudal,bourgeoisandcommunist.Thisfundamentalhistoricallaw,however,didnotcrystalizewith perfectclarityatonceandcertaincomradesstillhaveconfusedideasonthequestion. TheproblemisthattheFoundersoftheScientificMethodofHistoryoccasionallyreferredtooneothertypeofinformationthe"Asiatic,"

    [185] elsewherereferredtoasthe"AsiaticModeofProduction."(SeethecorrespondencebetweenMarxandEngels,Marx'sessay"BritishRuleinIndia"andhis prefaceto"TowardaCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy.")Thedistinguishingfeatureofthisformation,thetraitthatconstitutesthebasisofthepoliticaland religioushistoryoftheEastandthe"keytotheEasternsky,"wasidentifiedastheabsenceofprivateownershipofland. TherewaslivelydiscussionofthisquestioninSoviethistoricalscholarshipinthetwentiesandthirties,especiallyinconnectionwiththehistoryoftheancient NearEast.TheargumentwaswonbyacademicianV.V.Struveandhisfollowers,whomaintainedthecorrectMarxistpointofview,accordingtowhichthe ancientkingdomsoftheNearEastwereslaveowningsocieties.ThequestionmighthavebeenconsideredcompletelyclosedwiththepublicationofStalin's famousChapter4ofthe ShortCourseontheHistoryoftheCPSU (1938),whereinthenowuniversallyfamiliar"fivefold"schemeofhistoricaldevelopment wasenunciated:itdidnotincludeany"Asiaticformation." Thisatmosphereofperfectclaritywascloudedbytheappearanceinprint,in1939,ofamanuscriptbyMarxthattheauthorhadnotoriginallyintendedfor publication:"TheFormsPrecedingCapitalistProduction."(86)Marxhereplaces"Asiatic,ancient,feudalandmodernbourgeoismodesofproduction"ina singlelineofdevelopmentasthe"progressiveepochsofeconomicsocialformation."Soonafterthispublication,anarticledesignedtopreventany misinterpretationappearedin Vestnikdrevneiistorii. (87)ItwasbyacademicianStruve,whowrote:"Bythis,onceandforall,anendisputtotheattempts ofcertainhistorianstoascribetoMarxtheideaofaspecial'Asiatic'socioeconomicformation."Hewarnssternly:"Asiaticsocietyisaslaveowningsociety." WhatMarxsaysabout.slaveryintheEastintheworkinquestionisofcourseverygood,butheunfortunatelyusestherathervagueconceptof"universal slavery,"whichisdifficulttofitintoahistoricalframeworkthatisbasedontheideaofclass. Representativesofvariousotherschoolsofthoughtwerequicktorespond.TheCommunistrenegadeandreactionaryK.Wittfogelstoopedtofilthy insinuationsaboutanallegedanalogybetweenthe"Asiatic"and"socialist"formations.HeevenattemptedtousethisanalogytoexplainwhyMarxandEngels, bytheendoftheirlives,hadstoppedmentioningthe"Asiaticmodeofproduction."*Needlesstosay,theslanderouscharacter
    *ReferencetoWittfogel'sargument(in89)thatMarxborrowedthenotionofaspecific"Asiatic"typeofstatefromtheworksofAdamSmith,JamesMill,John StuartMill,RichardJones(theconceptitselfgoesbacktoMontesquieuandBernier),anduseditinhisschemeofthedevelopmentofsocietyonthebasisof production.Fromthe1860son,however,MarxandEngelsengagedinsharppolemicswithBakuninandhisadherents.BakuninassertedthatMarxandEngels' idealofstatesocialismwould"engenderdespotismatoneextremeandslaveryattheother."Inthiscontext,theanalogytoAsiaticdespotismbecametooobvious forcomfort.Hereisthereason,Wittfogelbelieves,whyMarxandEngelsrefrainedfrommentioningthe"Asiaticmodeofproduction"intheirlaterworks.

    [186] ofWittfogel'sstatementswasthoroughlyexposedbyMarxisthistorians,althoughanumberofthemalsostartedtoshowaninterestinthisquestion,which, onewouldhavethought,hadbeenfullysettled.InforeignMarxistjournals,dozensofauthorstookpartinthediscussion.Theresponsecameintheformofa collectionofarticles.(88)(Inthiscollectionseethesurveyentitled"DiscussionoftheAsiaticModeofProductionintheForeignMarxistPress,"whichisthe sourceoftheinformationgivenbelow.) Oneofthefirstcontributionstothisdiscussionwasanarticlepublishedin1957byB.WeIskopf,ahistorianfromtheGermanDemocraticRepublic.She expressestheopinionthattheancientOrientcannotbeadequatelycategorizedbyeithertheconceptof"classical"slaveryortheconceptof"patriarchal" slavery.Thosesocieties,theauthorbelieves,fittherubricof"Asiaticmodeofproduction"inthesamewayasancientChina,IndiaandAmerica.In1958,F. Tkei,reviewingpropertyrelationshipsintheChouepoch,cametotheconclusionthattherewasnoprivateownershipoflandatthetime.Andinstudies publishedin1963,hecharacterizesthisepochasaperiodof"Asiaticmodeofproduction."R.Pokoracomestothesameconclusionregardingancient China. Studiesinwhichthe"Asiaticmodeofproduction"isdiscoveredinevernewcountriesandnewhistoricalperiodshavebeenmultiplyingrapidly.J.Suret Canale,a"MarxistAfricanist"(andtheauthorofthesurveyunderreviewhere)seesthisformationinprecolonial,tropicalAfrica.P.Boiteaudiscernsiton MadagascarR.Gallissot,inprecolonialMaghrebandAlgiers(inthelatter,however,inanimperfectform)M.Tchechkov,inprecolonialVietnamK. Manivanna,inLaosofthefourteenthtotheseventeenthcenturiesM.Olmeda,inpreColumbianMexicoS.Santis,inInca,AztecandMayanstatesS. Divitcioglu,intheOttomanempireofthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies.Itturnsoutthattracesofthe"Asiaticmodeofproduction"canbefoundinpresent states(butofcoursenotinthesenseproposedbytherenegadeWittfogel).J.Chesneauxwritesofthe"Asiaticmodeofproduction": "Itdoesnotbelongonlytothepast,however.Nodoubtithasleftdeeptracesonsubsequenthistory.Thetraditionof'supremeunity'isanexample.Hasit not,innumerousAfroAsiancountries,promptedtheestablishmentofasystemcontrolledbyanallpowerfulheadofstatewhoalsoenjoystheconfidenceof themasses?"(88:p.55)

    Divitcioglu,intheOttomanempireofthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies.Itturnsoutthattracesofthe"Asiaticmodeofproduction"canbefoundinpresent states(butofcoursenotinthesenseproposedbytherenegadeWittfogel).J.Chesneauxwritesofthe"Asiaticmodeofproduction": "Itdoesnotbelongonlytothepast,however.Nodoubtithasleftdeeptracesonsubsequenthistory.Thetraditionof'supremeunity'isanexample.Hasit not,innumerousAfroAsiancountries,promptedtheestablishmentofasystemcontrolledbyanallpowerfulheadofstatewhoalsoenjoystheconfidenceof themasses?"(88:p.55) Thesehistoriansacribethefollowingnewfeaturestothe"Asiaticmodeofproduction": 1.Aspecialconceptofproperty.Firstofall,thisisexpressedintheabsenceofprivateownershipofland,asnotedinWeIskopf'sfirststudy.Tkeieven assertsthatnoprivatelandownershipeverexistedinAsia.Gallissotspeaksabout"publicproperty."AndL.Sedovwrites:"Thatwhichdistinguishesall stagesinthedevelopmentoftheAsiaticmodeofproduction...isanalmostcompleteabsenceofprivatepropertyasasystemofrelations." 2.Aminorrolefortrade.Chesneauxbelievesthatcommercialturnover

    [187] andcommercialexchangeplayedonlysecondaryrolesandwerelimitedto"additionalfoodstuffs"intheconsumptionofthecommunities. 3.Aspecialmeansofexploitationthatwas,asChesneauxputsit,"fundamentallydifferentfromclassicalslaveryorfromserfdomuniversalslavery."C. Perrinsinglesoutthebasicfeaturesofthismeansofexploitation: a.Useofalargemassofessentiallyunpaidpeasantstemporarilycutofffromtheirfarmsandfamilies. b.Extravagantuseofthelaborforcenotonlyonthebuildingofcanals,dikes,andsoon,butonconstructionofthedespot'spalaces,pyramids, etc. c.Themassesforcedintohard,unskilledphysicallabor. d.Peasantcommunitiescompelledbythedespottoprovidelaborforpublicworksonagrandscale. e.Suchexploitationisimplementedbymeansofcollectivesformedfromtheruralcommunitiesthisrequiresadespotic,centralizedrule. 4.Aspecialroleforthestatewhenitactsas"supremeunity"toexploitruralcommunities(WeIskopf,Perrin)and"controlsdirectlythebasicmeansof production"(Gallissot). The"Asiaticformation"presentsextraordinarydifficultiesforscientificMarxiststudy.Inparticular,ithasprovedalmostimpossibletosubjectittoclass analysis.Chesneaux,forinstance,iscompelledtocometotheconclusionthatclasscontradictionsarepresenthere"inanoriginalway,"viz.,theyexist withoutanyclearappropriationbytherulingclassoftheownershipofthemeansofproduction.Therulingclassturnsouttobenotagroupofpeople(!)but "thestateitself,initsessence." Tkeiwrites:"Ofalltherelatedproblems,themostfrequentlydiscussedisthequestionofhowsocietiesoftheAsiaticmodeofproductionweredividedinto classes."(88:p.62)TkeiandChesneauxcometoa"functionalclasstheory,"accordingtowhichthedivisionintoantagonisticclassesisbasednotonthe exploiters'ownershipofthemeansofproductionbutratheron"sociallyusefulfunctions"definedbytherulingclass.Sedovsharesthisviewandadvocatesa theoryofa"stateasaclass."Finally,Tchechkovassertsthattheterm"class"isnotapplicableatalltotherulingsocialgroupinprecolonialVietnam.There wasinsteadahierarchyof"functionaries,"withtheemperoras"firstamongfunctionaries."Thiselitewasconstantlyreplenishedthroughasystemof examinationsandtests.Forthisgroupofelite"scholarfunctionaries,"ownershipofthemeansofproductiondidnotdeterminetheirplaceinthehierarchy,but onthecontrary,theirrankinthehierarchydeterminedtheireconomicposition.Theruling"stateasaclass"exploitedthepeasantmembersofthecommunity notbyowningthemeansofproductionbutbyvirtueofitsfunctionalroleingoverningsocietyandtheeconomy. ThetriedandtestedtoolofscientificresearchquotationfromtheMarxistclassicsprovedtobeofnohelpinsolvingthisextremelydifficultproblem:

    [188] "WhatwasMarx'sopiniononsocialstratificationandtheclassstructureunderthe'Asiaticmodeofproduction'?WesearchtheworksofMarxinvainfora formulaorasimpleandclearanalysisbearingonthisquestion.Duetothepressoftime,Marxdidnotevengiveacompleteanalysisoftheclassstructure undercapitalism.InChapter52,VolumeIII,ofhisCapital, Marxbegantoexpoundhisideasonthesubject*butwasabletowriteonlythefirstlinesofa preface."(88:p.63)OnecannothelpsharingTkei'ssadthoughtsonthisscore. WhyisthemattersocomplicatedthatitdoesnotyieldeventotherefinedtooloftheMarxistscientificmethod? Apparentlythisistobeexplainedbythefactthatwearespeakingaboutphenomenathataresoremoteintimeandsoalientoourwayofthinkingthatthe modernMarxisthistorianfindsitexceptionallydifficulttovisualizealltheseunknownandstrangesocialrelations.

    Summary
    Wehavebroughtforwardaseriesofexampleswhichallowustodrawsomeconclusionsonthecharacterofsocialisttendenciesintheeconomics(andtoanextent,inthe ideologies)ofcertainstatesofSouthAmericaandtheancientEast.Allthesestateswereofaveryprimitivetype,moresothantheancientclassicalcivilizationsorthe medievalandcapitalistsocieties.(Wedidnottouchonthesocialiststatesofthetwentiethcentury,assumingthemtobefamiliartothereader.)Intheliteratureonthe subjectwefindindicationsofanalogousstateselsewhere(forexample,theancientstatesoftheIndusvalleyorofpreColumbianMexico).Wenowwishtosummarizethe basicfeaturesofthistypeofsociety,relyingmainlyonHeichelheim(90). Alleconomicrelationshipswerebasedontheassumptionthatthestate,inthepersonoftheking,wastheproprietorofallsourcesofincome.Anyuseofthesesources wastoberedeemedbydeliveriestothestateorbyperformanceofobligatorywork.Laborconscriptionbythestatewasconsideredjustasnaturalasuniversalmilitary conscriptionistoday.Laborerswereorganizedintodetachmentsandarmies(oftenunderthecommandofofficers)andweresettoworkontremendousconstruction projects.Theyworkedstatefields,repaired,dugandcleanedirrigationandnavigationsystems,builtroads,bridges,citywalls,palacesandtemples,pyramidsandother tombs.Theywereusedintransportingthegoodsofthestate.Sometimessuchdutieswereimposedonconqueredpeoples,and,asHeichelheimbelieves,

    subjectwefindindicationsofanalogousstateselsewhere(forexample,theancientstatesoftheIndusvalleyorofpreColumbianMexico).Wenowwishtosummarizethe basicfeaturesofthistypeofsociety,relyingmainlyonHeichelheim(90). Alleconomicrelationshipswerebasedontheassumptionthatthestate,inthepersonoftheking,wastheproprietorofallsourcesofincome.Anyuseofthesesources wastoberedeemedbydeliveriestothestateorbyperformanceofobligatorywork.Laborconscriptionbythestatewasconsideredjustasnaturalasuniversalmilitary conscriptionistoday.Laborerswereorganizedintodetachmentsandarmies(oftenunderthecommandofofficers)andweresettoworkontremendousconstruction projects.Theyworkedstatefields,repaired,dugandcleanedirrigationandnavigationsystems,builtroads,bridges,citywalls,palacesandtemples,pyramidsandother tombs.Theywereusedintransportingthegoodsofthestate.Sometimessuchdutieswereimposedonconqueredpeoples,and,asHeichelheimbelieves,


    *I.e.,theclassstructureofcapitalistsociety.

    [189] itwaspreciselythisthatgaverisetothewholesystemofdutiesi.e.,thestatebegantotaketheexploitationofconqueredpeoplesasamodelinthetreatmentofitsown subjects.(90:p.176) Mostlandeitherbelongedtothestateorwascontrolledbyit.Templelandswereusuallyunderthecontrolofthestateofficialswhodirectedworkonthem.Thepeasants gottools,seedsandcattlefromthestateandwereoftentoldexactlywhattosow.Theywereobligedtoworkthestateandtemplefieldsonasetschedule.Thebulkof theagriculturalpopulationdependedtoalargedegreeonthestate,butinmostcasesthepeasantswereneitherslavesnorprivatechattel.I.J.Gelb(69)appliestheterm "serfs"tothemi.e.,"attached"and"protectedpeasants."Hewrites:"TheproductivelaborpopulationofMesopotamiaandtheancientEastingeneral,inMycenaeanand HomericGreece,laterinSpartaandonCrete,inThessaliaandinotherpartsofGreece(withtheexceptionofAthens),aswellasinIndia,China,etc.,isthebasicwork forceemployedeitherallthetimeorpartofthetimeonthepubliclandsofthestate,ofthetempleorofthelargelandowners,whoasaruleactedsimultaneouslyasstate officials.Thisworkforce washalfindependent."(69:p.83) Slavesinthemajorityofcaseswerehouseservants.InconnectionwiththeclassicalEast,Meyersays:"Itishardlypossiblethatslavery...playedabasicroleinthe economy."(91:p.190,quotedin89) Tradeandhandicraftswerecontrolledbythestateinananalogousway.Toagreatextent,thestatesuppliedartisanswiththeirtoolsandrawmaterials,andmerchants withmoney.Bothartisansandmerchantswereorganizedintoguildsheadedbystateofficials.InEgypt,forinstance,allforeigntradewasmonopolizedbythestate,right uptothetimeoftheMiddleKingdom.Internaltradewasstrictlycontrolledbythestate,includingthepettiestdealings.Mostgoodsweredistributeddirectlybythestate. Moneydidnotplayanysignificantroleintrade.Evenquitevaluableobjectswerefrequentlyexchangedwithoutmoneypayment,althoughapricewasmentionedinthe records.M.Webercallsthis"exchangewithmoneyvaluation."Fromtwelvetotwentyformsofprimitivemoneywereusuallyemployed,theirvaluestrictlyregulatedbythe state.Thiswasonemoreimportantleverincontrollingtheeconomy. Theking'shouseholdwasthebasiceconomicforceinthecountry.Weberdescribesthisstructureastheking'soikos, underliningthefactthattheentirestatewasruled fromonecenterastheestateof [190] asinglemaster.InEgypt,thenamePharaoh("bighouse")correspondsliterallytotheword oikos. Heichelheimassertsthatthestatecontrolledabout90percentofthe wholeeconomy.Hewrites: "ThekingsoftheancientOrientwereeconomicallythecenterpointsfromwhichthegreaterpartofthecapitalinvestmentandtheeconomiclifeoftheempiresradiated. Fromhereonlycapitalsurpluswhichhadbeenamassedbythepeoplecouldbereinvestedordistributed,forproductivepurposes,amongindividualsortowholegroups ofpeople.Scholarshaveattempted,andnotwithoutsomejustification,todescribethesystemofgovernmentoftheancientOrientasapatriarchalsocialism."(90:pp. 169170) Justaseconomiclifewasdirectedbythestate,asembodiedintheking,sotoothedominantpatterninideologywastheconceptofadeifiedking,seenasthebenefactor andsaviorofmankind.InanotherpassageHeichelheimcharacterizesthisconcept: "Hesavedthehumanracebybecomingahumanbeing,aneschatologicalbreakthroughforeachgenerationwhichmadethekingcompletelydifferentfromeventhemost powerfulhighpriestornoble.Thekingsavedmankindbyhisoverpoweringmysticalstrengthinpeaceandwar,byhisjusticeinupholdingafairandbenevolentlaw,and bysharingandinvestingtheenormouscapitalathisdisposaltothebenefitofhispoorersubjects."(90:p.166) Naturally,suchanideologicalandeconomiccentralizationmadethemostdrasticmeasuresofsuppressionofthepopulationbothmorallypermissibleandtechnically necessary.ThusinIndia,inthelawsofManu,itissaid:"Orderintheworldismaintainedthroughpunishment....Punishmentistheking."(Quotedin89:p.138)InEgypt everyofficialhadtherighttoimposephysicalpunishmentonhissubordinates.Theaweinspiredbythepharaohissymbolizedbythesnakeinhiscrownheissometimes depictedaskilling,dismemberingandboilingpeopleinthenetherworld.(Citedin89:p.142)Theritualnameofoneofthefirstpharaohswas"TheScorpion." SocialisttendenciesintheancientstateswerestudiedindetailbyWittfogel(89),fromwhomwehavealreadyborrowedanumberofspecificfacts.Theauthor'sgeneral approachinvolvesunitingaseriesofstates(intheancientOrient,preColumbianAmerica,EastAfricaandsomeregionsofthePacific,particularlytheHawaiianIslands) intoaspecialhistoricalformationthathecalls"hydraulicsociety"or"hydrauliccivilization."AccordingtoWittfogel,artificialirrigationplayed [191] afundamentalroleinallthesesocieties.*Theauthordefinestheconceptofa"hydraulicsociety"verybroadly,includinginthiscategoryalmostallnoncapitalistcountries, withtheexceptionofGreece,RomeandthestatesofmedievalEurope.ButhesinglesouttheIncastate,Sumer,ancientEgyptandtheHawaiianIslandsas"primitive hydraulicsocieties"inotherwords,almostthesamegroupofstatesthatinterestsus.Wittfogelpointsoutnumerousfeaturesthesesocietieshaveincommonwiththe socialiststatesofthetwentiethcentury.Thushenotesthesimilarrolesplayedbyirrigationandheavyindustry.Bothareactivitiesthatdonotdirectlyproduceanygoods butconstituteanecessarybasisforproduction.(89:pp.2728)Thiskeysectoroftheeconomyisthepropertyofthestate,whichinthiswayachievescompletecontrol overtheeconomicandpoliticallifeofthecountry. Heichelheimpointstosimilarparallels: Forscholarswhohavestudiedthisdevelopmentindetail,itisnosecretthattheplannedeconomyandthecollectivismofourmodernAgeofMachineshas returnedsubconsciouslytoancientOrientalconditionswhereverwetrytoabolishortomodifytheindividualisticandlibertarianformsofsocietywhichhave beencharacteristicfortheIronAgeofthelastthreegloriousmillennia.Insteadourturbulenttwentiethcenturyshowsatendencytolinktogetherourown traditionalstateorganization,society,economicandspirituallifewiththerudimentsofancientOrientalcollectivistformsoforganizationastheyhavesurvived

    overtheeconomicandpoliticallifeofthecountry. Heichelheimpointstosimilarparallels: Forscholarswhohavestudiedthisdevelopmentindetail,itisnosecretthattheplannedeconomyandthecollectivismofourmodernAgeofMachineshas returnedsubconsciouslytoancientOrientalconditionswhereverwetrytoabolishortomodifytheindividualisticandlibertarianformsofsocietywhichhave beencharacteristicfortheIronAgeofthelastthreegloriousmillennia.Insteadourturbulenttwentiethcenturyshowsatendencytolinktogetherourown traditionalstateorganization,society,economicandspirituallifewiththerudimentsofancientOrientalcollectivistformsoforganizationastheyhavesurvived subconsciouslyinthelifeandcustomsofmanymodernnations....Themoderngreatpowersarecloserinanalogytothegreatempiresofthecuprolithicand bronzeagesthanisgenerallyrealized,ortosimilarlaterformsofrulewhichdevelopedfromancientOrientalfoundationseitherdirectlyorindirectly. Wheneverourcenturyshowssomeattempttoachievenotpersonallibertybutwidespreadcontrolithasstrongaffinitiestotheplannedcitylifeofthekingsof MesopotamiaandAsiaMinor,theruleofthepharaohsinEgypt,theearlyChineseemperors....Thespiritualtieswhichthenineteenthcenturyhadwith. ..Israel,GreeceandRomearemoreoftenreplaced,toagreaterdegreethanweknow,byareturntoancientOrientalfoundations.(90:pp.99100)
    *McAdams(68)citestheexamplesofancientMesopotamiaandpreColumbianMexicotoassertthatirrigation,contrarytoWittfogel'sopinion,didnotplayadeterminingrolein theformationofsuchsocieties(pp.6768).Itshouldbenoted,however,thatWittfogeldoesallowthatan"agrodespoticstate" could comeintoexistencewithoutaneconomy basedonirrigation.(89:p.3)

    [192]

    PARTTHREE ANALYSIS
    [193]

    VI. TheContours ofSocialism


    Intheprecedingsectionsofthisbookwehavegatheredtogethercertaindatainordertoindicatewhenandinwhatformssocialismhasappearedinhumanhistory.The datapresenteddonot,ofcourse,constituteasystematichistoryofsocialism.Itisratheradottedoutline,acollectionofdisparatefactsselectedinamannerthatmakes possibleajudgmentaboutsomegeneralfeaturesoftheentirephenomenon.Utilizingthesefacts,wecannowapproachthemainsubjectofourinvestigationsocialismasa historicalconcept. Itisnaturalenoughtobeginwithanattempttoformulatea definition ofsocialism,ifnotaformaldefinitionthenatleastanexplanationingeneraltermsofthemeaningthat weattributetothisconcept.Itisofcoursenotsimplyamatterofprovidingempiricaldatainthefirstpartofthebook,andthenextractingcommonunifyingfeatures.After all,thematerialwasselectedonthebasisofspecificindicators,aswepointedoutinthebeginning.Nevertheless,thereisnothingcircularhere.*Wehavedrawnattention tosimilarfeaturesinaseriesofhistoricalphenomena.Nowwemusttrytodeterminewhetherthesephenomenapossesssufficientunitytomakeitpossibletolookonthem asamanifestationofthesamegeneralconcept.Inthisway,theproblemofdefinitionconvergeswiththequestionofthe existence ofsocialismasahistoricalcategory. Suchanapproachseemstobeappropriateintheconsiderationofanygeneralconcept,asforexampleintheidentificationofanewbiologicalspecies. Webegin,therefore,withanenumerationofthebasicprinciples

    *Althoughwedidusetheterm"socialism"longbeforeundertakingtodefineit.

    [194] manifestedintheactivitiesofsocialiststatesandinthesocialistideologiesdescribedearlier.

    1.TheAbolitionofPrivateProperty
    Thefundamentalnatureofthisprincipleisemphasized,forinstance,byMarxandEngels:"ThetheoryofCommunismmaybesummedupinasinglesentence:'Abolitionof privateproperty,'" (CommunistManifesto). Thisproposition,initsnegative form,isinherentinallsocialistdoctrineswithoutexceptionandisthebasicfeatureofallsocialiststates.Butinitspositive form,asan assertionabouttheactualnatureofpropertyinasocialistsociety,itislessuniversalandappearsintwodistinctvariants:theoverwhelmingmajorityofsocialistdoctrines proclaimthecommunalityofproperty (implementedinmoreorlessradicalfashion),whilesocialiststates(andsomedoctrines)arebasedon stateproperty.

    2.TheAbolitionoftheFamily
    Themajorityofsocialistdoctrinesproclaimtheabolitionofthefamily.Inotherdoctrines,aswellasincertainsocialiststates,thispropositionisnotproclaimedinsuch radicalform,buttheprincipleappearsasadeemphasisoftheroleofthefamily,theweakeningoffamilyties,theabolitionofcertainfunctionsofthefamily.Again,the negativeformoftheprincipleismorecommon.Asapositivestatementaboutspecificrelationshipsbetweenthesexesorbetweenparentsandchildren,itappearsin severalvariantsasthetotalobliterationofthefamily,communalityofwivesandthedestructionofalltiesbetweenparentandchildtothepointwheretheymaynoteven knoweachotherasanimpairmentandaweakeningoffamilytiesorasthetransformationofthefamilyintoaunitofthebureaucraticstatesubjectedtoitsgoalsand control.

    Themajorityofsocialistdoctrinesproclaimtheabolitionofthefamily.Inotherdoctrines,aswellasincertainsocialiststates,thispropositionisnotproclaimedinsuch radicalform,buttheprincipleappearsasadeemphasisoftheroleofthefamily,theweakeningoffamilyties,theabolitionofcertainfunctionsofthefamily.Again,the negativeformoftheprincipleismorecommon.Asapositivestatementaboutspecificrelationshipsbetweenthesexesorbetweenparentsandchildren,itappearsin severalvariantsasthetotalobliterationofthefamily,communalityofwivesandthedestructionofalltiesbetweenparentandchildtothepointwheretheymaynoteven knoweachotherasanimpairmentandaweakeningoffamilytiesorasthetransformationofthefamilyintoaunitofthebureaucraticstatesubjectedtoitsgoalsand control.

    3.TheAbolitionofReligion
    Itisespeciallyeasyforustoobservesocialism'shostilitytoreligion,forthisisinherent,withfewexceptions,inall contemporary socialiststatesanddoctrines.Onlyrarely istheabolitionofreligionlegislated, [195] asitwasinAlbania.Buttheactionsofothersocialiststatesleavenodoubtthattheyareallgovernedbythisveryprincipleandthatonlyexternaldifficultieshaveprevented itscompleteimplementation.Thissameprinciplehasbeenrepeatedlyproclaimedinsocialistdoctrines,beginningwiththeendoftheseventeenthcentury.Sixteenth and seventeenthcenturydoctrinesareimbuedwithcoldskepticalandironicattitudestowardreligion.Ifnotconsciously,then"objectively,"theypreparedhumanityforthe convergenceofsocialistideologyandmilitantatheismthattookplaceattheendoftheseventeenthcenturyandduringthecourseoftheeighteenth.Theheretical movementsoftheMiddleAgeswerereligiousincharacter,butthoseinwhichsocialisttendencieswereespeciallypronouncedweretheonesthatwereirrevocably opposedtotheactualreligionprofessedbythemajorityatthetime.CallstoassassinatethePopeandtoannihilateallmonksandpriestsrunlikearedthreadthroughthe historyofthesemovements.TheirhatredforthebasicsymbolsofChristianitythecrossandthechurchisverystriking.Weencountertheburningofcrossesandthe profanationofchurchesfromthefirstcenturiesofChristianityrightuptothepresentday. Finally,inPlato'ssocialistsystem,religionisconceivedasanelementinthestate'sideology.Itsroleamountstoeducation,theshapingofcitizens'opinionsintotheforms necessarytothestate.Tothisend,newreligiousobservancesandmythswereinventedandtheoldonesabolished.Itseemsthatinmanyofthestatesoftheancient Orient,officialreligionplayedananalogousrole,itscentralfunctionbeingthedeificationoftheking,whowasthepersonificationoftheallpowerfulstate.

    4.CommunalityorEquality
    Thisdemandisencounteredinalmostallsocialistdoctrines.Itsnegativeformisseeninthestrivingtodestroythehierarchyofthesurroundingsocietyandincalls"to humbletheproud,therichandthepowerful,"toabolishprivilege.Thistendencyfrequentlygivesrisetohostilitytowardcultureasafactorcontributingtospiritualand intellectualinequalityand,asaresult,leadstoacallforthedestructionofcultureitself.ThefirstformulationofthisviewcanbefoundinPlato,themostrecentin contemporaryleftistmovementsintheWestwhich [196] considerculture"individualistic,""repressive,""suffocating,"andcallfor"ideologicalguerrillawarfareagainstculture." Weseethatasmallnumberofclearcutprinciplesinspiredthesocialistdoctrinesandguidedthelifeofthesocialistsocietiesinthecourseofseveralmillennia.Thisunity andinterrelatednessofvarioussocialistdoctrineswasfullyrecognizedbytheirrepresentatives:ThomasMntzercitesPlatoasanauthorityJohannofLeydenstudies Mntzer,CampanellaconsiderstheAnabaptistsasanexampleoftheembodimentofhissystem.Morellyandtheanonymousauthorofthearticleinthe Encyclopdie pointtotheIncastateasacorroborationoftheirsocialviews,andinanotherarticlefromthe Encyclopdie ("TheMoravians,"writtenbyFaiguet),theMoravianBrethren arecitedasanexampleofanidealcommunalorder.Amonglatesocialists,SaintSimoninhislastwork, NewChristianity, declares:"TheNewChristianitywillconsistof separatetendencieswhichforthemostpartwillcorrespondtotheideasofthehereticalsectsofEuropeandAmerica."Furtherexamplesofthissenseofkinshipamong thesocialistcurrentsofdifferentepochscouldeasilybeproduced.WeshallonlypointheretothenumerousworkswithtitlessuchasForerunnersofScientific Socialism producedbyspokesmenofthesocialistcamp,whereamong"forerunners"onecanfindPlato,Dolcino,Mntzer,MoreandCampanella.... Itisofcoursetruethatindifferentperiodsthecentralcoreofsocialistideologywasmanifestedindifferentforms:wehaveseensocialismintheformofmysticalprophecy, ofarationalisticplanforahappysocietyorofascientificdoctrine.Ineachperiod,socialismabsorbscertainoftheideasofitstimeandusesthelanguagecontemporaryto it.Someofitselementsarediscardedothers,onthecontrary,acquireespeciallygreatsignificance.Thisisnotunusual:suchapatternappliestoanyotherphenomenonof suchhistoricalscope. Inanotherworkonsocialism,Ireferredtoreligionasanexampleofthesamekindofhistoricalphenomenonwhichistransformedinthecourseoftimejustassocialism hasbeen.Now,however,itseemstomethatthisjuxtapositionratherunderscorestheuniquecharacterofsocialistideologyitsunprecedentedconservatism.Sincethe timewhensocialism'sbasicprincipleswereformulatedinPlato'ssystem,thereligiousconceptsofmankindhavebeencompletelytransformed: [197] theideaofmonotheismhasacquireduniversalsignificanceintheworldtheconceptofasingleGodinthreeessences,Godmanhood,salvationbyfaithandaseriesof otherfundamentalideashavearisen.Atthesametime,thebasicprinciplesofsocialismhavenotchangedtothisdayithasonlyaltereditsformandmotivation. Theunityandcohesivenessofthesystemofsocialistconceptionsbecomesapparent,togetherwithanastonishingconservatism,inthewaythatcertaindetails recuragain andagaininsocialistsocietiesanddoctrinesthatarelittlerelatedonetotheotherandsometimeswidelyseparatedintime.Theprobabilityofaccidentalrecurrenceis negligible,unlessweassumethatthesimilaritiesareinexorablydeterminedbytheirexceptionalspiritualcloseness.Weshallciteonlyfourexamplesfromthelargenumber ofsuchcoincidences: a.ThecoincidenceofmanydetailsinMore'sUtopia andtheaccountsoftheIncastate,whichleadtothequestionposedintheFrenchAcademyconcerningtheinfluence oftheseaccountsonMore(whichwouldhavebeenchronologicallyimpossible). b.Thecustomofmummificationoftheheadsofstateandburialinsteppedtombsofpyramidlikedesign,whichismetwithinstateswithstrongsocialisttendencies (althoughthestatesinquestionmaybeseparatedbymanythousandsofyears). c.InDeschamps's TrueSystem wefindthisvividdetail:Describingthefuturesocialistsociety,hesaysthat"nearlyallpeoplewillhavealmostthesameappearance." Dostoyevskyexpressesthesamethoughtinthenotebooksto ThePossessed. ThecharacterwhoiscalledPyotrVerkhovenskyinthenovelandNechayevinthe notebookshasthistosayaboutthefuturesociety:"Inmyopinionevenmenandwomenwithparticularlyattractivefacesshouldbeprohibited."(92:XI:270)Dostoyevsky gatheredmaterialforhisnovelfromtheideologicalpronouncementsofthenihilistsandthesocialists,butneitherhenortheycouldhaveknownDeschamps'swork,which waspublishedonlyinourcentury. d.In TheRepublic, Platowrotethat,amongtheguardians,"nonehaveanyhabitationorstorageareawhichisnotopenforalltoenteratwill."Aristophanesspeaksabout thisinalmostthesamewordsinhisEcclesiazusae: "I'llknockoutwallsandremodelthecityintoonebighappyhousehold,whereallcancomeandgoastheychoose."

    notebookshasthistosayaboutthefuturesociety:"Inmyopinionevenmenandwomenwithparticularlyattractivefacesshouldbeprohibited."(92:XI:270)Dostoyevsky gatheredmaterialforhisnovelfromtheideologicalpronouncementsofthenihilistsandthesocialists,butneitherhenortheycouldhaveknownDeschamps'swork,which waspublishedonlyinourcentury. d.In TheRepublic, Platowrotethat,amongtheguardians,"nonehaveanyhabitationorstorageareawhichisnotopenforalltoenteratwill."Aristophanesspeaksabout thisinalmostthesamewordsinhisEcclesiazusae: "I'llknockoutwallsandremodelthecityintoonebighappyhousehold,whereallcancomeandgoastheychoose." Thisparticularcoincidencemaybeexplainedbythefactthattheauthorslivedduringthesameepoch,butthemotifisencountered [198] againinMore,who,inordertounderscorethekindofcommunalityinwhichtheUtopianslived,describestheentrancestotheirdwellings: "Thedoorsaremadewithtwoleavesthatareneverlockedorboltedandaresoeasytoopenthattheywillfollowtheslightesttouchandshutagainalone.Whoever wishesmaygoin,forthereisnothinginsidethehousethatisprivateoranyman'sown." More,ofcourse,hadreadPlatoandcouldhaveborrowedthethoughtfromhim.ButwemeetwithalawagainsttheclosingofdoorsintheIncastateaswell.Stilllater,in CrimeandPunishment, thecharacterLebeziatnikovexpoundsonthequestionoffreeentryintoroomsinthefuturesociety:"Ithasbeendebatedoflatewhethera memberofthecommunehastherighttogointotheroomofanothermember,maleorfemale,atanytime...well,itwasdecidedthathedoes."(92:VI:p.284)Thisisnot merelyanartisticcontrivance.Dostoyevskyunderstoodthenatureofsocialismandanticipateditsfutureroleperhapsmoreastutelythananyotherthinkerofthelast century.Ofthemultitudeofpettydetailsthatheknewaboutnihilistcircles,heselectedsomeofthemostcharacteristic,amongthesetheverysamefreeentranceinto dwellingsmentionedalmosttwoandahalfthousandyearsearlierbyPlato. Andfinally,weencounterthismotifinthefirstyearsaftertherevolutioninRussia.Theforceoftheexplosionexperiencedthendislodgedandthrewtothesurfacedeeply buriedelementsofsocialistideologythathadearlierremainedalmostunnoticedandthatwerelateragaindisplacedfromview.Wewillthereforebeturningfrequentlyto thisperiod,whichpresentsmultiplefacetsofsocialisminanentirelynewlight.Inparticular,thereappearedatthetimenumerousideasonhowthenewformsoflifecould overcometheoldwaysandmakelifemorecollectiveforexample,byreplacingindividualkitchenswithhugefactorylikekitchenfacilities,orbyhousingthepopulationin dormitoriesinsteadofapartments.Oneenthusiastpublishedabookbased,asheclaims,onTrotsky'sideas(93):"ItshouldbemadeclearthatIdonotconsidertheidea ofroomsnecessaryIbelievethatitwillbepossibletoconsideraroomonlyasthelivingspaceofanindividualperson.Afterall,isolationinaroomisquiteunnecessary forcollectiveman....Theisolationneededincertainhoursoflovecanbehadinspecialpleasuregardenswherethemanandhisfemalecompanionwillbeabletofindthe necessarycomforts." [199] Itwouldseemthatsocialistideologyhastheabilitytostampwidelyseparatedorevenhistoricallyunlinkedsocialistcurrentswithindelibleandstereotypedmarkings. Itseemstousquitelegitimatetoconcludethatsocialismdoesexistasaunifiedhistoricalphenomenon.Itsbasicprincipleshavebeenindicatedabove.Theyare:
    l l l l

    Abolitionofprivateproperty. Abolitionofthefamily. Abolitionofreligion. Equality,abolitionofhierarchiesinsociety.

    Themanifoldembodimentsoftheseprinciplesarelinkedorganicallybyacommonspirit,byanidentityofspecificdetailsand,frequently,byaclearlydiscernibleoverall thrust. Ourperspectiveonsocialismtakesintoaccountonlyoneofthedimensionsinwhichthisphenomenonunfolds.Socialismisnotonlyanabstractideologicalsystembutalso theembodimentofthatsystemintimeandspace.Therefore,havingsketchedinitsoutlinesasanideology,wenowoughttobeabletoexplaininwhatperiodsandwithin whatcivilizationsocialismarises,whetherintheformofdoctrine,popularmovementorstatestructure.Butheretheanswerturnsouttobefarlessclear.Whilethe ideologyofsocialismissharplydefined,theoccurrenceofsocialismcanhardlybelinkedtoanydefinitetimeorcivilization.Ifweconsidertheperiodinthehistoryof mankindwhichfollowedtheriseofthestateasaninstitution,wefindthemanifestationsofsocialism,practicallyspeaking,inallepochsandinallcivilizations.Itispossible, however,toidentifyepochswhensocialistideologymanifestsitselfwithparticularintensity.Thisisusuallyataturningpointinhistory,acrisissuchastheperiodofthe Reformationorourownage.Wecouldsimplynotethatsocialiststatesariseonlyindefinitehistoricalsituations,orwecouldattempttoexplainwhyitwasthatthesocialist ideologyappearedinvirtuallyfinishedandcompleteforminPlato'stime.Weshallreturntothesequestionslater.ButinEuropeanhistory,wecannotpointtoasingle periodwhensocialistteachingswerenotextantinoneformoranother.Itseemsthatsocialismisaconstantfactorinhumanhistory,atleastintheperiodfollowingtherise ofthestate.Withoutattemptingtoevaluateitforthetimebeing,wemustrecognizesocialismasoneofthemostpowerfulanduniversalforcesactiveinafieldwhere historyisplayedout. [200] Inageneralsense,suchanapproachisnotnew.Booktitlesalonetestifytothat:TheSocialistEmpireoftheIncasTheHistoryofCommunismandSocialismin AntiquityStateSocialismintheFifteenthCentury B.C.,andsoon.Wittfogel(intheworkquotedabove,89)gathersvastamountsofmaterialaboutthestatesofthe ancientOrient,preColumbianAmerica,EastAfricaandcertainareasofthePacific,forexampletheHawaiianIslands,characterizingthestateshedescribesas"hydraulic societies"andtracingthemultitudeofparallelsbetweenthemandthecontemporarysocialiststates.Thehistoryofthesocialistdoctrinesisnolessthoroughlyresearched, ascanbeseenfromthenumerous"HistoriesofSocialistIdeas,"whichusuallybeginwithPlato.Koigenhasevenremarkedironically:"Socialismisasoldashumansociety itselfbutnotolder."(94) Itwouldseemthatthisshouldbetakenasthestartingpointofanyattempttounderstandtheessenceofsocialism.Despitebeingquitegeneral,suchapointofviewstrictly limitstherangeofthoseargumentsthatareapplicable:anyexplanationsbasedonthepeculiaritiesofagivenhistoricalperiod,raceorcivilizationmustbediscarded.Itis necessarytorejecttheinterpretationofsocialismasadefinitephaseinthedevelopmentofhumansocietywhichissaidtoappearwhenconditionsareripe.Onthe contrary,anyapproachtosocialismoughttobebasedonprinciplesbroadenoughtobeapplicabletotheIncaempire,toPlato'sphilosophyandtothesocialismofthe twentiethcentury. [201]

    VII. SurveyofSomeApproaches toSocialism

    VII. SurveyofSomeApproaches toSocialism


    Beforeweapplytheconclusionsformulatedintheprecedingsectiontofurtheranalysisofsocialism,theycanbetestedinasimplerprocedureofapurelycriticalcharacter. Weshallexaminethosepointsofviewwhicharerepresentativeofthemajorityofconceptionsofsocialismthathavebeenformulatedinthepast. 1. TheMarxiststandpoint Socialismasastatesystemisaspecificphaseinthehistoricaldevelopmentofmankinditinevitablyreplacescapitalismwhenthelatterreachesadefinitelevel ofdevelopment.Socialismasadoctrineconstitutestheworldviewoftheproletariat(itselfengenderedbycapitalism),andatthesametimeitistheresultof scientificanalysis,ascientificproofofthehistoricalinevitabilityofthesocialiststatesystem. Thisviewiscontradictedbytheknownfacts.Ifasocialiststatecomesintobeingonlyundertheconditionscreatedbythedevelopmentofcapitalism,if,asLeninwrote, "socialismoriginatesincapitalism,developshistoricallyfromcapitalism,andresultsfromtheactionofasocialforcethatisengenderedbycapitalism,"thenwhencedidit comeandasaresultofwhatsocialforcediditdevelopintheIncaempireorthestatesoftheancientOrient?Historyonlyreinforcesthedoubtsengenderedbythe contemporarysituation:socialiststateshaveariseninChina,NorthKoreaandCubathatis,inthecountrieswheretheinfluenceofcapitalismcaninnowaybeconsidered adeterminingfactor. Itisjustasdifficulttoseeanyconnectionbetweentheideology [202] ofsocialistmovementsandtheproletariat:forexample,inthemovementofMazdakortheTaborites.Furthermore,thelinkbetweentheproletariatandsocialismwasnot atallstronginthenineteenthcenturyeither.Bakunin,forexample,feltthatsocialismwasmostcongenialtothepeasantryheconsideredpeasantsandbrigands(atleastin Russia)tobethemainrevolutionaryforce."ThebrigandisthetrueandonlyrevolutionaryinRussia."(95:p.353)"Andwhenthesetwokindsofrebellion,therebellionof thebrigandsandofthepeasants,arejoinedtogether,apopularrevolutiontakesplace."(95:p.354)InreplyingtoBakunin,theprominentMarxisthistorianM.N. Pokrovskyrefers,strangeasitmayseem,nottotheimmanentlawsofhistorywithwhichheisfamiliar,buttofarmoreconcretecircumstances:"Ofcourse,thiswas outdatedforthesixties,theepochoftherailroads....Itwasextremelydifficulttocommitrobberiesontherailroads."(96:p.65)ButwheneventhefoundersofMarxism, recognizingtheproletariatasthemainforceofthefuturesocialupheaval,stressedthattheproletariathad"nothingtolosebutitschains,"theirdifferenceswithBakunin weremoretechnicalthantheoretical.Andinfact,sometimelatertheroleoftheproletariatwasreconsideredwithoutanychangeofbasichistoricalconcepts.Theneo MarxistswhomakeuptheNewLeftbelievethattheworkingclasshasceasedtobearevolutionaryforce,thatithasbeen"integratedintothesystem"andthatthe"new workingclass"isthe"favoritechildofthesystemandideologicallysubjugatedtoit."(4:p.57) Hopeforthefuturehasbeentransferredtothepeoplesofthedevelopingcountries,todisaffectednationalminorities(forexample,theblacksintheU.S.A.)andto students.Ontheotherhand(orperhapsitcomestothesamething),theproletariatisapparentlyassignedaverymodestroleinChairmanMao'sconceptofthe confrontationofthe"worldcity"withthe"worldvillage." ThethirdpropositionintheMarxistviewofsocialismisthatsocialism(intheformofMarxism)isascientifictheory. 2. Socialistteachingsasscientifictheory Theevidentweaknessofsuchapointofviewisthatitisapplicableonlytoafewsocialistdoctrines.Mostofthemneverpretendedtobeapartofscienceandassumed insteadtheformofphilosophicalsystems,divinerevelationortheoriesonthemostreasonablesocialstructure.Butthenineteenthcenturywassoimbuedwiththecult [203] ofsciencethatevenanadventurenovelcouldcountonsuccessonlyif,asintheSherlockHolmesstories,the"scientificmethod"wasused.Onlyinthesecircumstancesdid "scientificsocialism"appear. Henceweneedonlyconsidertowhatextentthesocialistdoctrinesofthenineteenthcenturywereaproductofscientificactivity.Theassertionsaboutthescientific characterofitsconclusionsplayanespeciallylargeroleinMarxism,butothersocialistteachings,asthoseofFourier,forexample,hadsimilarpretensions.WhileMarx andEngelsmockFourierasa"utopiansocialist"andapplytheterm"scientificsocialism"onlytotheirowndoctrine,Fouriermaintainedthathehadmadeananalysisof socialphenomenathatwasaspreciseasNewton'sphysicsand,infact,constructedinitsimage.Hewrote:"Thetheoryofpassionateattractionandrepulsionissomething stabletowhichgeometrictheoremsarewhollyapplicable....Andthus,oftheconnectionamongstthenewsciences:Isoonunderstoodthatthelawsofpassionate attractioncorrespondatallpointstothelawsofmaterialgravitationdiscoveredbyNewtonandLeibnitz,andthat thereexistsaunityinthemovementofthematerial andthespiritualworlds." (97:p.43) JuxtapositionofthesetwoteachingsFourier'sandMarx'smayhelpustounderstandwhatrolethethemeofscienceplayedinboth. Strictlyspeaking,thefoundersofMarxismdidnotalwaysdenythesignificanceofFourier'sscientificconstructions.Forexample,comparingthemwithSaintSimon's doctrine,Engelswrote: "Itistruethatthereisin[Fourier'stheories]noshortageofmysticismaswell....Still,ifwesetthataside,somethingremainswhichcannotbefoundamongthefollowersof SaintSimonscientificinquiry,sober,boldandsystematicthinking,inaword:socialphilosophy." (3:II:p.395) Itisverydifficulttodaytounderstandsuchapointofview.Fourier'ssystemisfarremovedfromanycontemporarynotionofwhatconstitutesascientifictheory.Heheld thatplanetsandothercelestialbodiesarelivingbeings,thattheylive,dieandcopulate."Aplanetisabeing,havingtwosoulsandtwosexes.Intheactofconception,just aswithanimalsandplants,twoproductivesubstancesarejoinedtogether....Aheavenlybodymaycopulate:(1)Withitself,thesouthpolewiththenorthpole,aswith plants.(2)Withanotherheavenlybodythroughtheemissionoffluidsfromtheoppositepoles.(3)Withsomethingintermediate."(97:p.69) [204] Thelifeoftheplanetearth,alsoperceivedasasingleorganism,isinherentlylinkedwiththelifeofmankind.Thereisacorrespondencebetweenthevariousepochsoftheir respectivedevelopments.Therehadbeensevenepochsuptothen,andFourierspeaksofaneighthepochwhichisonthevergeofbeingborn:"Meanwhile,theearth thirstsforcreationthefrequentemissionofnorthernlightiswitnesstothis,anindicationthattheplanetisinheat,andasignofauselessemissionofitsfertilefluid.It cannotcopulatewiththefluidofotherplanetsuntilthehumanraceaccomplishescertainpreliminarytasks.Thesetaskscanbeperformedonlybytheeighthsociety,which

    [204] Thelifeoftheplanetearth,alsoperceivedasasingleorganism,isinherentlylinkedwiththelifeofmankind.Thereisacorrespondencebetweenthevariousepochsoftheir respectivedevelopments.Therehadbeensevenepochsuptothen,andFourierspeaksofaneighthepochwhichisonthevergeofbeingborn:"Meanwhile,theearth thirstsforcreationthefrequentemissionofnorthernlightiswitnesstothis,anindicationthattheplanetisinheat,andasignofauselessemissionofitsfertilefluid.It cannotcopulatewiththefluidofotherplanetsuntilthehumanraceaccomplishescertainpreliminarytasks.Thesetaskscanbeperformedonlybytheeighthsociety,which mustnowbeformed."(97:p.71) Thiseighthsocietyof"combinedstructure"istobringsocialistideastolife.Inthedescriptionofthissociety,weencounterthefamous"phalansteries"andnumerousforms offreelove,togetherwithFourier'scriticismbycontemporarycivilization.Onenteringthe"eighthsociety,"mankindwillaccomplishthetasksthatserveasthe preconditionsforanewactbycopulationbytheearth.Thiswillbringaboutchangeswhich,intheirturn,willhaveafructifyinginfluenceonmankindandwilllightenthe taskofdevelopingthe"combinedstructure."Theseasandoceanswillacquirethetasteoflemonadeinsteadofsharksandwhales,therewillappearantisharksandanti whales,togetherwithamultitudeofamphibiathatwillpromotetransportationandfishing.Andinthedeserts,insteadoflionsandtigers,therewillbeantilionsandanti tigers,whichwillcarryoutpeople'swishes. Wehaveheretheancientandmythologicalnotionaccordingtowhichhumanactivityisnecessaryforthefunctioningoftheuniverse.Itispreciselythesamesortofnotion thatunderliestheceremonyoftheAustralianaborigineswhichaimstoassurethefertilityofnature.Similarly,theAztecssacrificedthousandsofpeopleinordertopreserve thelifegivingpowerofthesun.ItwouldseemthatthisancientnotionwastherealfoundationofFourier'steaching,andnot"theapplicationofgeometrictheorems,"which arecompletelyabsentinhisspeculations.Histheoryseemstohavebeen"revealed"tohim,andinthisdirectperceptionthereisasinceritythatpartlyaccountsforhis success.*Asfortheimitationofscientificphraseology,whichisquiteclumsyinFourier,thiswasonlyagestureinthedirectionofnineteenthcentury
    *WhenFourierwritesof"araycontainingfiveother[colors]invisibleandunnoticedbyuspink,crimson,chestnut,greenwithashadeofdragoon,lilac(Iamperfectlysure onlyofpinkandcrimson),"onecanreadilybelievethathesawthepinkandcrimsonwithhisowneyes.(See97:p.104)

    [205] tastes,anattempttomakehissystemmoreattractive. Thisconclusion,soobviousinthecaseofFourier,forcesusnottoacceptonfaithMarxism'sclaimstobeingascientifictheory.Andtheveryfeaturewhichthecreatorsof Marxismproclaimedtobefundamentalthe"criterionofpractice"seemstoprovidetheclearestresponsetoMarxism.Accordingtothiscriterion,ascientifictheory oughttobetestedaccordingtoitsconcreteconclusions.Butwithalmostperverseconsistency,mostoftheprojectionsofMarxismhaveprovedtobeincorrect.Abetter percentageofcorrectpredictionscouldprobablyhavebeenachievedbymakingrandomguesses.Exampleshavebeencitedrepeatedly,andforthisreasonwelimit ourselvestothreeinordertounderscorethetypicalandinmostcasesfundamental natureoftheerrors:thetruthprovedtobenotmerelydifferentbutinfacttheopposite tothatwhichhadbeenpredicted. a.Thenationalquestion:"Nationaldifferencesandantagonisticinterestsamongvariouspeoplesarealreadyvanishingmoreandmorethankstothedevelopmentofthe bourgeoisie,tofreedomofcommerce,totheworldmarket,touniformityinthemodeofproductionandinthecorrespondingconditionsoflife.Thesupremacyofthe proletariatwillacceleratethedisappearanceofdifferences."(3:V:p.500) b.Inparticular,theJewishquestion,whichwastodisappearassoonasfinancialoperationsandpettytradebecameimpossible."ThechimericalnationalityoftheJewis thenationalityofamerchant,ingeneralofamanwhodealswithmoney."(3:I:p.382)"Anorganizationofsocietywhichcouldremovethepreconditionsofpettytrade, andthereforethepossibilityofpettytrade,wouldmakeJewryimpossible."(3:I:p.379) c.Theroleofthestate:"Thefirstactinwhichthestatetrulycomesforwardasarepresentativeofthewholeofsocietythetakingpossessionofthemeansofproduction inthenameofsocietyis,atthesametime,itslastindependentactasastate.Interferenceofthestateinsocialrelationsbecomessuperfluousinonesphereafteranother, andthenceasesofitself.Thegovernmentofpersonsisreplacedbytheadministrationofthingsandthedirectionoftheprocessofproduction.Thestateisnot'abolished' itwithersaway."(98:p.285) "Withthedisappearanceofclassesthestateinevitablydisappears.Asocietywhichorganizesitsproductioninanewfashionbasedon [206] thefreeandequalassociationofproducerswillsendthemachineofthestatetotheplacewhereitwillthenbelong:themuseumofantiquity,nexttothespinningwheeland thebronzeax."(3:XVI:p.149) Theunquestionablyimmensesuccess ofMarxisminthenineteenthandthebeginningofthetwentiethcenturiesbynomeansprovesitscorrectnessasascientifictheory. Othermovements,Islam,forinstance,haveenjoyednolesssuccesswithouteverhavinglaidclaimtobeing"scientific." ThedirectimpressionleftbytheworksofthefoundersofMarxismleadstothesameconclusiontheylacktheclimatecharacteristicofscientificinquiry.Fortheauthors, theworldofscienceisdividedintotwounequalparts.Onepartconsistsofanarrowcircleoffollowers,theotherofenemies,plottingagainstthemandreadyforanycrime againstthetruthforthesakeofattainingtheirgoals.ThusGermaneconomistsaresaidtohavewillfullyignoredCapital foryears,whilestealingfromitconstantly,and EnglishspecialistsonprimitivesocietyaresaidtohavetreatedMorgan'sbookinthesameway.ButthefoundersofMarxismhardlystoodonceremonythemselvesand againandagainattackedtheircolleaguesfor"liberalfalsifications,""banalityandcommonplacenessoftheworstkind,""virtuosityinpretentiousidiotism,"etc. ThebasicworksofMarxismareutterlyalientothemostfundamentalcharacteristicofscientificactivitythedisinterestedstrivingfortruthforitsownsake.Andalthough thescientist'sdutyissometimesproclaimed,thetruth,inpractice,alwaysremainsa"partytruth"i.e.,itissubordinatedtotheinterestsofthepoliticalstruggle.Thisattitude towardscienceisexpressed,forinstance,intheconclusionoftheprefacetoMarx's CritiqueofPoliticalEconomy: "Myviews,nomatterhowtheyarejudgedandhow littletheyagreewiththeegotisticalprejudicesoftherulingclasses,aretheresultofmanyyearsofconscientiousresearch."(3:XII:p.9)Inthisway,Marximmediately suggeststhatanyobjectionstohisviewsaretheproductof"egotisticalprejudices." ThankstothisindifferencetowardtruthinMarxism,wesooftencomeacrosscontradictionsevenafewofwhichwouldruinanygenuinelyscientifictheory.Wehavecited, forinstance,Wittfogel'sremarksontheappearanceandsuddendisappearanceofthe"Asiaticformation"intheworksofMarxandEngels.Numerousexamplesofthis kindcouldbebroughtforward.Inthe CommunistManifesto weread: [207] "Thelowermiddleclass,thesmallmanufacturer,theshopkeeper,theartisan,thepeasant...theyareallnotrevolutionarybutconservative.Nay,more,theyarereactionary, fortheytrytorollbackthewheelofhistory."(3:V:p.493)LassalleincorporatedthesamethoughtinhisGothaprogram:"Inrelationtotheproletariat,allothergroups

    ThankstothisindifferencetowardtruthinMarxism,wesooftencomeacrosscontradictionsevenafewofwhichwouldruinanygenuinelyscientifictheory.Wehavecited, forinstance,Wittfogel'sremarksontheappearanceandsuddendisappearanceofthe"Asiaticformation"intheworksofMarxandEngels.Numerousexamplesofthis kindcouldbebroughtforward.Inthe CommunistManifesto weread: [207] "Thelowermiddleclass,thesmallmanufacturer,theshopkeeper,theartisan,thepeasant...theyareallnotrevolutionarybutconservative.Nay,more,theyarereactionary, fortheytrytorollbackthewheelofhistory."(3:V:p.493)LassalleincorporatedthesamethoughtinhisGothaprogram:"Inrelationtotheproletariat,allothergroups constituteasinglereactionarymass." ButitwaspreciselyatthistimethatMarxwascompetingagainstLassalle(andnotverysuccessfully)forinfluenceontheGermansocialdemocraticmovement. Andhewrites:"Lassalleknewthe'Manifesto'byheart,andifhedistorteditsogrossly,hedidsoonlytojustifyhisownbetrayaloftheworkingclass."*(3:XV:p.277) Marx's Capital ofcourseimitatesthestyleofascientifictreatisefarbetterthanFourier's TheoryofFourMovements. Marxincludestablesandagreatnumberof quotations(evenfromGreek,ashewasfondofnoting).Butinitsessence,Marx'sCapital isequallyfarfrombeingascientificwork,forthebasicstatementsinitare merelyassertedandnotdeduced.ItwasBulgakovwho(in100)drewattentiontoafootnoteinVolumeIof Capital: "Ofcourse,itismucheasiertofindtheearthly essenceofreligiousnotionsbymeansofanalysisthantheotherwayround,i.e.,fromthegivenrealrelationstodeducetheirreligiousforms.Thelattermethodistheonly materialisticoneand,therefore,theonlyscientificone." ButMarxonlyremarkedonthismatterinanoteandnowhereattemptedtoapplyhis"onlyscientific"method.Inthesameway,neitherMarxnorEngelstriedtoshowin whatmanner"thehandmillyieldsafeudalsocietywithasuzerainatitshead."Theysimplycouldnothavedoneso,ofcourse,sincethehandmillwasknowninancient Sumerandinothersocietiesaswell.Examplessuchasthesecouldbecitedatlength. TheattitudeoftheclassicsofMarxismtowardscienceisvividlyillustratedbywhatEngelswroteaboutmathematics.Indeed,itisinthisconnectionthathesays(inthe prefacetoAntiDhring): "AwarenessofthefactthatIhavenotsufficientlymasteredmathematicshasmademecareful:noonewillbeabletofindmetrespassingagainstthefacts."(98:p.7)
    *Thisexampleandmostoftheothersinthissectionaretakenfromastudy(99)inwhichthequestionofthescientificcharacterofMarxismisanalyzedmoresystematically.

    [208] Nevertheless,inthatworkwefindthefollowingstatements: "Wehavealreadymentionedthatoneofthemainprinciplesofhighermathematicsinvolvesacontradictionwhichconsistsofthefactthatundercertainconditionsastraight lineandacurveareoneandthesamething.Andhighermathematicsprovidesanotherexampleofacontradiction:twolinesthatintersectbeforeoureyesmustnonetheless beconsideredparallellinesfiveorsixcentimetersfromthepointofintersection,i.e.,linesthatcannotintersectevenifextendedtoinfinity."(98:p.120) "Thevirginstateofabsolutesignification,theindisputableproofofeverythingmathematical,isgoneforeveraneraofdiscordantopinionisuponus,andwehavegottento thepointthatthemajorityperformdifferentiationandintegrationnotbecausetheyunderstandwhattheyaredoing,butsimplybecausetheybelieveinsomethingthatuptill nowhasalwaysobtainedcorrectresults."(98:p.85)(Wemustpointoutthatwhenthiswaswritten,halfacentury hadalreadypassedsinceCauchyproposeda rigorousfoundationfordifferentialandintegralcalculusandhisideashadlongbecometextbookknowledge.) "Mathematicalaxiomsareanexpressionofanextremelylimitedintellectualcontent,whichmathematicsisobligedtoborrowfromlogic.Theymaybereducedtothe followingtwo: "1.Thewholeislargerthanthepart.... "2.Twoquantitiesseparatelyequaltoathirdareequaltooneanother."(98:p.34) (Itwouldseemthatevenamediocresecondaryschoolstudentoughttohaverememberedatleasttheaxiomonparallels!) Asforpoliticaleconomyorhistory,MarxandEngelsclearlydidnotbelievethattheyhad"notsufficientlymastered"thesesubjectsnothingpromptedthemtobe"careful" aswithmathematics.Onemaywellimaginehowresolutelytheyoperatedintheseareas. ThecorrespondencebetweenMarxandEngelsprovidesfurtherstrikingexamplesofviewsthatareextremelydifficulttoreconcilewiththeusualunderstandingofthe scientificmethod.Forinstance,EngelspointsouttoMarxonepassagein Capital thatwouldobviouslyprovokeobjectionsandsuggeststhisobjectionbetakeninto account.Marxreplies:"HadIwishedtoforeseeallobjectionsofthatkindIshouldhavespoiledthedialecticalmethodofexposition.Onthecontrary.Thismethodhasthe advantageofsettingtrapsforthesegentlemen [209] ateverystepandcompellingthemtorevealtheirimpenetrablestupidity."(3:XXIII:p.425) OrinanotherlettertoEngels:"DearFred!InmyopinionyouareunjustlyafraidtotreattheEnglishphilistinereaderofthemagazinetosuchsimpleformulaeasM GM, etc.Ifyouwerecompelledtoread,asIam,theeconomicarticlesofLalor,HerbertSpencer,MacleodandothersinTheWestminsterReview, youwouldseethatthey allaboundineconomicbanalities(allthewhileknowingthattheirreaderisthoroughlyboredwithitall)andthattheytrytospiceuptheirarticleswithpseudophilosophic orpseudoscientificjargon.Despitetheimaginedscientificcharacter,thecontent(equaltonothing,ofcourse)becomesinnosenseclearer.Onthecontrary,thetrickisto mystifythereader."Thisparagraphcloseswiththeadvice:"Infact,youaretooshy.Thenewisrequiredthenewinformandincontent."(3:XXIV:pp.6061) ItisinterestingtojuxtaposetheattitudeofMarxismtowardsciencewithacloselyrelatedquestionMarx'suseofHegel'sdialecticalmethod.Herewemayagainreferto S.Bulgakov.Inaworkalreadycited(100),heshowsthat Capital, especiallythefirstchapterofVolumeI,iswritteninaHegelianfashionbutthat,atthesametime,it demonstratesaverysuperficialgraspofHegel'sphilosophyandofGermanclassicalphilosophyingeneral,aquiteprimitivemanipulationofsubtleandprofoundcategories. Infact,Marxattimesseemstoseedialecticsinaquiteunexpectedlight. "Itooktheriskofprognosticatinginthisway,asIwascompelledtosubstituteforyouascorrespondentatthe Tribune. Notabeneonthesuppositionthatthedispatches wehavegottenuptillnowarecorrect.ItispossiblethatImaybediscredited.Butinthatcaseitwillstillbepossibletopullthroughwiththehelpofabitofdialectics.It goeswithoutsayingthatIphrasedmyforecastsinsuchawaythatIwouldprovetoberightalsointheoppositecase."(3:XXII:p.217)

    ItisinterestingtojuxtaposetheattitudeofMarxismtowardsciencewithacloselyrelatedquestionMarx'suseofHegel'sdialecticalmethod.Herewemayagainreferto S.Bulgakov.Inaworkalreadycited(100),heshowsthat Capital, especiallythefirstchapterofVolumeI,iswritteninaHegelianfashionbutthat,atthesametime,it demonstratesaverysuperficialgraspofHegel'sphilosophyandofGermanclassicalphilosophyingeneral,aquiteprimitivemanipulationofsubtleandprofoundcategories. Infact,Marxattimesseemstoseedialecticsinaquiteunexpectedlight. "Itooktheriskofprognosticatinginthisway,asIwascompelledtosubstituteforyouascorrespondentatthe Tribune. Notabeneonthesuppositionthatthedispatches wehavegottenuptillnowarecorrect.ItispossiblethatImaybediscredited.Butinthatcaseitwillstillbepossibletopullthroughwiththehelpofabitofdialectics.It goeswithoutsayingthatIphrasedmyforecastsinsuchawaythatIwouldprovetoberightalsointheoppositecase."(3:XXII:p.217) ReturningtothecomparisonofFourier's"scientificmethod"withMarx's,itmustbestatedthatinsomeinstancestheydifferverylittlee.g.,intheiruseofmathematics. Take,forinstance,theargumentFouriergivesinsupportofhisideathatsocietyisruledonthe"basisofgeometricprinciples": "Thepropertiesoffriendshipduplicatethepropertiesofthecircle. "Thepropertiesoflove,thoseoftheellipse. "Thepropertiesoffatherhood,oftheparabola. [210] "Thepropertiesofambition,ofthehyperbola. "Thecollectivepropertiesofthesefourpassionsduplicatethepropertiesofthecycloid." ThisisquitecomparablewiththepassageinCapital inwhichMarxwrites(inconnectionwithoneofhisconclusions):"Thislawclearlyrunscountertoexperience."Buthe extricateshimselffromthepredicamentasfollows:"Thesolutionofthisseemingcontradictionrequiresmanymoreintermediarylinks,asinelementaryalgebra,wheremany intermediarylinksarerequiredtocomprehendthat0/0mayrepresentarealquantity."(3:XVII:p.337)*KarlJaspersisclosertothetruth,nodoubt,whenhesees Marxismnotassciencebutas"mythmaking"basedoncertainnotionsborrowedfrommagic,asforinstancethebeliefthatthedestructionoftheexistingworldwillleadto thebirthofnewman.(101) Theconceptof"thescientificmethod"wasofextraordinaryimportanceforthedevelopmentofnineteenthcenturysocialism.Henceitwassteadilyandpersistently elaborated,firstbyFourierandSaintSimon(inaverynaiveform),andlaterinamuchmoresophisticatedmannerbyMarxandEngels.Thescientificmethodprovidedthe socialistdoctrineswitha"sanction"ofthefirstorder.Furthermore(andthisisespeciallyimportant),thethesesofsocialistdoctrinethereby
    *Marxemploysthisunusualargumentationinapassagethatisbynomeanssecondaryinimportanceforhissystem.Histheoryofvalue,acornerstoneofhispoliticaleconomic theory,provedtobeincompletecontradictiontowellknownfactsofeconomiclife!ConcerningMarx'spromisestopresentfurtherevidence(or"intermediarylinks")onthe question,theItalianeconomistLoriawrote:"IhavejustlyassertedthatthissecondvolumewithwhichMarxconstantlythreatenshisopponents,andwhich,however,willnever appear,wasmostprobablyemployedasacunningsubterfugeinthosecaseswhereMarxlackedscientificarguments."Inthesixteenyearsthatseparatethepublicationof VolumeIof Capital fromhisdeath,Marxdidnotofferacontinuationofhisstudy.In1885,EngelspublishedMarx'smanuscriptsasthesecondvolumeof Capital. Inthepreface, hementionsthecontradictioncitedaboveandremarksthat"becauseofthiscontradictiontheRicardoschooland'vulgareconomy'collapsed."Marx,soEngelsclaimed, resolvedthiscontradictioninVolumeIII,whichwastoappearinseveralmonths.VolumeIIIappearedin1894 i.e.,nineyearslater.Inhispreface,Engelsagainreturnstothe "contradiction"andquotesLoriainthisconnection.HepointsoutthatintheprefacetoVolumeII,thisquestionwas"publiclyproposed"byhimandthat,therefore,Loriamight havetakenthisintoaccount....ButEngelsdoesnotmentionhisownpromisethatthecontradictionwouldberesolvedinVolumeIII,nordoesheindicatetheplacewhereitis resolved.InreferencetoLoria,however,hedoesusesuchexpressionsas:"falsification,""distortion,""mistakesunforgivableinaschoolboy,""careerist,""scientificcharlatan," "shamelessness,""literaryadventurerwhoinhisheartofheartsspitsonthewholeofpoliticaleconomy,""aconscioussophist,""abraggart,""anirresistiblerushtoappropriate theworksofothers,""importunatecharlatanismofselfaggrandizement,""successachievedwiththehelpofclamorousfriends,"etc.

    [211] acquiredtheappearanceofobjectivityandacertaininevitability,beingpresentedasaconsequenceofimmanentlawsindependentofhumanwill.Incallingforthe destructionofsociety,revolutionariesoftheBabeufandBakunintypehadtoarguethatitwasloathsomeandunjust.Butindoingso,theymadeeachpersonajudgeand leftopentheopportunityforthecounterargumentthattheprocessofdestructionitselfwasevenmoreloathsomeandunjust.Butwhen,forexample,Bukharin(102) proclaimedthatexecutionbyshootingconstitutedoneoftheformsforthe"elaborationofcommunisthumanity,"hewasinvulnerablefromtheMarxistpointofview. Indeed,Engelscouldthinkofonlyonefunctioninhistoryfortheconceptofjusticeasaphraseusefulforagitation.(98:p.352)How,then,isonetoverifyanexpertin MarxismlikeBukharin?Perhapshismethodofelaboratingcommunisthumanitydoesproceedfromthe"immanentlaws"orthe"dialecticsofproduction?" Inthecontemporaryworld,hypnotizedasitisbythenotionthatsciencecansolveanyquestionandsanctionanyaction,willmanyfindthecourageinsuchasituationto adheretotheunscientifictencommandmentsratherthantothescientificallyproved"immanentlaw"? Itwasnaturalenough,therefore,thatsocialistMarxistsofthenineteenthcenturywerehighlyattractedtoscienceasthesupremesanctioningauthority.Inparticular,Marx andEngels,withtheirprodigiousenergyandcapacityforwork,processedhugeamountsofdatafromthefieldsofpoliticaleconomyandhistory.Butwhattheywere seekinginsciencewasnotthesourcebuttheconfirmationandsanctionoftheageoldthesesofsocialistideology.Thelogicoftheirendeavorisexplicitlystatedinthe prefacetoAntiDhring: "In1831,inLyons,thefirstuprisingofworkerstookplaceintheperiodbetween1833and1842,theEnglishChartistmovement,thefirstnationalworkingmovement, reacheditsclimax....Itwasimpossiblenottotakeallthesefactsintoconsideration,aswellasFrenchandEnglishSocialism,whichconstitutedtheirtheoretical,albeit extremelyimperfectexpression."(98:p.21)"Althoughitcriticizedthecapitalistmodeofproductionanditsconsequences,thesocialismofearlierperiodscouldnotcope withit.Itcouldonlypronounceittobegoodfornothing.Butthetaskistwofold:ontheonehand,toexplaintheinevitabilityoftheappearanceofthecapitalistmodeof productioninitshistoricalcontextandthustoshowwhyitsdeathisinevitable [212] ontheotherhand,toexplainthehithertounclearnatureofthatproduction.Previouscriticismhasbeendirectedmoretowardtheharmfulconsequencesthanagainst capitalistproductionitself."(98:p.22) Marxismhereemergesnotasaresultofobjectivescientificresearchbutasaresponsetoasettasktoprovetheinevitabilityofthecollapseofcapitalismandits replacementbysocialism.ThistaskbecamerelevantforthecreatorsofMarxismastheresultofaseriesoflabordisturbancesinEurope. 3. Socialismisthetheoryofpreparingandimplementingrevolution:itisaseriesofruleswhichmustbefollowedinordertoseizepower.Atthesametime,itis thetechnologyofpower,thephilosophyoftheabsolutestatetowhichalllifeissubjectedi.e.,statism.

    Marxismhereemergesnotasaresultofobjectivescientificresearchbutasaresponsetoasettasktoprovetheinevitabilityofthecollapseofcapitalismandits replacementbysocialism.ThistaskbecamerelevantforthecreatorsofMarxismastheresultofaseriesoflabordisturbancesinEurope. 3. Socialismisthetheoryofpreparingandimplementingrevolution:itisaseriesofruleswhichmustbefollowedinordertoseizepower.Atthesametime,itis thetechnologyofpower,thephilosophyoftheabsolutestatetowhichalllifeissubjectedi.e.,statism. Incontrasttotheviewsconsideredearlier,seriousargumentsmaybebroughtforwardinsupportofthispointofview.Itisdifficulttodenythatsocialistdoctrines constituteapowerfuldrivingforcecapableofinspiringmassesofpeopleandservingasameansofseizingpower.Furthermore,manysocialistutopiasdescribeasocietyin whichallaspectsofthecitizen'slifearecontrolledbythestate,whilesocialiststatescarryouttheseidealstoacertainextent.Insomecases(forexample,inShangYang's teaching),itisimpossibletodrawalinebetweencertainaspectsofsocialismandstatismtakentoanextremeifalloflifeiscontrolledbythestate,thedegreetowhich privatepropertyislegallypermittedceasestobesignificant. Thefirstobjectionarousedbysuchadefinitionisnotbasedonspecificargumentsbutisprimarilyaesthetic.Thecharacterizationseemsfartooshallowincomparisonwith thephenomenonitseekstoexplainitrecallstheviewofreligionasthe"contrivanceofpriests."Furthermore,manyactualfeaturesofsocialismcannotbeaccountedforby thismeans. Infact,viewingthesocialistdoctrinesasatechniqueforseizingpowerleavesthebasicprinciplesofsocialismunexplained.Howisonetointerprettheprincipleof communality ofpropertyfromthispointofview?Inordertogaincontroloverapovertyriddentatteredmob,itisfarmorenaturaltopromisea redivision ofproperty suchwasthecharacterofsocialupheavalsinantiquity.Thesloganofcommunalitycouldeventurnouttobeanobstacletotakingpower,aswasthecaseintherevolution of1917,whentheBolshevikParty,whichuntilAprilofthatyearhadadvocatednationalizingland,temporarily [213] retreatedfromthispositionandacceptedtheS.R.principleof"equalizedlanduse"inordertoassurevictoryinOctober. Thecallforcommunalwivesisequallyinexplicablefromthisperspective.Inthe CommunistManifesto, MarxandEngelssaythattheentirebourgeoisieaccusedthe Communistsofintendingtointroducecommunalityofwives.Whydidtheynotreplytothisaccusationlessambiguouslythantheydid?Theywrote:"Bourgeoismarriageis inrealityasystemofwivesincommonandthusatthemost,whattheCommunistsmightpossiblybereproachedwithisthattheydesiretointroduce,insubstitutionfora hypocriticallyconcealed,anopenlylegalizedcommunalityofwomen." Thisobviouslyleavestheimpressionthatthereproachistrue.Indeed,thispassagecausedsomuchtroublelaterthatnumerous"elucidations"wererequired.(Thesortof problemthataroseisillustratedbythefactthatinthesecondRussianeditionoftheworksofMarxandEngels,publishedin1955,thistextwasalteredtoread:"...what theCommunistsmightpossiblybereproachedwithistheallegation that...")Whyweretheseaccusationsnotsimplydeclaredbourgeoisslander?Andwhatismost remarkableofall,suchanideadidinfactoccurtoEngels.Heraisespreciselythisquestionin"PrinciplesofCommunism,"hisfirstdraftoftheManifesto.Butlater,afterhe metwithMarx,thetextwaschanged. Therearemanyotherparticularfeaturesofsocialistdoctrinethatremaincompletelyincomprehensible,ifonelooksatsocialismsolelyasamethodofseizingpower.One exampleisthenotionofthe"forerunnersofscientificsocialism,"whichplaysanimportantroleinMarxism.WhywasitnecessaryforMarx,Engels,Kautsky,Bernsteinand otherstodeclarePlato,Dolcino,MntzerandMoretheirforerunners?Whatstrangelogic,forexample,madeKautsky,speakingofproletarianmovementsthatcameto power"tooearly,"exclaim:"Theyarealldeartous,fromtheAnabaptiststotheParisCommunards."(103:p.166)Nothingcouldbemoreobviouslycontrarytotheir viewofsocialismasaproductofthecontradictionbetweenproductionforcesandproductionrelationsundercapitalism.Itwouldseemthattheyshouldhavedeniedany connectionanycommonfeaturescouldhavebeendeclaredtobeamatterofcoincidence. Itisimpossibletosupposethatsuchobvioustheoreticaldifficultieswentunnoticedbythefoundersofsocialism.Evidently,theconceptofforerunnerscontainedsomething essentialtotheideologysome [214] elementsthathadtobepreservedatanycost,evenattheriskofdoctrinalinconsistencies.Andthisindicatesthatcertainstrataofsocialistideologycannotbeunderstood intermsofanycoldlycalculatedplanfortheseizureofpower. Itispossibletocometopowerpreachingreligiousideas(astheexampleofMohammedshows)orbytakingadvantageofnationalfeelings,butwedonotthereforethink ofeitheroftheseroutestopowerasmeremeans. Furthermore,theviewofsocialismastheideologyofanabsolutestatemakesincomprehensibleoneofthemainpropertiesofsocialistdoctrinestheirinfectiousness,their capacitytoinfluencethemasses.Itwouldbeabsurdtosupposethatpeoplefacetortureandthegallowsorgotothebarricadesforthesakeofbecomingasoullesscogin theallpowerfulstatemachine.Moreover,thelargeproportionofsocialistdoctrinesbelongstothe anarchicalnihilistic tendency,whichisquitehostiletotheideaof statecontrol.Suchisthespiritthatinformsthemedievalheresies,themovementsoftheReformationperiod,Meslier,Deschamps,Fourier,Bakuninandnumerousmodern socialistmovements. 4.Thelastobjectionsapplyfullytotheviewthat socialiststatesareamanifestationofasocialstructurebasedoncompulsorylabor. Thisideaisexpressed,for instance,byR.VipperinhisbookKommunizm ikultura[CommunismandCulture], whichwaspublishedshortlyaftertheRevolution.(Thisbookispresently inaccessibletomeandIamobligedtocitefrommemory.)Vippersuggeststhatsocialismshouldberegardednotasaprophecyaboutahappyfuture societybutasareal socialstructurewhichhasappeared inthepast morethanonce.Hisexamples:ancientEgypt,theIncastate,theJesuitstateinParaguay...Inhisopinion,compulsory laboristhecornerstoneofallthesesocieties. Itistruethatnoneconomiccompulsion,toagreaterorlesserdegree,playsasignificantroleinallsocialiststates.Butonewouldliketodiscovernotonlythesortoftrait thatwouldserveasadistinguishingfeaturebutsomerelevantpropertythatwouldrendertheirotheressentialfeaturescomprehensible.Yetthepresenceofcompulsory laborinnowayexplainseithertheattractionofsocialistideologyorsuchofitsprinciplesasthedestructionofthefamilyorofhierarchy. [215] 5. Socialismassuchdoesnotexist.Thatwhichiscalledsocialismisoneofthelinesofdevelopmentofcapitalismstatecapitalism. Theevidentdefectofthispointofviewisthatitappliesonlytothesocialiststatesofthetwentiethcentury,withoutanyefforttoascertaintheplaceofthesestateswithinthe millennialongtraditionofsocialism.Butitwouldbeinterestingtodeterminetowhatdegreethisviewisapplicableeventothisadmittedlyshortperiodofhistory. Wittfogelbelievesthattheconceptofstatecapitalismisnotpertinenttocontemporarysocialiststates.Fromthepointofviewofeconomics,heasserts,itisimpossibleto considercapitalistasocietyinwhichthereareneitherprivatemeansofproductionnoranyopenmarketforgoodsandmanpower.

    5. Socialismassuchdoesnotexist.Thatwhichiscalledsocialismisoneofthelinesofdevelopmentofcapitalismstatecapitalism. Theevidentdefectofthispointofviewisthatitappliesonlytothesocialiststatesofthetwentiethcentury,withoutanyefforttoascertaintheplaceofthesestateswithinthe millennialongtraditionofsocialism.Butitwouldbeinterestingtodeterminetowhatdegreethisviewisapplicableeventothisadmittedlyshortperiodofhistory. Wittfogelbelievesthattheconceptofstatecapitalismisnotpertinenttocontemporarysocialiststates.Fromthepointofviewofeconomics,heasserts,itisimpossibleto considercapitalistasocietyinwhichthereareneitherprivatemeansofproductionnoranyopenmarketforgoodsandmanpower. Theinadequacyofthisapproachisevenmoreapparentwhenonetakesintoconsiderationthebasicpointthatsocialism,unlikecapitalism,isnotmerelyaneconomic formationbutisalso,andperhapsfirstofall,anideology.Indeed,wehaveneverheardof"capitalistparties"or"capitalistdoctrines."Theideologicalcharacterofsocialism isabasicfactorintheactivitiesofthesocialiststates.Theirpolicyisfarfrombeingdeterminedonlybyeconomicfactorsorbystateinterests.Historyprovidedaclear experimentafewyearsago,whenthegovernmentsoftwocountriesinthesamesocialistcampsimultaneouslypermittedthemselvestodeviatefromgrouppolicy.The deviationofoneofthesestateswaspurelyideological,whiletheotherstatepreservedacompleteideologicalconformitybutdemonstrativelyassertedtheindependenceof itsforeignpolicy.Asaresult,drasticmeasuresweretakenagainstthefirststate,whiletheotheronlybenefitedfromitspolicy.Anotherexampleofpoliticalaction motivatedbyideologicalprinciplesisthesupportgivenbythesocialiststatestorevolutionarysocialistmovementsandnewlyformedsocialiststates.Andthisinspiteof considerableexperiencewhichshowsthatthisisthewaytocreatethemostdangerousrivals,aggressiveandarmedwithmoreradicalideology. Weshallpointoutonlyonemorecrucialpeculiarityofsocialiststates,somethingthathasnoanalogyincapitalistsociety:allsocialiststatesarebasedona"newtype"of parity.Wehavehereaphenomenonthatiscompletelydifferent,despiteitsname,fromthepoliticalpartiesofbourgeoissociety.Membersofliberalorradicalpartiesare unitedbyadesiretorealizedefinitepoliticaloreconomicends,withoutcircumscribingtheirconductorviewsinotherareas.Inthissense,they [216] areguidedbythesamekindofprinciplesastradeunionsoranimalprotectionsocieties.The"newtype"ofparty,however,notonlydemandsthatitsmemberssubordinate all aspectsoftheirlivestoit,butalsodevelopsinthemanoutlookaccordingtowhichlifeoutsidethepartyseemsingeneral unthinkable. Thespiritofthespecial relationshipthatexistsbetweentheindividualandthepartymaybegleanedfromthefollowingthreeexamples. AGermanessayist,W.Schlamm,relatesthatin1919,attheageoffifteen,hebecamea"fellowtraveler"oftheCommunistsbutnevermanagedtopenetrateintothe narrowcircleofthepartyfunctionaries(104).Twentyyearslater,oneofthesefunctionaries,whohadbrokenwiththeparty,explainedtoSchlammthereasonwhy.When Schlammwasinvitedtojointheparty,hehadsaid:"I'mreadytogivethepartyeverythingbutthetwoeveningsoftheweekwhenIlistentoMozart."Thisanswerproved fatal!Amanwhohasinterestshedoesnotwishtosubordinatetothepartydoesnotfit. AnotheraspectoftherelationshipbetweenpartyandindividualisrevealedbyTrotsky'slastspeechataPartyCongress.Hehadalreadybeendefeatedbyhisopponents. Hesaid:"Iknowthatitisimpossibletoberightagainsttheparty.Itispossibletoberightonlywiththeparty,forhistoryhascreatednootherroadfortherealizationof whatisright."(105:p.167) Finally,hereishowPiatakov,alreadyexpelledfromthepartyandindisgrace,describedhisviewofthepartytohisformerpartycomradeValentinov.Piatakovreminded himofLenin'sstatementthatthe"dictatorshipoftheproletariatisaregimeimplementedbytheparty,whichreliesonviolenceandisnotboundbyanylaw."(Fromthe article"TheProletarianRevolutionandtheRenegadeKautsky.")Piatakovexplainedthatthecentralideaherewasnot"violence"butthefactofbeing"unboundbyany law."Hesays: Everythingthatbearstheimprintofhumanwillmustnotandcannotbeconsideredinviolableortiedtoanyinsuperablelaw.Alawisalimit,aban,adefinition ofonephenomenonadmissibleandanotherinadmissible,oneactionpossibleandtheotherimpossible.Whenthoughtholdstoviolenceinprincipleandis psychologicallyfree,unboundbyanylaws,limitsorobstacles,thenthefieldofpossibleactionexpandstogiganticproportionsandthefieldoftheimpossible contractstothepointofzero....Bolshevismisapartywhoseideaistobringintolifethatwhichisconsideredimpossible,notrealizableandinadmissible. ...Forthehonorandhappinessofbeinginitsrankswemustsacrificeourprideandselfesteemandeverything

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    [217] else.Returningtotheparty,weputoutofourheadsallconvictionscondemnedbyit,eventhoughwedefendedthemwhileinopposition....Iagreethatnon Bolsheviksandthecategoryofordinarypeopleingeneralcannotmakeanyinstantaneouschange,anyreversaloramputationoftheirconvictions....Wearea partyofmenwhomaketheimpossiblepossible.Steepedintheideaofviolence,wedirectitagainstourselves,andifthepartydemandsitandifitis necessaryandimportantfortheparty,wecanbyanactofwillputoutofourheadsintwentyfourhoursideasthatwehavecherishedforyears.In suppressingone'sconvictionsortossingthemaside,itisnecessarytoreorientoneselfintheshortestpossibletimeinsuchawayastoagree,inwardly,with one'swholemind....Isiteasytoputoutofmindthingsthatonlyyesterdayyouconsideredtoberightandwhichtodayyoumustconsidertobefalseinorder tobeinfullaccordwiththeparty?Ofcoursenot.Nevertheless,throughviolencedirectedagainstoneself,thenecessaryresultisachieved.Givinguplife, shootingoneselfthroughthehead,aremeretriflescomparedwiththisothermanifestationofwill....Thissortofviolenceagainsttheselfisacutelypainful,but suchviolencewiththeaimofbreakingoneselfsoastobeinfullaccordwiththepartyconstitutestheessenceofatrulyprincipledBolshevikCommunist.Iam familiarwithobjectionsofthefollowingkind.Thepartymaybeabsolutelymistaken,itissaid,itmightcallblacksomethingthatisclearlyandindisputably white.Toallthosewhotrytofoistthisexampleonme,Isay: Yes,IshallconsiderblacksomethingthatIfeltandconsideredtobewhite,sinceoutside theparty,outsideaccordwithit,thereisnolifeforme. (106:p.148) Someentomologists(see,forexample,107:pp.110115)believethatthefunctioningofabeehivecanonlybeunderstoodintermsofasuperorganism havingitsown metabolismandrespirationandcapableofreproductionandofthekindofactionquiteimpossibleforindividualbees(forinstance,holdingthetemperaturewithintothe necessarynarrowrangearound34C.).Theexistenceofeachbeehasmeaningonlytotheextentthatitisinvolvedwiththelifeoftheentirehive.Wearenolessjustified inconsideringthepartiesofthesocialiststatestobesimilarsuperorganisms capableofperformingactionsimpossibleandunthinkableforitsindividualhumancells.Their lifehasmeaningonlywhentheyarecarryingouttheaimsofthesuperorganismwithoutwhichtheycannotexist. Thisenablesustounderstandtheenigmaticpsychology,describedsopreciselybySolzhenitsyn,ofthe"orthodox"truebelieverwhoeveninaconcentrationcamp continuestoglorifyStalinandtheparty. Anysuchworldviewis,ofcourse,utterlyalientorationalcapitalism.ItisnotamongtheToriesandWhigsthattheforerunnersofthe"new [218] type"ofpartymustbesought,butintheSocietyofJesusoramongthemedievalsects,withwhomtheyalsohavesomecommonorganizationaltraits. Thepresenceofsuchapartyseemstobeanecessaryconditionfortheexistenceofallsocialiststatesofthetwentiethcentury,whileincapitalistcountriesitservesasone ofthemaininstrumentsofdestruction.Thispointstocardinaldifferencesbetweenthetwosocialstructures.

    [218] type"ofpartymustbesought,butintheSocietyofJesusoramongthemedievalsects,withwhomtheyalsohavesomecommonorganizationaltraits. Thepresenceofsuchapartyseemstobeanecessaryconditionfortheexistenceofallsocialiststatesofthetwentiethcentury,whileincapitalistcountriesitservesasone ofthemaininstrumentsofdestruction.Thispointstocardinaldifferencesbetweenthetwosocialstructures. 6. Socialism istheexpressionofthequestforsocialjustice. Itisanindisputablefactthatalmostallsocialistdoctrinesandmovementsassignanextremelyimportantroletoprotestagainsttheinjusticesofthecontemporarysocial order.SympathyfortheoppressedandthecondemnationofoppressorsaremotifsthatmaybefoundintheworksofMntzer(especiallyinhis"DiscourseforDefense"), More(inPartOneof Utopia), Winstanley,Meslier,Fourier,Bakunin,MarxandtheMarxists. Manywhoarenotsupportersofsocialism(orwhoacceptitonlypartially)alsoseeitsmaindrivingforceinitsadvocacyofjustice.Forexample,theprimeministerof India,respondingtoacorrespondentwhoinquiredwhattheword"socialism"meanttohim,answered:Justice.Yes,socialismmeansjustice,thedesiretoworkinamore equalsociety."ToacertainextentthispointofviewissharedbyKarlJaspers:"Socialismtodayisseenasthatquest,tendencyorplanwhichhasasitsaimuniversal cooperationandcoexistenceinthespiritofjusticeandintheabsenceofprivilege.Inthissense,today,everyoneisasocialistsocialismisthemaintendencyofour time."(108) ButJaspersdistinguishessocialisminthesenseofgradualprogressfromcommunism,whichpreachestotalplanningandtheachievingofhappinessforhumanityaccording toascientificprognosis. TheviewofsocialismasanattempttoachievesocialjusticewaswidespreadinRussianphilosophy.Forinstance,VladimirSolovievwrote:"Theattemptofsocialismto achievetheequalityofrightsinmaterialwelfare,itseffortstotransferthismaterialwelfarefromthehandsoftheminorityintothehandsofthepopularmajority,is absolutelynaturalandlegitimatefromthepointofviewoftheprinciplesproclaimedbytheFrenchrevolutionandwhichunderlieallmoderncivilization."(109:III:pp.7 Whileherejectssocialism'sclaimtobeingasuprememoralforce,Solovievdoesacknowledgethatit"has [219] thecharacterofmoralityinitsdemandforsocialtruth....Inanycase,socialismisrighttoriseupagainstexistingsocialuntruth."(109:III:p.9)Itisherethatheevidently seesthat"truthofsocialism"whichmustberecognizedinordertovanquishthe"lieofsocialism." Bulgakov,aformerMarxisthimself,developedthisviewofsocialismindetail,especiallyinapamphlet(110)thatappearedin1917,whiletheRevolutionwasatitsheight. Socialism,inhisopinion,isareactiontothemisery,hungerandsufferingofmankind.Itisthethoughtthat"firstofallonemustdefeathungerandbreakthechainsof poverty."(110:p.5)Manistheprisonerofnaturalforcesandhisspiritlongsforliberationfromthatcaptivity.Socialismshowshimtheway.Itpromises"freedomfrom economicfactors...througheconomicfactors,bymeansofthesocalleddevelopmentofproductiveforces."(110:p.9)Butthisisafalsepromise."Theeconomic captivityofmanisnotarootcausebutaconsequenceitiscalledforthbytheshiftinman'srelationtonaturetheresultofthesinfulcorruptionofthehumanessence. Deathcameintotheworldlifebecamemortal,whenceappearedman'sfatefuldependenceonfoodandthe'forcesofnature,controloverwhichwillnotsavehimfrom death."(110:p.11) TheideaofsocialismwasforeshadowedinChrist'sfirsttemptation.By"turningstonesintobread,"ChristwouldhavebecomeanearthlyMessiah,whoinsteadof overcomingthesinfulconditionoftheworldwouldhavesubmittedtothatcondition.Thistemptation,towhichaconsiderablepartofmodernmankindhasyielded, constitutesthespiritualessenceofsocialism.Buteverytemptationcontainswithinitselfsometruth.Inthiscase,itisaprotestagainsthumanbondagetomatterandthe sufferingthatensuesfromit.Thepositivemeaningofsocialism,however,isextremelylimited.Bulgakovwrites:"Socialismcannotbeseenasaradicalreformoflifeitis philanthropy, oroneformofit,evokedbymodernlifeandnothingmore.Thetriumphofsocialismwouldintroduce nothingessential tolife."(110:p.41) Letusnowmovetoaconsiderationoftheseviews.Firstofall,itseemsthatsocialismcanbynomeansbeidentified simplywithastrivingforjusticenorwithareactionto thesufferingofmankind.Thisisalreadyclearfromthefactthatwewouldnotneedtoinventanewtermforsuchadesire:"compassion,""sympathy,""activelove,"areall oldfashionedwordsquitesuitableforthedefinitionofthis [220] equallyoldaspiration.Butletusassumeforamomentthatsocialismisadefinitewaytoachievesocialjustice.Inthatcaseweshouldbeabletoseenumerous confirmationsofthisfactintheknownsocialistdoctrinesaswellasintheexperienceofthesocialiststates.Sinceitisunquestionablytruethatappealstojusticeandthe condemnationofthedefectsofcontemporarylifeoccupyacentralplaceinsocialistideology,thisquestionmustbeformulatedmoreprecisely: Istheaspirationforsocial justicethegoalandthedrivingforceofsocialismor istheappealtothisaspirationonlyameanstoachievesomeothergoals? Tosimplifyourargumentation,weexcludefromourdiscussionthepracticeofsocialiststates.Afterall,ifitcouldbeshownthatdreamsofsocialistjusticehavenotbeen realizedinthesestates,thatwouldnotinitselfcontradictthepossibilitythatthesedreamsdidinspiretheparticipantsandtheleadersofsocialistmovements:Lifehasaway ofdeceivingthebestlaidplans.Butinthesocialistdoctrinesthemselves,atleast,weshoulduncovercompassionforthesufferingsofthevictimsofinjusticeandthe impulsetolightentheirburden.Yetthisispreciselywhatislacking!Thealleviationofsufferingissetasideuntilthevictoryofthesocialistideal,andallattemptstoimprove lifeatthepresenttimearecondemnedaspossiblypostponingthecomingvictory.Particularlyinthemodernsocialistdoctrinesproclaimingatheism,thispointofviewisin nowaycompatiblewithcompassionfor today's victimsofoppression,whowillhavenoshareinthefuturejustsociety.Itwillbeobjectedthatstrivingtoachievejusticein lifeforfuture generationsistheverythingthatinspiresthefollowersofsocialism.Thispointofviewseemshardlyplausiblefromapsychologicalpointofview.Weare askedtobelievethatamancanbeindifferenttothesufferingofthosearoundhimandatthesametimedevotehislifetothehappinessofafutureworldhewillneversee. Welistbelowseveralexamplesillustratingtheapproachofsocialistdoctrinetowardtheinjusticeoftheirday. TheCathars,whosedoctrinesincludedsomeelementsofsocialism,categoricallyforbadecharity,instarkcontrasttothetheoryandpracticeoftheCatholicChurch.Inthe Catharsectsthe"faithful"wereobligedtomakenumerousdonationsbutonlytotheleadership,the"perfect."Thisdoctrinalfeatureisextremelyoldand,consequently,is linkedtothesect'sfundamentalprecepts.WemeetthesameprincipleamongtheManicheans,inthesecondcenturyA.D. [221] ThesocietyoftheMoravianBrethrenisavividexampleofthestrictestcommunityofpropertyandofallaspectsoflife.Inthesect'svoluminouswritings,Christ'slawof brotherlyloveisoftenmentioned,butitisneverusedtojustifycommunality.Onthecontrary,thedemandforcommunalityiscloselylinkedtothestrivingforsuffering. Communalityisperceivednotasanexpressionofcompassion,butasa"yoke,"avoluntarycross.Communistlifeisanarrowpath,leadingthroughsufferingtosalvation. Turningtothehumanistliterature,wemightpointtoThomasMore,whogaveadetailedcommentaryonthesufferingofthepoorhecondemnedunjustlifeasa "conspiracyoftherich"andformulatedathesis,whichlaterbecamepopular,totheeffectthatcriminalityisinrealityacrimeoftheunjustsociety.Atthesametime,he

    8)

    ThesocietyoftheMoravianBrethrenisavividexampleofthestrictestcommunityofpropertyandofallaspectsoflife.Inthesect'svoluminouswritings,Christ'slawof brotherlyloveisoftenmentioned,butitisneverusedtojustifycommunality.Onthecontrary,thedemandforcommunalityiscloselylinkedtothestrivingforsuffering. Communalityisperceivednotasanexpressionofcompassion,butasa"yoke,"avoluntarycross.Communistlifeisanarrowpath,leadingthroughsufferingtosalvation. Turningtothehumanistliterature,wemightpointtoThomasMore,whogaveadetailedcommentaryonthesufferingofthepoorhecondemnedunjustlifeasa "conspiracyoftherich"andformulatedathesis,whichlaterbecamepopular,totheeffectthatcriminalityisinrealityacrimeoftheunjustsociety.Atthesametime,he suggestedwhathethoughtwasamorejustapproach:criminalsshouldbemadeintoslaves!JusthowfamiliarMorewaswiththelifeofthecommonfolkisindicatedbyhis listofidleparasitesinsociety,inwhichwomenappearfirst. ThehistoryofthesocialistmovementinRussiaservesasanotherstrikingexample.Theappearanceofrevolutionarynihilistcirclescoincidesexactlyintimewiththe abolitionofserfdom.Thepeasantswereliberatedin1861.Chernyshevsky's"AppealtothePeasantsofLandowners"appearedinthesameyearandhis"ToYoung Russia,"wherethestyleandspiritofthenewmovementwereformulated,appearedin1862.Chernyshevskyandothersopenlyexplainedtheirantipathytothereformof 1861byassertingthatacertainimprovementinthepeasants'lotmightturnthemfromtherevolutionarypath.SomewhatlaterwehaveNechayevproclaimingthefollowing: "Thegovernmentitselfmightatanymomentcomeupontheideaofreducingtaxesorinstitutingsimilarbenefits.Thatwouldbearealmisfortune,becauseevenunderthe presentterribleconditionsthefolkareslowtorise.Butgivethemalittlemorepocketchange,setthingsupevenonecowbetter,andeverythingwillbedelayedanother tenyears.Andallourworkwillbelost.Onthecontrary,youshoulduseanyopportunitytooppressthepeople,thewaythecontractorsdo,forexample."(Ill:p.137) AproposoftheattempttoeffectasocialistcoupinFrance,Bakuninwrote:"Frenchmenthemselves,eventheworkers,werenotinspiredbyitthedoctrineseemedtoo frightening.Itwas,infact,tooweak.Theyshouldhavesufferedgreatermiseryanddisturbances.Circumstances [222] arecomingtogetherinsuchawaythattherewillbenoshortageofthat.PerhapsthentheDevilwillawaken."(LettertoOgarev,1871,95:p.246)

    ThispronouncementcoincideswiththeviewscontainedinthewritingsoftheMoravianBrothers:thereshouldbenoattempttoseekreleasefromsufferingsincesufferingis essentialinachievingthesupremegoal.ThereisofcourseanimportantdifferencetheMoravianBrethrensawthegoalinChrist,whileBakuninusesdifferentterminology. FinallywecometoMarxism.Despitetherolethattheexposureoftheinjustice,crueltyandinhumanityofcapitalismplaysinit,wecanencounterquitesimilarviews.Thus, inthearticle"ExposeoftheCologneTrialofCommunists,"Marxwrites:"Wesaytoworkers:youmustsurvivefifteen,twenty,fiftyyearsofcivilwarandinternational strifenotonlytochangeexistingrelationsbuttochangeyourselvesandbecomecapableofpoliticalsupremacy."(3:VIII:p.506)Ifwerecallthecrueltyandhungerwhich weretheconsequenceofthreeyearsofcivilwarinRussia,wemayimaginevaguelywhatthosefiftyyearsofcivilwarwouldmeantheyearsthattheworkers must survive,accordingtoMarx.Indescribingtheterriblelivingconditionsoftheworkersoftheday,MarxandEngelsshowednointerestinanyimprovement.Onthe contrary,theyactuallytriedtoseefeaturesofthefuturesocietyintheseconditions.Itwasimpossiblefortheworkertohaveanuninterruptedfamilylife?Well,inthefuture societythebourgeoisfamilywillwitheraway.Proletarianchildrenwerecompelledtowork?Inthefuturesocietychildrenwould"combineeducationwithproductive labor."Atatimewhen"bourgeoisphilanthropists"suchasDickensandCarlylewerefightingagainstchildlabor,theGenevaCongressoftheFirstInternationaladopteda resolutioncomposedbyMarx:"TheCongressregardsthetendencyofcontemporaryindustrytodrawonthelaborofchildrenandjuvenilesofbothsexesinthegreattask ofsocialproductionasaprogressive,soundandlawfultendency,thoughundertheruleofcapitalismitturnsintoaterribleevil.Inarationallyorganizedsociety,eachchild fromtheageofnineoughttobeaproductiveworker."(Citedin112) InthecorrespondencebetweenMarxandEngelstherearenumerousutterancesinthefollowingvein: "DearEngels!Ihavejustreceivedyourletterwhichbringsuptheverypleasantprospectofatradecrisis."(MarxtoEngels,3:XXI:p.228) [223] "Itwouldbeagoodthingtohaveabadharvestnextyearinaddition,andthentherealfunwillbegin."(EngelstoMarx,3:XII:p.249)"It'sthesamewithme.Sincethe beginningofthecrashinNewYork,IcouldfindnorestinJerseyandfeelfineamidstthegeneralbreakdown.Thecrisiswillbeasusefulformyorganismasthesea baths."(EngelstoMarx,3:XXII:p.255)"Thereisanimprovedmoodinthemarket.Maythisbedamned!"(EngelstoMarx,3:XXII:p.295)"Hereonlytwoorthree verybadyearscouldhelp,butitseemsthattheywon'tbequicktocome."(EngelstoMarx,3:XXII:p.368)"Ourfatherlandpresentsanextremelypitifulsight.Without beingbatteredfromoutside,nothingcanbedonewiththesedogs."(MarxtoEngels,3:XXIII:p.162) DuringWorldWarI,Leninwroteasfollowsaboutwar:"IfthewarnowevokesamongreactionaryChristiansocialistsandthewhimperingpetitebourgeoisieonlyhorror andfright,onlyanaversiontoanyuseofarms,toblood,deathandsoon,thenwemustanswerthatcapitalistsocietyhasalwaysbeenandremains ahorrorwithoutend. Andifnowthemostreactionaryofallwarsispreparinganendwithhorror tothissociety,wehavenoreasontofallintodespair."(113:XXX:p.136) Itisstrikinghowsocialistthinkers,inexposinginjusticeandexploitationofthepeople,refersooftentotheseverypeoplewithcontemptandevenmalice.Forinstance, Meslierwroteonthecoverofhis Testament: "Icametoknowtheerrorsandthemisdeeds,thevanityandthestupidityofthepeople.Ihatedanddespisedthem." Describingthepeasants'suffering,hewrote:"Itisjustlysaidofthemthatthereisnothingmorecorrupt,morecrudeandmoredeservingofcontempt."(114:p.56)Fourier callsthesameFrenchpeasants"livingautomatons"andadds:"Intheirextremecrudity,theyarenearertoanimalsthantothehumanrace."(97:p.93)InalettertoMarx, EngelscallsthepeasantsGermanicbumpkins.(3:XXI:p.39)AndtheFrenchpeasantsarereferredtoas"abarbaricrace,"thatis"bynomeansinterestedintheformof government,etc.,strivingfirstofalltodestroythetaxcollector'shouse...torapehiswifeandtobeathimtodeathiftheyshouldmanagetocatchhim."(LettertoMarx,3: XXI:p.312)Abouttheworkershewrites:"Themassesarefrightfullystupid."(LettertoMarx,3:XXIV:p.160)Speakingofcertainunjustcontracts,Marxforhispart callsthem"contractstowhichonlythecompletelydegeneraterabblecouldagree."(LettertoEngels,3:XXIV:p.30) [224] Anothertimeheexclaims:"Tohellwiththesepopularmovements,especiallyiftheyarepacifistintothebargain.TheChartistmovementdroveO'Connormad(haveyou readhislastspeechatthetrial?)madeGarnyweakintheheadandcausedJohnsontogobankrupt. VoilaIedernierbutdelaviedanstouslesmouvements populaires. "(LettertoEngels,3:XXI:p.328) Itispossibletosuggestvariouslogicalexplanationsforsuchstatements,butitisabsolutelyimprobablepsychologicallytoconsiderthattheyareengenderedby compassionforthepeopleorbysympathyforthevictimsofhungerandwar.AndwecanseethatthemainachievementsinsocialjusticeofthelastcenturyintheWest thereductionoftheworkingday,socialinsurance,anextraordinaryriseinthelivingstandardoftheworkerswereaccomplishedwithverylittleparticipationonthepart ofsocialistmovements.Themainfactorswerethestruggleofthetradeunions(condemnedbythesocialistsas"economism"),increasedproductivityoflabordueto technologicalprogress,andthemoralinfluenceof"bourgeoisphilanthropy." How,then,issocialistideologyconnectedwiththeideaofstruggleforsocialjustice?Itseemsthatwehaveheretwoquitedifferentapproachestowardlifewhich, nevertheless,intersectinacertainarea.Theirpointofcontactisthecondemnationofsocialinjusticeandtheexposureofthesufferingitbrings.Fromthisstartingpoint, theydevelopintwoentirelydifferentdirections,onebeingthepathofcorrectingsocialinjustice,thestruggleagainsttheconcreteevilsofthepresent.Theotherpath regardssocialinjusticeasanabsoluteevil,anindicationthattheexistingworldisdoomedandmustbecompletelydestroyed.Sympathyforthevictimsofinjusticeismore

    thereductionoftheworkingday,socialinsurance,anextraordinaryriseinthelivingstandardoftheworkerswereaccomplishedwithverylittleparticipationonthepart ofsocialistmovements.Themainfactorswerethestruggleofthetradeunions(condemnedbythesocialistsas"economism"),increasedproductivityoflabordueto technologicalprogress,andthemoralinfluenceof"bourgeoisphilanthropy." How,then,issocialistideologyconnectedwiththeideaofstruggleforsocialjustice?Itseemsthatwehaveheretwoquitedifferentapproachestowardlifewhich, nevertheless,intersectinacertainarea.Theirpointofcontactisthecondemnationofsocialinjusticeandtheexposureofthesufferingitbrings.Fromthisstartingpoint, theydevelopintwoentirelydifferentdirections,onebeingthepathofcorrectingsocialinjustice,thestruggleagainsttheconcreteevilsofthepresent.Theotherpath regardssocialinjusticeasanabsoluteevil,anindicationthattheexistingworldisdoomedandmustbecompletelydestroyed.Sympathyforthevictimsofinjusticeismore andmoresqueezedoutofthepicturebyallconsuminghatredoftheexistingsocialstructure. 7. Socialismasaspecialreligion Bulgakov,amongothers,formulatedthisthoughtinthefollowingway:"Forsocialismnowadaysemergesnotonlyasanaturalareaofsocialpolicybutusuallyalsoasa religion,onebasedonatheismandthedeificationofmanandman'slaborandonrecognitionoftheelementalforcesofNatureandsociallifeandastheonlymeaningful principleofhistory."(115:p.36)Morespecifically,Bulgakovbelieves,socialismcanbeseenasarebirthofJudaicMessianism."KarlMarx,alongwithLassalle,arethe proclaimersoftheapocalypseinfashionable [225] dress,theannouncersoftheMessianicKingdom."(110:p.17Bulgakovtreatsthisideaingreaterdetailinhis"ApocalypticsandSocialism,"inthecollectionTwoCities, VolumeII).SemyonFrankalsocallsrevolutionarysocialism"areligionofabsoluterealizationofthepeople'shappiness"andthe"religionofservicetomaterialinterests." Frankpointsto"atrainofthoughtwhichunitesnihilisticmoralitywiththereligionofsocialism."(116:p.192)AnanalogouspointofviewisdevelopedbyBerdiaevinthe article"MarxismandReligion." Suchaviewwasexpressedoccasionallybytheadherentsofsocialismthemselves,forinstance,bythesocialdemocratparticipantsinthe"God building"[bogostroitel'stvo] tendencyatthebeginningofthiscentury.Bazarov,GorkyandLunacharskytookpartinthisattempttolinkMarxismandreligion.Abookby G.LeBon(117)isbasedonthesameview.Amongmorerecentworks,thisapproachistaken,forinstance,in118. Aforcefulargumentcanbemadeforthisdefinition.Forexample,thereligiousaspectsofsocialismmayexplaintheextraordinaryattractionofsocialistdoctrinesandtheir capacitytoinflameindividualsandtoinspirepopularmovements.Itispreciselytheseaspectsofsocialismwhichcannotbeexplainedwhensocialismisregardedasa politicaloreconomiccategory.Socialism'spretensionstobeauniversalworldviewcomprisingandexplainingeverything(fromthetransformationofaliquidintosteamto theappearanceofChristianity)alsomakeitakintoreligion.Acharacteristicofreligionissocialism'sviewofhistorynotasachaoticphenomenonbutasanentitythathasa goal,ameaningandajustification.Inotherwords,bothsocialismandreligionviewhistoryteleologically.Bulgakovdrawsourattentiontonumerousandfarreaching analogiesbetweensocialism(especiallyMarxism)andJudaicapocalypticsandeschatology.Finally,socialism'shostilitytowardtraditionalreligionhardlycontradictsthis judgmentitmaysimplybeamatterofanimositybetweenrivalreligions. However,alltheseargumentsindicateonlythatsocialismandreligionhavesomeimportantfeaturesincommon.Theydonotprovethatthebasictraitsofsocialismcanbe reduced toareligion.Andinpointoffact,thereareanumberofcardinaldistinctionsthatsetthemapart. Inthefirstplace,religionproceedsfromconcreteexperience:thereligiousfeelingsofpeoplewhothendescribethesefeelingsasanencounterwithGod.Suchexperiences onthepartofindividualsgifted [226] inthisrespectbecomefixedandarepassedontoothersintheformofacult,ofatraditionandoftheologicalliterature.Itwouldbeofgreatinterestifitcouldbe establishedthatsimilarexperienceslieattherootofsocialistphilosophy,butwehearnothingofthekind.Andthisinitselfisaclearobjectivedifferencebetweenthe socialistworldviewandreligion.Forevenifsuchexperiencesdooccurwithinsocialism,thosetowhomitisaccessiblecategoricallydenythefact.Themostprominent representativesofsocialistideologyeitheradheretoarationaloutlook(inrecentcenturies)orprofesssomeother,nonsocialistreligion(earlier). Anevenmoreradicalcontrastbetweensocialismandreligionemergesfromtheirviewsoftheessenceofmanandhisroleintheirrespective"anthropologies."Allreligions proceedfromarecognitionofsomehighermeaninginlife,somegoalderivingfromahighersphere.PresupposingtheexistenceofGodandthepossibilityofman's communicationwithHim,religiontherebyadmitsacertaincommensurabilitybetweenGodandman,whichisindispensableifonlytomakepossiblesomesortofcontact. (Anant,forinstance,cannotenterintocontactwithman.)Socialism,ontheotherhand,proceedsinalmostallitsmanifestationsfromtheassumptionthatthebasic principlesguidingthelifeofanindividualandofmankindingeneraldonotgobeyondthesatisfactionofmaterialneedsorprimitiveinstincts.Whatismore,thisview becomesmoreexplicit,themoreclearlyformulatedthegivensocialistideology.Below,weshallciteseveralillustrationsofthistendency. WithPlato,justice wasstillamongthebasicorganizingprinciplesintheidealstate.Theideologyofmedievalheresiesincludedspiritualgoals,althoughtheygenerallyset Godandtheworldatsuchoddsthattheearthly activityofmancametobedevoidofanyhighermeaning.ButMorerecognized(ormoreprecisely,hewrotethatthe Utopiansrecognized)satisfactionasthesupremegoalinlife.Still,Moredoesbelievethatareasonablemancanrefuselessersatisfactionsinordertoreceivegreaterones fromGod.However,thislineofreasoningSoonbringsustoFourier'sdoctrine,accordingtowhichthesatisfactionofinstincts(orasheputsit,passions)istheonlygoal andeventhebasicforceshapinghumansociety. AccordingtoFourier,allinstinctsareequallyfruitfulandusefulforsocietyitisonlynecessarytocombinethemanddirectthemintheproperway:"Thereisnotasingle uselessorbadpassionallpersonalities [227] aregoodastheyare."(97:p.292)"Passions,whatevertheymightbeeventhemostrepulsivebothinmanandinanimals,leadtotheirvariousconsequencesaccording togeometricalprinciplesobservedbyGod."(97:p.60)Asaresult,citizenswhoaremostusefultothesocietalmechanismarethose"whoaremostinclinedtorefined pleasuresandwhoboldlygivethemselvesuptothesatisfactionoftheirpassions."(97:p.292)Thefuture"combined"socialstructureisbuiltalongthesamelines:"Inthe eighteencommunitiesofthecombinedstructure,thetraitthatisthemostusefulforthetriumphoftruthisloveofwealth."(97:p.95)"Thewholearrangementofthe combinedstructurewillbethedirectoppositeofourhabitsandwillcompeltheencouragementofeverythingwecallvice,forinstance,thepassionforsweetsandthe pleasuresoflove."(97:p.96) Themoralprinciplesrestrictingfreedomofexpressionofinstinctsareharmful.Inparticular,thereisnothingsoharmfulasthesenseofdutyinventedbyphilosophers."All thesephilosophicalwhimscalled duty havenothingtodowithtruthdutyproceedsfrompeople,whileattractionproceedsfromGod.IfyouwanttorecognizeGod's intentions,studyattraction,onlynature,anddonotacceptduty."(97:p.98)Thefunctioningofsocietyistobeensuredbyplacingpeopleinsituationsinwhichwhatis advantageousforthemwillbeforthebenefitofall.Atthispointeventhemostdishonestmanwillbecomeausefulmemberofsociety."Showhimthathecanearna thousandcusbylyingandthreethousandbythetruth,andhewillpreferthetruthnomatterwhatacheatheis."(97:p.96) Itisrevealing,however,thatFourier refuses torecognizetheexistenceofclearlyinstinctiveattractionsiftheyengenderactswhichdonotfitanegoisticframework.For

    Themoralprinciplesrestrictingfreedomofexpressionofinstinctsareharmful.Inparticular,thereisnothingsoharmfulasthesenseofdutyinventedbyphilosophers."All thesephilosophicalwhimscalled duty havenothingtodowithtruthdutyproceedsfrompeople,whileattractionproceedsfromGod.IfyouwanttorecognizeGod's intentions,studyattraction,onlynature,anddonotacceptduty."(97:p.98)Thefunctioningofsocietyistobeensuredbyplacingpeopleinsituationsinwhichwhatis advantageousforthemwillbeforthebenefitofall.Atthispointeventhemostdishonestmanwillbecomeausefulmemberofsociety."Showhimthathecanearna thousandcusbylyingandthreethousandbythetruth,andhewillpreferthetruthnomatterwhatacheatheis."(97:p.96) Itisrevealing,however,thatFourier refuses torecognizetheexistenceofclearlyinstinctiveattractionsiftheyengenderactswhichdonotfitanegoisticframework.For instance,heneverspeaksaboutloveassuchbutonlyaboutthe"delightsoflove"orabout"amorousness."Heconsidersthefeelingsofparentforchildandchildforparent tobemereinvention."Sincehedoesnotknowthe'act'thatisatthebasisofhispaternity,thechildcannotexperiencefilialfeelings."Parents,fortheirpart,loveonly"the recollectionofpastdelightsconnectedwithconception."Achildcannotfeel"indebtedtoparentstowhomhehasgivensomuchdelightunsharedbyhim,delightofwhich peoplewanttodeprivehimatthebesttimeofhislife."(97:p.100) ItispossibletoconsiderFourierasanimmediatepredecessorofFreud:inhisstrivingtounderstandmanandhumansocietyinthe [228] lightofthemostprimitiveinstincts,inapathologicalunderdevelopmentoftheemotionalspherewhichpreventsanyappreciationforthehigheraspectsofthehuman psyche,inthehypertrophiedroleheascribestorelationsbetweenthesexes.(AccordingtoFourier,eveneconomicsoughttobebasedonattractingyoungpeopleinto laborarmiesbytheprospectofloveaffairsinthiswayhugeindustrialbuildingprojectscouldbecarriedout.)Ofcourse,Fourier'smythologicalconstructdescribingthe cooperationofmanandthecosmosfindsnocontinuationinFreud'sworks.(Asweshallseebelow,Freudhadhisownmythology.)ButwhileFourier,withtheinfantilism socharacteristicofhim,seesamid"thepassionswecallvices"nothingmoreterriblethan"passionforsweetsandthedelightsoflove,"Freudgoesmuchfurther.Among theforcestowhichheattemptstoreducecultureandthespirituallifeofman,Freuddoesnotbypasseithermaliceorlustfordomination,destructionorthedeathwish.He considersallculturetobebasedonthesuppressionoftheinstinctsthedeepestpartofthehumanpsyche,whichstrivestoactaccordingtothe"pleasureprinciple." Unhappiness,inFreud'sview,isanecessarycostforcivilization.Happinessdoesnotfallwithintherangeofculturalvalues.Moralnorms,elaboratedbythatpartofthe psychethatisoflater,cultural,origin,arefactorswhicharedestructiveandmortallydangeroustotheorganism.Freudcomparesmoralswithproductsofdecaywhichare manufacturedbyacellandthenbecomethecauseofitsdeath. ThenextepisodeinthehistoryofsocialistdoctrineafterFourierMarxismwasbasedonanalogousconceptsofhumanpersonality.Dividingallhumanactivityinto"base" and"superstructure,"Marxismassignedtothe"base"thatmodeofproduction"fromwhich,byforceofinnerdialecticsandimmanentlaws,asocialandstatesystemis derivedwithallitslegal,philosophicalandreligiousviews."Inanevenmorestrikingformulation,Marxismproclaimedthatthissuperstructureis"given"bythehandor steammill.Themechanismbywhichthebasecreatesasuperstructureisheldtobethestruggleofmaterialandeconomic interests (thatis,egotismintheformoftheclass struggle).Initsmoregeneralviewsofman,Marxismdeniesthefreedomofwillandanyindependentspirituallifeorconsciousness,thelastbeingdeterminedbyone's "socialexistence."IntheprefacetothefirstvolumeofCapital, Marxwrote:"Formetheidealprincipleisamaterialonethathaspassedthroughthebrain." [229] Still,thenegationofthehigheraspectsofhumanexistenceinMarxismisnotasradicalasitisinthemovementgivenshapebyFourierandlaterdevelopedbyFreud. Marxismseesthebasicstimulusofhumanlifeandtheexplanationoftheriddleofhistoryinman'sbaseractions,butneverthelessin human activityandeveninactivitythat unitespeopleina"socialexistence."Freud,however,reducesmankindtoastilllower,purelybiologicallevel.WhileMarxismproclaimsthedivisionofhumansociety into antagonisticclasses(atleastthroughoutrecordedhistory),Freudstrivestoaccomplishthesamestratificationinthe humanpersonality. Hesinglesoutthemostancient andthemostextensiveareatheid,theunconsciouswhichfunctionsexclusivelyaccordingtothepleasureprinciple,outsideanynotionoftimeorcontradiction.Thereis nodistinctionherebetweengoodandevil,nomoralityoranyotherkindofvalue,savepleasure.Undertheinfluenceoftheexternalworldaderivativeareatheegois formed,andfromthis,inturn,thesuperegotakesshapeundertheinfluenceofsocialfactors.Herewecanobserve(underthenameofsuppressionorrepressive organization)thesameexploitationandoppressioninwhichMarxismseesthebasicfactorofsociallife.Freudcomparestheroleoftheareasofthepsychecreatedunder theinfluenceofcivilizationtothatpartofthepopulationwhich"seizedpowerandexploitstherestofthepopulationforitsownprofit.Thefearofanuprisingofthe oppressedbecomesthesourceofmoreseveremeasures." (CivilizationandItsDiscontents) Inparticular,sexuality,whichhasfortheidthesoleaimofderivingpleasure fromdifferentpartsofthebody,isforciblysubordinatedtothefunctionofchildbearingandistransferredexclusivelytothegenitalia.Subconsciouslytheorganismretainsa recollectionoftheidealconditionofunlimitedruleofthepleasureprinciple(cf.preclasssociety)andattemptstobreakoutofbondage.Theegoandsuperegocreatein responsetheconceptofmoralityandclassifysuchattemptsas"perversion"or"amoralactions."Thisresultsinacivilizationwherelaborbringsnosatisfactionandinstead becomesasourceofunhappiness,acivilizationwhichinevitablybreedssuffering.Onemayaddtothispicturetheconceptionofhistoryasatraumaticreactiontoan ancientcrimethemurderofthefather,theleaderofaprimitiveband. ItmightseemthatFreudhasdistractedusfromthemaintaskofsketchingtheconceptofhumanpersonalityinsocialistideology.Infactitwouldhavebeenamiracleif systemslikethoseofFreud,so [230] closetotheviewselaboratedbysocialistthinkers(FourierandMarx),hadnotbeenincorporatedintothesocialistworldview.Nomiracleoccurred:theattemptto achieveasynthesisofFreudianismwithsocialistconcepts(called"neoMarxism"or"neoFreudianism")becamethebiggesteventinthedevelopmentofsocialistideology inthepostWorldWarIIyearsithadaverystrongideologicalimpactonsocialisttrendsthattookshapeduringthistime.InthisregardMarcuse'sbook(119)standsout asthemostconsistentandvividattempttoachievesuchasynthesis. Freud'ssystemisskepticalandpessimisticheconsideredsufferingandmentaldiseasestobetheinevitablecostofcivilization,whichinitsturnismoreandmore underminedbyelementsofthepsychethathavebrokenawayfromitscontrol.Marcuse,incontrast,undertakestoalterthisviewsothatitspessimisticevaluationis directedonlyagainstmodernsociety.Furthermore,headdsthepredictionofafuture"liberation."Todothis,hedividesthesuppressiontowhichtheinstinctsare subjectedintotwoparts:therepressionthatinevitablycomesfromtheobjectiveclaimsoftheexternalworldoneachorganismandanothertype,whichiscausedbythe strivingofcertaingroupsofindividualstoattainprivilegedpositionsinsociety.Thesecondformofrepressionhecallssurplusrepression, andheconsiderstheexcessive burdenthatthisfactorimposesonthehumanpsychetobeapeculiarityofmoderncivilization.IncludedinsurplusrepressionbyMarcusearethefollowing:thenecessityof workthatdoesnotbringdirectsatisfactionandwhoserewardappearsintheformofevermoredelayedpleasuretherepressiveroleofgenitalsexualityandthe suppressionofmoreprimitiveformsoflibido,whichpermitthewholebodytobetheinstrumentofpleasurethedominantroleofreason,whichsubjectsalllifetoitselfthe transformationofscienceandreligionintoameansofthetotalmobilizationofmanthecontrolexercisedbysuchcategoriesas"conscience"and"morality"overman's innerworld.Surplusrepressionisdirectlyconnectedtothefactthatthedemandsofsocietyarenotsatisfiedcollectivelyandinaccordancewithindividualneedsbutare organized bythedominantpartofsociety. MarcuseisinagreementwithFreudthatrepressionisthenecessarypriceforsurvival,butheassertsthatsurplusrepressionwithallitsconsequencesmaybeovercome withthehelpofthelatestachievementsintechnology.Withoutgoingintothedetailsofthisprocess [231] (asarule,onewordisused:"automation"),Marcusedrawsapictureofafutureunrepressedsociety.Itisbasedontheliberationoftheinstinctsfromthecontrolof "repressivereason."Thiswillleadto regression, incomparisontothelevelofcivilizationandreasonthathadbeenachieved:"Itwouldreactivateearlystagesofthelibido

    MarcuseisinagreementwithFreudthatrepressionisthenecessarypriceforsurvival,butheassertsthatsurplusrepressionwithallitsconsequencesmaybeovercome withthehelpofthelatestachievementsintechnology.Withoutgoingintothedetailsofthisprocess [231] (asarule,onewordisused:"automation"),Marcusedrawsapictureofafutureunrepressedsociety.Itisbasedontheliberationoftheinstinctsfromthecontrolof "repressivereason."Thiswillleadto regression, incomparisontothelevelofcivilizationandreasonthathadbeenachieved:"Itwouldreactivateearlystagesofthelibido whichweresurpassedinthedevelopmentoftherealityego,anditwoulddissolvetheinstitutionsofsocietyinwhichtherealityegoexists."(119:p.198)"Theregression involvedinthisspreadofthelibidowouldfirstmanifestitselfinareactivationofallerotogeniczonesand,consequently,inaresurgenceofpregenitalpolymorphous sexualityandinadeclineofgenitalsupremacy."(119:p.201)Thebodyasawholewillbecomeaninstrumentofsatisfaction."Thischangeinthevalueandscopeof libidinalrelationswouldleadtoadisintegrationoftheinstitutionsinwhichtheprivateinterpersonalrelationshavebeenorganized,particularlythemonogamicand patriarchalfamily."(119:p.201)Reason,whichistheinstrumentoftheego,willtoalargeextentgivewaytofantasyconnectedwiththeid.Andthiswillopenupnew' waystounderstandthefutureitwillrevealtherealityofthepossibilitiesformerlyperceivedonlyaselementsofautopia.Theliberationofsexualinstinctswillleadtothe developmentof"libidinalrationality,"whichwillshowthewaytoahigherformoffreecivilization. Thesatisfactionofneedsunderstoodinaneverwidersensewillbecomepossiblewithoutheavyi.e.,alienatingwork.Workingrelationswillbesimultaneouslylibidinal relations."Forexample,ifworkwereaccompaniedbyareactivationofpregenitalpolymorphouseroticism,itwouldtendtobecomegratifyinginitselfwithoutlosingits work content."(119:p.215)Ontheotherhand,workwillbecomeplay,"afreeplayofhumanfaculties."(119:p.214)Inalaterwork(4),Marcusespeaksabout"play withautomation."HereheconsidersitessentialtocorrectMarx,whowasnotboldenough,andtoadheretoFourier. Marcusespeakshereoftheendofcultureintheoldsenseoftheword:"Itwouldstillbeareversaloftheprocessofcivilization,asubversionofculturebutafter culture haddoneitsworkandcreatedthemankindandtheworldthatcouldbefree."(119:p.198)TheessenceofthisupheavalMarcusedescribesinpoetictermsby juxtaposingPrometheus,theheroofrepressiveculture,withtheheroesofhisownNewWorldOrpheusandNarcissus.Heendsasfollows:"Theclassicaltradition associatesOrpheuswiththeintroductionofhomosexuality. [232] LikeNarcissus,herejectsthenormalEros,notforanasceticideal,butforafullerEros.LikeNarcissusheprotestsagainsttherepressiveorderofprocreativesexuality. TheOrphicandNarcissisticErosistotheendthenegationofthisordertheGreatRefusal.IntheworldsymbolizedbythecultureheroPrometheus,itisthenegationof all orderbutinthisnegationOrpheusandNarcissusrevealanewreality,withanorderofitsown,governedbydifferentprinciples."(119:p.171) Themostactivesocialistcurrentofrecenttimes,theNewLeft,provedtobeextraordinarilyreceptivetoMarcuse'steachingandwastoaconsiderableextentinfluenced byit.Marcuse'sbasicpropositionsarecloselyparalleledintheslogansofthismovementandserveastheirtheoreticalfoundation.Forinstance,theliberationofsexual instinctsfindsexpressioninthe"sexualrevolution,"andthesuppressionofrepressivereasonisdemonstratedinthe"psychedelicrevolution,"thatis,inthemassuseof hallucinogens.Evenostentatiousslovenlinesscanbetheoreticallyjustified,foraccordingtothetheory,egoandsuperegosuppresstheinstinctsconnectedwiththesenseof smellandenforcetheperceptionofstrongsmellsas"disgusting."(Furthermore,thedominantclassesassociategarbagewiththelowerclasses,whichareperceived negativelyas"thedregsofsociety.")Theseviewsalsoserveasatheoreticalbasisfor"leftart,"whichfosterstheideaof"anticultural"(or"cultural")revolution,ofthe destructionof"repressive"or"stifling"culture,uptoandincludingaheightenedinterest(inbothliteratureand,art)ingarbageandexcrementasmeansof"exploding bourgeoisculture." Weprovidedseveralexamplestoillustratethe"anthropologyofsocialism."Hadweconsideredotherdevelopedsocialisttheoriesinthisconnection(forinstance, Deschamps'ssystem),wewouldhavebeenobligedtocometothesameconclusion,namely,thatsocialistideologyseekstoreducehumanpersonalitytoitsmost primitive,lowestlevelsand,ineachepoch,reliesuponthemostradical"criticismofman"available. Forthatreason,theconceptsofmaninsocialismandin religionarediametricallyopposed. Sothatifsocialismisareligion,itmustberecognizedasaquitespecialreligion,differentinprinciplefromallothersandantitheticaltotheminmanybasicquestions.(How elsearewetounderstandBulgakov'sstatementthatsocialismis"areligionbasedonatheism"?) [233] Otherwiseitwouldbenecessarytoexpandthedefinitionofreligiontothepointwhereitwouldhavenomeaningatall. 8. Socialismistheconsequenceofatheism,theconclusiontowhichatheismleadsinthefieldofsocialrelations. Dostoyevskyexpressedthisviewwithparticularclarity,andhiscommentsdeservespecialconsideration.Themajorityofthethinkersofthenineteenthcenturycompletely overlookedthespiritualcrisisoftheirtime,whichpavedthewayforthetriumphofsocialisminourday.Dostoyevskywasoneofthefewwhosawclearlythatmankind wouldnotfollowthepathofliberalism,humanismandprogress,andthatterriblecalamitiesawaiteditinthenottoodistantfuture.Heforesawthatsocialismwasdestined toplaythecentralroleinthefuturetribulationsofmankind,andmostofhisworkstouchuponvariousaspectsoftheproblem.Weshallherelimitourselvestowhatcanbe foundonthesubjectinhisessaysappearingin TheDiaryofaWriter. Herearesomeofhisviews: "Frenchsocialism,thatis,theassuagingandthearrangementofhumansocietywithoutChristandoutsideChrist..."(1877,January,Chapter1)"Forsocialismsetsitself thetaskofsolvingthefateofmankind,notaccordingtoChristbutoutsideGodandoutsideChrist,anditwasnaturalforittoariseinEurope,ontheruinsoftheChristian principleinproportiontothedegreethatthishadbecomedegenerateandlostintheCatholicChurchitself."(1877,February,Chapter3)"WhenCatholichumanityturned awayfromthemonstrousimageinwhichChristwaspresentedtothem,thenaftermanycenturiesofprotests...therefinallyappeared,atthebeginningofthiscentury, attemptstoarrangethingsoutsideGodandoutsideChrist.Withouttheinstinctsofbeesorantsthatcreatetheirbeehivesandanthillsfaultlesslyandprecisely,people undertooktocreatesomethinglikeafaultlesshumananthill.TheyrejectedtheformulaforsalvationwhichproceedsfromGodandwasrevealedas'Lovethyneighboras thyself'andreplaceditbypracticalconclusionssuchas 'chacunpoursoietDieupourtous' orbyscientificaxiomssuchas'thestruggleforexistence.'Lackingthe instinctsofanimals...peopleplacedgreatconfidenceinscience,forgettingthatforatasklikethecreationofsociety,sciencewasstillinitsinfancy.Dreamsappeared.The futuretowerofBabelbecametheidealand,ontheotherhand,thefearofallmankind.Butthevisionariesweresoonfollowedbyotherdoctrines, [234] simpleandtothepoint,suchas'robtherich,drowntheworldinbloodandtheneverythingwillsomehowarrangeitself.'"(1877,November,Chapter3) Therearetwoessentialpointshere.First,socialismisseenasthenaturalconsequenceofthedeclineofreligion(DostoyevskyhasinmindsocialisminWesternEuropeand thedeclineofCatholicism).SocialismisinthissensethatwhichremainsofthespiritualstructureofmankindifthelinkwithGodislost. Second,socialismaimsatorganizinghumansocietyaccordingtonewprincipleswhicharecomparedtotheinstinctiveactionsofinsectsocieties. Itappearstousthatthesecondideaisincompleteaccordancewithalltheknownfactsaboutsocialism,andlaterweshalltrytospecifytheattitudeofsocialismtoward theforcesthatshapehumansociety.

    Therearetwoessentialpointshere.First,socialismisseenasthenaturalconsequenceofthedeclineofreligion(DostoyevskyhasinmindsocialisminWesternEuropeand thedeclineofCatholicism).SocialismisinthissensethatwhichremainsofthespiritualstructureofmankindifthelinkwithGodislost. Second,socialismaimsatorganizinghumansocietyaccordingtonewprincipleswhicharecomparedtotheinstinctiveactionsofinsectsocieties. Itappearstousthatthesecondideaisincompleteaccordancewithalltheknownfactsaboutsocialism,andlaterweshalltrytospecifytheattitudeofsocialismtoward theforcesthatshapehumansociety. Asfarasthefirstpointisconcerned,itiscertainlytruethatsocialismishostiletoreligion.Butisitpossibletounderstanditasaconsequence ofatheism?Hardly,atleastif weunderstandatheismasitisusuallydefined:asthelossofreligiousfeeling.Itisnotclearjusthowsuchanegativeconceptcanbecomethestimulusforanactiveattitude towardtheworld(itsdestructionoralteration)orhowitcanbethesourceoftheinfectiousnessofsocialistdoctrines.Furthermore,socialism'sattitudetowardreligion doesnotatallresembletheindifferentandskepticalpositionofsomeonewhohaslostinterestinreligion.Theterm"atheism"isinappropriateforthedescriptionofpeople inthegripofsocialistdoctrines.Itwouldbemorecorrecttospeakherenotof"atheists"butof"Godhaters,"notof"atheism"butof"theophobia."Such,certainly,isthe passionatelyhostileattitudeofsocialismtowardreligion.Thus,whilesocialismiscertainlyconnectedwiththelossofreligiousfeeling,itcanhardlybereducedtoit.The placeformerlyoccupiedbyreligiondoesnotremainvacantanewlodgerappeared.Thisistheonlytruesourceoftheactiveprincipleofsocialism,andtheaspectwhich determinesthehistoricalroleofthisphenomenon. Wemaydrawthefollowingconclusionfromourcriticalsurvey:Socialismcanapparentlynotbereducedtofamiliarsocialcategories.Theveryabundanceofsuch attemptspointstothefutilityofsuchanexercise. [235]

    VIII. TheEmbodimentof theSocialistIdeal


    Inthelightoftheprecedingsection,twopossibilitiesremain:eithersocialismisafundamentalhistoricalforceirreducibletootherfactors,oritisamanifestationofforces whichuptillnowhavenotreceivedsufficientattention.Ourbasicgoalisadiscussionofthesealternatives.Topreparethegroundforit,weshalltrytolookattheentire questionfromanewperspective.Ifearlierweattemptedtospecifywhatthevariousmanifestationsofsocialismhaveincommon,weshallnowtrytodissectthis phenomenonintoitselementsinordertoobservetheirinterrelationsandtoevaluatetheroleofeachelementintheevolutionofsocialism. Thestartingpointforsuchananalysisistheobservationwithwhichwebeganthepresentstudy:Socialismmanifestsitselfinlifeintwoformsasadoctrine(chiliastic socialism)andasastatesystem(statesocialism).Theseformsdiffersosignificantlythataquestionarisesastowhethertheircontentisinfactthesame.Isitproperto categorizethemasasinglehistoricalphenomenon?Forexample,thedemandfordestructionofthefamily,whichinchiliasticsocialismsooftentakesthemoreradicalform ofcommunityofwives,hasbeenrealizedinpracticeonlyinnarrowcircles:thegnosticsectsdescribedbyEpiphanes,amongtheBrethrenoftheFreeSpiritorin contemporaryBerlin's"CommuneNo.1."Butwearenotawareofanyinstanceofthisprinciple'simplementationonthelevelofstatepolicy.Thesameistrueofanother aspectoftheabolitionofthefamilythebreakupoftiesbetweenchildrenandparents,withstateupbringingofallchildrenfromtheearliestage. [236] Weshallbeginwithadiscussionofthisquestion.Weshallarguethatchiliasticandstatesocialismaretwoembodimentsofoneandthesameideal.Later,theroleofthese twoformsinthehistoricalevolutionofsocialismwillbeexamined. Itwouldbenaturaltoascribethedifferencebetweenthedoctrinesofchiliasticsocialismandthepracticeofstatesocialismtothefactthattheformerhaveastheiraimthe destructionofanexistingsocialorderandtheestablishmentofanewone,whilethelatteraimstopreserveanalreadyexistingsocialorder.Inthiscase,thespecific featuresofchiliasticsocialismwhichcallforthedestructionofthefamilycouldbeconsideredtacticaldevicesdesignedtodisruptthehostilesystemortoarouse fanaticism.Itfollowsthataftertheestablishmentofaneworder,thesedevicesarenolongerneededandcanbediscarded.Theymustthereforenotbetakeninto considerationinadiscussionofsocialism'spracticalgoals.Anyargumentaboutthefundamentaldifferencebetweenchiliasticandstatesocialismwouldprobablyfollow suchapattern. Thispointofviewseemstoustobeunconvincingapriorianddevoidofinnerlogic.Sogiganticamovementassocialismcannotinprinciple bebasedonadeception. Foralltheirsuperficialdemagoguery,thesemovementsarehonestatbottomtheyproclaimtheirfundamental principlesclearlyforalltohear(exceptthosewho consciouslytrynottohear).AndthosepropositionsofsocialistideologywhichweformulatedinchapterVIappearsoconsistentlyoversuchavastperiodoftimethat theyobviouslyaretobetakenasfundamentalprinciples.Moreover,theyareoftenexpressedinwritingnotbytheleadersofpopularmovementsbutbyabstractthinkers suchasPlatoandCampanella,whomitishardtosuspectofdemagogiceffectsandwhoevidentlyproducedtheentirecomplexofbasicsocialistnotionsinresponsetothe innerlogicofthisworldview. Below,weshallbringforwardanumberofspecificargumentstosupportourcontention.However,wemustnotforgetthatconsiderabledifferencesinthespiritofsocialist doctrinesandthepracticeofsocialiststatesareinevitable.Wemayspeakonlyaboutthecoincidenceinprinciple oftheidealsproclaimedineachcase.Theleaderofa popularsocialistmovementandtherepresentativeofasocialiststatehavetodealwithdifferentpracticaltasks.Themoreradicalandstrikingistheforminwhichthe formerexpresseshisideal,themoreaccessibleandeffectivehisideaswillbe.Butthelattermustcontendwithmany [237] realandcomplexdifficulties,whichlimitthepossibilityofenactinghisideologyinaconsistentfashionandwhichmayeventhreatentheveryexistenceofhisstate. Oneofthetypicallimitationsimposedbyrealityisthenecessityofcontactwithother,differentlyorganizedsocieties.Isolationispositedasabasicconditionforthe existenceofasocialiststateinthemajorityofthesocialistutopianwritings.More,Campanella,Vairasseandmanyothersplacedtheirutopiasonremoteislands.Vairasse, forexample,makesthespecialreservationthatonlythemostreliableSevaritesmaygoon"errands"totheouterworldandtheyarepermittedtodosoonlyonthe conditionthattheirfamiliesremainbehindashostages.Theorganizersofthe"ConspiracyofEquals"suggestedthatFranceshouldbesurroundedby"spikedhedges"after thevictory.ThestabilityoftheJesuitstate,toamarkeddegree,dependedonitsisolation.TheunexpectedlyhighlevelofthecraftsamongtheGuarani,inthecontextofa generallyprimitiveleveloflife,apparentlywasaresultofanattempttomakethecountryindependentoftheoutsideworld.Ontheotherhand,thebreakdownofisolation permittedahandfulofSpanishadventurerstodestroytheIncaempire.Isnotthisdifficultyreflectedinthevexedproblemof"buildingsocialisminonecountry"?Engels once'answeredthisquestionmostcategorically:"Nineteenthquestion.Cantherevolutiontakeplaceinonecountry?Answer.No."(3:V:p.476)Thankstothisfactor alone,asocialiststatethatisnotsufficientlyisolatedisforcedtoforgothemostradicalelementsoftheideal.Andthecontraryalsoholds:whenthesocialistmovementis ontheascent,takingcontrolinmoreandmoreareasandholdingoutthepromiseofthedestructionoftheoldsystemintheentireworld,thesocialiststatesprovetobe muchmoreradicalintheirpracticalactivity.Fromthispointofview,theepochof"WarCommunism"inpostrevolutionaryRussiaisextremelyinterestingforan understandingofthepeculiaritiesofsocialistideologytheimpulsesarousedthen,inthehopeofworldrevolution(oratleastaEuropeanrevolution),continuedtobe

    generallyprimitiveleveloflife,apparentlywasaresultofanattempttomakethecountryindependentoftheoutsideworld.Ontheotherhand,thebreakdownofisolation permittedahandfulofSpanishadventurerstodestroytheIncaempire.Isnotthisdifficultyreflectedinthevexedproblemof"buildingsocialisminonecountry"?Engels once'answeredthisquestionmostcategorically:"Nineteenthquestion.Cantherevolutiontakeplaceinonecountry?Answer.No."(3:V:p.476)Thankstothisfactor alone,asocialiststatethatisnotsufficientlyisolatedisforcedtoforgothemostradicalelementsoftheideal.Andthecontraryalsoholds:whenthesocialistmovementis ontheascent,takingcontrolinmoreandmoreareasandholdingoutthepromiseofthedestructionoftheoldsystemintheentireworld,thesocialiststatesprovetobe muchmoreradicalintheirpracticalactivity.Fromthispointofview,theepochof"WarCommunism"inpostrevolutionaryRussiaisextremelyinterestingforan understandingofthepeculiaritiesofsocialistideologytheimpulsesarousedthen,inthehopeofworldrevolution(oratleastaEuropeanrevolution),continuedtobe prominentuntilthemiddleofthetwenties.Weshallciteanecessarilylimitednumberofexamplestoshowhowtherealizationofsocialistprincipleswasconceivedatthe time. Theterm"WarCommunism"itselfismisleadingitisnotatalladescriptionofthemeasuresdictatedbywartimeneeds(aswassuggested,forexample,inStalin's QuestionsofLeninism). Infact,atthetimethispolicywasbeingimplemented(19181921),theterm"War [238] Communism"wasnotusedatall.Itcameintobeinglater,togetherwiththenotionthatthispolicywasconceivedastemporaryandwasforcedupontheSovietregimeby events.Inaseriesofspeechesin19211922,Lenincharacterizedthepolicyoftheprecedingthreeyearsassomethingconsciouslyundertakenthathadperhapsgonetoo far.Hecompareditwiththestormingofafortress:ifthistacticwouldnotbringvictory,itshouldbereplacedbyasystematicsiege.Forexample:"Regardingour precedingeconomicpolicy,althoughitcannotbesaidtohavebeenplanned(insuchsituationsonecalculateslittle),itneverthelessassumedthattherewouldbean immediatetransitionfromtheoldRussianeconomytostateproductionandtodistributionbasedonCommunistprinciples."InLenin'sopinion,itwasanecessary experimentwhichforcedthetransitiontoanewpolicyof"statecapitalism,"which,albeitstillinvagueform,hadbeenconsideredasearlyas1918asapossiblelineof retreat.(SeeLenin's"NEPandtheTasksofPoliticalEnlightenment,""TheReportonNEPattheVIIthMoscowRegionalPartyConference,"and"FiveYearsofthe RussianRevolutionandtheProspectsforWorldRevolution.") Thereweremanysimilarstatementsbynumerousleadersofthestate.Inaddition,thefactthatthemostradicalmeasuresinimplementingthepoliciesassociatedwithWar Communismweretakeninthespringof1920andthewinterof19201921whentherewasnomilitaryactiongoingonleadstotheconclusionthatthepolicyoftheday wasnotnecessitatedbytheCivilWarbuthadbeenmotivatedbygeneraltheoreticalconsiderations. Letustakeupamoredetaileddiscussionofthepolicyinquestion.

    1.Economy
    Allindustrywasnationalized,includingthesmallestoperation.Everythingwas"supercentralized,"subordinatedtoCentralBoards(Glavki)inwhichseparateplantswere deprivedofanyeconomicindependence.Inagriculture,theproclaimedgoalwasthemostradicallyconceivedformofcollectivization.ThedecreeoftheCentralExecutive CommitteeissuedonMarch1,1919,readsasfollows:"Allaspectsofindividuallanduseshouldberegardedastransientanddyingforms."rOntheSocialistUseofLand andonMeasuresfortheTransitionto,SocialistAgriculture")Thepreferredformoforganizationofpeasantlaborwasthe commune. Forexample,inanothersectionof thesame [239] decree,statefarmsandcommunesarelistedfirstamongtheprioritiesintheregulationoflandallotments.Inaresolution"OntheCollectivizationofAgriculture"(adopted bytheAllRussianCongressofLandSections[Zemotdely]),itisstatedthat"themaintaskislargescaleorganizationofagriculturalcommunes,ofSovietCommunist farmsandofthepubliccultivationofland,allofwhichwillinevitablyleadtoaunifiedCommunistorganizationofagriculture." Inthecommune,asarule,allmeansofproductionweresocializedbuildings,instruments,livestock,land,etc.,aswellasconsumptionandservices.Whatlifewas supposedtobelikemaybegleanedfromstoriesaboutmodelcommunespublished,duringNEP,in Izvestia's regularsectioncalled"CompetitionfortheBestCollective Farm."Forexample:"Noonehashisownmoneyallmoneyiskeptinthegeneraltreasury."(September11,1923)Somemembersliveinseparatehousesandtaketheir mealsseparately,butwhenanewbuildingisready"everythingindividualwillbedoneawaywith."(September5,1923)Inanothercommune,thereisadormitory,a commondininghallandkitchen."Workandmealsareannouncedbybells."(September8,1923)Peopleeatinpubliccafeteriasandliveinadormitory,whereeachfamily hasitsownroom."Childrenstilllivewiththeirparents,goingoutonlybydaytothekindergarten.Itisonlyduetotheabsenceofbeddingthatchildrencannotbeinterned separately."(September11,1923)"Childrenunderschoolageliveandeatseparately." Agriculturalproductsweredeliveredtothestateaccordingtothe"surplusappropriationsystem,"atpricesdozensoftimeslowerthanthosepaidontheblackmarket.In otherwords,productsweretakenforpracticallynothing.TheSovietEncyclopedia putsitquitedelicately:"Theeconomicrelationsofthetownandthecountrywere essentiallyonesidedincharacter."Inotherareas,too,requisitionsandconfiscationwereregulated.AdecreeoftheCouncilofPeople'sCommissars(SNK)fromApril 16,1920,allowsthePresidiumoftheVSNKh(SupremeCouncilofthePeople'sEconomy)andThePeople'sCommissariatofProducetocarryoutrequisitionand confiscationdirectlyaswellasthroughlocalorganizations.AnotheroftheSNK'sdecrees(December4,1920)sanctionsfreedistributionoffoodstuffstothepopulation (moreaccurately,tothosegroupsofthepopulationthatwerebeingsuppliedwithfoodstuffs).Frequently,thecompleteabolitionofmoneywasformulatedasanimmediate aimofeconomicpolicy.Yu.Larin, [240] headofthedepartmentoffinancialpolicyoftheVSNKhwrote:"Andnow,afterafewyearsofeffortonthepartofthevictoriousproletariat,thethousandyearold foundationsofthecommodityproductionsystemarecollapsinglikeahouseofcards.Whenourchildrengrowup,moneywillbenothingbutamemory,andour grandchildrenwilllearnaboutitonlyfromthecoloredpicturesinhistorybooks."(Pravda, October17,1920,"TheTransformationofEverydayLife")InanarticlebyL. Obolenskyin ThePeople'sEconomy (publishedbyVSNKh),weread:"AtthepresenttimeinSovietRussia,asystemofmoneylessaccountsisthefirststeptowardthe abolitionofmoneyrelationsingeneral."(No.12,1920)"Naturalizationoftheeconomy"becameacommonlyusedterm,derivedfromthephraseplatit'naturoi"to payinkind."Pravda states:"Thetendencytothe generalnaturalizationofoureconomy mustbeconsciouslyundertakenbyuswithallpossibleenergy."(February14, 1920)

    2.TheOrganizationofLabor
    LetusrecallthatMarxandEngelsthemselvesrecommendedthefollowingmeasure,amongotherstobecarriedoutimmediatelyafterthesocialistrevolution:"Identical dutiesregardingwork.Establishmentofindustrialarmies,especiallyinagriculture."(3:V:p.502) Inanotecalled"TenThesesonSovietPower"whichwaspresentedtotheSeventhPartyCongress,Leninformulatedthetaskthus:"Aquickbeginningofthecomplete realizationofgenerallaborconscription,withacarefulandgradualextensionofittothesmallpeasantslivingontheirownwithouthiredlabor."(113:XXXVI:p.74)This ideawasdevelopedingreatdetailsomewhatlater. AttheNinthPartyCongress,Trotskyproposedasystemofmilitarizationunderwhichworkersandpeasantswouldbeinthepositionofmobilizedsoldiers.Theplanset forthinTrotsky'sreportisworthconsideringinmoredetail.

    Inanotecalled"TenThesesonSovietPower"whichwaspresentedtotheSeventhPartyCongress,Leninformulatedthetaskthus:"Aquickbeginningofthecomplete realizationofgenerallaborconscription,withacarefulandgradualextensionofittothesmallpeasantslivingontheirownwithouthiredlabor."(113:XXXVI:p.74)This ideawasdevelopedingreatdetailsomewhatlater. AttheNinthPartyCongress,Trotskyproposedasystemofmilitarizationunderwhichworkersandpeasantswouldbeinthepositionofmobilizedsoldiers.Theplanset forthinTrotsky'sreportisworthconsideringinmoredetail. HebeginswithanattackonSmirnov,whosepositionheformulatesasfollows: "Insofaraswehavebegunawidermobilizationofthepeasantmassesinthenameoftasksrequiringextensiveapplicationoflabor,militarizationisbecomingmandatory. Wemobilizethepeasantryandfromthismobilizedworkforceweformlabordetachmentsthatresemblemilitaryunits.Wesupplycommandersandinstructionstaff.We [241] mustincludeCommunistcellssothattheseunitsarenotsoulless,butareinspiredbythewilltowork.Thisamountstoacloseapproximationofmilitarystructure.The word'militarization'isappropriatehere,butComradeSmirnovsaysthatwhenweenterthefieldofindustry,thefieldofskilledlaborwherethereareprofessionaland productionorganizationsoftheworkingclass,thereisnoneedtoapplythemilitaryapparatusfortheformationofunitsmilitarizationinthissenseisoutofthequestion. Thetradeunionswillfulfillthetaskoforganizinglabor.Suchanapproachtothequestionrevealsacompletelackofunderstandingoftheessenceoftheeconomicchanges thataretakingplaceatthepresent."(120:p.92) Trotsky'spointofview,asexpressedinhisreport,comestothis:"Inthemilitarythereisanappropriatemechanismwhichissetinmotiontomakesoldiersfulfilltheirduty. Thisoughttobeintroducedinoneformoranotherinthelaborarea.Itisclearthatifwewishtospeakseriouslyofaplannedeconomythatisdirectedfromthecenterbya singledesign,wheretheworkforceisdistributedinaccordancewithaneconomicplanatagivenstageofdevelopment,thisworkforcecannotbenomadicRussia.Itmust becapableofbeingmovedquickly,ofbeinggiventasksandcommandedjustassoldiersare."(120:p.93)"Thissortofmilitarizationisunthinkablewithoutthe militarizationofthetradeunionsassuch,withouttheestablishmentofaregimeunderwhicheachworkerfeelsheisasoldieroflaborwhocannotfreelyarrangehislife.If thereisanorderforhimtobetransferred,heoughttoobeyit,andifhedoesnot,hewillbeconsideredadeserterwhomustbepunished."(120:p.94)Trotskyevenputs forwardatheoryinthisregard:"Thoseargumentswhichweredirectedagainsttheorganizationofalaborarmyarewhollydirectedagainstthesocialistorganizationofthe economyinourtransitionalperiod.Ifwetakeatfacevaluetheoldbourgeoisprejudiceor,toputitmoreprecisely,anoldbourgeoisaxiomwhichhasbecomea prejudice,aboutforcedlaborbeingunproductivethenwemustapplythisnotonlytoalaborarmybuttolaborconscriptionasawhole,tothefoundationofour economicplanandthereforetosocialistorganizationingeneral."(120:p.97)"Iflaborisorganizedaccordingtoanincorrectprinciple,accordingtotheprincipleof compulsion,ifcompulsionishostiletotheproductivityoflabor,thenwearedoomedtoeconomicdeclinenomatterhowmuchwedodgeandshift.Butthisisaprejudice, comrades!Theassertionthatfreelabor,freelyhiredlaborismoreproductivethanforcedlaborwasundoubtedlycorrectwhenapplied [242] tothefeudalandbourgeoissystems....ButthedevelopmentoflaborproductivitypreparedfortheshiftfromacapitalisteconomytoanewCommunisteconomy,andto applytothiscolossalhistoricchangethatwhichwascorrectlyappliedtotheoldsituationmeanstoremainwithintheframeworkofbourgeoisandphilistineprejudices.We say:itisnottruethatcompulsorylaborisunproductiveunderanyandallcircumstancesandconditions."(120:p.98) TrotskydevelopedthesamethoughtsingreaterdetailinhisbookdirectedagainstKautsky.(121)Onceagainweencountertheideaofmilitarization,laborarmiesandthe theoryaccordingtowhichforcedlaborunderconditionscreatedbythedictatorshipoftheproletariatwillbemoreproductivethanfreelabor.Trotskysupportsthis conceptionbymeansofthefollowingsignificantanalogy:"Evenserfdomwas,undercertaincircumstances,progressiveandledtoanincreaseintheproductivityof labor."(121:p.119) ThequestionwasposedonamoretheoreticalplanebyBukharin.(102)Noneconomiccompulsionispresentedherenotasameasurenecessitatedbythewarbutasan organicfeatureofthetransitionfromcapitalismtosocialism.InChapter10,entitled"ExtraEconomicCompulsioninthePeriodofTransition,"weread:"Inregardtothe nonkulakpeasantmass,compulsiononthepartoftheproletariatisaninstanceoftheclassstruggle,insofarasthepeasantisaproprietorandaspeculator."Asitturns out,thequestionhasamoreelevatedaspect:"Fromabroaderpointofview,proletariancompulsioninallitsforms,fromexecutionbyshootingtolaborconscription,is nomatterhowparadoxicalthissoundsamethodfortheelaborationofCommunisthumanityfromthehumanmaterialofthecapitalistepoch."(102:p.146) Theseconstructswerefarfrombeingpuretheory.Generallaborconscriptionwasactuallyannounced.Insteadofpassports,whichhadbeenabolished,workingpapers wereintroducedfortheentireworkforce.InMoscowandPetrograd,anyoneventuringoutonthestreetwasobligedtohavehisworkingpaperswithhim.Bythetimeof theintroductionofNEP(1921),eightlaborarmieshadbeenorganized.

    3.Family
    PracticalactionsaswellastheoreticalconsiderationsinthisfieldwerebasedonMarxisttheory,assetforthinitsmostcompleteforminEngels'bookTheOriginofthe Family,PrivatePropertyandtheState. [243] Engelshadthefollowingviewofthecontemporaryfamily:"Monogamyarosefromtheconcentrationofgreatrichesinasinglehandthatofthemanandfromtheneedto bequeaththeserichestothechildrenofthatmanandnotofanyother."(3:XVI:p.56)Aboutthefutureofthefamilyhesays:"Withthetransferofthemeansofproduction intocommonownership,theindividualfamilyceasestobeaneconomicunitofsociety.Privatehousekeepingistransformedintoasocialindustry.Thecareandeducation ofchildrenbecomeapublicaffairsocietylooksafterallchildrenequally,whethertheyareborninoroutofwedlock."(3:XVI:p.57) Itwouldseemthatsincethefamilyisdeprivedofallsocialfunctions,itmustinevitablydisappear,atleastfromthepointofviewofhistoricalmaterialism.The Communist Manifesto doesinfactproclaimtheabolitionofthe"bourgeoisfamily."What,then,willreplaceit?TheanswerstothatquestionintheclassicwritingsofMarxismare strikinglyambiguous.Wehavealreadypointedoutthepassageinthe Manifesto wheretheauthors,inspeakingabouttheaccusationthatCommunistswishtointroduce communalityofwives,clearlyavoidrejectingthisexplicitly.InanotherdocumentusedbyMarxinwritingthe Manifesto ("ProceedingsoftheGermanWorkers'Self EducationSociety")weread:"Question20:Willcommunalityofwivesbeproclaimedtogetherwiththeabolitionofprivateproperty?Answer:Absolutelynot.Weshall interfereintheprivaterelationsbetweenmanandwomanonlytothedegreethattheserelationsdisruptthenewsocialorder.Weknowverywellthatfamilyrelationshave beensubjectedtochangeinthecourseofhistory,dependingonthephaseofdevelopmentofproperty,andbecauseofthistheveryabolitionofprivatepropertywillhave amostdecisiveinfluence."(Quotedin112) Hereagain,itisimpossibletocomprehendwhatitisthattheauthorsodecisivelyrejectsthefactthatcommunalityofwiveswilloccurormerelythefactthatitwouldbe "proclaimed"andintroducedthroughtheinterferenceofsociety. InTheOriginoftheFamily,PrivatePropertyandtheState, aworkwrittenintheleastradicalperiodofhisactivities,Engelsassertsofthefuture:"Farfrom

    beensubjectedtochangeinthecourseofhistory,dependingonthephaseofdevelopmentofproperty,andbecauseofthistheveryabolitionofprivatepropertywillhave amostdecisiveinfluence."(Quotedin112) Hereagain,itisimpossibletocomprehendwhatitisthattheauthorsodecisivelyrejectsthefactthatcommunalityofwiveswilloccurormerelythefactthatitwouldbe "proclaimed"andintroducedthroughtheinterferenceofsociety. InTheOriginoftheFamily,PrivatePropertyandtheState, aworkwrittenintheleastradicalperiodofhisactivities,Engelsassertsofthefuture:"Farfrom disappearing,monogamywillthenonthecontrarybefullyrealizedforthefirsttime."(3:XVI:p.57)Butinwhatway,ifitseconomicpreconditionshavedisappeared? Answer:"Hereanewfactorcomesintoplay...individualsexlove."(3:XVI:p.57)Butonewaitsinvainforamaterialisticanalysisofthis"factor" [244] fromthefounderofhistoricalmaterialism.Itisnotabiologicalcategorybecause:"BeforetheMiddleAgesindividualsexlovewasoutofthequestion."(?!)(3:XVI:p.58) Thenperhapsweshouldexpectanexplanationinthespiritofthe"base"andthe"superstructure,"soastoshowhowthis"factor"is"given"bythehandmill!Butinstead, theauthoronlypointsmysteriouslytoadulteryasasourceofsexuallovei.e.,toafactorwhichcouldbeascribedtoproductionrelationshipsonlywithgreatdifficulty.To addtotheconfusion,Engelsspeaks,inanoteattheendofthebook,withsympathyofFourier's"brilliantcritiqueofcivilization":"IonlynotethatalreadyinFourier's writings,monogamyandpropertyinlandaretreatedasthechiefcharacteristicsofcivilization."(3:XVI:p.153) Itisnotsurprisingthatthesegeneralprincipleswereinterpretedinamultitudeofwaysintheearlypostrevolutionaryyears.Butthereisonethingthatunitesmostofthe viewscurrentthentheattitudetowardthefamilyasaninstitutionopposedtotheparty,theclassorthestate,andthereforedangerous.Herearesomeexamples: "Thefrequentconflictsbetweentheinterestsofthefamilyandthatoftheclass,asforexampleduringstrikes,andthemoralstandardthatisusedbytheproletariatinthese casescharacterizethebasisofthenewproletarianideologywithsufficientclarity....Tothedetrimentofindividualhappiness,tothedetrimentofthefamily,themoralityof theworkingclasswilldemandtheparticipationofwomeninthelifeunfoldingbeyondthethresholdofthehouse."(122:p.59)"Fromthemomentthefamilybeginsto opposeitselftosociety,enclosingitselfinthenarrowcircleofpurelydomesticinterests,itbeginstoplayaconservativeroleinthewholesocialstructureoflife.Thissortof familywearecertainlyobligedtodestroy."(123:p.156)"Thespiritofsolidarity,comradeship,readinesstogiveoneselfuptothecommoncauseiswelldeveloped wherevertheexclusionaryfamilydoesnotexist.Thishasbeencarefullytakenintoaccountbytheleadersofalmostalllargesocialmovements....Underthesocialist system,whentherewillnolongerbeadomestichouseholdandchildrenwillbebroughtupbysocietyfromthedayoftheirbirth,otherformsoftheunionofthesexes ratherthanthefamilywillundoubtedlycomeintobeing."(124:p.12)"Infuturesocialistsociety,wheretheobligationfortheupbringing,educationandmaintenanceof childrenwillbe,shiftedfromtheparentstosocietyasawhole,itisclearthatthefamilymustwitheraway."(125:p.121)"Itmakeslittlesenseforustostrive [245] foranespeciallystablefamilyandtoregardmarriagefromthatangle."(126:p.26) Thepracticalconclusionsderivedfromthisgeneraltendencyvariedsharply.AleksandraKollontaicalledforthespreadoffreelovewithafrequentchangeofsexual partners:"Fortheworkingclass,greater'fluidity,'lessrigidityintheunionofthesexescompletelycoincideswithandevenfollowsfromthebasictasksofthisclass."(122: p.59)Intheplay LoveoftheWorkerBees andthearticle"MakeWayforWingedEros!"shedevelopedthesepropositionsvividly.Leninobjected(seeKlaraTsetkin's "OnLenin"),asdidSolts,whowrites:"Adisorderlysexlifeundoubtedlyweakensanyoneasafighter."rOnPartyEthics")Ontheotherhand,M.N.Liadov(pseudonym ofMandelshtam,aBolshevikwhohadbeenoneoftheearliestmembersoftheSocialDemocraticParty)calledfortheabolitionoftheupbringingofchildrenwithinthe family."Isitpossibletobringupcollectivemaninanindividualfamily?Tothiswemustgiveacategoricalresponse:No,acollectivelythinkingchildmaybebroughtup onlyinasocialenvironment....Everyconscientiousfatherandmothermustsay:Ifwewantourchildtobeliberatedfromthatphilistinismwhichispresentineachofus,he mustbeisolatedfromourselves....Thesoonerthechildistakenfromhismotherandgivenovertoapublicnursery,thegreateristheguaranteethathewillbe healthy."(127:pp.2527) Letusrecallherethereferencecitedaboveonthe"interningofchildren"incommunes. Finally,extensivestateinterferenceinfamilyrelationswasproposedandjustifiedonhistoricgrounds:"Whereverthestateheldcontroloveralleconomicresources,asin ancientPeru,itattemptedtocontrolthecontractingofmarriageaswellasthefamilylifeofmanandwife."(124:p.12)Radicaleugenicmeasuresalsowereproposed,for example:"Wehaveeveryreasontoassumethatundersocialismchildbearingwillberemovedfromtherealmofnature."Thisdubiousconsolationisoffered:"Butthis,I repeat,istheonlyaspectofmarriagethat,inouropinion,socialistsocietymaycontrol."(128:p.450) Preobrazhensky,whowasextremelyinfluentialatthetime,wrote:"Fromthesocialistpointofview,itisquitesenselessforaseparatememberofsocietytolookonhis bodyashisownprivateproperty,foranindividualisonlyanisolatedpointinthetransitionoftheracefrompasttofuture.Butitistentimesmoresenselesstoviewone's [246] 'own'progenythatway."Theauthorrecognizes"afullandunconditionalrightofsocietytointroduceregulation,includinginterferenceinsexuallifefortheimprovementof theracethroughnaturalselection."("AboutMoralandClassNorms,"citedin112) Andoccasionallytheproblemwasphrasedevenmoreradicallythaninanyoftheexamplesabove.Forinstance,aunitoftheYoungCommunistLeagueattheLiudinov factoryinBrianskadoptedthefollowingresolutionconcerningareport"OnSexualIntercourse":"Wemustnotavoidsexualintercourse.Ifthereisnosexualintercourse, therewillbenohumansociety."(123:p.168) Practice,ofcourse,laggedbehindideology.Butanumberofmeasuresweretaken,which,thoughlessfarreachingthantheoreticalpronouncements,neverthelesspointed inthesamedirection.Thelegalformalitiesincontractingandbreakingamarriageweregreatlyliberalizedregistrationwasregardedmerelyasoneofthemeanstoconfirm marriage."Registrationisasurvivalofoldbourgeoisrelations,anditwillultimatelyceasetoexist."(AspeechbyLarin,126:p.210) Divorcewasgrantedupontherequestofeitherparty.Paternitywasascertainedonthebasisofthemother'sclaim:"Ourlegalpractice...placedresponsibilityonallthe defendants[laughter],givingthewomantheopportunityofrecoveringsomethingfromeach....Thecourt,asageneralrule,willbeguidedbytheindicationsoftheplaintiff: whoeverisindicatedbytheplaintiffwillberecognizedbythecourtasthefather[laughter]."(FromaspeechbyPeople'sCommissarofJusticeKursky,126:pp.232 Newdwellingswerenotdividedintoseparateapartmentsbutwerebuiltasdormitories. "Andoneshouldbynomeansblamethoseworkingmenandwomenwhodonotwanttomoveintocommonquarters.Itmustalwaysbekeptinmindthattheformerlife oftheworkingclasswasdeeplyrootedinbourgeoissociety,builtasitwasontheisolationofseparatefamilies.Thisindividualfamilyofbourgeoisoriginiswhatstandsin thewayofthecollectivizationofourexistence."(123:p.12)Dormitoryquartersdidnotasarulehavekitchens,sinceitwasassumedthateveryonewouldtakehismeals atcommondiningroomsand"factorykitchen"facilities.Inhis"TenThesesonSovietPower,"Leninsuggeststhat"steadfastandsystematicmeasuresshouldbe undertakenforreplacingtheindividualfoodpreparation...bythecommondiningoflargegroupsoffamilies."(113:XXXVI:p.75)Dormitories,common [247]

    233)

    "Andoneshouldbynomeansblamethoseworkingmenandwomenwhodonotwanttomoveintocommonquarters.Itmustalwaysbekeptinmindthattheformerlife oftheworkingclasswasdeeplyrootedinbourgeoissociety,builtasitwasontheisolationofseparatefamilies.Thisindividualfamilyofbourgeoisoriginiswhatstandsin thewayofthecollectivizationofourexistence."(123:p.12)Dormitoryquartersdidnotasarulehavekitchens,sinceitwasassumedthateveryonewouldtakehismeals atcommondiningroomsand"factorykitchen"facilities.Inhis"TenThesesonSovietPower,"Leninsuggeststhat"steadfastandsystematicmeasuresshouldbe undertakenforreplacingtheindividualfoodpreparation...bythecommondiningoflargegroupsoffamilies."(113:XXXVI:p.75)Dormitories,common [247] meals,theupbringingofchildrenapartfromparentsallthesemeasuresweretriedinvariouscommunes.Andtheydidinfactleadtoaweakeningofthefamily.In123, whichhasalreadybeencited,thereisthefollowingletterfromacertain"highlyplacedmember"oftheKomsomol:"Today,marriagebetweenKomsomolmembershardly evertakesplace."Theauthoroftheletterassertsthatsexualrelationsoutsidemarriageprevail,butheistakentotaskfornotunderstandingthatthisisindistinguishable frommarriage.Afterall,"foraMarxistitwouldseemthattheveryfactofsexualintercourseshouldtestifytomatrimonialrelations."(123:p.164)Between1924and1925 intheEuropeanareaofRussia,thenumberofmarriagesper100,000ofpopulationdeclinedfrom1140to980,whilethenumberofdivorcesrosefrom130to150.In 1924,ofthoseobtainingdivorces,aconsiderablenumberhadbeenmarriedforlessthanayear.(InMinskthiswastrueof260per1,000divorcesinKharkov,197in Leningrad,159.Comparethesamestatisticfor:Tokyo80NewYork14Berlin11.)(129:pp.412,416) Thedeplorablesituationwithregardtohomelesschildrenatthetimeiswellknown. "Thepresentnumberofhomelesschildrenmaybeattributedtoalargedegreetothedisintegrationofthefamily."(126:p.255)Thefollowingwordsseemtocomefrom theheart:"Ifwecontinuealongthispath,IfearweshallturnRussiaintoacountrywhereeachwillbemarriedtoall."(126:p.270)

    4.Culture
    Inthepostrevolutionaryperiodthereappearednumeroustheoriesandplansforthedestructionofculture,scienceandart.Certainofthemoriginatedinanarchistcircles. Forinstance,inaworkpublishedin1917(129),theanarchistA.Borovoiassertsthatonlybyovercomingculturecouldanarchistidealsberealized.TheprolificGordin brothers(anarchistwriterswhointheirpoliticalactivitywereclosetoBolshevism)proclaimedtheslogan"Downwithscience!"Theymeantthisasanappealforfreedom fromtheoppressionoflogic:"Downwithspiritualoppression,coercionthroughscience,deception,pseudoconvictions!"And:"Downwithsciencewiththespiritual government,anditslogicalpowerandarmy,itslogicalcoercion."(130:p.144)Theanarchist"proclaimsterroragainstscience."(130:p.137)Their [248] entirebookisdevotedtothecomparisonandcondemnationoftwosuperstitionsreligionandscience.ThebrothersGordinconsiderthePartytobethechurchof science,theuniversityitssynagogue,thephilosopheraholyfoolofintellect.(130:pp.142,194,202)"Thehistoryofcultureisthehistoryofoursuperstition....Thehistory ofcultureoncefulfilleditshonorableroleasthegravediggerofreligion,servingasitstombatthesametime.Itmustfulfillthesameroleinrespecttoscience.Afterthe collapseofscience,afterthedisenchantmentwithitasthesourceoftruth,afteritsextinctionas'civilization,'itmustbecome'culture'andretiretothemuseumofhuman superstitions."(130:pp.226227)Hereistheideal:"Atpresentatrueanarchist,apanarchist,outgrowshispettynegativeanarchismand,rejectingscienceandsocial science,therebyrejectshisownpettyidols,hisshallowandcheapasceticideals,replacingthemwithonegreatdestructivelynegativetruthwhichliesattheverybaseofhis innaturism/aphysism,oftheantiscientificspirit."(130:p.137) InhisTheTheoryoftheNewBiology, E.Enchmen,citingMarxashisauthority,comestoevenmoreextremeconclusions.Hiswork,whichisreminiscentofFourierin spirit,containsahighlyambitiousplanforthebiologicalregenerationofmankindthroughachangeinthestructureofconsciousnesswhichwillbebroughtaboutbyaseries ofsocalledorganiccataclysms."TheRevolutionaryScientificCounciloftheWorldCommunewillaccomplishorganiccataclysmsbothinthemassesofrebelsand, systematicallyandbymeansofforce,intheconservativeorganismsoftherecentoppressorsandtheirminions."(131:p.43)Asaresultofthesecataclysms,almostall receivedideasinthehumanconsciousnesswillbeerased."Alltheoriesoflogic,cognition,scientificmethodologywilldisappear,aswillallsocialandsociologicaltheories whichstilllabelthemselves'humanitarian,'andalltheoldbiologicaltheories."Allaretobereplacedbyfifteenconceptswhichtheauthorcalls"analyzers."Heexplainsthat "pastmankinddividedintothousandsofgroupsofdifferentlyreactingpeoplegroupsofmoreorless'educated'and'cultured,'andcompletely'uneducated'and 'uncultured.'AllwilluniteundertheCommunisteconomicsystemandbecomeabsolutelyequalthroughthepenetrationintoallhumanorganismsofanew,completely identicalcombinationoffifteenanalyzers...thattheepochofCommunismwillberegardedbyCommunistmankindnotaccordingtothemodernartisticformula'fromeach accordingtohisabilities,toeachaccordingtohisneeds'butasanepoch [249] ofthecompleteequalizationofallhumanorganismsstrenuouslyinvolvedin'continuousjoy'...thattheCommunisteconomywillbebasedonasystemof'physiological passports'forallhumanorganisms...thatsucha'physiologicalpassport'willservefortheorganism,usingmodernlanguage,asa'rationcard'bothforworkand consumptioninthebroadsenseofthesewords."(131:p.34) Bukharindevotedanarticletothecriticismof"Enchmenism"inthecollectionAttack. AnotherauthordealswithEnchmeninthisway:"Ofcourse,itwouldnothavebeen worthmentioninghadnotEnchmenismattractedanumberofstudents."(132:p.19) Whereasinrespecttogeneralculturesuchstatementsweresporadicandunsystematic,intheareasofartandphilosophyacoherentsystemevolved.Someofthemost influentialgroups(LEFthe"LeftFrontoftheArts")proclaimedthetransformationofartintoabranchofmaterialproduction.B.Arvatov,aprominenttheoreticianofthis group,wrote:"ThegoalofLEFistotransformallartintoacontributiontothematerialcultureofsocietyinclosetouchwithengineering."(133:p.90)"Whenartisticwork isstructuredinthisway,individualartistswillbecomethecollaboratorsofscientists,engineers,scholars,administratorsinorganizingthecommonproducttheywillbe guidednotbypersonalmotivesbutbytheobjectiveneedsofsocialproduction,fulfillingthetaskssetbytheclassthroughorganizationalcenters."(133:p.104)Ultimately, theresultwillbeasfollows:"Accordingtothepreceding,itispossibletomaintainthatinanorganized,integrated,socialistorder,figurativeartasaspecialprofessionwill witheraway."(133:p.129) Thissameattitudefoundexpressioninhostilitytowardthetreatmentofhumanpersonalityinliteraturethiswasbranded"psychologism,"andwasgenerallyconsidered representativeof"bourgeois"values.OsipBrikexpressedviewstypicalofthisapproachinanarticleonFadeyev'snovel TheRout: "Onemustsetliteraturethetaskof describingnotpeoplebuttheirdeeds,toevokeinterestnotinpeoplebutindeeds.Wevalueapersonnotforhisexperiences,butfortheroleheplaysinourcommon cause.Therefore,interestinthedeedisbasicforus,whileinterestinthepersonisderivative."(134:p.79)B.Kushnir,inhisarticle"WhyWeAreFallingBehind,"writes: "Inallitspermutations,theslogan'livingman'alwayspreserveditsinvariableclassessence....Accordingtothistheory,theauthorissupposednotonlytoworkoutthe psychologyandtheinterrelationshipofhis [250] charactersbutalsoasitweretometamorphosehimselfintoeachofthem.Thisisclearlyadifficult,timeconsumingandharmfulthing.Transformationintoone'scharacters canhardlysharpentheauthor'sclassvigilanceandclassperceptivity.Afterall,therearecharactersandcharacters.Amongthemtheremayevenbesomeunambiguous classenemies."(134:p.85)I.Nusinovopines:"Thefurthertotherightawriteris,thestrongerhistendencytopsychologize."(134:p.88)I.Altman,inanarticleentitled "FromtheBiographyofaLivingMan,"thinksitnecessaryto"exposeutterlytheopportunisticslogansofpsychologism'thelivingman'whichinterferewiththedecisive andtriumphantadvanceofproletarianliterature!"(134:p.91)

    [250] charactersbutalsoasitweretometamorphosehimselfintoeachofthem.Thisisclearlyadifficult,timeconsumingandharmfulthing.Transformationintoone'scharacters canhardlysharpentheauthor'sclassvigilanceandclassperceptivity.Afterall,therearecharactersandcharacters.Amongthemtheremayevenbesomeunambiguous classenemies."(134:p.85)I.Nusinovopines:"Thefurthertotherightawriteris,thestrongerhistendencytopsychologize."(134:p.88)I.Altman,inanarticleentitled "FromtheBiographyofaLivingMan,"thinksitnecessaryto"exposeutterlytheopportunisticslogansofpsychologism'thelivingman'whichinterferewiththedecisive andtriumphantadvanceofproletarianliterature!"(134:p.91) Anegativeattitudetowardphilosophy wasalsosupportedbyreferencestotheclassicwritingsofMarxism.Kautskyhadwritten:"Marxdidnotproclaimanyphilosophy buttheendofallphilosophy."(135:p.452) InRussia,theviewofphilosophyasa"productofthebourgeoisie,"a"semireligion,""intellectualatavism,"wasdevelopedbyS.Minin,particularlyinthearticle "PhilosophyOverboard"(136),andbyP.P.Blonsky.(137)

    5.Religion
    ThefateofreligioninthisperiodisrepletewithfeaturesthathavenoparallelineitherRussianhistoryorthehistoryoftheworld.Astudyofthisphenomenonwould undoubtedlyshedlightonanumberofaspectsofWarCommunismthatremainunclear.Agreatdealofsystematicresearchisrequired. ThiswasthetimewhenthemostdecisiveattemptwasundertakentodestroytheRussianOrthodoxChurch(inconnectionwiththesocalledcampaignfortheremovalof churchvaluables).ItwasatimewhentribunalswereconvenedtotryGodandHewassentencedtodeathbyunanimousvote.AtEaster,thereweredemonstrationswith blasphemouspicturesandslogans.... ThisextremelyfragmentarysurveyofWarCommunismwillnevertheless,wehope,conveyacertainimpressionofthatfascinatingperiod.Weseethereasystemofviews andmeasuresthatismuchmoreradicalthanwhatistobefoundinanyothersocialiststateknowntous.IfWarCommunismisthemoststrikingexampleofthe appearanceof [251] radicaltendenciesinasocialiststate,itisneverthelessnotunique. Onlycontinuingfamineanddevastationcoupledwith"capitalistencirclement"forcedaretreatfromthissystem.TheNewEconomicPolicywassucharetreatandwemust believethesincerityofthedeclarationsofthedaythatitwouldbeonlyatemporarywithdrawal.NEPwasindeedtemporary.Stalinpromulgatedalawwhichforesaw imprisonmentforlaborersandofficepersonnelwhowereabsentfromworkormerelylate:theywere"militarized."Inthelastyearsofhislife,Stalin"reassigned"moreand morescientistsandtechnicianstoprisonresearchinstitutes(sharashki). Theinternalsecurityagencyraninnumerablefactoriesandscientificinstitutions. ButStalinhadvisionsofevenmoreradicalchangesahead.Inaworkwritteninthelastyearofhislife, TheEconomicProblemsofSocialism, heexpressesthethought thatmoneyandcommodityproductioncontradictthenatureofasocialiststate.Healsofeltthatthepeasantsinthecollectivefarmswerenotsufficientlydependentonthe state.Stalinseesthis,forinstance,inthefactthatthecollectivefarmspossesstheirownseedgrainandselltheirproductstothestate(albeitaccordingtoquotasandata ratefixedbythestate). "Butitwouldbeunpardonableblindnessnottoseethatthesephenomenaarealreadybeginningtoimpedethepowerfuldevelopmentofourproductiveforces,sincethey createanobstacletothecompletecontroloftheentirenationaleconomyand,especially,ofagriculturebystateplanning."(138:p.68)Stalinproposesanewsystemfor theorganizationoftheeconomy,underwhichtradewouldbereplacedbya"systemofproductexchange"andalleconomiclifewouldcomeunderevengreatercontrolby thestate."Butthisshouldbeintroducedsteadfastly,withouthesitation,stepbystepreducingthesphereofcommoditycirculationandextendingthesphereofproduct exchange."(138:p.94) Thisprogramcouldnotbeundertaken,forpurelypracticalreasonsinparticular,itwouldhaveinvolvedtheriskoffallingeconomicallytoofarbehindtheU.S.A. China's"GreatLeapForward"providesuswithonemoreexample.Attheendofthefifties,atransitiontocommunisminthreetofiveyearswasproclaimed:"Threeyears ofintenseworkandtenthousandyearsofhappiness!"Inseveralmonthstimein1958,"people'scommunes"sprangupalloverthecountrysidecommuneswere introducedincitiesaswell.Accordingtotheplan,theyweretobecomethebasic [252] formoftheorganizationofagriculture,industry,administration,schools,thearmy.Militarizedlaborarmieswerecreated.Peoplemarchedtoworkinformation.Everyday lifewasbeingsocialized,andallequipmentandhouseholdgoodsinthecommunewerebeingconsolidated.Unpaiddeliveryofproductswasinitiated. Weseethesamepictureintheattitudetowardreligion.Allsocialiststatesarefundamentallyhostiletowardreligion,buttheopportunitiesforexpressingthisattitudevary. ItalianfascismatfirstcameintosharpconflictwiththeCatholicChurch,butwascompelledtocometotermswithitandrefrainfromseriousoppressionofreligion.In otherrespects,too,itwastheweakestsocialiststateofourcenturyandhadtheleastpossibilityforrealizingitssocialisttendencies.China,ontheotherhand,couldpermit itselftooutlawtheChristianreligioncompletely.Betweentheseextremes,thereisawholespectrumofpossibleapproachestowardreligionallofthembasicallyhostile butonlyasharshasgivenconditionspermit. Neithertheabolitionofthefamilynorcommunalityofwiveswasfullyrealizedinanyknownsocialiststate,buttherudimentsofsuchaneffortcanbeeasilyobserved.For instance,inNaziGermanytherewasanattempttoproduceraciallypurechildrenoutofwedlock.Theorganizationlebensborn, foundedbyHimmler,selectedAryansires forunmarriedwomen.Therewereofficiallyinspiredsuggestionsaboutthedesirabilityofextrawivesformenofaraciallysuitabletype.Bormann'swifepropagandized theseideasandherselfsanctionedanotherwifeforherhusband. Inalltheexamplescited,theseundertakingswerenotcarriedtocompletionduetoveryspecificexternalcircumstances,butnotbecauseofideologicalinconsistency.It seemsthatcarryingthroughsuchtransformationsofliferequiresadefinitelevelofagitationandthemobilizationofacertainkindofspiritualenergy.Andthis,initsturn,is dependentonthedepthofthecrisisthatthesocietyisundergoingatthegivenmoment.Inparticular,thedestructionofthetraditionalfamilyandstatecontroloverfamily relations,whichweintroducedatthebeginningofthissectionasanexampleofsomethingpeculiartothedoctrinesofchiliasticsocialism,mayprovetobealltoofeasible underconditionsoftheapproachingcrisisofoverpopulation.(Toynbeesuggeststhisin139.) Itthereforeseemsimpossibletodrawanyfirmtheoreticaldistinction [253] betweenthedoctrinesofchiliasticsocialismandthepracticesofthesocialiststates.Theonlydifferencestemsfromthefactthatinthefirstcasewehaveaclearly formulatedideal,whereasthesecondpresentsaseriesofvariants,stretchingdownthroughhistory,wherenomorethananattemptcanbemadetodistinguishacertain

    underconditionsoftheapproachingcrisisofoverpopulation.(Toynbeesuggeststhisin139.) Itthereforeseemsimpossibletodrawanyfirmtheoreticaldistinction [253] betweenthedoctrinesofchiliasticsocialismandthepracticesofthesocialiststates.Theonlydifferencestemsfromthefactthatinthefirstcasewehaveaclearly formulatedideal,whereasthesecondpresentsaseriesofvariants,stretchingdownthroughhistory,wherenomorethananattemptcanbemadetodistinguishacertain trend.Butthistrend,ifextrapolatedtoitslogicalconclusion,pointstowardthesameidealthatisproclaimedbythesocialistdoctrines. Itisfareasiertodiscernthedistinctionsbetweenchiliasticandstatesocialismastheyarerevealedinhistory.Tobeginwith,weencounterstatesofthesocialisttype thousandsofyearsbeforetheexistenceofanydevelopedsocialistdoctrine.Second,socialiststatesappearinhistoryintwoquitedifferentsituations:inprimitivecultural conditionsattheverybeginningofthestateperiodofhistory(intheMediterraneanbasinthisoccurredbetweenthethirdandthesecondmillenniaB.C.)andinthe industrialsocietiesofthetwentiethcentury.Thedevelopmentofsocialistdoctrinesoccursduringtheintervalbetweenthesetwoperiods.Withinchiliasticsocialismitisalso possibletodistinguishtwotendenciesonegivesrisetoabstractacademicsystems,elaborateplansforafuturesocietytheothercallsforthedestructionoftheexisting world,for"liberation,"revenge,andthereignofanelect.Thesetwotendenciesalsoundoubtedlymanifestthemselvesduringdifferentepochs.Plato'sRepublic ismost certainlythesourceofthefirstcurrent:More,Campanella,DeschampsareunderhisobviousinfluenceevenMarcuseincitingthemythsofNarcissusandOrpheusto illustratehisconceptsisclearlyattemptingtoimitatePlato.ThesecondcurrenttakesshapeintheMiddleAgesamongthehereticalsects.Butifthehistoryofthesesectsis traced,itisfoundthatallofthem(CatharsandtheBrethrenoftheFreeSpirit)originateinthegnosticsectsoftheearlycenturiesA.D.Inanadmittedlyundevelopedform, theseearliersectsshowsomeofthebasicfeaturesthatwillappearlaterinthesocialistdoctrines. Letusnote,firstofall,thatsocialistdoctrinesarosethousandsofyearslaterthansocialiststates.Thiscompelsustoreversetheusualaxiomofsocialistideology:the doctrinesofchiliasticsocialismcannotberegardedasaprediction(scientific,mysticalorrational)ofafuturesocialsystem.Theyarefarmoreakintoreactioni.e., tothe desiretoreturnmankindtoamoreprimitivearchaiccondition. However,thisreactionisnotsimplyaimedatrestoringthatwhichwaschiliastictheorygoesfarbeyondthepracticeofearlysocialist [254] states.Thenatureofthisprocesswillbecomeclearerifweexamineitinthelightofahistoricalobservationmadebyvariousauthors,KarlJaspersamongthem.Itwas Jasperswhosuggestedcallingthephenomenoninquestionhistory's"axialtime."(140)Jaspershasinmindthoseprofoundshiftswhichoccurredintheperiodcomprising approximatelythefirstmillenniumB.C.Duringthetwoprecedingmillennia,themainforceinfluencingthedevelopmentofhistorywerethepowerfulstatesorganizedinthe mannerofOrientaldespotism,withentirepopulationsunderbureaucraticcontrol,permittingthemtoundertakegiganticconstructionprojectsandtofieldhugearmies. Afteralonginterval,inthefirstmillenniumB.C.,other, spiritual forcesagainbegantohaveadecisiveinfluenceonthecourseofhistory.FromGreecetoChina,there aroseteachingsthatweredirectedtothesoulofindividualmen,assertingindividualman'sresponsibilitybeforereason,beforeconscienceorelsebeforehigherpowers. Thesewere:Greekphilosophy,thepreachingoftheIsraeliteprophets,Buddhism,Confucianism.Itisnottheomnipotentstatemachinethatispronouncedtobetheforce capableofdeterminingthefateofmankind,butthehumanpersonality.Agodlikedespotbeforewhomonecouldonlybowdownandobeyloseshispositionasthe creatorofhistory.Nolessaroleisnowplayedbytheteacherwhocallsonthepeopletobelieveinhismessageandtofollowhisexample.Whateverapproachonetakes withregardtotheoriginofChristianitywhether"theWordbecameflesh"orwhethermankinditselfcametoanewunderstandingofitsfatetheprocesswehave sketchedfindshereitshighestexpression.Jaspersbelievesthatitispreciselyin"axialtime"thattheconceptionof history appears.Inhisopinion,weconsiderhistorical thosepeopleswhohaveeitherdirectlyparticipatedinthisprocessorwhosubsequentlycametosharethevaluessocreated(theGermanicpeoples,forexample,orthe Slavs). Thereisnoneedforustodiscussherethisvastandcomplexhistoricalphenomenon.Weshallonlyjuxtaposeitwiththestagesinthedevelopmentofchiliasticsocialism thatwehavenotedearlier.WithinthelimitsoftheMediterraneanculturalcircles,"axialtime"wasexpressedintwobasicphenomenainthe"Greekmiracle,"mostvividly embodiedinthepersonalityofSocrates,andintheriseofChristianity.Thesetwophenomenaareverycloseintimetowhatwehaveindicatedasthestartingpointsofthe twotendenciesofchiliasticsocialism.Plato'ssocialistutopiawaspromulgatedseveraldecadesafterSocrates'death, [255] whiletheoriginalgnosticsectsappearedasearlyasthefirstcenturyA.D.Itisreasonabletosuggestthatwehaveherenotonlyatemporalbutalsoacausalrelationship i.e.,the"utopian"chiliasticsocialismofPlato,More,Campanella,Fourier,mayperhapsbeseenasareactiontothevisionoftheworldelaboratedinGreekculture,while the"revolutionary"and"eschatological"socialismofthegnosticandmedievalheresies,ofMntzerandofMarx,maybeareactiontotheappearanceofChristianity.Such aviewisinfundamentalagreementwiththeconclusionswecametoconcerningthegeneralcharacterofsocialism.Ifsocialismisamanifestationofacertainbasicand constantlyactiveforce,itisnaturalthatanyobstacletoitsactionwouldcallforthchangesintheformofitsmanifestation.Aprofoundlyspiritualunderstandingofhuman personality,anassertionofthecentralrolethatitplaysinGreekcultureand,inparticular,inChristianitythesewerethefactorsthatshookthemonolithicstabilityofthe statesbasedonsocialistprinciplesandshowedmankindthepossibilityofanotherpath. ThequestionoftheaffinitiesbetweenprimitiveEasternstatesofthesocialisttypeandsocialiststatesofthetwentiethcenturyisexaminedinthelastchapterofWittfogel's book.(89)Theauthorbelievesthatthesearetwovariantsofoneandthesamesocialstructure.Primitiveagrariandespotism"existedformillennia,untilthetimethatitfelt theimpactofthegrowthoftheindustrialandcommercialWest."(89:p.360)Inthelastsectionsofhisbook("WhitherAsia?""WhitherWesternSocietyWhither Mankind?")WittfogelviewstheappearanceofsocialiststatesinthetwentiethcenturyasareturnofAsiaticcountriestotheprimitivestructuresthathadexistedfor millennia.Yetheacknowledgesthatmodernsocialiststatesdifferfromtheirancientpredecessorsbythefactthattheyundertaketocontroltheircitizensnotonlyin economicbutinsocialandintellectualterms.Forthatreasonmodernsocialismismuchmorethanan"Asiaticrestoration."Thelackofconsistencymaybeexplained,soit seemstous,bythefactthattheauthorviewssocialismasanexclusivelyeconomiccategoryandadefiniteformofstateorganization.Thusthedevelopmentofchiliastic socialism(whichrequiredtwoandahalfmillennia)remainsbeyondhisfieldofvision.Yetthisispreciselythelinkjoiningthetwotypesofsocialistsociety.The distinguishingfeatureoftwentiethcenturysocialiststatesistheirdependenceonanideologythathasbeenelaboratedandforgedoverthecourseofthousandsofyears (andthebetterelaborateditis,themorestabletheyare).Thisisexactly [256] whattheOrientaldespotslackedandwhatpreventedthemfromretainingpowerovertheworldinthespiritualatmospherecreatedby"axialtime."Thisideologywas createdalmostexclusivelyintheWest,andthisfactalonemakesitimpossibletoregardsocialismofthetwentiethcenturyasan"Asiaticrestoration." Thecontemporarysocialiststatescouldnothavecomeintoexistencewithouttheideologycreatedbychiliasticsocialism.Wehavealreadydescribeditsbasicfeatures:the abolitionofprivateproperty,hostilitytowardreligion,destructionofthefamily,communality.Thisideologyislinkedtothemythicconcepts(expressedthoughtheyarein modernquasiscientificterms)ofthe"goldenage,""captivity,""liberation"and"thechosenpeople"destinedtobetheinstrumentofliberation,forwhichpurposethe annihilationofanevilworldwillberequired.Finally,thereisthepromiseofanewworldthatwillariseasaresultofthecatastropheandwheretheidealsofchiliastic socialismwillberealized. Itisevidentlythissystemofviewswhichmustbeexaminedinordertoclarifythehistoricroleofsocialism.

    Thecontemporarysocialiststatescouldnothavecomeintoexistencewithouttheideologycreatedbychiliasticsocialism.Wehavealreadydescribeditsbasicfeatures:the abolitionofprivateproperty,hostilitytowardreligion,destructionofthefamily,communality.Thisideologyislinkedtothemythicconcepts(expressedthoughtheyarein modernquasiscientificterms)ofthe"goldenage,""captivity,""liberation"and"thechosenpeople"destinedtobetheinstrumentofliberation,forwhichpurposethe annihilationofanevilworldwillberequired.Finally,thereisthepromiseofanewworldthatwillariseasaresultofthecatastropheandwheretheidealsofchiliastic socialismwillberealized. Itisevidentlythissystemofviewswhichmustbeexaminedinordertoclarifythehistoricroleofsocialism. [257]

    IX. Socialismand Individuality


    Itisnaturalenoughtobegintheanalysisofthissocialidealbyelucidatingtheinterrelationshipofitsvariouselements.Itisimmediatelycleartheydonotplayanequalrole. Forexample,Platoarguesforthenecessityofcommunalpropertyandwives,sinceonlyundertheseconditionswillthecitizenstakejoyinandgrieveoverthesamethings. Inotherwords,heconsidersthecommunalityofpropertyandtheabolitionofthefamilyasmeansforachievingequality. Heregardsequality,however,notintheusual senseofequalityofrightsoropportunities,butasidentityofbehavior,astheequalizationofpersonalities.Boththesetraitstheabolitionofprivatepropertyandofthe familyasameanstoachieveequality,andthisspecialunderstandingofequalityrunthroughthemajorityofsocialistteachings. Theviewthatequalityisthebasicprinciplefromwhichothersocialistdoctrinesproceedplayedanespeciallylargeroleinthegnosticsects."God'sjusticeconsistsof communityandequality"suchapropositionwasusedtojustifyboththeabolitionofprivatepropertyandthedemandforcommunalwives.Thisthemecanbetracedin themedievalheresiesandthedoctrinesoftheReformation.NiklausStorchpreached:"Everythingshouldbecommon,forGodsentallintotheworldequallynaked." Mntzertaught:"Nooneshouldriseaboveotherseverymanmustbefree,andthereshouldbecommunityofproperty."CitingPlato,Moreassertedthatthoselawsare bestthatprovidefor"distributingallthegoodthingsoflifeamongallequally,"anddeducedtheneedforcommunalityofproperty.Meslierwritesthat"allpeopleareequal bynature"andalsodeducesthenecessity [258] ofabolishingprivateproperty.RepresentativesoftheEnlightenmentsupplementedthisargumentwiththenotionofa"naturalstate"inwhichallpeoplewereequalandthe disappearanceofwhichgaverisetoprivatepropertyandallthevicesofcontemporarylife.Theonlysignificantexceptionis"scientificsocialism,"whichdeducestheneed toabolishprivatepropertyfromobjectivecauses,suchasthetypeofproduction.Insodoing,Marxdeducestheverynotionofequalityfromtheeconomicconditionsof bourgeoissociety.(See3:XVII:p.68)Buthow,then,arewetodealwiththejustcitedradicalconceptsofequalitythatwereproclaimedintheearlycenturiesA.D.?We havealreadyshownwhywecannotrecognize"scientificsocialism"asagenuinelyscientifictheoryandwhywemustseeitmerelyasaformorguiseinwhichthesocialist idealappearsGustasitcanappearinmysticgarb,forexample).Forthesamereason,wecannottakeonfaiththeassertionthatthedemandforabolishingprivate propertyisalsoaresultofscientificanalysisoftheobjectivephenomenaofsociallife.Weshallsoonreturntotheevaluationoftherolewhichcommunalityofproperty playsin"scientificsocialism"anditsconnectionwiththeconceptofequality. Oneofthemoststrikingfeaturesofsocialistideologyisthatquitespecialsensewhichitattributestotheconceptofequality.Wehavealreadypointedthisoutin connectionwiththerationaleforcommunalityofproperty,ofwivesandchildrenproposedbyPlato.Andlater,inthemajorityofsocialistdoctrines,weencountera conceptionofequalitywhichapproachesthatof identity. Dwellinglovinglyonthedetails,authorshavedescribedthecharacteristicmonotonyandunificationoflifeinthe stateofthefuture.WhereMorespeaksaboutidenticalclothing,exceptforadifferencebetweenmaleandfemaleattire,Campanellaindicatesthatthedressofmenand womenisalmostthesame.InUtopia,everyonewearscloaksofthesamecolorintheCityoftheSunawomanwhoattemptstoalterhermodeofdresswillbepunished bydeath.Solariansneverhaveanyprivacytheyworkandrelaxindetachmentsandsharecommonsleepinganddiningfacilities.AllthecitiesofUtopiaarebuiltaccording tooneplan:"Hewhorecognizesonewillrecognizeall."ThesameidealoflifeinabsolutelyidenticalcitiesconsistingofidenticalhousesisrepeatedbyMorelly.Hispeople alsowearclothesmadeofthesamematerial,andallchildren'sclothingisabsolutelyidentical.Theyalleatthesamefood'andreceivethesameeducation.Babeufand Buonarotti'scircle,whose [259] verytitleincludedtheword"equality,"understoodthistoincludecommonobligatorymeals,entertainment,etc.... Intheexamplesabove,weseeanexternalequalizationoflivingconditionswhichsymbolizes,asitwere,thecorrespondinglevelingoftheinnerworld.Deschampsgivesa moredetaileddescriptionofthechangesinhumanpersonality.Ofthepeopleofthefuture,hewrites:"Theywould(muchmorethanwe)adheretothesametypeofaction andwouldnotdeducefromthis,asweusuallydowithregardtoanimals,thattoactthusistorevealalackofreasonorunderstanding.Whydopeoplewhofind perfectioninnature'severidenticaltypeofactionconsiderthistobeadefectinanimals?Onlybecausepeoplearetoofarremovedfromthiskindofaction,andtheir haughtinessmakestheminterpretthisveryremotenesstotheiradvantage."(53:p.219) Morespecifically,heforeseesthatpeoplewillbegintolookalike:"Identicalmorals(andtruemoralscanonlybeidentical)wouldmake,sotosay,onemanofallmenand onewomanofallwomen.Imeanbythisthatultimatelytheywouldresembleeachothermorethananimalsofthesamespecies."(53:p.176) Deschampsproposeschangesinlanguagesoas"tobanishalltermspresentlyusedtoexpressourgoodandbadqualities,evenalltermsunnecessarilydistinguishingus fromotherthings."(53:p.503) Finally,"scientificsocialism"proclaimsthatthehistoricalprocessiscontrolledbyimmanentlawswhichareindependentofhumanwill.Anunderstandingoftheselaws makeshistorypredictable.Thisconceptionwasformedundertheobviousinfluenceoftheadvancesofnaturalscienceintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,above all,thesuccessofastronomyinpredictingthediscoveryofplanets,thereturnofcomets,etc.Fourierassertsthatmankindisruledbythelawsof"attractionofthe passions,"whichareinhisviewpreciselyanalogoustoNewton'slawofgravitation,whereby"theunityofthephysicalandthespiritualworldsismanifest."Intermsofthis analogy,individualscorrespondtotheelementalparticlesofmatter,whichmustbeidentical(atleast,fromthestandpointofpropertiesessentialtothephenomenonunder considerationthatis,history). AsforMarxism,onethinksofananalogywithanotherphysicaltheory.Thisisthekinetictheoryofgases,accordingtowhichagasisthe aggregateofmoleculesthatcomeintocollision,withtheresultofeachcollisiondeterminedbythelawsofmechanics.Averygreatnumberofmolecules [260] transformthestatisticallawsoftheircollisionintothegenerallawsofthephysicsofgases.Theonlyformofsocialcontactoftheproducersofgoodsincapitalistsocietyis exchange(justasforgasmoleculestheonlyformofinteractioniscollision).Theinteractionofagreatnumberofproducersengendersthat"socialproduction"which,inits turn,determinestheirpolitical,legalandreligiousnotions,andthe"social,politicalandspiritualprocessesoflifeingeneral."Itisevidentthatsuchaconceptionmakes senseonlyontheassumptionthatseparate"molecules"(producers)are identical. Otherwise,insteadofanexplanation(oran"understanding,"asMarxputsit),there wouldbeonlytheindividualpropertiesofahugenumberofpeople,andoneenigmawouldbereplacedbyamassofenigmas.

    [260] transformthestatisticallawsoftheircollisionintothegenerallawsofthephysicsofgases.Theonlyformofsocialcontactoftheproducersofgoodsincapitalistsocietyis exchange(justasforgasmoleculestheonlyformofinteractioniscollision).Theinteractionofagreatnumberofproducersengendersthat"socialproduction"which,inits turn,determinestheirpolitical,legalandreligiousnotions,andthe"social,politicalandspiritualprocessesoflifeingeneral."Itisevidentthatsuchaconceptionmakes senseonlyontheassumptionthatseparate"molecules"(producers)are identical. Otherwise,insteadofanexplanation(oran"understanding,"asMarxputsit),there wouldbeonlytheindividualpropertiesofahugenumberofpeople,andoneenigmawouldbereplacedbyamassofenigmas. Proceedingfromtheseexamples,itispossibletoattempttoformulatethespecificconceptofequalityinherentinsocialistideology.Theusualunderstandingof"equality," whenappliedtopeople,entailsequalityof rights andsometimesequalityof opportunity (socialwelfare,pensions,grants,etc.).Butwhatismeantinallthesecasesisthe equalizationofexternal conditionswhichdonottouchtheindividualityofman.Insocialistideology,however,theunderstandingofequalityisakintothatusedin mathematics(whenonespeaksofequalnumbersorequaltriangles),i.e.,thisisinfactidentity,theabolitionofdifferencesinbehavioraswellasintheinnerworldofthe individualsconstitutingsociety.Fromthispointofview,apuzzlingandatfirstsightcontradictorypropertyofsocialistdoctrinesbecomesapparent.Theyproclaimthe greatestpossibleequality,thedestructionofhierarchyinsocietyandatthesametime(inmostcases)astrictregimentationofalloflife,whichwouldbeimpossiblewithout absolutecontrolandanallpowerfulbureaucracywhichwouldengenderanincomparablygreaterinequality.Thecontradictiondisappears,however,ifwenotethatthe terms"equality"and"inequality"areunderstoodintwodifferentways.Theequalityproclaimedinsocialistideologymeansidentityofindividualities.Thehierarchyagainst whichthedoctrinefightsisahierarchybasedonindividualqualitiesorigin,wealth,education,talentandauthority.Butthisdoesnotcontradicttheestablishmentofa hierarchyofinternallyidenticalindividualswhoonlyoccupydifferentpositionsinthesocialmachine,justasidenticalpartscanhavedifferentfunctionsinamechanism.The analogybetweenthesocialistidealofsocietyandthemachineiscertainlynotnew.Forexample,speakingabouttheancientstatesofMesopotamiaandEgypt(which,as wehaveseen, [261] weretoaconsiderableextentbasedonsocialistprinciples),LewisMumfordexpressestheviewthattheirsocialstructurewasthefirsttobebasedontheideaofa machine.Hesupportsthisideabyreferringtothedrawingsofthetimethatshowwarriorsandworkersascompletelyidentical,likethestereotypeddetailsofamachine. (141:p.150)Evenmoreconvincingistheevidenceofamanwhowasclearlycompetentinthisarea:I.V.Stalin.Heonceexpressedhissocialidealbycallingthe inhabitantsofthestateruledbyhim"nutsandbolts."Heproposedatoasttothem.AndincontemporaryChinathepapersglorifytheheroLeiFen,whowroteinhisdiary abouthisdesiretobeChairmanMao's"stainlesssteelcog." Theprecedingconsiderationsleadustotheconclusionthatatleastthreecomponentsofthesocialistidealtheabolitionofprivateproperty,theabolitionofthefamilyand socialistequalitymaybededucedfromasingleprinciple:thesuppressionofindividuality. Thereisalsoalargebodyofdirectevidencethatdemonstratesthehostilityof socialistideologytoindividuality.Someexamples: Mazdaktaughtthattheconfusionoflightanddark,aswellasevilingeneral,derivedfromindividualityandthattheidealconditioncannotbeachieveduntilpeoplerid themselvesoftheirindividualqualities.Fourierbelievedthatthe"fundamentalcoreofthepassions"onwhichthefuturesocietywillbefoundedisapassioncalled "unitheism."Thisforceisnotactivatedinconditionsofcivilization.Thepassiondirectlyopposedtoitisegoismorone'sown"I.""Thisdisgustinginclinationhasvarious namesintheworldoflearning:moralistscallitegoismideologues,the'I,'anewtermwhich,however,doesnotintroduceanythingnewbutisauselessparaphraseof egoism."(97:p.105)ItshouldbenotedherethategoismintheusualsenseisnotatallexcludedfromFourier'ssystem.Heheldthatthemostusefulpeopleinthefuture societywouldbethosewhoareinclinedtoenjoymentandwhodeclaredutytobetheinventionofphilosophers.Fourieroffersalistofthemostimportantpassionsforthe neworder:loveoffinefood,sensuality,apassionfordiversity,competition,selflove.Evidently,"egoism"inthequotationaboveshouldbeunderstoodinabroadersense andthe"I"inadirectsense. InMarxismtheideaisoccasionallyexpressedthatmanhasnoexistenceasanindividualitybutonlyasamemberofadefiniteclassindividualmanistheinventionof philosophers.Wecomeacrossattacksonthe"corrupt"viewsthathold"insteadoftheinterestsoftheproletariat, [262] theinterestsofman,whodoesnotbelongtoanyclassand,ingeneral,existsnotinrealitybutinthecloudsofphilosophicfantasy."(3:V:pp.506507)Marxsays:"The essenceofmanisnotanabstractqualityinherentinaseparateindividual.Inrealityitistheaggregateofallsocialrelations."(3:IV:p.590)Marxwasconcernedwiththe questionofwhy,underconditionsofcompletepoliticalemancipation,religiondoesnotdisappear.Fromhispointofview,thistestifiestothefactthatacertainflawremains insociety,butthereasonforthisflawshouldbesoughtintheveryessenceofthestate.Religionisnolongerpresentedasacausebutasamanifestationofgeneral narrowmindedness.Theessenceofthisnarrowmindednessandlimitationheseesinthefollowing:"PoliticaldemocracyisChristianinnaturebecausemaninitnotmanin generalbuteachmanseparatelyisconsideredasovereignandsupremebeingandthisissaidofmaninhisuncultivated,nonsocialaspect,ofmaninahaphazardformof existence,manasheisinlife,manasheiscorruptedbythewholeorganizationofoursociety,lostandalienatedfromhimselfinaword,manwhoisnotyetagenuine creature."(3:I:p.368) Inthecontemporaryleftistmovement,thethemeofthestruggleagainstindividualityisparticularlystrong.Theideologistsofthismovementdistinguishseveralaspectsof revolution(orofaseriesof"revolutions,"astheyputit):social,racial,sexual,artistic,psychedelic.Amongthese,twoespeciallyareperceivedasmeansfortheannihilation of"bourgeoisindividuality"thepsychedelicrevolution(collectiveuseofhallucinogensanddeafeningrockmusic)andaparticularaspectofthesexualrevolution("group sex,"whichgoesmuchfurtherthanthegroupmarriageofprimitivetribes,sincenotonlythepersonalitybutalsothesexofthepartnersplaysnorole). Thistendencyleadstoattemptstoovercomesexdistinction.Thuswereadinacontemporaryleftistmagazine:"Capitalismdevelopedtheevermoreinhumanpolarization ofthesexes.Thecultofmakingdistinctions,whichservesonlyforoppression,isnowbeingsweptawaybyawarenessofresemblanceand'identity.'"Theauthorquotes anotherrepresentativeofthesamecurrent:"BothsexesaremovingtowardgeneralHumanity."(142:p.25) Marcuseforeseesasocietyinwhichfantasy,nowsuppressedbyreason,willopenupanewapproachtoreality.Inhisunderstanding,ofthenatureoffantasyMarcuse herefollowsFreud,citing,inparticular,thelatter'sideathatfantasy"preservesthestructureandtendencies [263] ofthepsychepriortoitsorganizationbythereality,priortoitsbecomingan'individual'setoffagainstotherindividuals.Andbythesametoken,liketheid,towhichit remainscommitted,fantasypreservesa'memory'ofthesubhistoricalpast,whenthelifeoftheindividualwasthelifeofthegenus,theimageoftheimmediateunitybetween theparticularandtheuniversalundertheruleofthepleasureprinciple."(119:p.142)Itispreciselyintheprocessofdisintegrationofthisunitythatthereappearsthe "principiumindividuationis"hostiletofantasy.MarcusebelievesthatoneofFreud'smostimportantserviceswasthedestructionof"oneofthestrongestideological fortificationsofmodernculturenamely,thenotionoftheautonomousindividual."(119:p.57) Sartre'sviewsinthisconnectionarealsoofinterest.Hesays,forexample:"Ibelievethatthethinkingofthegroupiswherethetruthis....Ihavethoughtthiswaysince childhood.Ialwaysconsideredgroupthinkingtobebetterthanthinkingalone....Idon'tbelieveaseparateindividualtobecapableofdoinganything."(143:pp.170 171) Hefeelsparticularantipathyforsuchindividualactionassacrifice."Thesacrificialtypeisnarrowmindedbynature....Thisisamonstroustype.AllmylifeIhavefought againstthespiritofsacrifice."(143:p.183)

    "principiumindividuationis"hostiletofantasy.MarcusebelievesthatoneofFreud'smostimportantserviceswasthedestructionof"oneofthestrongestideological fortificationsofmodernculturenamely,thenotionoftheautonomousindividual."(119:p.57) Sartre'sviewsinthisconnectionarealsoofinterest.Hesays,forexample:"Ibelievethatthethinkingofthegroupiswherethetruthis....Ihavethoughtthiswaysince childhood.Ialwaysconsideredgroupthinkingtobebetterthanthinkingalone....Idon'tbelieveaseparateindividualtobecapableofdoinganything."(143:pp.170 171) Hefeelsparticularantipathyforsuchindividualactionassacrifice."Thesacrificialtypeisnarrowmindedbynature....Thisisamonstroustype.AllmylifeIhavefought againstthespiritofsacrifice."(143:p.183) Wemeetwiththeverysamefeaturesinthehistoricalmodelsofsocialism.DiscussingtheinfluenceoftheIncasystemontheIndians'psyche,Baudinwrites:"Lifeitselfwas tornoutofthatgeometricalandsadempire,whereeverythingoccurredwiththeinevitabilityoff atum. ...TheIndianlosthispersonality."(56:pp.135136) Thedepthoftheconflictbetweenindividualityasacategoryandsocialistideologyisindicatedbythefactthatthisconflicttouchesontheinnermostcoreofindividuality. Assomuchelseinman,hisindividualityhastwostrataone,themoreancient,isofprehumanoriginandmansharesitwithmanyanimals,whilethenewerstratumis specificallyhuman. Ethologists(scientistsinvestigatingthebehaviorofanimals)seethemomentwhen individualbonding appearsasthefirstmanifestationofindividualityintheanimalworld (i.e.,whentherearerelationsinwhichoneanimalcannotbereplacedbyanyother).Thisphenomenonmaybeobservedexperimentallybytryingtosubstituteoneanimal foranother.Certaintypesoffish,birdsandmammalsexhibitthistypeofbondingaclassicexampleofthephenomenonthathasbeenthoroughly [264] investigatedisthebondingofthegraylaggoose.Inthisspecies,bondingisaccomplishedinacomplicatedritualperformedbyparentsandnestlingsorbyapairorbytwo ganders.Whenoneindividualdies,theothercallshimandlooksforhimeverywhere,stopsavoidingpredators,becomestimid.Lorenzevenassuresusthatintheeyesof suchacreaturethereappearsthesameexpressionasintheeyesofanunhappyhuman.(144:Chap.11) Thepresenceofindividualbondshasgreatimportanceforthestructureofanimalsocieties,whicharedividedintoanonymous societies,inwhichanimalsdonot distinguisheachotherasindividuals(forexample,groupsofherringorofrats),andindividualized societies,inwhichanimalsarelinkedbyindividualrelations(e.g., geese).Astonishingly,amongtheforcessupportingtheexistenceofindividualizedanimalsocieties,accordingtotheethologists,arepreciselythosefactors(seeninhuman society)withwhichsocialismisinconflict:theupbringingofoffspringbyafamily,individuallybondedchildrenandparentsand,ingeneral,individualbondsbetween membersofsociety.(Deschampsforesees"lifewithoutseparatebonds"inthefuturesociety.)Otherindividualizedanimalbehaviorincludesanimalhierarchiesinwhich individualshavedifferentimportance,andwhere,forinstance,oldermemberscanusetheirexperienceforthebenefitofthewholegroup,whilestrongerindividualsdefend theweak.Finally,thereisaphenomenonwhichmayberegardedasaprehumananalogyofproperty:thenotionofterritoryinanimalsociety. Socialismisequallyhostiletothosespecificallyhumanfactorswhichaccountfortheindividualityofman,tothoseaspectsoflifeinwhichmancanparticipateonlyasan individualityandcannotbereplacedbyanyoneelse.Culturalcreativity,particularlyartisticcreativity,isanexample.Wehaveseenhowthemostoutstandingthinkersof thesocialisttrend(Plato,Deschamps)elaboratemeasuresthatprovideforthecompletedisappearanceofculture.Andinperiodswhensocialistmovementsareonthe increase,thecallforthedestructionofcultureisheardevermoredistinctly.ItissufficienttorecalltheregulardestructionofbooksinmonasterylibrariesbytheTaborites andthedestructionofworksofartbytheAnabaptistsinMnster.IntheyearsofWarCommunism,ananticulturetrendwasquiteevident,aswehavealreadyindicated. Thecontemporaryleftradicalsocialistmovements,manifestthesameattitudetowardculture.Cultureisunderstoodbythemtobe"bourgeois"and"repressive"thegoalof artisunderstood [265] asan"explosion"orthedestructionofculture.ThetheoreticalframeworkisderivedfromFreud,AdornoandMarcuse,withtheirnotionoftheuncompromisingconflict betweentheinstinctsandoppressiveculture.TheprominentleftistH.M.Enzensberger,forinstance,criticizesliteracyandliteratureastypicallybourgeoiselementsof culture.Heconsidersliteracytopossess"classcharacter"andtobesubordinatedtonumeroussocial"taboos."Therulesoforthographyareimposedbysocietyasnorms andtheirviolationispunishedorcondemned."Intimidationbymeansofawrittentexthasremainedawidespreadphenomenonofclasscharacterevenindeveloped industrialsocieties.Itisimpossibletoremovetheseelementsofalienationfromwrittenliterature."(145:p.181)Althoughtheauthordoesnotforeseeacomplete destructionofliteracy,literatureandbooks,heassumesthattheywillbesupplantedbysuchmeansofcommunicationasradioandtelevision(perfectedtothepointwhere eachreceiverwillfunctionsimultaneouslyasatransmitter).Inthenewinformationsystem,thewrittenwordwillbepreservedonlyasan"extremecase." Oneofthemostsignificantfeaturesofspirituallifedirectlylinkedtotheexistenceofindividualityisasenseofindividual(andnotcollective)responsibilityforthefateof one'ssocialgroup,city,nation,orofallmankind.WithPlatobeingperhapstheonlyexception,allsocialistideologistsarehostiletosuchanattitude.Themedievalheretics, aswehaveseen,calledeitherforaradicalbreakwiththeworldandlifeorfortheirdestruction.Thispointofviewwaspreservedinothersocialistmovementsfromthe Reformationuntilourday.Inrecentcenturiesithasfoundsupportinthenotionthathistoryisgovernedbyironlawsaspreciseasthelawsofphysicsandthatitsbasic directioncouldnotbeaffectedbyhumanwill.Fourier'spositionistypical.(Fourierisaforthrightandhonestwriterwhosephilosophicalviewswerenotdistortedbythe exigenciesofpracticalactivity,byconsiderationsofpartypoliticsorrevolutionarystruggle.)Inanswertothequestionwhatoneshoulddowhileawaitingtheonsetofthe futureorder,hesays:"Donotsacrificethegoodofthepresenttothegoodofthefutureenjoythemomentavoidanymatrimonialorotherunionwhichdoesnotsatisfy yourpassionsnow.Whyworkforthesakeofthefuturegood?Forthisgoodwillexceedyourmosttreasureddesiresinanycase,andinthecombinedsocialstructure youwillbethreatenedbyonlyonetroubletheimpossibilityofmakingyourlifetwiceas [266] longsoastoexhaustthehugecircleofpleasuresawaitingyou."(97:p.293) Finally,humanindividualityfindsitsgreatestsupportanditshighestappreciationinreligion.OnlyasapersonalitycanmanturntoGodandonlythroughthisdialoguedoes herealizehimselfasapersoncommensuratewiththepersonofGod.Itisforthisveryreasonthatsocialistideologyandreligionaremutuallyexclusive.(Ofcourse,ifeither oftheseworldviewsisunderdeveloped,theycancoexistforacertaintime.)Itisnaturaltoseeherethecauseofthathatredforreligionwhichistypicalofthe overwhelmingmajorityofsocialistdoctrinesandstates. Thesameapproachmakesmorecomprehensiblethecurioustraitsweobservedinthe"ConspiracyofEquals"(seePartOne,ChapterIII,Section4,above):thenaIve adventurism,thearrogantboastfulness,thedispositiontopettydishonestyanddisruptivebehavior,acertaininanitythatgavethewholemovementasomewhatcomicand Gogolianflavor.Thesefeaturesareinherentinamajorityofsocialistmovementsintheinitialperiodoftheirdevelopment.Amonganarchisticandnihilisticcurrentsin Russia,theyfoundultimateexpressionin"Nechayevism,"sobrilliantlydescribedbyDostoyevskyinThePossessed. EarlyMarxismexhibitssimilartraitsquitevividly.For example,thereistheincrediblehistoryofthewritingofthefirstcriticalreviewsonVolumeIof Capital allcomposedanonymouslybyEngels.HeofferedMarxtowrite two,thenfourorfivereviewarticles"fromdifferentpointsofview"or"fromabourgeoispointofview."MeanwhileMarxprovidedhimwithdetailedinstructionsonwhat topraiseandwhattodisagreewithforthesakeofauthenticity.Marxwrites:"Inthisway,Ishouldthink,itmightbepossibletohoodwinkthatSwabianMaier[theeditor ofanewspaper].Nomatterhowinsignificanthispaperis,itisstillapopularoracleforallthefederalistsinGermanyandisreadabroadaswell.""It'shilarioushowboth magazineshavetakenthebait,"EngelsinformsMarx.InthefirstyearaftertheappearanceofthebooksevenreviewsappearedfiveofthembyEngels,oneeachbyhis friendsKugelmanandSiebel,whofollowedEngels'lead.Asaresult,Marxcouldsay:"Theconspiracyofsilenceinthebourgeoisandreactionarypresshasbeen broken!"(LettertoKugelman,February11,1869)HewritestoEngels:"Jenny,aspecialistinthesematters,assertsthatyouhavedevelopedagreatdramaticandevena

    example,thereistheincrediblehistoryofthewritingofthefirstcriticalreviewsonVolumeIof Capital allcomposedanonymouslybyEngels.HeofferedMarxtowrite two,thenfourorfivereviewarticles"fromdifferentpointsofview"or"fromabourgeoispointofview."MeanwhileMarxprovidedhimwithdetailedinstructionsonwhat topraiseandwhattodisagreewithforthesakeofauthenticity.Marxwrites:"Inthisway,Ishouldthink,itmightbepossibletohoodwinkthatSwabianMaier[theeditor ofanewspaper].Nomatterhowinsignificanthispaperis,itisstillapopularoracleforallthefederalistsinGermanyandisreadabroadaswell.""It'shilarioushowboth magazineshavetakenthebait,"EngelsinformsMarx.InthefirstyearaftertheappearanceofthebooksevenreviewsappearedfiveofthembyEngels,oneeachbyhis friendsKugelmanandSiebel,whofollowedEngels'lead.Asaresult,Marxcouldsay:"Theconspiracyofsilenceinthebourgeoisandreactionarypresshasbeen broken!"(LettertoKugelman,February11,1869)HewritestoEngels:"Jenny,aspecialistinthesematters,assertsthatyouhavedevelopedagreatdramaticandevena comic [267] talentinthismatterof'differentpointsofview'andvariousdisguises."(See3:XXIII:pp.406,445,453,458,465,473,483,484XXIV:pp.3,5,26,59,65,80,and thegeneralsurveyin146)* Equallybizarreistheepisodeofthe"portraits"ofprominentrevolutionaryfiguresinemigrationthatwereputtogetherfortwentyfivepoundssterlingforacertainBann, wholaterprovedtobeanagentoftheAustrianandPrussianpolice.InresponsetoMarx'sproposal,however,Engelsimmediatelywarnshimthatitwouldberegardedas "assistingreaction,"butconcludes:"25valentbienunpeudescandale."(3:XXI:p.359)Or,finally,takethethreatstoblackmailtheircomradesinarms:"Doesn'tthis bruteunderstandthatifonlyIsodesire,hewouldbeuptohisearsinastinkingswamp?Ihavemorethanahundredofhislettersinmypossession.Hasheforgotten that?"(MarxwritingaboutFreiligrath,3:XXII:p.493) Thecorrespondenceofthefoundersofthematerialistapproachtohistoryaboundsinsuchpassages.Thesametraitsareevidentintoday'smoreextremeleftmovements inAmericaandWesternEurope,andoftengivethesemovementsaratherfrivolouscharacter.(Cf.147) Togetabetterfeelingforthecharacteristicsofthesephenomena,itisworthwhilejuxtaposingthemwithsimilarepisodesfromthesphereofreligion,orwithnationalistic movementswherecompletelyunknownindividualsorsmallgroupsfirstlaunchtheirideas.Take,forexample,CaptainIlyin,thefounderofthesectof"ForestBrethren"or "Jehovists"attheendofthenineteenthcenturyinRussiahewaspersecutedallhislifeandspentfourteenyearsinharshconfinementintheSolovetskyMonastery.One canrejecthisreligiousideas,butitisimpossiblenottobestruckbyhisprofounddignityandmoralstrength,whichneverlefthiminthecourseofhismanyordeals.There arethousandsofsuchexamples.Itwouldseemthatmanypeopleleadersofthemovementsinparticulardonotderivefromsocialistideologythesamesortofstrength andselfconfidence.Thiscomesonlyattheheightofsuccesswhenthemovementattractsthebroadmasses.Here,aselsewhere,Marx'swordsturnouttobetothepoint, ifweunderstandthemasreferringtohimself:"These ideasdonotgivestrengthofthemselvesbutbecomeaforcewhentheyholdswayoverthemasses."Thereasonsare clearinthelightoftheabovediscussion:
    *Inthisconnection,Engels'reproachtoLoriaappearsinadifferentlight:"Theimportunatecharlatanismofselfaggrandizement,""successachievedwiththehelpofclamorous friends."Seep.211n.,above.

    [268] anideologythatishostiletohumanpersonalitycannotserveasapointofsupportforit. Wecanseethatallelementsofthesocialistidealtheabolitionofprivateproperty,family,hierarchiesthehostilitytowardreligioncouldberegardedasamanifestation ofonebasicprinciple:thesuppressionofindividuality.Itispossibletodemonstratethisgraphicallybylistingthemoretypicalfeaturesthatkeepappearinginsocialist theoryandpracticeovertwoandahalfthousandyears,fromPlatotoBerlin's"CommuneNo.1,"andthenconstructingamodelofan"ideal"(albeitnonexistent)socialist society.Peoplewouldwearthesameclothingandevenhavesimilarfacestheywouldliveinbarracks.Therewouldbecompulsorylaborfollowedbymealsandleisure activitiesinthecompanyofthesamelaborbattalion.Passeswouldberequiredforgoingoutside.Doctorsandofficialswouldsupervisesexualrelations,whichwouldbe subordinatedtoonlytwogoals:thesatisfactionofphysiologicalneedsandtheproductionofhealthyoffspring.Childrenwouldbebroughtupfrominfancyinstatenurseries andschools.Philosophyandartwouldbecompletelypoliticizedandsubordinatedtotheeducationalgoalsofthestate.Allthisisinspiredbyoneprinciplethedestruction ofindividualityor,atleast,itssuppressiontothepointwhereitwouldceasetobeasocialforce.Dostoyevsky'scomparisonstotheanthillandthebeehiveturnouttobe particularlyaptinthelightofethologicalclassificationsofsociety:wehaveconstructedamodelofthe anonymoussociety. [269]

    X. TheGoal ofSocialism
    Difficultiesinunderstandingsocialistideologyarisewhenwetrytocorrelateitsdoctrinalprescriptionsfortheorganizationofsocietywiththeactualformsofthese principlesastheyarerealizedinhistory.Forexample,thepictureofasociety"inwhichthefreedevelopmentofeachwillbethepreconditionofthefreedevelopmentof all"containsnocontradiction.Butwhenthe"leadingtheoretician"assertsthatthecreationofthisharmoniousmanisachievedbyshooting,wearefacetofacewitha paradox.Theviewofsocialismtowhichwehavecomeencountersthesamekindofdifficultiesandmustbetestedbythismeansforinconsistency.Itisnotenoughtosay thatallthebasicprinciplesofsocialistideologyderivefromtheurgetosuppressindividuality.Itisnecessaryalsotounderstandwhatthistendencyportendsformankind andhowitarises.Weshallbeginwiththeformerquestion. Attheendoftheprecedingchapterwesketchedthe"ideal"socialistsocietyasitappearsintheclassicalwritingsofsocialism.Ofthefeaturesenumerated,weshall consideronlyone:stateupbringingofchildrenfrominfancysothattheydonotknowtheirparents.Itisnaturaltobeginwiththisaspectofthesocialistideal,ifonly becauseitwouldbethefirstthingthatanindividualbornintothissocietywouldface.ThismeasureissuggestedwithstrikingconsistencyfromPlatotoLiadov,aleading Soviettheoreticianofthe1920s.Inthe1970s,theJapanesepolicearrestedmembersofthe"RedArmy,"aTrotskyiteorganization,whichwasresponsibleforanumberof murders.Althoughthisgroupnumberedonlyafewdozenpeople,ithadalltheattributesofarealsocialistpartytheoreticians,asplitonthe [270] questionofwhetherrevolutionshouldoccurinonecountryorintheentireworldatonce,terroragainstdissidents.Thegroupestablisheditselfinalonelymountainregion. Andthesametraitsurfacedhere:theytooknewbornchildrenawayfromtheirmothers,entrustedthemtootherwomenforupbringingandfedthemonpowderedmilk, despitedifficultiesinobtainingit. LetusquotefromabookbythemodernethologistEiblEibesfeldt,whichwillhelpusevaluatethebiologicalsignificanceofthismeasure: Itisespeciallyinthesecondhalfofthefirstyearoflifethatachildestablishespersonaltieswithitsmotherorapersonsubstitutingforher(anurse,amatron).

    questionofwhetherrevolutionshouldoccurinonecountryorintheentireworldatonce,terroragainstdissidents.Thegroupestablisheditselfinalonelymountainregion. Andthesametraitsurfacedhere:theytooknewbornchildrenawayfromtheirmothers,entrustedthemtootherwomenforupbringingandfedthemonpowderedmilk, despitedifficultiesinobtainingit. LetusquotefromabookbythemodernethologistEiblEibesfeldt,whichwillhelpusevaluatethebiologicalsignificanceofthismeasure: Itisespeciallyinthesecondhalfofthefirstyearoflifethatachildestablishespersonaltieswithitsmotherorapersonsubstitutingforher(anurse,amatron). Thiscontactisthepreconditionforthedevelopmentof"primarytrust"(E.H.Erikson),thebasisfortheattitudetowardoneselfandtheworld.Thechild learnstotrusthispartner,andthispositivebasicorientationisthefoundationofahealthypersonality.Ifthesecontactsarebroken,"primarydistrust" develops.Aprolongedstayinthehospitalduringthechild'ssecondyearmay,forexample,leadtosuchresults.Thoughthechildwilltryeventhereto establishclosecontactwithamothersubstitute,nonursewillbeabletodevoteherselfintensivelyenoughtoaninfantforaclosepersonaltietobe established.Nursesconstantlychange,andsothecontactsthatariseareconstantlybroken.Thechild,deceivedinhisexpectationsofcontact,fallsintoa stateofapathyafterabriefoutburstofprotest.Duringthefirstmonthofhisstayinthehospitalhewhinesandclingstoanyoneavailable.Duringthesecond monthheusuallycriesandlosesweight.Duringthethirdmonthsuchchildrenonlyweepquietlyandfinallybecomethoroughlyapathetic.Ifafterthreetofour months'separationtheyaretakenhome,theyreturntonormal.Butiftheystayinthehospitallonger,thetraumabecomesirreversible....Inoneorphanage whereR.Spitzstudiedninetyonechildrenwhohadbeenseparatedfromtheirmothersinthethirdmonthoftheirlives,thirtyfourdiedbeforetheyreached theageoftwo.Thelevelofdevelopmentofthesurvivorswasonly45percentofnormalandthechildrenwerealmostlikeidiots.Manyofthemcouldneither walknorstandnorspeakatagefour.(148:p.234) Thismaybeappliedtothewholeofasocietybuiltontheconsistentimplementationofsocialistideals.Notonlypeoplebutevenanimalscannotexistifreducedtothelevel ofthecogsofamechanism.Evensuchaseeminglyelementaryactaseatingisnotreducibletothemeresatiationoftheorganism.Forananimaltoeat,itisnotenoughthat itbehungryandthatfoodbeavailablethefoodmustbeenticing,"appetizing,"aswell.Andinmorecomplexactionsinvolvingseveral,individuals,suchasraisingof young,thecommondefenseofterritoryorhunting,animalsestablishrelationsthatusuallyareritualisticin [271] natureandthatelicitgreatexcitementandundoubtedlyprovidedeepsatisfaction.Foranimals,thesetiesconstitute"themeaningoflife"iftheyarebroken,theanimal becomesapathetic,doesnottakefood,andbecomesaneasyvictimforapredator.Toafargreaterextent,thisappliestoman.Butforhim,alltheaspectsoflifethat makeitattractiveandgiveitmeaningareconnectedwithmanifestationsofindividuality.Therefore,aconsistentimplementationoftheprinciplesofsocialismdeprives humanlifeofindividualityandsimultaneouslydepriveslifeofitsmeaningandattraction.Assuggestedbytheexampleoftheorphanedchildren,itwouldleadtothephysical extinctionofthegroupinwhichtheseprinciplesareinforce,andiftheyshouldtriumphthroughtheworldtotheextinctionofmankind. Buttheconclusionthatwehavereachedhasyettobetestedbyhistorybecausethesocialistidealshavenowhereachievedcompleteimplementation.Theprimitivestates oftheancientOrientandpreColumbianAmericahadaveryweaklydevelopedsocialistideology.InkeepingwithShangYang'sprinciple("Whenthepeopleareweak thestateisstrongwhenthestateisweakthepeoplearestrong"),particularlystrong,conservativeandlonglivedstatestructureswerecreated.Inthesestates,however, theprincipleofthe"weakpeople"wasunderstoodonlyinthesenseofexternal,physicallimitationschoiceofwork,placeofresidence,severelimitationsonprivate property,thelargenumberofofficialduties.Thesedutiesdidnottouchthelifewithinthefamilyorcutdeeplyintoman'ssoul.Theywerenotideologicallyinspired,andit wasapparentlythesamepatriarchalqualitythatpreservedthesestatesfromdyingoutbut,ontheotherhand,leftthemdefenselessinthefaceofnewspiritualforcescalled forthbytheabruptshiftsofthefirstmillenniumB.C. Thesocialiststatesofthetwentiethcenturyarealsofarfrombeingamodelofthecomplete realizationofsocialistideals.Butonemustnotethatwhensurvival isatstake, itwasachievedinthesestatespreciselybygivingupsomefundamentalsocialistprinciple.ThisoccurredwiththeintroductionoftheNewEconomicPolicyinSovietRussia andwiththehaltorderedbyStalininthepersecutionofreligionduringWorldWarII. However,itispossibletopointoutanumberofsimilarsituationswhichmayserve,thoughindirectly,tosupportourpointofview. Ithappensnotinfrequentlythatanationorasocialgroupdiesoutnotbecauseofeconomicreasonsorduetodestructionbyenemies [272] butbecausethespiritualconditionsofitsexistencearedestroyed.Forexample,H.G.WellswrotethefollowingaftervisitingPetrogradin1920:"Themortalityrate amongtheintellectuallydistinguishedmeninRussiahasbeenterriblyhigh.Much,nodoubt,hasbeenduetogeneralhardshipoflife,butinmanycasesIbelievethatthe sheermortificationofgreatgiftsbecomefutilehasbeenthedeterminingcause.TheycouldnomoreliveintheRussiaof1919thantheycouldhavelivedinaKaffir kraal."(1:p.57) Anotherexampleoffargreaterscopeinvolvestheconfrontationofprimitivepeopleswithmoderncivilization.Themajorityofethnographersnowagreethatthemaincause ofthedyingoutofthesepeopleswasnotphysicaldestructionorexploitationbyEuropeansorcontagiousdiseaseoralcoholbutthedestructionoftheirspiritualworld, theirreligionandtheirrituals.Forexample,theprominentspecialistinthecultureoftheAustralianaborigines,A.Elkin,paintsthefollowingpicture: Whatthenisthissecretlifeoftheaborigines?Itisthelifeapartalifeofritualandmythology,ofsacredritesandobjects.Itisthelifeinwhichmanreally findshisplaceinsocietyandinnature,andinwhichheisbroughtintouchwiththeinvisiblethingsoftheworldofthepast,presentandfuture.Everynowand thenwefindthetribe,orgroupsfrommorethanonetribe,goingapartfromtheworkadayworld.Aspecialcampisarrangedwherethewomenremain unlesssomeofthemarecalledupontoplayasubsidiarypartinaceremony.Thenthemengoonamileorsotoasecretsiteortositeswheretheyspend hours,ormaybedaysandweeksandevenmonths,singingandperformingrites,andinsomecaseseveneatingorsleepingthere.Whentheyreturnlaterto theworldofsecularaffairstheyarerefreshedinmindandspirit.Theynowfacethevicissitudesofeverydaylifewithanewcourageandastrengthgained fromthecommonparticipationintherites,withafreshappreciationoftheirsocialandmoralidealsandpatternsoflife,andanassurancethathaving performedtheriteswellandtruly,allwillbewellwiththemselvesandwiththatpartofnaturewithwhichtheirlivesaresointimatelylinked.(149:pp.162 163) ...Themissionaryorcivilizingagentmaybesuccessfulinputtinganendtoinitiationandothersecretrites,oringettingsuchagripovertherisinggeneration thattheoldmenmaketheinitiationamereformandnotanentryintothefullsecretlifeofthetribe.Butthisimpliesabreakdownoftribalauthorityandaloss oftheknowledgeof,letalonetherespectfor,thoseideals,sentimentsandsanctionswhichareessential,totribalcohesionandinAustralia,suchacondition istheaccompaniment,andacauseoftribalextinction.(149:p.161)

    [273] AndG.Childewrites:"Anideology,howeverremotefromobviousbiologicalneeds,isfoundinpracticetobebiologicallyuseful,thatis,favorabletothespecies'survival. Withoutsuchspiritualequipment,notonlydosocietiestendtodisintegrate,buttheindividualscomposingthemmayjuststopbotheringtokeepalive.The'destructionof

    [273] AndG.Childewrites:"Anideology,howeverremotefromobviousbiologicalneeds,isfoundinpracticetobebiologicallyuseful,thatis,favorabletothespecies'survival. Withoutsuchspiritualequipment,notonlydosocietiestendtodisintegrate,buttheindividualscomposingthemmayjuststopbotheringtokeepalive.The'destructionof religion'amongprimitivepeoplesisalwayscitedbyexpertsasamajorcauseintheirextinctionincontactwithwhitecivilization....Evidentlysocietiesofmencannotliveby breadalone."(150:p.8) Anexamplewhichpartlyreferstothesamesortofphenomenonand,atthesametime,bringsusbacktothemainthemeofourinvestigationisthefallinthebirthrate amongtheGuaraniIndiansintheJesuitstate.TheJesuitswerecompelledtoresorttovariousmeansofpressureontheIndiansinthehopeofincreasingthepopulation. OnecanassumethattheDraconianlawsagainstabortionintheIncastatewerealsoconnectedwithafallingbirthrate.Finally,shouldwenotviewinthesamewaythefact thattheRussians,whowerethemostrapidlygrowingnationinEuropeatthebeginningofthecentury,nowbarelymaintaintheirnumber? Webeganwithanexampleinwhichonecandemonstrateexperimentallytheconsequencesofimplementingonlyone principleinthesocialistideal,namely,theabolitionof thefamily.Otherexamplesillustratetheimpactonsocietyofthepartial demolitionofitsspiritualstructure(culture,religion,mythology).What,then,canbesaidofthe possiblesituationwherethesocialistidealwouldbeembodiedworldwide(sinceitevidentlycanreachitsfullpotentialonlywhenithasoverruntheentireworld)?Itis hardlypossibletodoubtthatthesametendencieswouldthenfindtheircompleteexpressionintheextinctionofallofmankind. Thisconclusionmaybemademorespecificintwocomplementaryways.Ontheonehand,wemayviewourhypotheticalcaseasa limitsituation inthemathematical sense,assomethingthatmightneveroccurinreality.Justasinmathematicstheconceptofinfinityclarifiesthepropertiesofconstantlyincreasingsequencesofnumbers,so, too,thisultimatelimitofhistoricaldevelopmentrevealsthebasictendencyofsocialism:itishostiletowardhumanpersonalitynotonlyasacategory,butultimatelytoits veryexistence. Orelsewecanassumethatthecompletevictoryofsocialismisattainable.Thereiscertainlynothingthatsuggeststheexistenceofanykindoflimitbeyondwhichsocialist principlescannotbeapplied.Itwouldseemthateverythingdependsonlyuponthedepthofthe [274] crisiswithwhichmankindmaybefaced.Inthiscase,onecouldregardthedeathofmankindasthefinal result towhichthedevelopmentofsocialismleads. Herewetouchonthemostprofoundofallthemanyquestionssocialismevokes:Howcouldadoctrineleadingtosuchanendcomeintobeingandswaysuchtremendous massesofpeopleoverthousandsofyears?Theanswertothisquestion,toalargeextent,dependsontheviewonetakesoftheinterrelationofsocialistideologyandthe endpointthatwehavepostulatedabove.Aretheyquiteindependentofeachotherinthewaythattheimprovementoflivingconditionsandtheresultingpopulationcrisis are,forinstance?(Howevercruelanddisastroustheeffectsofademographicexplosionmightbe,thefactorsthatallowittohappenaretheconsequenceofother,directly oppositemotives.)Orperhapsthereareessentialfeaturesinsocialistideologythatlinkitdirectlywithwhatwehavededucedtobethepracticalresultofitsrigorous implementationthedeathofmankind?Severalargumentsinclineustowardthesecondpointofview. Tobeginwith,mostsocialistdoctrinesandmovementsareliterallysaturatedwiththemoodofdeath,catastropheanddestruction.Forthemajorityofthem,itisthisvery moodthathasconstitutedtheirbasicinnermotivation.TheteachingoftheTaboritesistypicalhere:Inthenewagethatwasbeginning,theyasserted,Christ'slawofcharity wouldbeabolishedandeachofthefaithfulmustwashhishandsinthebloodofthegodless.ThisisclearlyexpressedinadocumentthatoriginatedinCzechPicardcircles butwasknownasfarawayasnorthernFrance.Thetextendswiththefollowingexhortation: Leteachgirdhimselfwiththeswordandletbrothernotsparebrotherfather,sonson,fatherneighbor,neighbor.KillalloneaftertheothersothatGerman hereticsshouldfleeinmobs,andwedestroyinthisworldthegainandthegreedinessoftheclergy.SowefulfillGod'sseventhCommandment,foraccording totheApostlePaul,greedisidolatry,andidolsandidolatorsshouldbekilled,sowecanwashourhandsintheiraccursedblood,asMosestaughtthrough exampleandinhiswriting,forwhatiswrittenthereiswrittenforouredification.(16:p.140) ThesamemotifsaredominantintheAnabaptistrevolutioninMntzer'steachingandinMnster.Inlateryears,theyaccompanythenewupsurgeintheactivityofsocialist movementsandaremanifestwithequalclarityinthesocialistnihilistmovementinthetwentiethcentury.ThusBakuninwrites,inaproclamationentitled"ThePrinciplesof Revolution": [275] Therefore,inaccordancewithstrictnecessityandjusticewemustdevoteourselveswhollyandcompletelytounrestrainedandrelentlessdestruction,which mustgrowinacrescendountilthereisnothingleftoftheexistingsocialforms....Wesay:themostcompletedestructionisincompatiblewithcreation, thereforedestructionmustbeabsoluteandexclusive.Thepresentgenerationmustbeginwithrealrevolutions.Itmustbeginwithacompletechangeofall sociallivingconditionsthismeansthatthepresentgenerationmustblindlyrazeeverythingtothegroundwithonlyonethought:Asfastandasmuchas possible....(95:p.361) Thoughwedonotrecognizeanyotheractivitybesidesthetaskofdestruction,weholdtotheopinionthattheforminwhichthisactivitymanifestsitselfmay bequitevaried:poison,dagger,noose,andsoforth.Therevolutionblesseseverythinginequalmeasureinthisstruggle.(95:363) Itisstrikingthatthemystiqueofdestructionisheretheonlymotivationraptureinitisofferedastheonlyreward,butonewhichmustoutweigheverysacrifice.Andthisis entirelyconsistentwithadefinitionBakuninandNechayevconstantlyrepeated:"Arevolutionaryisadoomedman."(151:p.468)Deathamonguniversaldestruction wassubjectivelytheultimategoalwithwhichtheyluredtheiradherents.Higherfeelingscouldnothavefosteredthisactivity,fortheywereutterlydenied.

    this

    "Alltenderandgentlefeelingsofkinship,friendship,love,gratitudeandevenhonoritselfshouldbechokedoffintherevolutionary'sbreastbythesinglecoldpassionofhis revolutionarytask.Heisnotarevolutionaryifhehaspityforanythingintheworld.Heknowsonlyonesciencethescienceofdestruction.Helivesintheworldwitha singleaimitstotalandswiftdestruction."(151:pp.468470) Evendreamsofthebrightfutureforthesakeofwhichallthedestructionwastooccurcouldnotserveasastimulusandwereforbiddenoutright. "Sinceourgenerationhasitselfbeenundertheinfluenceoftheabominableconditionswhichitisnowdestroying,creationmustnotbeitstaskbutthetaskofthosepure forcesthatwillcomeintobeinginthedaysofrenewal.Theloathsomenessofmoderncivilization,inwhichwehavegrownup,hasdeprivedusofthecapabilityofbuilding theparadiselikestructuresofthefuturelife,ofwhichwecanhavebutthevaguestidea,andourthoughtsaretakenwithdiametricallyopposite,unpleasantmatters.For peoplewhoarereadytostartthepracticaltaskofrevolution,weconsideritcriminaltohavethesethoughtsofthedimfuture,astheyhinderthecauseofdestruction [276]

    "Sinceourgenerationhasitselfbeenundertheinfluenceoftheabominableconditionswhichitisnowdestroying,creationmustnotbeitstaskbutthetaskofthosepure forcesthatwillcomeintobeinginthedaysofrenewal.Theloathsomenessofmoderncivilization,inwhichwehavegrownup,hasdeprivedusofthecapabilityofbuilding theparadiselikestructuresofthefuturelife,ofwhichwecanhavebutthevaguestidea,andourthoughtsaretakenwithdiametricallyopposite,unpleasantmatters.For peoplewhoarereadytostartthepracticaltaskofrevolution,weconsideritcriminaltohavethesethoughtsofthedimfuture,astheyhinderthecauseofdestruction [276] anddelaythebeginningofrevolution....Forthepracticaltaskathand,itisapointlessspiritualcorruption."(95:p.361) Itisoftensaidthatcertainfeaturessovividlyexpressedinnihilismthegoalofcompletedestruction,neglectofallmoralprinciples,conspiracy,terrorarepeculiartothis movementspecifically,andthatitispreciselythesefeaturesthatdistinguishnihilismfromitsantipode,Marxistsocialism.Sometimesthisviewissupplementedbythe opinionthatBolshevismisatypicallyRussianphenomenon,theheritageofNechayevandBakuninandaperversionofMarxism.Thisviewwasexpressed,forexample, byKautskyinhisbooks(103and135)publishedin1919and1921.(KautskynotesthatsimilarideashadbeenexpressedbyRosaLuxemburgasfarbackas1904.)But whattodoaboutthestrikingcoincidenceofBolshevikideologyandpracticewithnumerousstatementsbyMarxandEngels?Anattemptisusuallymadetoexplainthese coincidencesawaybyassertingthattheparticularstatementsofMarxandEngelsarenotcharacteristicandareatoddswiththeiressentialmessage.(Opinions,however, divergeaboutwhichpartoftheirwritingshouldbeconsideredcentral.Kautskybelievesthatthelatercorpusoftheirwritings,theworksthatappearedaftertherevolution of1848,constitutethecentralcoreofMarxism,whichwasdistortedbyBolshevism,whilemodernsocialistsFromm,Sartreseetheearlierworksthisway.Indeed, SartreevenspeaksaboutthoseworksbyMarxthatprecededhis"illfatedmeetingwithEngels.") Thefactshardlysupportsuchaview.NihilismoftheBakunintypeandMarxismdevelopedfromthesamesource.Thedifferencesbetweenthem(whichexplain, incidentally,whyBakuninhasfarlessinfluencethanMarxandEngelsonhistory)lienotinthefactthatMarxismrenouncedelementsofnihilismbutthatitaddedtothem somenewandverysignificantelements.Marxismisbasedonthesamepsychologicalfoundationasnihilismaburninghatredforsurroundinglifethatcanbeventedonly throughcompleteannihilationofthatlife.ButMarxismfindsameansoftransferringthispurelysubjectiveperceptionoftheworldontoanother,moreobjectiveplane.As withart,wherepassioniskeptincheckandtransformedintocreativeworks,Marxismaccomplishedatransformationoftheelemental,destructiveemotionsthatruled BakuninandNechayevintoastructurethatseemedincomparablymoreobjectiveandhenceconvincingtheconceptofman'ssubordinationto"immanentlaws"or"the dialecticsofproduction." [277] ButtheperceptionoftheworldonwhichtheMarxiststructureisfoundedisidenticaltothatinNechayevandBakunin.ThisisparticularlyclearintheworksofMarxand Engelswrittenforanarrowcircleofcollaboratorsand,inparticular,intheircorrespondence.(3:XXIXXIV.Itwouldseemthatthefulltextsoftheselettershavebeen publishedonlyinRussiantranslation.)Weencounterherethesamefeelingofdisgustandseethinghatredfortheworld,beginningwiththewriters'parents:"MyoIdmanwill havetopayplentyforthis,andincash."(EngelstoMarx,February26,1851)"Youroldmanisapig."(MarxtoEngels,November1848)"Nothingtobedonewith myoIdwomanuntilImyselfsitonherneck."(MarxtoEngels,September13,1854)Thesamefeelingsareventedonclosefriends:"Thedoghasamonstrousmemoryfor allsuchmuck."(AboutHeine,MarxtoEngels,January17,1853.)Thesameholdsforpartycomrades:Liebknechtisusuallycalledanass,abrute,abeast,andsoon, even"it."(E.g.,inaletterfromMarxtoEngels,August10,1869.)Theirownpartygetsthesametreatment:"Whatsignificancedoesa'party'have,i.e.,agangofasses, blindlybelievinginusbecausetheyconsiderusequaltothemselves....Intruthwewouldlosenothingifweweretobeconsiderednolonger'arealandadequate' expressionofthesemediocredogswithwhomwehavespentthelastyears."(EngelstoMarx,February13,1851)Theproletariatisnotexcluded:"...stupidnonsense regardinghisbeingcompelledtodefendmefromthatgreathatredtheworkers(i.e.,fools)feelforme."(MarxtoEngels,May18,1859)Neitherisdemocracy:"...apack ofnewdemocraticbastards."(MarxtoEngels,February10,1851)"...democraticdogsandliberalscoundrels."(MarxtoEngels,February25,1859)Thepeopleare sneeredat:"Well,asforloving us,thedemocratic,thered,eventheCommunistmobneverwill."(EngelstoMarx,May9,1851)Andeventhehumanraceevokes disgust:"Notasingle livingsoulvisitsme,andIamgladofthat,forhumanityherecango...Thepigs!Withregards.Yours,K.M."(ToEngels,June18,1862) ThetacticaldevicesthatderivedfromthisperceptionoflifeareverysimilartothoseusedbyNechayevofBakunin.Kautsky,whoaccusesBakuninofleadingapartyto whichhehadappointedhimselfhead,mighthaverecalledMarx'slettertoEngels(May18,1859):"Ideclaredtothempointblank:wehavereceivedourmandateasthe representativesoftheproletarianpartyfromnoonebutourselves. Anditisconfirmedasoursbytheexceptionalanduniversalhatredwhichallsegmentsoftheoldworld andallthepartiesharborfor [278] us.Youcanimaginehowthesefoolsweretakenaback."IncriticizingBakunin'spenchantforconspiracy,KautskyshouldhavekeptinmindaletterfromEngelstoMarx (September16,1868):"Themethodofengagingintriflesatpublicmeetingsanddoingrealbusinessonthequietjustifieditselfbrilliantly."Andinclaimingthattheideaof terrorandviolencewasanerroroftheyoung MarxandEngels,itwouldhavebeenwelltoexplainwhyEngelswritesinAntiDhring: "Itisonlywithsighsandgroans thathe[Dhring]admitsthepossibilitythatforcewillperhapsbenecessaryfortheoverthrowoftheeconomicsystemofexploitationunfortunately,don'tyousee, becauseanyuseofforcedemoralizesthepersonwhousesit.Andthisinspiteoftheimmensemoralandspiritualimpetuswhichhasresultedfromeveryvictorious revolution!"(98:p.185)AndhowisitthatintheprefacetoHistoryofthePeasantWarinGermany, EngelsadvisescontemporaryGermanstofollowtheexampleof the"healthyvandalism"ofthePeasantWar?HowcanweexplainhiswordsinalettertoBebel:"If,thankstowar,weshouldcometopowerprematurely,thetechnicians willbecomeourspecialenemies,andwilldeceiveandbetrayuswherevertheycan.Wewillhavetoresorttoterror...."(3:XXVIII:p.365) AndatthesametimeitisimpossibletodenythattheseideascameintobeingattheverybeginningoftheactivityofMarxandEngels."Thisisatleastthebestthingthat remainsforustodo,whilewearecompelledtousethepenandcannotbringourideasintolifewiththehelpofourhandsor,ifnecessary,withourfists."(EngelstoMarx, November19,1844)Kautskyundoubtedlyknewallthesepassagesandotherslikethem,sincehetookpartintheeditingoftheGermaneditionoftheMarxEngels correspondence,fromwhichmostexpressionsofthistypewereeliminatedbytheeditors.ItisclearfromhisbookswhatitwasthatevokedsuchdislikeforBolshevism andthedesiretoprove,atanycost,thatitdistortsMarxism:theastonishingcontagiousnessofBolshevikideasandtheirrapiddiffusionintheWesternsocialistparties raisedtheoldfearsof"Russiandominance"intheInternational.(ThismisgivingwasfirstvoicedbyEngelsaboutBakunin.) Theotherlinkconnectingsocialistideologywiththeideaofhumanity'sdemiseisthenotionofmankind'sinevitabledeaththatispresentinmanysocialistdoctrines.We haveseen,forinstance,thattheCathars,whoseteachingcontainedideasofasocialistcharacter,believedthatafterthefallenangelsarefreedfrommaterialcaptivity,the remaining [279] peoplewilldie,andtheentirematerialworldwillbeplungedintoprimevalchaos. Asasecondexample,wetaketheviewsofthefutureofmankindheldbythreeprominentideologuesofsocialism:SaintSimon,FourierandEngels.InSaintSimon'sOn UniversalGravitation thereisasectionon"TheFutureoftheHumanRace."Here,indetailandwithgreatfeeling,hedescribesthedeathofmankindpresentedin reversechronologicalorderforeffect,somethinglikeafilmshownbackward. Ourplanethasatendencytodesiccation....Onthebasisoftheseobservations,geologistsarriveattheinevitableconclusionthatatimewillcomewhenour planetwillhavedriedupcompletely.Itisclearthatitwillthenbecomeuninhabitableand,consequently,fromacertainpointonwardthehumanracewill graduallybegintodwindle....SectionTwo:Atthebeginningofthissectionweshalldescribethesensationsofthelastman,ashediesafterhavingdrunkthe

    Asasecondexample,wetaketheviewsofthefutureofmankindheldbythreeprominentideologuesofsocialism:SaintSimon,FourierandEngels.InSaintSimon'sOn UniversalGravitation thereisasectionon"TheFutureoftheHumanRace."Here,indetailandwithgreatfeeling,hedescribesthedeathofmankindpresentedin reversechronologicalorderforeffect,somethinglikeafilmshownbackward. Ourplanethasatendencytodesiccation....Onthebasisoftheseobservations,geologistsarriveattheinevitableconclusionthatatimewillcomewhenour planetwillhavedriedupcompletely.Itisclearthatitwillthenbecomeuninhabitableand,consequently,fromacertainpointonwardthehumanracewill graduallybegintodwindle....SectionTwo:Atthebeginningofthissectionweshalldescribethesensationsofthelastman,ashediesafterhavingdrunkthe lastdropofwateronearth.Weshallshowthatthesensationofdeathwillbefarmoreburdensomeforhimthanforusbecausehisowndeathwillcoincide withthedeathoftheentirehumanrace.Then,fromthedescriptionofthemoralstateofthelastman,weshallproceedbackwardtotheinvestigationofthe moralstateoftheremnantsofmankind,untilthatpointwhenitshallseethebeginningofitsdestructionandbecomeconvincedthatitisinevitable,a convictionthatwillparalyzeallmoralenergy...thedesiresofthesepeoplewillbethesameasthoseofanimals.(153:pp.275276) ItiscuriousthatSaintSimonbeginshisworkwiththisdepiction,apparentlysupposingtherebytocreateabackgroundagainstwhichthemeaningandspiritofhissystem willbeclearer. Engelsnotonlydepictsthedeathofeverylivingthing,butregardsdeathastheothersideoflife,oritsgoal."Itisalreadyacceptedthatthekindofphysiologywhichdoes notconsiderdeathanessentialmomentoflifecannotberegardedasasciencethisisthekindofphysiologythatdoesnotunderstandthatthe denial oflifeisinnatetolife itself,sothatlifeisalwaysseeninrelationtotheinevitableresultthatisinevitablypartofitfromthebeginningdeath.Thisistheessenceofthedialecticalperceptionof life."(3:XIV:p.399)Andmoresuccinctly:"Tolivemeanstodie." Engels'pictureoftheendisoneofthemostvividpagesofhiswriting: Everythingthatarisesisworthyofdeath.Millionsofyearswillpass,hundredsofthousandsofgenerationswillbebornandgodownintothegrave,but inexorablythetimewillcomewhentheweakeningwarmth

    [280] ofthesunwillnotbeabletomelttheiceadvancingfromthepoleswhenmankind,crowdedtogetherattheequator,willceasetofindthenecessarywarmth eventhereandtheearthafrozendeadspherelikethemoonwillcircleinprofounddarknessaroundasunwhichisalsodeadandintowhichitwillfinally fall.Theotherplanetswillexperiencethesamefate,somesooner,theotherslaterthantheearth,andinsteadofanorderly,brightandwarmsolarsystem therewillremainacolddeadballcontinuingonitslonelywayintheuniverse.Andthefatethatwillhavebefallenoursolarsystemwillsoonerorlaterbefallall othersystems,eventhosewhoselightwillneverreachtheearthwhilethereisonitahumaneyecapableofperceivingit."(3:XIV:pp.488489) Fourier,whoinothercasesseemedtoshowsuchasincereattachmenttolifeanditspleasures,alsogavethisideaitsdue.His"TableofSocialMotion,"encompassingthe entirepastandfutureoftheearth,concludesthus: "Theendoftheanimalandvegetablekingdom,afterapproximately80,000years. (Thespiritualdeathofthe earth,thestoppingofrotationonitsaxis,theviolenttranslocationofthepolestotheequators,fixationonthesun,naturaldeath,fallanddisintegrationintheMilkyWay.)" AlthoughEngelsforesawtheendoflifeonearthfrommaterialcausesthatdiffergreatlyfromthosesuggestedbyFourier,thebasicideaevokedhisobviousapproval: "Fourier,aswesee,isjustasmasterfulatdialecticsashiscontemporaryHegel.Inthesamedialecticalfashionheasserts,incontrasttostatementsaboutman'scapacity forunlimitedperfection,thateachhistoricalphasehasnotonlyitsascendinglinebutalsoitsdescendingone,andheappliesthismethodofperceptiontothefutureof mankindasawhole.JustasKantintroducedintonaturalsciencetheideaofthefuturedeathoftheearth,Fourierintroducedintotheperceptionofhistorytheconceptof thefuturedeathofmankind."(98:p.264) Wenotehowdifferentthisnotionofthedeathofmankindisfromtheconceptionofthe"endoftheworld"inanumberofreligions,includingChristianity.Thereligiousidea oftheendoftheworldpresupposes,inessence,itstranslation,afterhumanhistoryhasachieveditsgoal,intosomeotherstate.Socialistideologyputsforwardtheideaof thecompletedestructionofmankind,proceedingfromanexternalcauseanddeprivinghistoryofanymeaning. AnewsynthesisofsocialistideologywiththeideasofdeathanddestructionappearsinMarcuse'sworks,whichhavegreatlyinfluencedthecontemporaryleftist movements.Here,too,MarcusefollowsFreud. [281] IntheFreudianview(firstexpressedinthearticle"BeyondthePleasurePrinciple"),thehumanpsychecanbereducedtoamanifestationoftwomaininstincts:thelife instinctorErosandthedeathinstinctorThanatos(ortheNirvanaprinciple).Botharegeneralbiologicalcategories,fundamentalpropertiesoflivingthingsingeneral.The deathinstinctisamanifestationofgeneral"inertia"oratendencyoforganiclifetoreturntoamoreelementarystatefromwhichithadbeenarousedbyanexternal disturbingforce.Theroleofthelifeinstinctisessentiallytopreventalivingorganismfromreturningtotheinorganicstatebyanypathotherthanthatwhichisimmanentinit.

    Marcuseintroducesagreatersocialfactorintothisscheme,assertingthatthedeathinstinctexpressesitselfinthedesiretobeliberatedfromtension,asanattempttorid oneselfofthesufferinganddiscontentwhicharespecificallyengenderedbysocialfactors.IntheUtopiaproposedbyhim,thesegoalscanberealized,Marcusebelieves. Hedescribesthisnewstateinanextremelygeneralway,makinguseofmythologicalanalogies.AgainstPrometheus,theheroofrepressiveculture,hesetsNarcissusand OrpheusbearersoftheprinciplesuponwhichhisUtopiaisbuilt.Theysymbolize"theredemptionofpleasure,thehaltoftime,theabsorptionofdeathsilence,sleep, night,paradisetheNirvanaprinciplenotasdeathbutaslife."(119:p.164)"TheOrphicNarcissisticimagesdoexplodeit[reality]theydonotconveya'modeofliving' theyarecommittedtotheunderworldandtodeath."(119:p.165)AboutNarcissushesays:"Ifhiseroticattitudeisakintodeathandbringsdeath,thenrestandsleepand deatharenotpainfullyseparatedanddistinguished:theNirvanaprinciplerulesthroughoutallthesestages."(119:p.167) Thelessthedifferencebetweenlifeanddeathis,theweakerwillbethedestructivemanifestationsofthedeathprinciple:"ThedeathinstinctoperatesundertheNirvana principle:ittendstowardthatstateof'constantgratification'wherenotensionisfeltastatewithoutwant.Thistrendoftheinstinctimpliesthatits destructive manifestationswouldbeminimizedasitapproachedsuchastate."(119:p.234)"Intermsofthe[death]instinct,theconflictbetweenlifeanddeathisthemorereduced, thecloserlifeapproximatesthestateofgratification."(119:p.235) Thisviewhasamoreconcreteinterpretation:"PhilosophythatdoesnotworkasthehandmaidenofrepressionrespondstothefactofdeathwiththeGreatRefusalthe refusalofOrpheustheliberator. [282] Deathcanbecomeatokenoffreedom.Thenecessityofdeathdoesnotrefutethepossibilityoffinalliberation.Liketheothernecessities,itcanbemaderationalpainless. Mencandiewithoutanxietyiftheyknowthatwhattheyloveisprotectedfrommiseryandoblivion.Afterafulfilledlife,theymaytakeituponthemselvestodieata momentoftheirownchoosing."(119:pp.236237)

    refusalofOrpheustheliberator. [282] Deathcanbecomeatokenoffreedom.Thenecessityofdeathdoesnotrefutethepossibilityoffinalliberation.Liketheothernecessities,itcanbemaderationalpainless. Mencandiewithoutanxietyiftheyknowthatwhattheyloveisprotectedfrommiseryandoblivion.Afterafulfilledlife,theymaytakeituponthemselvestodieata momentoftheirownchoosing."(119:pp.236237) Thereis,finally,thecasewherethenotionofthedeathofmankindcombineswithsocialistideologyinsuchawayastoaffectdirectlythefateoftheindividualmembersof socialistmovements.IntheCatharistmovement,forexample,obvioussocialisttendencieswerejoinedtothepracticeofritualsuicide.Runciman(11)believesthattheir idealwasthesuicideofallmankindeitherdirectlyorbynonreproduction.WemayplaceAbbeMeslier'ssuicideinthesamecategory:sointimatelywassuicidelinkedto hisgeneralviewoftheworldthatheconcludeshisbook (Testament) onthisnote:"Thedead,withwhomIintendtotravelthesameroad,aretroubledbynothingthey carefornothing.AndwiththisnothingIshallfinishhere.I,myself,amnownomorethannothing,andsoonshallbeinthefullsenseofthewordnothing." ThisframeofmindwasparticularlyapparentintheRussianrevolutionarymovement.Inthearticle"OnIntellectualYouth"includedinthecollectionLandmarks[Vekhi, 1909],A.S.Izgoevwrote:"NomatterwhattheconvictionsheldbythedifferentgroupsofRussianintellectualyouthwere,inthefinalanalysis,ifwegodeeperintotheir psychology,weseethattheyareinspiredbyoneandthesameideal....Thisisanidealofdeeplypersonal,intimatecharacter,anditfindsexpressioninthestrivingfor death,inthedesiretoprovetooneselfandtoothersthelackoffearofdeathandareadinesstoacceptitatanymoment.Thisis,inessence,theonlylogicalandmoral substantiationofone'sconvictionsthatisacceptedbythepurestrepresentativesofourrevolutionaryyouth."(154:p.116)Izgoevpointsoutthatthedegreeof"leftness" amongpoliticalgroupsMensheviks,Bolsheviks,SocialRevolutionaries,AnarchistsandMaximalistsasthiswasevaluatedbytheintelligentsia,wasnotbasedonthe politicalprogramofthegivenparty."Itisclearthatthecriterionof'leftness'lieselsewhere.'Furtherleft'ishewhoisclosertodeath,whoseworkismore'dangerous' not forthesocialsystemagainstwhichheisstruggling,butfortheactivisthimself,theindividualinquestion."(154:p.117), HequotesaMaximalistpamphlet:"'Werepeattothepeasantandtotheworker:whenyougotofightandtodieinthestruggle,go [283] andfightanddie,butforyourownrights,yourownneeds.'Inthis'goanddie'isthecenterofgravityofeverything....Butthisisnothingbutsuicide,anditisundeniable thatformanyyearstheRussianintelligentsiawasanexampleofapeculiarmonasticorderofpeoplewhohaddoomedthemselvestodeath,andthesoonerthe better."(154:pp.117118) Indeed,therecollectionsoftheterroristsofthedayconveyastrangesenseofecstasypersistentlyinterfusedwiththoughtsofdeath.Hereare,forexample,someexcerpts fromtherecollectionsofBorisSavinkov(155),speakingabouthiscollaboratorsintheattemptonPlehve'slife:"Kaliaevlovedtherevolutionasdeeplyandtenderlyas onlythosewhogiveuptheirlivesforitcanlove....Hecametoterrorbyhisownpeculiarandoriginalrouteandsawinitnotonlythebestformofpoliticalstrugglebutalso amoraland,perhaps,areligioussacrifice."Kaliaevusedtosaythat"aSocialRevolutionarywithoutabombisnotaSocialRevolutionary."Anotherparticipant,Sazonov, felt"strengthbeneathKaliaev'sexpansiveness,burningfaithbeneathhisinspiredwords,andbeneathhisloveoflife,areadinesstosacrificethislifeand,evenmore,a passionatelongingforsuchasacrifice."AndforSazonov,too,"terroristactivitymeantaboveallapersonalsacrifice." Aftertheassassination,Sazonovwrotetohiscomradesfromprison:"Yougavemeanopportunitytoexperiencemoralsatisfactionincomparabletoanythingintheworld. ...IhadhardlycometoaftertheoperationwhenIsighedwithrelief.Finally,it'sover.Iwasreadytosingandshoutwithdelight."AthirdparticipantwasDoraBrilliant.For her,justasfortheothers,"terror...wascolored,firstofall,withthesacrificethattheterroristmakes....Politicalquestionsdidnotinteresther.Perhapsshehadleftall politicalactivitywithacertaindegreeofdisenchantmentherdayspassedinsilence,insilentandconcentratedcontemplationoftheinnersufferingwithwhichshewas filled.Sheseldomlaughed,andeventhen,hereyesremainedcoldandsad.Forher,terrorpersonifiedtherevolutionherwholeworldwasenclosedwithinthemilitant organization."Savinkovrecallsaconversationontheeveoftheassassinationattempt: DoraBrilliantarrived.Shewassilentforalongwhile,staringinfrontofherwithherblack,sadeyes. "Veniamin!"[BorisSavinkov'spseudonym] "What?" "Iwantedtosay..."Shestopped,asifhesitatingtofinishthesentence.

    [284] "Iwanted...IwantedtoaskagainthatIbegiventhebomb." "You?Thebomb?" "Iwanttotakepartintheattempt,too." "Listen,Dora..." "No,don'tsayanything...Ialsowantto...Imustdie...."* Amultitudeofsimilarexamplesleadsustosupposethatthedyingand,ultimately,thecompleteextinctionofmankindisnotachanceexternalconsequenceofthe embodimentofthesocialistidealbutthatthisimpulseisafundamentalandorganicpartofsocialistideology.Toagreaterorlesserdegreeitisconsciouslyperceivedas suchbyitspartisansandevenservesthemasinspiration. Thedeathofmankindisnotonlyaconceivableresultofthetriumphofsocialismitconstitutesthegoalofsocialism. Onereaderofmyearlieressayonsocialism(156)drewmyattentiontothefactthatthisthoughthadalreadybeenexpressedinDostoyevsky's"LegendoftheGrand Inquisitor."ItistruethatDostoyevsky'sargumentwasdirectedatCatholicism,butheconsideredsocialismtobeadevelopmentoftheCatholicismthathaddistorted Christ'steachings.(Thisviewiselaboratedinhisarticlesthatappearedin TheDiaryofaWriter.) Indeed,thepictureoflifepresentedasanidealbytheGrandInquisitor closelyresemblesPlatoorCampanella."Oh,weshallpersuadethemthattheywillonlybecomefreewhentheyrenouncetheirfreedomtous,andsubmittous....Yes,we shallsetthemtowork,butintheirleisurehoursweshallmaketheirlifelikeachild'sgame,withchildren'ssongsandinnocentdance....Andtheywillhavenosecretsfrom us.Weshallalloworforbidthemtolivewiththeirwivesandmistresses,tohaveornottohavechildren,accordingtowhethertheyhavebeenobedientordisobedient,and theywillsubmittousgladlyandcheerfully."AndtheGrandInquisitorunderstandstheultimategoalforwhosesakethislifewillbebuilt:

    Onereaderofmyearlieressayonsocialism(156)drewmyattentiontothefactthatthisthoughthadalreadybeenexpressedinDostoyevsky's"LegendoftheGrand Inquisitor."ItistruethatDostoyevsky'sargumentwasdirectedatCatholicism,butheconsideredsocialismtobeadevelopmentoftheCatholicismthathaddistorted Christ'steachings.(Thisviewiselaboratedinhisarticlesthatappearedin TheDiaryofaWriter.) Indeed,thepictureoflifepresentedasanidealbytheGrandInquisitor closelyresemblesPlatoorCampanella."Oh,weshallpersuadethemthattheywillonlybecomefreewhentheyrenouncetheirfreedomtous,andsubmittous....Yes,we shallsetthemtowork,butintheirleisurehoursweshallmaketheirlifelikeachild'sgame,withchildren'ssongsandinnocentdance....Andtheywillhavenosecretsfrom us.Weshallalloworforbidthemtolivewiththeirwivesandmistresses,tohaveornottohavechildren,accordingtowhethertheyhavebeenobedientordisobedient,and theywillsubmittousgladlyandcheerfully."AndtheGrandInquisitorunderstandstheultimategoalforwhosesakethislifewillbebuilt: "Heseesthathemustfollowthecounselofthewisespirit,thedreadspiritofdeathanddestruction,andthereforeacceptlyinganddeception,andleadmenconsciouslyto deathanddestruction,andyetdeceivethemallthewaysothattheymaynotnoticewheretheyarebeingled."(157:pp.325327)**

    *"Iknowthathewasobsessedwiththeideaofdeath,"saysSartreaboutthewellknownleftistNizan."HehadbeenintheU.S.S.R.andhadspokenaboutitwithhisSoviet comrades,andhetoldmeaboutthisonhisreturn.'Arevolutionthatdoesnotmakeusobsessedwithdeathisnorevolution.'Aninterestingthought."(143:p.81) **Inhisletters,Dostoyevskysaysthatin"TheLegendoftheGrandInquisitor"hewantedtoshowa"synthesis"ofthefundamentalideasofcontemporarysocialism.

    [285]

    XI. Conclusion
    Thisparadoxicalphenomenonmaybeunderstoodonlyifweallowthattheideaofthedeathofhumanitycanbeattractivetomanandthattheimpulsetoselfdestruction (evenifitisonlyoneofmanytendencies)playsaroleinhumanhistory.Andthereisinfactmuchevidencetosupportthishypothesis,particularlyamongphenomenathat playanessentialroleinthespirituallifeofmankind.Quiteindependentlyofsocialism,eachoftheseleadstothesameconclusion.Wecanciteseveralexamples. Wehaveinmindphenomenathatrelatetoavastandancientreligiousandphilosophicalcurrent:pessimism or nihilism. Inthemanyvariantsofthesedoctrines,eitherthe deathofmankindanduniversaldestructionareregardedasthedesirablegoalofthehistoricalprocess,orelseNothingnessispronouncedtheessenceoftheworldthe goalisthentounderstandthatallrealityisbutareflectionofthisessence.VladimirSoloviev,whodevotedanarticletothenotionofpessimism,singlesoutwhathecalls absolutepessimism, whichcorrespondstothetendencythatinterestsus.(109:X:pp.254258)ItsfirstcompleteexpressioniscontainedinBuddhism.Soloviev characterizesBuddhismasadoctrineof"thefournobletruths:(1)Existenceis suffering (2)thecauseofsufferingissenselessdesire whichhasneitherbasisnoraims(3) deliverancefromthissufferingispossiblethroughdestructionofalldesire,and(4)thepathtodeliveranceleadsthroughtheunderstanding ofthetiesbetweenphenomena andobservationoftheperfectmoralcommandmentsgivenbytheBuddhathegoalofthispathisNirvana,thecomplete'extinction'ofexistence."(109:X:p.254) [286] IsNirvana(literally,"extinction"asintheblowingoutofaflame)actuallyawayto"Nothingness"?Buddha'sviewsonthisquestionhavebeeninterpreteddifferently.Max Mller,forexample,thoughtthatforBuddhahimselfNirvanawasthefulfillmentandnottheeliminationofexistence,assumingthatareligionthatoffered Nothingness as anultimategoalcouldneverhaveexisted.H.Oldenbergdevotesasectioninhisbook(158)tothisquestion.HecitesanumberofepisodeswhichcharacterizeBuddha's attitudetothequestionwhetherthe'T'existsandwhatthenatureofNirvanais.Theimportoftheseepisodesisthesame:Buddharefusestoanswersuchquestionsandby hisauthorityforbidshisdisciplestoconsiderthem.Butwhatisthemeaningconcealedhere?Theauthorbelievesthat"iftheBuddhaavoidsdenyingtheexistenceofthe'I,' hedoessoonlyinordernottoperplexthelistenerswholackinsight.Inthisdenialofthequestionconcerningtheexistenceornonexistenceofthe'I,'anansweremergesin anycase,somethingtowhichallthepremisesoftheBuddha'steachinginevitablylead:the'I'doesnotintruthexist.Or,whatisoneandthesamething:Nirvanaissimply annihilation....ButitisclearthatthethinkerswhograspedandmasteredthisviewdidnotwanttopromoteittothestatusofanofficialdoctrineoftheBuddhistcommunity. ...Theofficialdoctrinestoppedshortofquestionsonwhetherthe'I'exists,whethertheperfectsaintlivesonordoesnotliveonafterdeath.TheGreatBuddhaissaidto havegivennoprecept."(158:p.227) ThefactthattheBuddhaleftunansweredthequestionsoftheexistenceofthe'I'andthenatureofNirvananaturallyledtodifferentinterpretationsoftheseproblemswithin Buddhism.ThetwomainBuddhistsectsHnaynaandMahayanaBuddhismgiveoppositeanswerstothequestionofNirvana.InHnaynaBuddhism,Nirvanais consideredtobethecessationoftheactivityofconsciousness.AcontemporaryIndianauthorcharacterizestheHnaynateachingasfollows:"IntheHnayna,Nirvana becameinterpretednegativelyastheextinctionofallbeing....Thisviewisanexpressionofwearinessanddisgustwiththeendlessstrifeofbecoming,andoftherelieffound inmereceasingofeffort.Itisnotahealthymindeddoctrine.Asortofworldhatredisitsinspiringmotive."(159:pp.590,589)InMahynaBuddhism,Nirvanais understoodasamergingwiththeinfinite,withtheGreatSouloftheuniverse,butitisnotidentifiedwiththeannihilationofexistence. [287] However,itwastotheMahynatrendthatNgrjunabelonged(helivedatatimearoundthebeginningoftheChristianera).Hisfollowers,theMdhyamikas,are sometimescallednihilists. Ngrjunaproceedsontheassumptionthatthatwhichisnotunderstandableisnotreal.Hethenprovesthatthefollowingareneitherunderstandablenorexplicable:motion andrest,time,causality,thenotionofthepartandthewhole,thesoul,the"I,"Buddha,Godandtheuniverse."ThereisnoGodapartfromtheuniverse,andthereisno universeapartfromGod,andtheybothareequallyappearances."(159:p.655)"Thereisnodeath,nobirth,nodistinction,nopersistence,nooneness,nomanyness,no comingin,nogoingforth."(159:p.655)"Allthingshavethecharacterofemptiness,theyhavenobeginning,noend,theyarefaultlessandnotfaultless,theyarenot imperfectandnotperfect,therefore,OSariputta,hereinthisemptinessthereisnoform,noperception,noname,noconcept,noknowledge."(159:p.656) InChina,thephilosophyofLaotse(sixthcenturyB.C.)maybeseenasapartofthenihilistcurrent.ThisistheteachingoftheTao,or"TheWay."Wefindhereacallfor renunciationandquiescencethatvergesonthecessationofallactivity:* Onewhoisawaredoesnottalk. Onewhotalksisnotaware. Ceasingverbalexpressions, Stoppingtheentryofsensations, Dullingitssharpness, Releasingitsentanglements, Temperingitsbrightness, Andunifyingwiththeearth: ThisiscalledtheidentityofTao.

    Ceasingverbalexpressions, Stoppingtheentryofsensations, Dullingitssharpness, Releasingitsentanglements, Temperingitsbrightness, Andunifyingwiththeearth: ThisiscalledtheidentityofTao. Hence,nonearnesscanreachhimnor distanceaffecthim. Nogaincantouchhimnorlossdisturbhim. Noesteemcanmovehimnorshamedistresshim. Thus,heisthemostvaluablemanintheworld.... Muchlearningmeanslittlewisdom. ...oncetheWayislost, TherecomesthenVirtue Virtuelost,comesthencompassion Afterthatmorality
    *ThetextsaregiveninthetranslationofChangChungyuan (Tao:ANewWayofThinking,N.Y.,1977)andRaymondB.Blakney (LaoTzu,TheWayofLife,N.Y., 1955).

    [288] Andwhenthat'slost,there'setiquette, Thehuskofallgoodfaith, Therisingpointofanarchy.... Letthepeoplebefreefromdiscernmentand relinquishintellection, Thentheywillbemanytimesbetteroff. Stoptheteachingofbenevolenceandgetridofthe claimofjustice, Thenthepeoplewillloveeachotheroncemore. Ceasetheteachingofclevernessandgiveupprofit, Thentherewillbenomorestealingandfraud.... TheWiseMan'spolicy,accordingly, Willbetoemptypeople'sheartsandminds, Tofilltheirbellies,weakentheirambition, Givethemsturdyframesandalwaysso, Tokeepthemuninformed,withoutdesire, Andknowingonesnotventuringtoact.... Tenthousandthingsintheuniversearecreatedfrom being. Beingiscreatedfromnonbeing.... InTaotheonlymotionisreturning Theonlyusefulquality,weakness.... TheWayisavoid. "Absolutepessimism"isexpressedinadifferentwayinancientScandinavianmythologyinthecollectionofsongsknownasthe ElderEdda. (160)Inthistradition(and especiallyinthe"ProphecyoftheVala,"thesocalled"Voluspo"),weseeapictureofaworldruledbygodspersonifyingtheforcesoforderandlifeandelemental destructiveforces,embodiedinthewolfFenrir,sonofLoki,heldincheckbyamagicnet.Butattheappointedhour,theWolfbreakslooseanddevoursthesunthe worldSerpentrisesfromthebottomoftheoceanandgainsvictoryoverThor.Ashipbuiltfromthefingernailsofthedeadsailsthesea,bringinggiantswhocometofight thegods.Allpeopleperish,heaveniscleft,theearthsinksintothesea,andthestarsfall.(Theconcludingstanzasofthe"Voluspo"describethebirthofanewworld,but differsosharplyfromtherestofthetextthatonetendstoagreewiththescholarswhoseethisasalaterinterpolation,possiblyreflectingtheinfluenceofChristianity.) ReturningtoSoloviev'sarticleonpessimism,wefindSchopenhauerandHartmannpresentedasthemajorEuropeanrepresentativesof [289] thistendency.SchopenhauerconsiderstheWorldWilltobethatessencewhichcannotbereducedtoanythingelse.But,atthesametime,allwillisdesireunsatisfied desire,sinceithasstimulatedthemanifestationofwillhencewillissuffering."Thewillnowturnsawayfromlife....Manattainstothestateofvoluntaryrenunciation, resignation,truecomposureandcompletewilllessness....Hiswillturnsaboutitnolongeraffirmsitsowninnernature,mirroredinthephenomenon,butdeniesit." (The WorldasWillandRepresentation, I:section68) TheaimofthisprocessisNothingness,achievedthroughthevoluntaryrenunciationofwill. "Nowill:norepresentation,noworld. "Beforeusthereiscertainlyleftonlynothingbutthatwhichstrugglesagainstthisflowingawayintonothing,namelyournature,isindeedjustthewilltolivewhichwe ourselvesare,justasitisourworld.Thatweabhornothingnesssomuchissimplyanotherwayofsayingthatwewilllifesomuch,andthatwearenothingbutthiswilland knownothingbutitalone....Thatwhichremainsafterthecompleteabolitionofthewillis,forallwhoarestillfullofthewill,assuredlynothing.Butalsoconversely,tothose inwhomthewillhasturnedanddenieditself,thisveryrealworldofourswithallitssunsandgalaxies,isnothing."(op.cit., section71)

    "Nowill:norepresentation,noworld. "Beforeusthereiscertainlyleftonlynothingbutthatwhichstrugglesagainstthisflowingawayintonothing,namelyournature,isindeedjustthewilltolivewhichwe ourselvesare,justasitisourworld.Thatweabhornothingnesssomuchissimplyanotherwayofsayingthatwewilllifesomuch,andthatwearenothingbutthiswilland knownothingbutitalone....Thatwhichremainsafterthecompleteabolitionofthewillis,forallwhoarestillfullofthewill,assuredlynothing.Butalsoconversely,tothose inwhomthewillhasturnedanddenieditself,thisveryrealworldofourswithallitssunsandgalaxies,isnothing."(op.cit., section71) TothissystemHartmannaddstheideathattheworldprocessbeganthroughaninitialirrationalactofwillandconsistsofthegradualpreparationfortheeliminationofreal existence.Theaimistoreturntononexistence,implementedbythecollectivesuicideofmankindandthedestructionoftheworld,bothofwhicharemadepossiblebythe developmentoftechnology. ThenotionofNothingness,whichenteredphilosophyfromtheologythroughHegel'ssystem,playsanincreasinglyimportantroleinthenineteenthcentury,untilinthe twentiethitbecomesoneofthedominantconceptions.Forexample,MaxStirnerendshisfamousbookTheEgoandHisOwn withthewords:"Iamtheownerofmy mightandIamsowhenIknowmyselfasunique. Intheuniqueone theownerhimselfreturnsintohiscreativenothing,ofwhichheisborn.Everyhigheressenceabove me,beitGod,beitman,weakensthefeelingofmyuniqueness,andpalesonlybeforethesunofthisconsciousness.IfIfoundmyaffaironmyself,theuniqueone,thenmy concernrestsonitstransitory,mortalcreator,whoconsumeshimself,andImaysay: [290] Ihavefoundedmyaffaironnothing."(161:p.246) Butitwaswithintheframeworkofmodernexistentialism,especiallyintheworksofHeideggerandSartre,thatNothingnessfounditsmostimportantexpression. Heideggerbelievesthatman'sindividualityperishesinthelevelingandtheimpulsetowardmediocritythatisproducedinsociety(somethingthatisconveyedbythe untranslatableGermanlocution"man").Theonlytrueindividualityisdeath,whichisalwaysthedeathofaparticularmanandinwhichnothinglinkshimtoothers. Therefore,amancangaingenuineexistenceonlyonthevergeofdeath,onlyinwhathecalls"beinguntodeath."(162:p.144f.)Thebeingofeveryindividualityis,from thispointofview,merelyNochnicht [notyet],asortofperiodwhendeathhasnotyetripened.(162:p.244)Thisconcernsexistenceingeneralalso:existenceis NothingnessandNothingnessisexistenceitself.(163:p.104)Nothingnessisthelimitofexistencedeterminingitsmeaning.ForHeideggerNothingnessisevidentlyan activeforce,foritfunctionsDasNichtnochtet. Itdetermineshistory'smeaning,whichisrevealedintheattemptstoovercomethesenselessnessofexistenceandto breakthroughintoNothingness. NothingnessisalsothecentralcategoryinSartre'sprincipalphilosophicwork, BeingandNothingness. Itisnothingnessthatconnectsconsciousnessandbeing.Itisafundamentalpropertyofconsciousness"Nothingnessisputtingintoquestionofbeingbybeingthatis, preciselyconsciousness."(164:p.121)Consciousnesspenetratesintothecoreofbeingasawormintoanappleandhollowsitout.Asitisonlymanwhoconsciously strivesfordestruction,heisthebearerofNothingness."ManisthebeingthroughwhomNothingnesscomestotheworld."(164:p.60)Nothingnessissocloselylinkedto manthat,accordingtoSartre,humanbeinginitselfisalsooneofthemanifestationsofNothingness."ThebeingbywhichNothingnesscomestotheworldmustbeitsown Nothingness."(164:p.59) Itisinterestingtonotethatofthesetwobestknownrepresentativesofcontemporarynihilism,SartreadherestoMarxism,andHeidegger(untiltheendofWorldWarII) inclinedtowardNationalSocialism.Heidegger,moreover,alsoviewsCommunism(i.e.,socialismoftheMarxistbrand)asasortofincompletenihilism.(165:pp.145 395) ItseemstobenoaccidentthatthegrowthofinfluenceofnihilisticphilosophycoincidedinEuropeandintheU.S.A.withanextraordinaryinterestinBuddhism,particularly ZenBuddhism,whichisaproduct [291] oftheinteractionbetweentheconceptionsofBuddhismandTaoism.Zentypicallystressestheillusorynatureoflife'sproblems,andtheirabsurdity.Forexample,Gustav Mahler's"Kindertotenlieder"presentsanimageofasenselessallconsumingdeath,ablackholeintowhichlifecollapses.Consciousofhisapproachingdeath,Mahler composedhis"DasLiedvonderErde."ThisworkbeginswithapoemofLiPo(aChinesepoetclosetoZen)settomusic,whichisconstantlyinterruptedbyarefrain: "Lifeisdarknessanddeathisdarkness."ButthespectacularspreadofZenoccurredafterWorldWarII,especiallyintheU.S.A.Itwaspropagatedbysuchwellknown modernwritersasJ.D.Salinger.TheheroofaseriesofhisstoriesdispensesZenwisdomtothosearoundhimandcommitssuicide,notasanactofdespair,butforthe sakeoftheovercomingoftheseemingdifferencebetweenlifeanddeath.ZenwasalsothefavoritephilosophyoftheAmericanbeatniks,whofrequentlycompared themselvestowanderingmonks. Freud'sworldviewisalsopessimistic.Hediscernsaviciouscircleinwhichsocietyandhumanculturearelocked:culturalactivityispossibleonlyattheexpenseofthe suppressionofsexuality,butthisincreasestheroleofaggressiveanddestructiveforcesinthepsyche,andtokeepthemincheck,stillgreaterpressuresonthepartof socialforcesisneeded.Inthisway,cultureandsocietyarenotonlyorganicallytiedtomisfortunetheyarealsodoomedtodestruction.ThisisinconformitywithFreud's viewontheroleofthe"deathinstinct,"aviewthatleavestolifeonlythechoiceofthe"rightpathtowarddeath."Freud'smethod,especiallyinestablishinghisbasic concepts,isfarfromscientific.Ingeneral,Freudcannotbeverifiedwithconcretefacts,sohemustbeacceptedorrejectedonthebasisofone'sinnerfeeling.Inourday, whenscienceislosingitsroleasanabsoluteauthority,thischaracteristicofFreud'stheoriesmaynotberegardedasadefect.InconnectionwithFreud'santhropological andhistoricalideas,Marcusewrites:"Thedifficultiesinscientificverificationandeveninlogicalconsistencyareobviousandperhapsinsurmountable."(119:p.59)"We useFreud'santhropologicalspeculationonlyinthissense:foritssymbolic value."(119:p.60) Injustthisway,wemayregardFreud'sconceptionsnotasindisputablescientifictruthbutasevidenceofacertainperceptionoftheworld(thescopeofwhoseinfluence maybejudgedbythesuccessFreudianismhasenjoyed). [292] Finally,thesametendencymaybeseenintheoriesaccordingtowhichman(oranimal)isregardedasamachine.Alltheaspectsoflifeinman(orinanimals)canbe reducedinthiswaytotheactionofseveralsimpleforces.ThusDescartesexpressedtheopinionthatananimalisanautomatonincapableofthinking.Thesameideawas developedbyLaMettrieinhisbook L'hommemachine. Heassertsthat"thehumanbodyisaselfstartingmachine"andthenextendsthisprincipletothehumanpsyche. Descartes'sideawaslaterrealizedinLoeb'stheoryoftropisms,accordingtowhichtheactionsoforganismsaredeterminedbycertainsimple,physicalfactors(for example,thebendingofaplantinthedirectionofthesunisexplainedbythefactthatsunlightretardsthegrowthonthesideofthestemthatitstrikes).Accordingto Dembowski,thistheoryregardstheorganismas"apuppet,whoseeverymotiondependsuponsomeoutwardfactorpullingacorrespondingstring."(166:p.55)Similar viewsbecamepopularagaininthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury,inthewakeoftheinventionofcomputers.Theoriesthatholdthatman(oranimal)isamachine differcompletelyintheiropinionastowhatsortofmachineisinvolvedmechanical,electricorelectronic.Andasalltheseexplanationscannotbecorrectsimultaneously, itisevidentthatthepointofdepartureineachcaseisasimilaraprioriassumption,animpulsethatderivesfromelsewhere,toprovethatmanisamachine. Theconclusionswehavedrawnasaresultofouranalysisofsocialismarealsoconfirmed,aswesee,byaseriesofindependentarguments.Wemayformulatethese

    example,thebendingofaplantinthedirectionofthesunisexplainedbythefactthatsunlightretardsthegrowthonthesideofthestemthatitstrikes).Accordingto Dembowski,thistheoryregardstheorganismas"apuppet,whoseeverymotiondependsuponsomeoutwardfactorpullingacorrespondingstring."(166:p.55)Similar viewsbecamepopularagaininthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury,inthewakeoftheinventionofcomputers.Theoriesthatholdthatman(oranimal)isamachine differcompletelyintheiropinionastowhatsortofmachineisinvolvedmechanical,electricorelectronic.Andasalltheseexplanationscannotbecorrectsimultaneously, itisevidentthatthepointofdepartureineachcaseisasimilaraprioriassumption,animpulsethatderivesfromelsewhere,toprovethatmanisamachine. Theconclusionswehavedrawnasaresultofouranalysisofsocialismarealsoconfirmed,aswesee,byaseriesofindependentarguments.Wemayformulatethese conclusionsasfollows: a. Theideaofthedeathofmankindnotthedeathofspecificpeoplebutliterallytheendofthehumanraceevokesaresponseinthehumanpsyche.Itarouses andattractspeople,albeitwithdifferingintensityindifferentepochsandindifferentindividuals.Thescopeofinfluenceofthisideacausesustosupposethat everyindividualisaffectedbyittoagreaterorlesserdegreeandthatitisauniversaltraitofthehumanpsyche. b. Thisideaisnotonlymanifestedintheindividualexperienceofagreatnumberofspecificpersons,butisalsocapableofunitingpeople(incontrastto delirium,forexample)i.e.,itisasocialforce.Theimpulsetowardselfdestructionmayberegardedasanelementinthepsycheofmankindasawhole. c. Socialismisoneoftheaspectsofthisimpulseofmankindtoward [293] selfdestructionandNothingness,specificallyitsmanifestationinthesphereoforganizingsociety.ThelastwordsofMeslier'sTestament(". ..withthisnothingI shallendhere")expressthe"finalmystery"ofsocialism,touseFeuerbach'sfavoriteexpression. Wehavearrivedatthisviewofsocialisminattemptingtoaccountforthecontradictionsevidentinthephenomenonatfirstglance.Andnow,lookingback,wefeel confidentthatourapproachindeedaccountsformanyofsocialism'speculiarities.Understandingsocialismasoneofthemanifestationsoftheallureofdeathexplainsits hostilitytowardindividuality,itsdesiretodestroythoseforceswhichsupportandstrengthenhumanpersonality:religion,culture,family,individualproperty.Itisconsistent withthetendencytoreducemantothelevelofacoginthestatemechanism,aswellaswiththeattempttoprovethatmanexistsonlyasamanifestationofnonindividual features,suchasproductionorclassinterest.Theviewofmanasaninstrumentofotherforces,inturn,makesitpossibletounderstandtheastonishingpsychologyofthe leadersofthesocialistmovements:ontheonehand,thereadinessandeventhestrivingtoeraseone'sownpersonality,tosubmititcompletelytotheaimsofthemovement (soobviousinthestatementsofPiatakovandTrotskycitedearlier)and,ontheotherhand,thecompletecollapseofwill,therenunciationofone'sconvictionsincaseof defeat(MntzerandJohannofLeyden,Bakunininhis"Confession,"thebehaviorofZinoviev,Bukharinandothersatthetrials,etc.).Infact,iftheinstrumentisnolonger needed,allmeaningforitsexistenceislost,andinman'ssoulthesourceofcourageandspiritualstrengthrunsdry.(Bakunin,forexample,bothbeforeandafterhis imprisonmentisquiteadifferentpersonfromtheutterlybrokenandselfabasingauthorofthe"Confession."AndBukharin,inhisemotional"Testament,"saysthathehas nodifferenceswithStalinandthathehashadnoneforalongtime.Hetherebydismisseshisentireactivityandevendepriveshimselfoftherighttoprotestagainsthisown execution,sincethatwouldinvolveadisagreement.)Thispointofviewisconsistentwiththecallstouniversaldestruction,withtheattractivenessofdestructiveforceslike warsandcrises,withtheallureofdeathandtheideaofNothingness. Thesamesetoffactsthathasledustothepointofviewexpressedaboveallowsustodiscernthemechanismoftheforceofwhichsocialismistheincarnationandtolearn throughwhatchannelsitactsontheindividual. Itwouldseem,firstofall,thatthisisanexampleofactivitythat [294] isnotguidedbyconsciousintent.Thepropositionthatastrivingforselfdestructionisthemainimpulseinsocialismhasbeenextractedfromamultistageanalysisof socialistideology,andisnottakendirectlyfromthewritingsofsocialistthinkersortheslogansofsocialistmovements.Itseemsthatthoseinthegripofsocialistideology areaslittlegovernedbyanyconsciousunderstandingofthisgoalasasingingnightingaleisconcernedwiththefutureofitsspecies.Theideology'simpactisthroughthe emotions,whichrendertheideologyattractivetomanandinducehimtobereadyforsacrificeonitsbehalf.Spiritualelationandinspirationarethekindsofemotions experiencedbytheparticipantsinsocialistmovements.Thisaccounts,too,forthebehavioroftheleadersofsocialistmovementsinthethickofthefight,downthroughthe agestheirseeminglyinexhaustiblereservesofenergyaspamphleteers,agitators,andorganizers. Fortheveryreasonthatthebasicdrivingforceofsocialistideologyissubconsciousandemotional,reasonandrationaldiscussionoffactshavealwaysplayedonlya subordinateroleinit.Thesocialistdoctrinesarereconciledwithcontradictionswithaneasereminiscentof"prelogical,"primitivethinking,whichfunctionsoutsideany frameworkofconsistency,asdescribedbyLvyBruhl.Theyareequallyunconcernedwiththefactthatsocialistconclusionsareradicallyatoddswithexperience.Most astonishingofallisthatthesecontradictionsdonotdiminishtheimpactofthedoctrineintheleast. Marxismreflectsallthesetraitstoaremarkabledegree.Wellknownthinkershavepointedoutnumerousfundamentalcontradictions,eachofwhichwouldhavebeen sufficienttodemonstratethegroundlessnessofatheorythatlaysclaimtobeingscientific. Forexample,Berdiaevdemonstratedthattheconceptofdialecticalmaterialism iscontradictory,sinceitattributestomatteralogicalcategorydialectics.Stammler(167)showedthattheideaofhistoricaldeterminismpostulatedbyMarxism contradictsitsownappealtoinfluencehistory,sinceitisequivalenttotakingaconsciousdecisiontoturnwiththeeartharoundthesun.(SergiusBulgakovparaphrasedthis thoughtasfollows:"Marxismpredictstheonsetofsocialismjustasastronomypredictsthebeginningofalunareclipse,andtobringabouttheeclipseitorganizesaparty.") TheveryheartofMarxistdoctrinethelabortheoryofvaluewasdemolishedbytheworkoftheAustrianschool(inparticularbyBhmBawerk)andhasbeen abandonedbypoliticaleconomy.Yetevenwithoutthisheart,Marxismprovedtobecapableofsurvival. [295] JustasextraordinaryisthereactionofMarxistthinkerstotheexperimentalevidenceofhistoryoverthelastcentury.Take,forexample,thearticlebyProfessorRappoport oftheUniversityofMichigan.(168:pp.3059)HecitesanumberofMarxistpredictionswhichhistoryhasdisprovedandaskswhetheritispossible"todeclarethetheory refuted."Suchaconclusion,hedeclares,appealstopeoplewhoviewwithsuspicionanytheorybasedongeneralphilosophicalconcepts(peoplelikeBerdiaev,Bulgakov, MaxWeberorKarlJaspers).Asfortheconcreteprojections,Rappoportacknowledgesthattheprognosisofatotalimpoverishmentofcapitalistcountriesdidnotcome true.Butifoneconsiderspovertyonaworldwidescale,thenoneseesthatthegapbetweentherichandthepoorcountrieshasincreased.Itistruethat"theconfirmation oftheMarxistconceptionofhistorydoesnotnecessarilyfollowfromthis.ButtherearisesacertainpossibilityofanewunderstandingofthevitalconceptsofMarxist theoryappropriatetoourtime."Afterthesearguments,whicharebeyondlogic,itremainsunclearwhetherornotMarxisttheoryiscorrectinthelightofhistorical verification.Theauthorevadesthisquestionand,withoutbenefitofproof,acceptsthatinsomewaysitis"viable,"asifitwerepossibletoretainpartofastructuredworld viewandthrowawaytherest. OrconsiderSartre,whodeclared,intheheydayoftheStalinepoch,thatallinformationcomingtotheWestaboutconcentrationcampsintheSovietUnionshouldbe ignored,eveniftrue,asitmightcausedespairintheFrenchproletariat(citedinTheGreatTerror byR.Conquest).SartrenowconsidersSovietMarxismtobe "repressive"and"bureaucratic,"andoftheFrenchworkingclasshesays:"Whatisaproletariatifitisnotrevolutionary?Anditis,indeed,notrevolutionary."(143:p.166) Inwhatwaywerehisjudgmentsinthefiftiesincorrect?Hedoesnotinformus.Nofundamentallynewfactsseemtohavecometolightintheinterim.Thereforethechange inhispointofviewcannotbeattributedtoarationalunderstandingofthesituation,andhisnewinfatuationwiththe"directdemocracy"inChinadoesnotproducethat

    viewandthrowawaytherest. OrconsiderSartre,whodeclared,intheheydayoftheStalinepoch,thatallinformationcomingtotheWestaboutconcentrationcampsintheSovietUnionshouldbe ignored,eveniftrue,asitmightcausedespairintheFrenchproletariat(citedinTheGreatTerror byR.Conquest).SartrenowconsidersSovietMarxismtobe "repressive"and"bureaucratic,"andoftheFrenchworkingclasshesays:"Whatisaproletariatifitisnotrevolutionary?Anditis,indeed,notrevolutionary."(143:p.166) Inwhatwaywerehisjudgmentsinthefiftiesincorrect?Hedoesnotinformus.Nofundamentallynewfactsseemtohavecometolightintheinterim.Thereforethechange inhispointofviewcannotbeattributedtoarationalunderstandingofthesituation,andhisnewinfatuationwiththe"directdemocracy"inChinadoesnotproducethat impressioneither,foritleavesunansweredsuchelementaryquestionsaswhythedetailsofthis"directdemocracy"shouldbesocarefullyconcealedfromforeigners?Why areforeignreportersforbiddeneventoreadthewallposters? Allthesecharacteristicspromptustojuxtaposetheforcedisplayedinsocialismwithinstinct. Instinctiveactionsalsohaveanemotional [296] coloring,theirfulfillmentevokesafeelingofsatisfaction,andtheimpossibilityoffulfillingthem(theabsenceofsignals"switchingon"anaction)causesanxiety,theso appetitivebehavior.Ethologistsspeakofthe"stateofenthusiasm"todescribeacommoninstinctiveactioninmanwhichisconnectedwiththedefenseofwhatone considersmostprecious. called

    Furthermore,instinctscombinebadlywithunderstandingandareevenincompatiblewithit:ifananimalcanachieveagoalbyvirtueofitsunderstanding,itwillnever attempttoachievethesamegoalbyinstinct.Instinctiveactionsarenotalteredbytheachievementofagoal,sincetheyarenotaresultoftraining.Inman,theinfluenceof instinctisusuallytolowercriticalabilities(forexample,inthebehavioroflovers),andargumentsagainstthegoalsoughtbyinstinctarenotonlydisregardedbutperceived assomehowbase.Forallthesereasons,thetermproposedbyFreudthe"deathinstinct"reflectsmanyfeaturesofman'simpulsetowardselfdestruction,which,aswe haveargued,isthedrivingforceofsocialism.(WeuseFreud'stermbutdonotacceptthemeaningFreudascribedtoitseetheearlierdiscussionandtheconsiderations offeredbelow.)Thetermisappliedwiththereservationthatitonlypartiallydescribesthephenomenonthisissofortworeasons.First,theinstinctinquestionisnotthatof separatepeoplebutofallmankind,whichinthiscaseistreatedasakindofindividuality.Itisevidentthatsuchanapproachrequiresasoundsubstantiation.Second, instinctpresupposestheachievementofacertainaimusefulfortheindividualoratleastforthespecies.Thisisextremelydifficulttoreconcilewiththe"deathinstinct,"and untilitcanbeshownthatthestrivingforselfdestructionplayssomeusefulroleformankind,theanalogywithinstinctshouldberegardedaspartial,illustratingonlysome aspectofthisphenomenon. Categoriessuchasthestrivingforselfdestructionorthe"deathinstinct"arepopularlyassociatedwithdualism,theconceptionoftwoequallypowerfulforces,the"life instinct"andthe"deathinstinct,"whichdeterminetheflowofhistory.Itwouldbeunfortunateiftheviewsexpressedherewereinterpretedassimplyavarietyofdualism, fordualismtendstobeanunstableandfragmentedworldview.Inthepresentstudyweexaminedtwodualisticphilosophies.Oneisthe'religionoftheManicheansandthe Cathars,whichundertakestoexplainthephenomenonofevilbytheexistenceofgoodandevilgods. [297] Butbyforceofthisreligion'slogic,thegoodGodwasexpelledfromtheworld,andhencethegroundfortheexistenceofgoodintheworldalsodisappeared.S. Runciman,astudentofthisreligion,believesthattheCathars,proceedingfromtheinexplicabilityofevil,arrivedattheinexplicabilityofgood.(11:p.175) Anotherdualistictheory,Freudianism,underwentastrikinglysimilarprocessofevolution.Freudbeganwithanassertionoftheuniversalroleofsexuality,regardedasan elementarylifeforce.Thedevelopmentofthisviewledhimtoadualisticconceptionofthe"lifeinstinct"orEros(coincidingwithbroadlyunderstoodsexuality)andthe "deathinstinct"orThanatos.Butgraduallytheroleofthe"deathinstinct"(or"Nirvanaprinciple")grewuntil,in"TheEgoandtheId,"Freudcallsit"thedominanttendency ofallmentallifeand,possibly,ofallneuralactivityingeneral."MarcusepointsoutapassageinFreud'sessay"BeyondthePleasurePrinciple"wherethepleasureprinciple isdescribedasthe"expressionofthe"Nirvanaprinciple."Freudalsowritesthat"lifeisbutalongdetourtodeath."Marcuse'sestimationofFreud'sconceptionalmost completelycoincideswithRunciman'sviewsofthedualismoftheCathars."TheinabilitytouncoverintheprimarystructureoftheinstinctsanythingthatisnotEros,the monismofsexualityaninabilitywhich,asweshallsee,isthesuresignoftruthnowseemstoturnintoitsopposite:intoamonismofdeath."(119:p.28) Evidentlydualismisingeneralatransitionalformfromonemonismtoanother,aswehaveseeninbothexampleshere.Butthesameexamplesshowthatpuremonism the recognitionofasingleforcewhichpromotesimprovementanddevelopmentalsocontainsacontradiction.Itleadseventuallytothesuppositionoftheexistenceofanother equallypowerfulandactiveforcemovingintheoppositedirectioni.e.,towarddualism,thentowardthemonismofthesecondforce.Butitisalsotruethattheideaof twoforcesactingintheoppositedirectionsdoesnotnecessarilyrequiretherecognitionoftheirequalitywhichwouldbefundamentalfordualism.Toshowhowthe viciouscircleofdualismmaybeavoided,weshouldliketopointtoPlato'ssplendidTimaeus. Platoheredevelopsthenotionoftwosoulsgoodandevilinnateinevery livingbeing.Thewholecosmosisalsoalivingbeingandalsopossessestwosouls.Theirinfluencealternates,andthisisreflectedinanalternationofcosmiccatastrophes. Butoutsidethecosmosandaboveitthereisdivinitytheincarnationofabsolutegood. [298] Returningtoourspecifictheme,weseethatthestrivingforselfdestructionexpressedinsocialismnotonlyisnotanalogousor"equivalent"tootherforcesactinginhistory, butisfundamentallydistinctfromthemincharacter.Forexample,incontrasttoareligiousoranationalideology,whichopenlyproclaimsitsgoals,the"deathinstinct"that isembodiedinsocialismappearsintheguiseofreligion,reason,socialjustice,nationalendeavorsorscience,andnevershowsitstrueface.Apparentlyitsactionisthe strongerthemoredirectlyitisperceivedbythesubconsciouspartofthepsyche,butonlyonconditionthatconsciousnessremainsunaware. Wewouldliketopropose,inapurelyhypotheticalmannerandwithoutinsistingonthispartoftheargument,thatthestrivingforselfdestructionmayperformauseful functioninrelationtoother,creative,forcesinhistory,andthathumanityneedsitinsomewaytoachieveitsgoals.Theonlyrationalargumentinfavorofthissuppositionis thealmostinexorableway,reminiscentofnaturalandscientificlaws,withwhichdifferentnationsoftheworld,especiallyinourcentury,havebeenfallingunderthe influenceofsocialistideology.Thiscouldbeanindicationthatitisanexperiencethroughwhichmankindmustnecessarilypass.Theonlyquestionwouldthenbethelevel onwhichthisexperiencewillrunitscourse.Willitbeonthespiritualplane?Asthephysicalexperienceofcertainpeoples?Orofhumanityasawhole?Soloviev,inhis earlyworks,developedanoptimistictheoryaccordingtowhichmankind,inordertobuildlifeonreligiousprinciples,wouldfirsthavetopassthroughanextremephaseof concernforindividuality,tothepointofhostilitytoGod,finallycomingtoGodbythisroutethroughaconsciousactofthisindividuality.Thisisthereasonforhisinterestin thepessimisticphilosophiesofSchopenhauerandHartmann,whichSolovievregardedasasignofthecomingendoftheindividualisticepoch,astestimonyofthespiritual deathtowardwhichthepathofareligiousdevelopmentleads.However,thispurelyspiritualexperienceprovedtobeinsufficient.Solovievhimselfcametothisrealization, asisclearfromhislastandperhapsmostprofoundworks. Thelasthundredyears,particularlythetwentiethcentury,havebroughtsocialismunheardofsuccess.ThishasbeenprimarilyasuccessofsocialisminitsMarxistform, mostlybecauseMarxismhasbeenable,toanswertwoquestionsthatalwaysstandbeforesocialistmovements:wheretoseekthe"chosenpeople"i.e.,whoistodestroy theoldworldandwhatisthesupremeauthoritysanctioningthemovement? [299] Theanswertothefirstquestionwas theproletariat tothesecond, science. Atpresentbothanswershavebecomeineffective,atleastfortheWest."Theproletariathas becomeasupportforthesystem,"Marcusecomplains."Whatisaproletariatifitisnotrevolutionary?Anditis,indeed,notrevolutionary,"Sartreconfirms.Andscience

    Thelasthundredyears,particularlythetwentiethcentury,havebroughtsocialismunheardofsuccess.ThishasbeenprimarilyasuccessofsocialisminitsMarxistform, mostlybecauseMarxismhasbeenable,toanswertwoquestionsthatalwaysstandbeforesocialistmovements:wheretoseekthe"chosenpeople"i.e.,whoistodestroy theoldworldandwhatisthesupremeauthoritysanctioningthemovement? [299] Theanswertothefirstquestionwas theproletariat tothesecond, science. Atpresentbothanswershavebecomeineffective,atleastfortheWest."Theproletariathas becomeasupportforthesystem,"Marcusecomplains."Whatisaproletariatifitisnotrevolutionary?Anditis,indeed,notrevolutionary,"Sartreconfirms.Andscience haslostitsprestigeanditsroleasunquestionableauthorityithasbecometoopopularandwidespread,andceasedbeingthesecretknowledgeofaselectfew.Moreover, manyofitsgiftshaverecentlyprovedtobefarfrombeneficial.Forthisreason,Marcusecallsforreplacingsciencewithautopia,forgrantingtheroleheldbyreasonto fantasy.Untilthesefundamentalquestionsfindanswersadequatetothenewepoch,itwillscarcelybepossibletoexpectsuccessforsocialismcommensuratewiththatof Marxism.Meanwhiletherehavebeenandcontinuetobeattemptsinthisdirection.Forexample,thesearchforthe"chosenpeople"seemstobetherealmeaningbehind the"problemofminorities"whichsoengagestheWesternleftistmovements:studentsorhomosexualsorAmericanblacksorlocalnationalitiesinFrance....Thereisno doubtthatotheranswerswillbefoundthetendencytowardsocialismthatgripstheWestspeaksforthis. Butifwesupposethatthesignificanceofsocialismformankindconsistsintheacquisitionofspecificexperience,thenmuchhasbeenacquiredonthispathinthelast hundredyears.Thereis,firstofall,theprofoundexperienceofRussia,thesignificanceofwhichweareonlynowbeginningtounderstand.Thequestionthereforearises: willthis experiencebesufficient?IsitsufficientfortheentireworldandespeciallyfortheWest?Indeed,isitsufficientforRussia?Shallwebeabletocomprehendits meaning?Orismankinddestinedtopassthroughthisexperienceonanimmeasurablylargerscale? ThereisnodoubtthatiftheidealsofUtopiaarerealizeduniversally,mankind,eveninthebarracksoftheuniversalCityoftheSun,shallfindthestrengthtoregainits freedomandtopreserveGod'simageandlikenesshumanindividualityonceithasglancedintotheyawningabyss.Butwilleven that experiencebesufficient?Forit seemsjustascertainthatthefreedomofwillgrantedtomanandtomankindis absolute, thatitincludesthefreedomtomaketheultimatechoicebetweenlifeanddeath. [300]

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    Index
    A
    Absolutepessimismconcept,286,289 Adamitesect,3133,6768,75 AdventuresofTelemachus,The (Fnelon),104 Agriculture:inCh'inempire,181CodeofNature, 111postrevolutionaryRussiaand,239241,252Shangteaching,176178insocialistnovels,104105 inSumer,154155,157,159in Utopia, 83Yinera,China,168171 Agrodespoticstate,192 n. Ajaoiens,104105 Albigensiansect,19,67,69,73,77 Altman,I.,251 Amalriciansect,67,78 AmalricofBena,2526 Americansects,80,197,268 Anabaptistsect,3440destructiveelements,275asforerunnerofsocialism,78,197,214inMnster,5966nameandorigin,67,6971violenceand fanaticism,3740,6066,73,265 Anarchism,215,248249,267 AncientKingdom.See Egypt AncientOrientsocialiststates,152185,196,202andideology,272summary,189192,255. Seealso "AsiaticSocialFormation" Animalsocieties,264265,269,271272andinstinct,297

    Anarchism,215,248249,267 AncientKingdom.See Egypt AncientOrientsocialiststates,152185,196,202andideology,272summary,189192,255. Seealso "AsiaticSocialFormation" Animalsocieties,264265,269,271272andinstinct,297 Anonymoussociety,265,269 Anthropologyofsocialism,227234 Antichrist,25,27,29,46,48 AntiDhring (Engels),208209,212213 Anticulturaltheme,178,184185,196197,233,265266postrevolutionaryRussia,248251 Antiquity:laborpopulation,190andsocialism,318,78. Seealso China,ancientEgyptMesopotamia ApostolicBrethren,29,4650,67,71 Aristophanes,34,6,1415 Arts,218thcenturynovels,105106Enlightenmentliterature,111,119,121inidealsocialiststate,269ofNewLeft,233inPlato's Republic, 910,265in postrevolutionaryRussia,248,250251Utopiansand,85. Seealso Anticulturaltheme Arvatov,B.,250 "AsiaticSocialFormation,"xi,185189,207,256257basicfeatures,187188 Atheism:Deschampsand,115117Levellers,4546as"religion"ofsocialism,130,196,225,233234socialismasresultof,234235 Australianaborigines,205,273 "Axialtime,"255257 Ayala,GuamnPomade,136,139140 Aztecs,205

    B
    Babeuf,FranoisEmile,121,124,212 Bakunin,M.,186 n., 203,215,219,223confessionof,294destructionandterrortheme,212,275279 Baptism,6870,75 Baptists,70,80 Barilotto, 27,42 Batenburg,40 Bautemple,153155,155 n. Baudin,L.,141142,264 Bazarov,V.A.,226 Beehiveanalogy,218,269

    [309] BeghardsandBeguines,2829,67,71 Beingconcept,291 Berdiaev,Nikolai,226,295296 BernarddeClairvaux,Saint,23,70 Berlin'sCommuneNo.1,236,269 Birthrates,274 Blackmasses,68

    BernarddeClairvaux,Saint,23,70 Berlin'sCommuneNo.1,236,269 Birthrates,274 Blackmasses,68 Blacks,inAmerica,203,300 Blonsky,P.P.,251 Bogomilheresy,19,6869 Bohemia,2934,37,71 Bokelson,Jan(JohannofLeyden),4041,197,294lifeof,5966 Bolsheviks,213,217218,277279 Bondingtheory,264265 Bookburninganddestruction,31,119,184185 Bourgeoissociety.See MarxismBrethrenoftheFreeSpirit,24,47doctrines,2629,41,69,7677origins,69,254sexualpractices,2728,42andsocialist aspects,28,3233,35,78,236 Brik,Osip,250 Bruys,Pierrede(Peter),21,6970 Buddha,286288 Buddhism,255,286288 Bukharin,Nikolai,212,243,250,294 Bulgakov,Sergius,78,208,210,220onMarxism,295296onsocialismasreligion,225226,233 Buonarroti,Philippe,121,124,128129 Bureaucracy:ancientEgyptian,162164Ch'inempire,180in"Equals"state,122Incaempire,138139 Burialcustoms,120,139140,198

    C
    Campanella,Tommaso,8788,100,112,124,197 CityoftheSun, xiii,8795,238,254,256,259,300criticismofchurch,9495,129andsocialistideals, 237,285 Capital (Marx),207211,229,266268 Capitalism,bourgeoissociety,5,242243,250comparedwithsocialism,216219Marxismand,202,212213polarizationofsexes,263andsocialjustice, 225 Carpocratiansect,15 Cathars,1925,28,73,75,7778andcharity,221deathnotion,279280,283dualism,297298origins,6971,254 CatholicChurch:Campanellaand,94andcharity,221Dostoyevskyon,234235,285andItalianfascism,253medievalheresiesand,18,2138,7275, 196Moreand,87. Seealso InquisitionReformationperiod Censorship,910,123 Charlevoix,P.F.X.de,145146,148,150 Chernyshevsky,N.G.,222 Childbearing,12,20,22,9192,246 Children:communalupbringing,80,87destructionofparentalties,4,12,1517,118119,179,195,236,270271inEnlightenmentliterature,111,113,118in "Equals,"123Fourieron,228hereticaldoctrineson,37,6869Incaempire,137138,141142inJesuitstate,150inpostrevolutionaryRussia,240 241,244248insocialistnovel,103105Solariansand,91stateregulationandupbringing,5,8992269271andUr,159 Chiliasm,3 Chiliasticsocialism,3130ancientGreece,715contradictions,295definitionanddoctrines,36earlyChristianity,1517EnglishRevolutionera,4146 Enlightenmentliterature,106120"Equals"inFrance,121129hereticalmovementslinkto,6779Hussitemovement,2934MiddleAges,1829new featuresof,129130Reformationperiod,344117thand18thcenturynovels,101106Statesocialism,differenceswith,236,253257Utopians,82 101violence,lossof,80,81 n. visionoffuturesociety,254,257

    Chiliasm,3 Chiliasticsocialism,3130ancientGreece,715contradictions,295definitionanddoctrines,36earlyChristianity,1517EnglishRevolutionera,4146 Enlightenmentliterature,106120"Equals"inFrance,121129hereticalmovementslinkto,6779Hussitemovement,2934MiddleAges,1829new featuresof,129130Reformationperiod,344117thand18thcenturynovels,101106Statesocialism,differenceswith,236,253257Utopians,82 101violence,lossof,80,81 n. visionoffuturesociety,254,257 China,ancient:Ch'inempire,180185laborpopulation,190Shangteachings,173180YinandearlyChouera,168172 China,contemporary,252253,262,296 Ch'inempire,179185 Christ,223Christianbeliefs,7476Dostoyevskyonsocietywithout,234235,285"Equals"disagreementon,124medievalheresiesand,19,21,2544,75 Meslierhatredfor,107,130temptationof,220 Christianity:Campanellaon,9495decline,234235earlysects,1517endofworldconcept,281fundamentalprincipleof,74,76individualityconcept, 255256medievalheresiesand,1734,196Meslieron,107,130Reformationand,3441socialismasreactionto,256socialistideologyand,79in Utopia, 87Winstanleyon,45 CityoftheSun (Campanella),8795andidentity,259isolationofsociety,238sexualregulation,91 Classstruggle,229230,262263

    [310] Clothing,identical,4,269Anabaptists,3637characteristicofsocialistsociety,259,267,269Incas,136,141JesuitstateIndians,149inMorelly's Codeof Nature, 111Sevarites,103Solarians,9091Utopians,84,259 CodeofNature,The (Morelly),111112,114andidenticalness,259 Collectivizationofagriculture,239240,247,252 Communalityidea:andabolitionofprivateproperty,195anticulturalbias,196197Aristophaneson,4inBuonarroti'ssociety,122ofchildreninCityofthe Sun, 91Christians,early,1516Englishsects,4144hereticalsectsand,3539,4748,57,6063,67,7879inJesuitstate,145146andMarxism,5of menandwomen,118in Republic andDiodorus,11,1417thand18thcenturyliterature,102105,108,118asslogan,213associalistprinciple,196, 200,257. Seealso PrivatepropertyWivesWomen Communes,43,103,123124,181,199China,252253postrevolutionaryRussia,239240,247248 Communism,87,195,213214 CommunistManifesto, xiii,46,195,244 Compulsorylabor:Anabaptists,37inancientChina,170,177,179,182183,189190ancientEgypt,162,189ancientGreeks,4,1314andconscription, 189,241243"Equals"on,122Incas,135Jesuitstate,146,150andmeaningofsocialism,215Mesopotamia,153155,158161,189190Morelly on,111postrevolutionaryRussia,240243socialistnovelon,103,105Utopians,83,85,90Winstanleyon,9697,99. Seealso CommunesWorkand workers Concubines,137138,141 Confucianism,172,185,255 ConspiracyofEquals (Buonarroti),xiii,121129 Consolamentum (consolation),22 CounterReformation,75 Craftworkandartisanship:ancientChina,170,177178,182,190ancientEgypt,165,190Mesopotamia,154,157158,163,165,190Morellyon,111Plato on,8,1314socialistnovels,104105SouthAmericansocieties,135,147,190 Credenti, 2122 CrimeandPunishment (Dostoyevsky),199 Crimesandpunishment:ancientChina,172,174175,179,183,191"Equals"on,123Incas,139140Jesuits,145146Utopians,83,90,9293,97,99. See also Laws CritiqueofPoliticalEconomy (Marx),207 Cromwell,Oliver,4243,45,96Culture. See Anticulturaltheme

    D
    Death:Cathardoctrine,2223Deschampson,114,120Diodorus'communes,15Incas,139140Platoon,910,13andsocialistideology,275276. See also Extinctionof mankindthemeSelfdestructiveimpulseSuicide

    See Anticulturaltheme

    D
    Death:Cathardoctrine,2223Deschampson,114,120Diodorus'communes,15Incas,139140Platoon,910,13andsocialistideology,275276. See also Extinctionof mankindthemeSelfdestructiveimpulseSuicide Deathinstinct,282285,292,297 Denck,Hans,36,39 Descartes,Rene,293 Deschamps,DomL.G.,114120,198,215onGod,114116,130onlevelingofman,260andPlato,254threestagesofman,117120 Destructionofexistingsocietytheme,xii,3,78,130,217225,237238injusticeandsuffering,221225andrevolutionarymovements,275277tendencyof chiliasticsocialism,254,257 Dialectics,210,277,280281,295 DiaryofaWriter,The (Dostoyevsky),234,285 Diderot,Denis,112114,142 Diggers,4346,95 Diodorus,15 Divorce,247248. Seealso Marriagecustoms Dolcino,Fra,29,4750,73,197,214 Dostoyevsky,F.M.,129,198199,267,269 CrimeandPunishment, 199 DiaryofaWriter,The, 234,285onfailureofCatholicismandsocialism,234 235,285"GrandInquisitor,"285 Possessed,The, 129,198,267 Dualism,297298

    E
    East,ancient. See AncientOrientsocialiststates EastAfrica,191,201 Ecclesiazusae (Aristophanes),34,6comparedwith Republic, 1415,198 Economicsystems:ancientChina,168185ancientEgypt,162165,173ancientSumer,152161,173AsiaticModeofProduction,185189contemporary China,252253Incas,133142Jesuitstate,142151Kingascenterof,189192SovietRussia,239241,252statecapitalismconcept,216,239

    [311] Education:inCh'inempire,184185Deschampson,119"Equals"on,122123Incachildren,139Marxismon,5Platoon,9,1112socialistnovels,103 106Winstanleyon,101 EgoandHisOwn,The (Stirner),290291 Egypt,142,161,173,192AncientKingdom,162164,190191compulsorylabor,21518thDynasty,164165machineanalogy,261262religion,166 167 EiblEibesfeldt,J.,271 ElderEdda, 289 "Elect"(Incacivilization),137138 Enchmen,E.,249250 Encyclopdie, 112,142,197 Endura, 22 Engels,Friedrich,5,33,195onAsiaticModeofProduction,186onfamily,243245onFourierandSaintSimon,204onjustice,212onMarxist contradictions,211n.,onmobilizationofworkers,241reviewsof Capital, 267268onrevolution,238andscientificmethod,208210. Seealso Marx Engelscorrespondence EnglishRevolutionof1648,4146,73,95 Enlightenmentliterature,81n.,106120onequalityandnature,259onJesuitstate,151

    contradictions,211n.,onmobilizationofworkers,241reviewsof Capital, 267268onrevolution,238andscientificmethod,208210. Seealso Marx Engelscorrespondence EnglishRevolutionof1648,4146,73,95 Enlightenmentliterature,81n.,106120onequalityandnature,259onJesuitstate,151 Enzensberger,H.M.,266 Epiphanes,1516,236 Equalityconcept:Christiandoctrineandsocialism,79Deschampson,118earlyChristiansects,1617"Equals"socialaim,121asidenticalbehavior,258 261insocialistnovels,104106socialistprinciple,196,200,219andsuppressionofindividuality,262in Utopia, 8586 Equals,Societyof,121129,238disputeoverreligion,124andidenticallives,259260naiveteandinanity,129,267transitionalperiod,124127 Escadn,Juande,145146,150 Ethology,264265,297 Europe:andnihilism,291293andsocialism,200,234235. Seealso WesternEurope Existentialism,114115,291 Extinctionofmankindtheme,274285selfdestructiveimpulse,286300

    F
    Fadeyev,A.,250 Familistsect,41 Family:abolitionof:Americansects,80actualrealizationof,236237,253ancientOrient,179,183Aristophaneson,4,6andidenticalbehavior,258261 Incas,136137andindividuality,262Marxisttheoryon,56,243245medievalheresies,23,28,67,7677andoverpopulation,253Platoon,12 postrevolutionaryRussia,245248socialistprinciple,195,200,257Utopiansand,87,98. Seealso Marriagecustoms Fnelon,104 Feuerbach,Ludwig,114,294 Foigny,Gabrielde,103 Fontenelle,104105 Food,1112,15,147,240 "Forerunners"notion,197,214 ForestBrethren,268 Fourier,Charles,215,219,224,245,249comparedtoMarxism,204,210,211andFreud,228229,230231inevitabledeaththeme,280281oninstinct andpassions,227228onirresponsibility,266267Marcuseon,6planettheoryandsocialistteachings,204206,256sincerityof,205,205n. "Unitheism,"262 France,24,296,300Dostoyevskyon,234in"Equals,"124,238 Frank,Semyon,226 Freedomofwill,20,115,229,300 FreeSpirits. See BrethrenoftheFreeSpirit Freudiantheory,298deathinstinct,292,297humanpersonalityconcept,228231influenceonMarcuse,263264,281282 Fromm,Erich,277

    G
    Germany,69,129andmedievalheresies,27,34,3740,5166,74Nazi lebensborn, 253 Gnosticheresies,68,75,77,236andequality,258socialistaspects,254,256. Seealso Manicheansects God:inBuddhism,288Catharbeliefs,1921,7576Deschampson,115117,130Fourieron,228Incasand,135,137138andindividualman,267king worship,166168manicheismand,68,76medievalheresiesand,2527,30,37,41Meslieron,107108Ranters,141142andSocialism,234235 Winstanley'sideaof,101 "Godbuilding"tendency,226 Gorky,M.,226 "GrandInquisitor"(Dostoyevsky),285,285n.

    worship,166168manicheismand,68,76medievalheresiesand,2527,30,37,41Meslieron,107108Ranters,141142andSocialism,234235 Winstanley'sideaof,101 "Godbuilding"tendency,226 Gorky,M.,226 "GrandInquisitor"(Dostoyevsky),285,285n.

    [312] GreatWallofChina,182 Greece,315,78,190humanpersonalityconcept,255 GuaraniIndians,143151,274 Guilds,81n.,190

    H
    Hartlib,Samuel,46 Hartmann,Eduardvon,290,299 Hartmann,Johann,2627 HawaiianIslands,191192,201 Hegel,G.W.,114,210 Heichelheim,F.,xi,189192 Heidegger,M.,291 Heinrichians,69 Hereticalsects. See GnosticheresiesManicheansectsMedievalheresies Hetzer,36 Hide,Edward,42 Hierarchies:animalsocieties,265bureaucraticinsocialiststate,261Incas,138139medievalheresies,22,28,77Meslieron,107socialismandabolitionof, 196,200 Historicalmaterialism,185189 History,conceptsof:ancientChinese,180"axialtime,"255Deschamps'sthreestagesof,117118anddualism,297298evolutionaryprogressidea,130 Freudianview,230Heichelheimthesis,xiironlawsof,266JoachimofFloreview,25Morelly'sbasicforceof,112socialistviewof,226 HistoryoftheSevarites (Vairasse),102103,238 "HominesIntelligentia,"28,33 Homosexuality,117,232 Housingarrangements:Anabaptists,37Aristophanes,on,4,198freeentry,198199Incas,133,141,199Jesuitreductions,148149Marxism,5Platoon, 11,198199forthepoorin"Equals,"126127,127n.postrevolutionaryRussiandormitory,199,247248privacy vs. equality,199,259Utopians,85, 198,259Winstanley'ssociety,100 Humanism,2728,81n. Humanpersonality,conceptsof,227233and"axialtime,"255256deathofmankindidea,293294levelingdownof,xiii,233,260Marcuseon,231233 Marxon,xivinreligion,233,255postrevolutionaryRussianliterature,250251insocialistideology,227231. Seealso Individuality Humansacrifice,134,138 Hussitemovement,29,71,73wars,3334 Hut,Hans,36,39 Hydraulicsocieties,191192,201

    I
    Iconoclasm,7576,95. Seealso Medievalheresies Identicality,xiii,119120,198,258262

    Hydraulicsocieties,191192,201

    I
    Iconoclasm,7576,95. Seealso Medievalheresies Identicality,xiii,119120,198,258262 Ideologyofsocialism:coincidencesandconservatism,197201andcontradictions,xiiixvdefinitionandbasicprinciples,194197,200,236237delusive quality,295296,299dependenceonChristianity,79differentconceptionsof,202235inEnlightenmentandUtopianwritings,129130goalof,285, 285n.andhumanextinctionidea,274285identicalityvs. equality,258261andimplementationof,272275andinstinct,296297modelofideal society,269partycharacterand,216217reconciliationofdoctrineandpractice,236257selfdestructiveimpulseandsocialistorganization,286300 andsocialjustice,221225suppressionofindividuality,262terrorandviolentaspectsof,275279. Seealso Statesocialism Ilyin,Captain,268 Incaempire,113n.,133142,144,192,197,201andbirthrate,274classstructureandpeasantlife,134137,215,246collapseof,141142crimeand punishment,139140isolation,238More's Utopia and,142,198standardization,141,264 Individualbonding,264 Individuality,255256,300Heideggeron,anddeath,291andidenticality,258263Marxon,xivxvsocialisthostilityto,262265Solovievon,299 suppressionof,262,269,272285,294 Informers,xiii,175,179 Inquisition,4748,70,75 Instinct,227228,231232,296298. Seealso Deathinstinct Irrigationsystems,154155,171172,191192 Isolation,103,124,199,238 Italy,4650,253 Izgoev,A.S.,283284

    J
    Jaspers,Karl,211,219,255,296 JesuitstateinParaguay,142151,215,238,274 Jewishnationalityquestion,206 JoachimofFlore,2526,46,78,130

    [313] JohannofLeyden. See Bokelson,Jan JudaicMessianism,225226 Justice:inCityofSun, 9293Epiphaneson,16inPlato's Republic, 8Shangon,174. Seealso Socialjusticeconceptofsocialism

    K
    Kanler,Konrad,27 Kautsky,Karl,214,243,251,277279 Keller,Ludwig,69,81 n. Kinetictheoryofgases,260261 Kings:centralizedeconomicsystemand,189191deified,166168,166 n., 191,196 Kollontai,Aleksandra,246 Komensky,Jan(Comenius),46 KungsunYang.See ShangYang Kushnir,B.,250

    KungsunYang.See ShangYang Kushnir,B.,250

    L
    Labor. See CompulsorylaborWorkandworkers LaBretonne,Restifde,105106 LaMettrie,Juliende,293 Land:Aristophaneson,4ancientChina,169171,177,179,181,186189ancientSumer,153154,157,161,190Bolsheviksoncommunality,213214 Diggersand,43Egypt,162,165Incas,135Jesuitstate,145146postrevolutionaryRussia,239240Winstanley'sscheme,96 Language,119,144,172,260 Laotse,288 Lassalle,F.,208,225 LawofFreedom,The (Winstanley),xiii,95101 Laws (Plato),7,15 Laws:ofhistory,266ofIncaempire,113,136,140ofMorelly'ssystem,111112Shangreforms,174,179180andsocialistparty,217. Seealso Crimes andpunishmentJusticeScientificsocialismconcept Lebensborn, 253 LeBon,G.,226 LeftFrontoftheArts(LEF),250 Leftness,degreeof,283 "Legislator,The"(Diderot),112113,142 Lenin,V.I.,224,239,241 L'toile,Eonde,21 Levellers,4446 Liadov,M.N.(Mandelshtam),246 Liberationconcept,130,254,257Marcuseoninstincts,231232 Libidinalrationality,232 Lilburne,41 Literature:17thand18thcenturynovels,101106Enlightenmentwriters,106120inpostrevolutionaryRussia,250251socialism'shostilityto,265266 Utopiansocialists,80100 Leob'stheoryoftropisms,293 Lollardsect,41 Lorenz,Konrad,265 Loria,A.,211 n. Lucifer,1920,2728 Lunacharsky,A.,226 Luther,Martin,69,7173andMntzer,5153,55,57,59 Lutherans,40,5960,69 Luxemburg,Rosa,277 LyonsPaupers,71

    M
    Machinesymbol:andnatureofman,293andsocialistideal,261262

    LyonsPaupers,71

    M
    Machinesymbol:andnatureofman,293andsocialistideal,261262 Mahler,Gustav,292 Manicheansects,16,18,23,67doctrines,68,75,221dualism,297 MaoTsetung,xiv,185,203,262 Marcionites,68 Marcuse,Herbert:deathanddestructionthemes,281283onFreudiandualism,292,298andindividuality,264andPlato,254onworkandplay,6,14,231 232synthesisofFreudandsocialistideology,231233,263264,281283 Marriagecustoms:Americancommunalsettlements,80Anabaptists,35,3740ancientChina,Yinera,171172bourgeoissociety,5Cathars,2124,77 18thcenturysocialistnovels,105Incas,137138,141Jesuitstate,149Marxisttheory,5medievalsectsandsex,28,3233Meslierondivorce,109 Morellyon,111Platoon,12Ranters,41postrevolutionaryRussia,243248Solarians,89Tahitians,113Utopians,85. Seealso Wives,ascommon property Marx,Karl,xiiixv,251andAsiaticModeofProduction,186189onmobilizationofworkers,241onprivateproperty,195andscientificmethod,204, 208209theoryofvalue,211213,211 n. MarxEngelscorrespondence: Capital reviews,andfrivolousness,267268contemptandhatredofothers,224225,278279onscientificcharacterof Marxism,209210sufferingwelcomed,223224 Marxism:allegedRussiandistortionof,277278andchildlabor,223comparedwithFourier,204,210comparedwith

    [314] Marxism(cont'd) Freudianthesis,229231contradictions,211 n., 295296andfamily,46,244245andforerunner"notion,214onindividualman,262andnihilism, 277279andoppressionofworkers,219,223224predictionsanderrors,206,295296andproblemof"Asiaticsocialformation,"185189asreaction toChristianity,256andreligion,226asscientifictheory,203213,295socialismconcept,202203twoineffectiveanswers,299300Wellson,23 Masonicmovement,81n. Maspero,H.,168,171172 Massmovements. See PopularsocialistmovementsRevolutionarymovements Materialism,6,96,114,219,226227 Matthijs,Jan,59,6164 Mazdak,1617,203,262 Meals,common,269in CityoftheSun, 89"Equals"on,123124Incas,136postrevolutionaryRussia,240,247248in Utopia, 84 Medievalheresies,1941characteristics,7274andcommunism,87concentricstructure,7879destructionofsocietyidea,130,254,266and Enlightenmentsocialistwriting,81n. equalityandcommunity,258hatredofchurch,7374,196,227ideologyandorigins,6772kinshipwithsocialist doctrines,76,78,197linktosocialistparty,219namingof,69oppositiontocontrol,76,215asreactiontoChristianity,75,256secularityandlossof violence,8081andUtopiansocialism,87,9495worldviewof,7377. Seealso namesofhereticalsects Melanchthon,56,59 Mennonites,70,80 Meslier,Jean,130,215,219onequality,258259onpeasantsuffering,224 Testament, 106111,283,294 Mesopotamia,142,152161,173,190machineanalogy,261262andreligion,167168 Messaliansect,68 Methodists,43 MiddleAges:Christianvaluesandgoals,7475hereticalmovements,1834,6779andsexualfreedom,27 Militarizationofworkers,241243,252 MilitaryorganizationandarmiesancientChina,171172,180184,189,255ancientEgypt,165ancientSumer,153,,155Incasandpeasants,134135 JesuitstateIndians,143,151Plato'sguardians,813Shangon,176177,179Solariansandcrimes,9293Winstanley'sstate,99 Mineandthineconcept,104,113,118,142 Minin,S.,251

    Militarizationofworkers,241243,252 MilitaryorganizationandarmiesancientChina,171172,180184,189,255ancientEgypt,165ancientSumer,153,,155Incasandpeasants,134135 JesuitstateIndians,143,151Plato'sguardians,813Shangon,176177,179Solariansandcrimes,9293Winstanley'sstate,99 Mineandthineconcept,104,113,118,142 Minin,S.,251 Minorities,203,300 Money:ancientstates,190Aristophaneson,4"Equals"and,122Incaempire,absenceof,141LevellersandDiggers,4344postrevolutionaryRussia,240 241,252in Utopia, 82Winstanleyon,96 Monism,298 Monogamy,44,85,244 Montagnards,128 Montesquieu,C.L.,Baronde,151 Moralvalues:Fourieron,227228Freudon,229230andidenticality,260Marcuseon,231medievalheresiesand,2627,4142,68,76Shangand,176 177socialistnovel,106socialjusticeandsocialism,219220Tahitians,113 MoravianBrethren,67,77,197,222223 More,Thomas,8182,87,100,102,112,124,129oncrime,222asforerunnerofsocialism,197,214andIncasocialsystem,142,198andisolation,238 onmaterialsatisfaction,227Platoand,254256,258 Utopia, 82 Morelly,111112,114,124,197andidenticality,259 Mller,Max,287 Mumford,Lewis,262 Mummification,198 Mntzer,Thomas,3841,77,129,256,258,294asforerunner,197,214lifeof,5059andLuther,5153,55secretunion,53,59 Music.See Arts Mysticism,25,130,204205 Mythology:NarcissusandOrpheus,232233,254,282Plato's Republic, 1011,14Scandinavian,289

    N
    NarcissusandOrpheus,232233,254,282283 Nature,stateof,111112,114,130 Naylor,James,4243 NaziGermany,253 Nechayev,S.,198,267,276278 NeoMarxism,6,203,231233 NewChristianity,197 NewEconomicPolicy(NEP),252,272 NewLeft,6,203,233andculture,265266andindividuality,263 Nicetas,Pope,24

    [315] Nicolaitessect,15 NicolasofBasel,69 Nihilism,198199,215,222destructionandterrorthemes,275279andreligionofsocialism,226selfdestructiveimpulseandexamples,286293 Nirvanaprinciple,282,287,298 Nizan,Paul,285 n.

    NicolasofBasel,69 Nihilism,198199,215,222destructionandterrorthemes,275279andreligionofsocialism,226selfdestructiveimpulseandexamples,286293 Nirvanaprinciple,282,287,298 Nizan,Paul,285 n. Nothingness,286294Deschampsand,115116 Novels,socialist,101106 Nusinov,I.,251

    O
    Oldenberg,H.,287 OldTestament,19,27,6263,68 "Orgiasticmass,"27 OriginoftheFamily,PrivatePropertyandtheState,The (Engels),243244 Orpheusmyth.See NarcissusandOrpheus Ortliebarians,67,69 Orwell,George,89 Overpopulation,253

    P
    Pantheisticheresies,6768,100 Paraguay,142143,151 ParisCommunards,214 Partystructure,216219 Paternity,12,247248. Seealso Children,destructionofparentalties Paulicians,68,76 Peasantry:ancientChinese,169172,181183ancientEgyptians,162andappealofsocialism,203Engelson,279inIncaempire,134135post revolutionaryRussiaandmobilizationof,241243,252socialistleadersviewof,224 PeasantWarof1525,3839,5659,129 Perfecti, 2123 Pessimism,286,289 Peru,113,113 n., 142,144 Petrobrusians,67,69 Pfeiffer,Heinrich,5456 "Phalansteries,"205 Pharaohs,164167,191 Phillips,Ubbo,40 Philosophers,inRepublic, 812 Philosophes, 115117,151. Seealso Enlightenmentliterature Philosophy,inpostrevolutionaryRussia,251 Piatakov,G.L.,217218,294 Planettheory(Fourier),204206 Plato,142,197,200201,214andculture,910,196implementationofidealstate,179,237,254256,285andjustice,227andopenhouses,198and religion,14,196 Republic, 715,198,254 Timaeus, 298

    Piatakov,G.L.,217218,294 Planettheory(Fourier),204206 Plato,142,197,200201,214andculture,910,196implementationofidealstate,179,237,254256,285andjustice,227andopenhouses,198and religion,14,196 Republic, 715,198,254 Timaeus, 298 Pleasureprinciple:Fourieron,227228FreudandMarcuse,229233,298Megapatagonians,106 Poetry,10,106 Pokrovsky,M.N.,203 Polygamy,40,6365,137 Popesandmedievalheresies,21,2425,2829,3334,4750,196Moreon,87 Popularsocialistmovements,xv,2,78,200comicandnaivetraits,267268contradictionsandseizureofpower,213215differenceswithstatesocialism, 237238"Equals,"121129andreligiousaspects,226 Population:birthrates,274familyandoverpopulation,253IndiansinJesuitstate,143144,274massresettlements,8384,134135,137,181182,191 Possessed,The (Dostoyevsky),129,198,267 Power,seizureof,3,213215 PreColumbianAmericas,189,191,201,272 Preobrazhensky,G.N.,246247 Priestsandmonks:inCityoftheSun, 94persecutionof,31,47,4956,60Winstanleyon,1Ol. Seealso CatholicChurch Primitivepeoples,118,205,273274 PrinciplesofCommunism (Engels),5,214 Principlesofsocialism,195197,200,236237deathofmankindand,275285equalityvs. identicality,258261idealsocietymodel,269implementationand consequences,272275andindividualizedanimalsocieties,265 vs. reality,238239,253257 Privateproperty:abolitionof,inEnlightenmentliterature,108,111112,115,118abolitionof,in"Equals,"122,126abolitionof,andfamily,244abolitionof, andidenticality,258261abolitionof,associalistprinciple,195,200,257Aristophaneson,4andAsiaticmodeofproduction,187earlyChristians,16 Incas,140141Marxismon,4,6medievalheresiesand,2223,2829,3537,76in Republic, 12statecontrol,213suppressionofindividuality,262 andterritoryidea,265inUr,159Utopians,8283,85,95WinstanleyandDiggerson,4345. Seealso Land Production,modeof:Asiatic,185189Marxisttheory,206207,229postrevolutionaryRussia,240241,244

    [316] Proletariat:MarxandEngelscontemptfor,278279Marxisttheory,202203,206revolutionaryaspectof,296,300. Seealso WarCommunism Prometheanmyth,232233,282 Protestantism,67 Psychedelicrevolution,233,263

    Q
    Quakers,4142,80 Quipusystem,134,138139

    R
    Ranterssect,4143 Rappoport,296 Reason,130lackof,insocialistdoctrine,295297Marcusethesis,232233,263,300 "RedArmy"inJapan,270271 Reductions,143150 Reformationperiod:Anabaptists,3441,75EnglishRevolution,4145andmedievalhereticalmovements,18,25,7173,129,258andstatecontrol,215 Regressionconcept(Marcuse),231232

    Reductions,143150 Reformationperiod:Anabaptists,3441,75EnglishRevolution,4145andmedievalhereticalmovements,18,25,7173,129,258andstatecontrol,215 Regressionconcept(Marcuse),231232 Religion:abolitionof,asbasicsocialistprinciple,195196declineof,234235endofworldconcept,281Enlightenmentliteratureon,106109,115117, 130historicalchange,197198kingworship,166168,166 n. Levellersandatheism,4546Marxon,263andnatureofman,227233post revolutionaryRussia,251inRepublic, 14,19617thand18thcenturysocialistnovels,102,105106socialismasa,xii,225227,233234socialist hostilityto,235,251,253,257,267sunworship,9495,102Utopianliterature,8687,9395,100101,129. Seealso AtheismChristianityMedieval heresies Renaissance,81 n. Repressionconcept(Marcuse),231,282 Republic,The (Plato),714,198,254 RepublicofPhilosophersortheHistoryoftheAjaoiens,The (Fontenelle),104105 Revolution:Deschampsprediction,116117in"Equals,"125scientificinevitabilityof,211212socialismandimplementationof,213215 Revolutionarymovements,203Anabaptists,3740,6066,73,265inantiquity,78deathanddestructionmystique,275285,285 n. andfreelove,33 Levellers,45andmedievalheresies,77,256NewLeft,263 Ricardo,David,211 n. Rights,political,9,9899,122,181,261 Roadbuilding,134,141,182 Russia:birthrate,274andculture,248251,273economy,239241,252,272familyandchildren,243248meaningofsocialistexperience,300privacy andhousing,199,247248andreligion,251,272revolutionaryyouthanddeath,283285sexualfreedom,246248andsocialjustice,219War Communismperiod,238252 RussiaintheShadows (Wells),2 RussianOrthodoxChurch,251

    S
    Sacconi,Rainier,21,2324 SaintSimon,C.H.,Comtede,204,211,280 Salinger,J.D.,292 Sargon,KingofAkkadia,155156,161 Sartre,J.P.,xv,264,277,285 n., 299onbeingandnothingness,291onSovietstate,296 Savinkov,Boris,284285 Sazonov,N.I.,284285 Scandinavianmythology,289 Schlamm,W.,217 Schopenhauer,A.,289290,299 Science:lossofauthority,292,300Enlightenmentliterature,111112,119loyaltyproofdemandedin"Equals,"122postrevolutionaryRussiaand,248249, 252Utopianwriters,85,90 Scientificsocialismconcept,204207,259260criticismofMarxistclaimto,206213,260261 Scriptures,19,34,46 SecretDirectoryofPublicSalvation,121128 Segarelli,Gerard,4647 Selfdestructiveimpulse,286293andsocialism,285,293295,299 Sex:Cathardoctrines,20,23ineconomicsystemofFourier,229Engelson,244245Freudianthesis,230inMarcusethesis,231233inmodelofideal socialiststate,269NewLeftand,263Platoon,12statecontrol, CityoftheSun, 91statecontrol,Russia,246248 Sexes:commonownershipof,118polarizationofundercapitalism,263

    Selfdestructiveimpulse,286293andsocialism,285,293295,299 Sex:Cathardoctrines,20,23ineconomicsystemofFourier,229Engelson,244245Freudianthesis,230inMarcusethesis,231233inmodelofideal socialiststate,269NewLeftand,263Platoon,12statecontrol, CityoftheSun, 91statecontrol,Russia,246248 Sexes:commonownershipof,118polarizationofundercapitalism,263 Sexualfreedom:contemporaryrevolution,233,263medievalheresiesand,2728,3233,3840,42postrevolutionaryRussia,246248andRanters,42 Winstanley'sattackon,100. Seealso Women,communalityof ShangYang,173180,272

    [317] Simonians,68 Sin,20,23,2627,41,74 Slavery:ancientChina,169,179,182183,190ancientEgypt,165ancientSumer,153,155,158161Aristophanesand,4Asiaticuniversalityof,188 Incas,134135Jesuitstate,14314417thcenturysocialistnovelsand,103104inUtopianliterature,83,8586,90,97 "SleepingSouls"sect,45 Smirnov,241242 Socialism.See ChiliasticsocialismIdeologyofsocialismPrinciplesofsocialismStatesocialism Socialistpoliticalparties,216219 Socialjusticeconceptofsocialism,219225 SocietyofJesus,143,151,219. Seealso Jesuitstate Socrates,255. SeealsoRepublic,The Soloviev,Vladimir,219,286,289,299 Solts,246 Solzhenitsyn,A., 218 SouthAmericanstatesocialism,133151,189 SouthernDiscovery ...(laBretonne),105106 SouthernLand,The (deFoigny),103 SovietRussia. See Russia Spain,andJesuitstateinParaguay,142143,151 Spaniards,andIncaempire,133137,141142 Stalin,Iosif,186,252,262,272,294 Statecapitalism,216 Stateownershipofpropertyandland,103,105,111,190AsiaticSocialFormation,185189positiveabolitionofprivateproperty,195 Statesocialism,132192ancientChina,168185,189192,255ancientEgypt,162168"anonymous"societymodel,269comparedwithchiliasticsocialism, 236,253257deathofmantheme,272274ideologyandrealityof,197201,216,236257Incas,133142Jesuitstate,142151Mesopotamia,152, 162,167168andpartycharacter,216217andreligion,253postrevolutionaryRussia,238252andsocialjustice,221225worldwide,274275 Statism,absolute,189192ancientChina,168185ancientEgypt,162165"Equals"conceptof,122123familyasunitof,195riseof,inMesopotamia, 161162socialismasmeansto,213,215 Staupitz,Johann,71 Sterility,inwomen,9192,103 Stirner,Max,290 Storch,Niklaus,3738,50,258 Sufferingandoppression,eradicationof,219225 Suicide:Cathars,20,22,283collective,290deathinstinct,282285 Sumer,152155,192. Seealso Mesopotamia

    Storch,Niklaus,3738,50,258 Sufferingandoppression,eradicationof,219225 Suicide:Cathars,20,22,283collective,290deathinstinct,282285 Sumer,152155,192. Seealso Mesopotamia Surplusrepressionconcept,231,233 Switzerland,3637,74

    T
    Taborites,2934,265destructionof,275doctrines,3032,7778andMarxistanalysisofsocialism,203 Tahitians,113114 Taoism,288289 Technology,133,231232 TempleestatesofMesopotamia,xii,153156,161,163,173 Torres,FatherDiegode,144 Totalityaspect(Deschamps),115,117 Trade:ancientChina,173,177178,190ancientEgypt,163,165Diggerson,4344"Equals"and,122Incas,141Jesuitstateand,144,148,151 Morelly'sbanon,111andsocialistisolation,238statemonopoly,Ur,158Winstanleyon,96 Tradeunions,42,225,242 Travelrestrictions,85,103,137,144,269 Tropismtheory,293 Trotsky,Leon,199,217,241243,294 TruthoftheTrueSystem (Deschamps),114120,198 Twentiethcenturysocialism,256257,299300. Seealso Russia

    U
    UnitedStates:blacks,203,300communalsects,80,197,268andZenBuddhism,291292. Seealso NewLeft Urdynasty,156160 Urukagina,KingofLagash,153154,155 n. Utopiansocialism,xiii,80120,300comparedwithIncas,142,198Hellenistic,15andisolation,238asreaction,256

    V
    Vairasse,Denis,102103,238 Valdes,6970 Valentinov,N.,217 Violenceandterror:Anabaptists,3941,6066lesseningof,inAmerica,80Levellers,45,45n. aspartofsocialistideology,275279Russianrevolutionary

    [318] Violenceandterror (cont'd) youthand,283285socialistpartyconceptof,217218. Seealso MedievalheresiesShangYang Vipper,R.,215 VoiceofReason,The (Deschamps),116117 Voltaire,106,110,151

    W
    Waldensians,29,36beliefs,73,7677origins,67,6971

    Voltaire,106,110,151

    W
    Waldensians,29,36beliefs,73,7677origins,67,6971 Walwyn,William,44 WarCommunism,238252,265 Weber,Max,296 Weitling,Wilhelm,45n., 121 Wells,H.G.,23,273 WesternEurope:contemporaryleftistmovements,268meaningofRussiansocialism,300 Winstanley,Gerrard,4346,95conceptofnewsociety,96101,219 "Witheringawayofthestate"concept,175,206207 Wittfogel,K.,191192,192 n., 201,207ancientEasternSocialism,186187,186 n. onstatecapitalism,216 Wives,ascommonproperty:Americansects,80Anabaptists,36,3840ApostolicBrethren,29,4748Cathars,2324inMnster,6366Platoon, 12,258259asrevolutionaryslogan,214andsocialism,195,236 Women:communalityof,4,12,1517,9192,95DiggersandWinstanleyagainstcommunality,44,100Incaoppressionandstateregulation,134,136138, 141142andmeninDeschamps'paradise,118120Meslier'scompletefreedomto,109inMesopotamia,153,155,158159Plato'sequalrightsto,9 inpostrevolutionaryRussia,245Solarianregulations,9192. Seealso Family,MarriagecustomsWives,ascommonproperty Workandworkers:liberationfrom,Marcusethesis,6,231232andrevolution,203socialistgoalofsocialjusticeand,223224. Seealso Compulsorylabor Worldempireconcept,161162 Worldview:ofDeschamps,120dualism,297298of"Equals,"130ofFreud,292,297inevitabledeaththeme,280285Marxismandnihilism,278279of religion,267ofsocialism,xv,226227,231,237 Writingandrecordingsystems:ancientChina,168,172ancientMesopotamia,153157,161Deschampsprohibition,119Egyptianscribes,162165Incas, 134,134 n., 138139Jesuitstate,144

    Z
    ZenBuddhism,291292 Zinoviev,G.E.,294 Zulus,141 ZwickauProphets,37 Zwingli,Ulrich,34,37,71,73

    [319]

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